THE NARRATIVE WORLD OF NATIVE AMERICANS SEEN FROM THE ADAPTATION OF OHIYESA IN BURY MY HEART AT WOUNDED KNEE

Rachmat Nurcahyo Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta & Universitas Indonesia email: [email protected]

Abstract Native American narratives are often presented through media presenting native American figures. Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee (BMHWK) is a non-fiction history-based film that tells the fate of Native Americans against white colonialism. The key figure in the film, Ohiyesa, is an adaptation of Native American figures from the The Indian Boyhood (TIB) written by Charles Eastman. This article reveals the meaning of the character Ohiyesa in the film Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee. This research used an adaptation approach. Data obtained from the exploration of the figure of Ohiyesa in TIB and BMHWK. Data analysis was performed by conducting a comparative analysis of Ohiyesa at TIB and BMHWK. The results of the analysis show: (1) Ohiyesa character was adapted and dominantly raised by the name of Charles Eastman, (2) this character revealed the memory of deprivation of Native American culture, (3) the character functioned as an assimilation agent, and voiced the concept of cultural assimilation by white Americans. Ohiyesa was made an assimilation agent by the American government. With a strong presentation through his success through his role as a doctor and lobbyist, the American government offers a new life expectancy to American society, which is a cultural assimilation. Ohiyesa has become a symbol of the helplessness and evaluation of the future of Native Americans.

Keywords: ohiyesa, native American, narrative, symbol of the helplessness,

DUNIA NARATIF PRIBUMI AMERIKA DILIHAT DARI ADAPTASI OHIYESA DALAM BURY MY HEART AT WOUNDED KNEE

Abstrak Narasi terkait pribumi Amerika sering dimainkan melalui media yang menyuguhkan tokoh pribumi Amerika. Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee (BMHWK) merupakan film berbasis buku historical non fiction yang menceritakan nasib pribