The Work of Art in the Age of Digital Reproduction: the Significance of the Creative Industries

144 The Work of Art in the Age of Digital Reproduction: The Significance of the Creative Industries

Mark Blythe

Abstract

This paper reflects on the social and political context of the emphasis on vocationalism by significance of the new classification of the successive UK governments. It is suggested that ‘creative industries’. The new aggregate expands while the new aggregate may be useful in terms previous classifications of the arts and cultural of certain kinds of promotion, the category should industries and produces figures which suggest be recognised as arbitrary and politically motivated. that these sectors are increasingly vital elements Finally, the paper examines the notion that the of the UK economy. It is argued that these statis- creative industries might be harnessed to achieve tics on the creative industries are, to an extent, social inclusion and urban re-generation and misleading. The paper considers some of the reflects on some of the social costs of such sectors. implications of the recent and continuing advances in technologies of digital reproduction and distribution. The importance of the creative industries to Arts and Design education is placed within the

JADE 20.2 ©NSEAD 2001 Background: Well-Rehearsed Statistics statisticians. [8] It is not creativity, then, which 145 There is at present, a great deal of interest in the brings these sectors together. Mark Blythe ‘creative industries’. The work of art in the age of The sectors vary enormously in terms of digital reproduction has become primarily, a revenue and growth. The Interactive and Leisure means of bolstering the economy. Rationales for Software industry has expanded exponentially in supporting the Arts in terms of their social and recent years but the same cannot be said of spiritual importance have been replaced by sectors such as the Performing Arts. High turn- economic justifications for the support and devel- overs cluster around sectors like Advertising far opment of the Creative Industries. The Creative more than sectors such as Crafts. There are also Industries is a relatively new aggregate established wide differences in terms of culture. Craft makers, by the Department of Culture, Media and Sport for example, are unlikely to be as commercially (DCMS) in 1998. It expands previous classifications driven as, say, Designers. Although there are some of the cultural industries [1] to include commercial similarities between the sectors in terms of size arts such as advertising and interactive and leisure and structure (most are micro enterprises and software. [2] The new aggregate of sectors has heavily dependent on freelancers) there are also produced some startling and well rehearsed important exceptions (for example large media figures: the creative industries are growing at and broadcasting companies). twice the rate of the economy as a whole, they The DCMS acknowledges that the sectors are contribute to more than four percent of the domes- not homogenous and do not form an integrated tic economy, they employ around one and a half sector, but argue that there is ‘a sound case for million people and generate over sixty billion encouraging them to appear so’ [9] for the pounds a year. [3] While manufacturing industries purpose of promotion. Any government must face are in decline, the creative industries are presented the problem of how to fund the arts and how to as the great hope of the British economy: legitimate that funding. By bracketing ‘high’ and The UK’s distinctive capacities are not raw ‘commercial’ art together, promotional opportu- materials, or cheap labour, they must be our nities arise in terms of increasing the perceived knowledge, skills and creativity. [4] cultural importance of the commercial arts and No longer the workshop of the world, Britain increasing the perceived economic importance is ‘rebranded’ as a knowledge nation, a creative of high art. Sectors generating low incomes can country. There are, then, high hopes attached to be presented as more economically significant the development of these sectors. than they actually are when grouped together with high income generating sectors. Likewise Defining the Creative Industries commercially driven enterprises may benefit in The DCMS mapping document defines the terms of cultural capital [10] from their association creative industries as: Advertising, Architecture, with more ‘artistic’ enterprises such as the Art and Antiques Market, Crafts. Design, Designer Performing Arts. In this sense the aggregate is Fashion, Film, Interactive and leisure software, political and the statistics are rhetorical. Music, Performing Arts, Publishing. Software, The aggregate collapses distinctions between Television and Radio. [6] This breakdown includes low, middle and high brow culture but this strat- industries ‘which have their origin in individual egy can highlight as well as disguise difference. creativity’. [7] The sectors are so diverse as to There is a far greater market for mass cultural have little in common except this abstract and products such as video games than for elite arts fluid concept of ‘creativity’. The broadest concep- such as opera and ballet. However, public fund- tions of creativity could, and have, included the ing is weighted towards these elite minority work of scientists, doctors, teachers and even pursuits. It has then been argued that this imbal-

JADE 20.2 ©NSEAD 2001 146 ance must be addressed if the creative industries production. And what is called production is in Mark Blythe are really to become the bedrock of the econ- fact, design, product development or R&D. [18] omy.[11] In order to counter such attacks the arts must fall back on earlier validations of fund- However, there is a fundamental difference between ing in terms of social or public service benefits. the products of the cultural economy and those of The defence of the arts as a public service is, of the ‘real’ economy and that is reproducibility. The course, politically contingent. The purist cry of l’art products of the cultural industries can easily be digi- pour l’art only became necessary with the advent tally reproduced; the products of the real economy of mechanical reproduction, when art had lost its e.g. – cars, cartons of milk, video recorders – ritual and symbolic uses. [12] Post war Arts fund- cannot. Intellectual copyright is a complex and ing policies have been characterised by three crucial issue for the creative industries precisely major stages: ‘the mission to civilise’ of the fifties, because its products are reproductions, not produc- ‘the mission to socialise’ of the seventies and ‘the tions. As Lash and Urry note, where a product mission to commercialise’ of the eighties. [13] manufacturer’s copyright may be infringed by a The DCMS aggregate statistics have been cited rival manufacturer those most likely to infringe the in recent Arts Council publications to highlight the copyright of the cultural industries are their own importance of the arts to the UK economy. [14] customers. It is relatively easy for consumers to But claims of economic significance by associa- obtain illegal reproductions of music, film, games tion do not bear close scrutiny and recourse must and even books, but no-one has yet successfully be made to earlier validations of the arts. down-loaded a motor car from the internet. In classical Marxist terminology, the cultural industries do Standardised Products in the Creative not retain control of the means of production, Industries because they produce reproductions. Furthermore The term ‘cultural industries’ was coined by the means of reproduction are not concentrated in Adorno and Horkenheimer in the nineteen fifties. the hands of capital, but are widely available. This It was, originally, a pejorative term intended to is perhaps, one argument for considering the replace phrases like ‘show business’ or ‘the enter- creative industries as a distinct sector. tainment industry’, which even then were losing Again, there are exceptions, the Performing their ironic connotations. [15] The term ‘industry’ Arts and Crafts for instance do not conform to the Adorno warned was not to be taken too seriously. ‘production of reproductions’ formulae. Neither It did not refer to production processes but to the of the products of these sectors are easily repro- standardisation of products and the rationalisation ducible and this is, in part, their selling point. The of distribution mechanisms. [16] Following Walter uniqueness of the pot and the un-repeatability Benjamin, he recognised that cultural artefacts of the theatrical event are part of their value. such as film have no original which is reproduced, Although a theatre company is re-producing rather, the reproduction is the product itself. [17] Hamlet, most directors will attempt to offer a These standardised products were seen as deter- unique interpretation of the text. In this sense, mining the market rather than being determined advancement in technologies of reproduction are by it. In this sense, Adorno saw similarities in struc- less of a problem for these sectors in terms of ture between the various sectors of the cultural intellectual copyright but, also less of an advan- industries. Lash and Urry argue that: tage in terms of reducing overheads.

If we begin not from the metaphor of the cultural The Creation of Markets in the Creative economy, but from the real economy, then what Industries is commonly called reproduction is in reality Adorno saw the consumers of cultural products

JADE 20.2 ©NSEAD 2001 as essentially complacent, passively accepting designer and many institutions have spent a great 147 the hegemonic messages of the dominant deal of time and money on longitudinal studies of Mark Blythe classes. This view of consumption has become graduate employment to demonstrate that the deeply unfashionable and is criticised as elitist sometimes dismal first destination figures improve and reductive. Empirical studies of the ways in over time. [21] While for many graduates courses which cultural products are consumed have since in Art and Design are entirely vocational leading demonstrated that audiences are not passive. to directly related employment, some go on to Private, individual meanings and interpretations are work in non-related areas and some to periods of attached to cultural artefacts which run counter to unemployment. [22] Institutions of Art and Design hegemonic intent. [19] Although Adorno recog- education then find themselves in a paradoxical nised this possibility and stressed the importance position with regard to higher education policy. of empirical studies of consumption, his work is The successive Conservative governments at the now largely dismissed. It is not necessary to see close of the last century insisted that all higher the users of cultural products as passive to recog- education provision should have vocational and nise that consumers do not determine markets in measurable outputs. Courses in Arts and Design the creative industries. Although Adorno’s cultural are, superficially at least, entirely vocational but industries made very different products they were they prepare students for work in some of the the same in that people had to be persuaded that most volatile and insecure employment markets they wanted them. in the economy. In some sectors of the creative industries the Art and Design colleges, like all institutions products have no physical existence: they are geared towards the creative industries, occupy a images, or sounds, or networks of users. The contradictory position. On the one hand they are continually declining costs of software for the vocational and offer careers in highly profitable and production (as well as reproduction) of these economically vital sectors, on the other hand these commodities means that consumers of cultural sectors are chaotic, insecure, constantly changing, product are now also potential producers. Again, youth and technology driven areas where employ- in classical Marxist terms, capital no longer retains ment and even professional identity is unstable. exclusive control over the means of production. It [23] Courses that prepare graduates for the is possible then that the proliferation of media and creative industries, then, might be considered as communication technologies may allow for new non-vocational vocational education. Creative kinds of capitalism. Information technologies have Industry education and training may be validated revolutionised access not only to the means of with reference to global, macro economics and production but also to the means of distribution. courses can be presented as fulfilling the utilitarian aims of Thatcherite educational policy. However, The Creative Industries and the Art and unemployment rates are high in many creative Design Higher Education Sector industry sectors and at an individual level there are The focus of attention on the creative industries is many failures. of major benefit to Higher Education Institutions of Art and Design. These specialist colleges and The Creative Industries and Social Inclusion universities may now justify public funding in The March 2000 DCMS report Creative Industries: terms of the likely contribution that their graduates The Regional Dimension argues that the creative will make to the Creative Industries. [20] Of industries should be harnessed for urban recourse, there is some debate on the extent to generation and social inclusion. [24] However, which an education, for example, in fashion respondents to a recent survey on the training design is likely to result in a career as a fashion needs of creative industry professionals were least

JADE 20.2 ©NSEAD 2001 148 interested in professional development in environ- economically significant creative industries are Mark Blythe mental policy, equal opportunities and health and those of the cultural intermediary, the purveyors safety, in short all of the areas of the questionnaire of dreams of consumption. Retail turnover rates which related to social responsibility. [25] are increasingly high, not through changes in the The creative industries are highly networked nature of products but in stylistic transformations areas where hiring is not a question of ‘pure of fashion and design. [29] It has been argued that markets’. Most, if not all, of the sectors are ‘trans- increasingly, product changes are superficial and action rich networks of individuals’. [26] The trivial and that the economy is now driven not by cultivation of networks advantages those already market forces but marketing. [30] If the new cultural in the relatively privileged position of making intermediaries are to become even more important contacts in the first place. It has been argued that to the economy than they already are then this may racism in British theatre is deeply entrenched and have profound implications for individuals. institutional despite the anti-racist intentions of Ulrick Beck argues that the social bonds of the many involved. [27] In sectors where networking nineteenth century such as class and the family is so vital to finding employment it should be no are breaking down. At the same time such ‘group surprise that minority groups are excluded from specific sources of meaning’ as religion or faith in mainstream enterprises. progress are disintegrating, resulting in what If social inclusion is to be achieved through the Beck terms ‘individualisation’. Individuals must creative industries as the DCMS hopes, then this now make up new certainties and face alone the will not be accomplished merely by giving the threats that would previously have been dealt creative industries what they want. It is perhaps with by recourse to kin or village groups. [31] In in this area then, that publicly funded institutions these conditions the construction of identity of higher education might contribute most to the through consumption flourishes. Although this development of the sectors. phenomenon may be good for the economy in general and the creative industries in particular, it The Social Cost of the Commercial Arts is not necessarily good for the individual. A spate If the various sectors within the creative indus- of national surveys have outlined the widespread tries have anything in common it is that they are dissatisfaction with consumer culture and these all concerned with the production and manipula- confirm the findings of numerous international tion of signs, the play of images, the organisation studies. [32] While economic estimates on the of desire. In the commercial arts the priorities are contribution of the creative industries may suggest economic, in non-commercial work, artistic or further investment, they do not reflect their cost to social. The new aggregate makes no distinction us as individuals and a society. In this sense the between the two activities and celebrates the development of these sectors may not be sustain- resulting sector for its economic achievements. But able if the priorities of the creative industries are to it is not the contributions of ballerinas to GDP that be entirely fiscal. Although government interest in make the well-rehearsed statistics. Advertisers, the sectors is primarily economic the arts and photographers, fashion designers, interior design- design higher education sector must continue to ers, games manufacturers, film makers, pop stars, take a wider view of the social and political signif- docu-soap stars: these are the great hopes and icance of the creative industries. heroes of our economy. Bourdieu’s ‘new cultural intermediaries’ are the taste makers for the petite bourgeoisie, they situate us in our class and cultural environment or ‘habitus’, and promise advancement. [28] The

JADE 20.2 ©NSEAD 2001 References 15. Adorno, T. [1991] The Cultural Industries: 149 1. See O Brien, J, and Feist, A. Employment In Selected Essays On Mass Culture, London, Mark Blythe the Arts and Cultural Industries: An Analysis of Routledge. p 85 the 1991 Census, Arts Council of England 16. Adorno, T. [1991] Op. Cit. p.87 Research Report No 2 1995 17. Adorno, T. [1991] Op. Cit. p.155 2. Department of Culture, Media and Sport [1998] Creative Industries Mapping Document. 18. Lash, S. and Urry, J. [1994] Economies of Sign And Space, Sage. p123 3. DCMS [1998] Ibid 19. Willis, P. [1990] Common Culture : Symbolic 4. Department of Trade and Industry [1998] ‘Our Work at Play in the Everyday Cultures of the Competitive Future. Building The Knowledge Young. Milton Keynes : Open University Press Driven Economy.’ p.3 20. ‘Stuart Bartholomew fights the cause for 5. Parker, M. [1999] Skill Requirements In The specialist colleges’ / Features: Education 23rd Creative Industries. Skills Taskforce Research January 2001, The Guardian, p.61 Paper 12, Department for Education and Employment 21. Dumelow, I., Maclennan, H., Stanley, N. [2000] Planning the Future: Career and 6. DCMS [1998] Op. Cit. Employment Patterns among British Graduates 7. Parker, M. [1999] Op. Cit. in Art, Craft and Design. NSEAD

8. Department for Education & Employment 22. Blackwell and Harvey [1999] Destinations [1999] All Our Futures, National Advisory and Reflections: Careers of British Art, Craft and Committee on Creative & Cultural Education Design Graduates. Centre for Research into Quality

9. Department of Culture Media and Sport 23. See McRobbie, A [1998] British Fashion De [2000] Creative Industries: The Regional Rag Trade or Image Industry? Routledge Dimension. The Report of the Regional Issues 24. DCMS [2000] Op Cit Working Group. p.42 25. Blythe, M. [2000] Creative Learning Futures: 10. Bourdieu P. [1993] The Field of Cultural Survey of Creative Professionals. CADISE Production: Essays on Art and Literature, Polity Press 26. Lash, S. and Urry, J. [1994] Op Cit. p.115

11. Elliot, Larry: Economics: Time to stop taking 27. Phillips, A. [2000] Review: Arts: SOUNDING the bit player role. 7th August 2000. OFF: ‘Why is racism so rife in the theatre?’ / The Guardian, p.21 Features: Review 10th September, The Observer, p.8 12. Benjamin, W. [1992] Illuminations Fonatana Press 28. Bourdieu, P [1977] Distinction: a Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste. Routledge. 13. Peter Boyden Associates [2000] Roles and p.365 Functions of the English Regional Producing Theatre. Arts Council of England 29. Raggat , P., Edwards, R. and Small, N. The Learning Society: Challenges and Trends. 14. MORI for the Arts Council of England [2000] Routledge 1996 Public Attitudes to the Arts. Arts Council of England

JADE 20.2 ©NSEAD 2001 150 30. Trainor, M. Cited in Taste: The New Religion Mark Blythe James Hockey Gallery. Surrey Institute of Art and Design, University College 2000

31. Beck, U., Giddens, A. and Lash, S. [1994] Reflexive Modernisation:

Politics, Tradition and Aesthetics in the Modern Social Order. Polity Press p.8

32. Carley, M. and Spapens, P. [1998] Sharing the World: Sustainable Living and Global Equity in the Twenty First Century. Earthscan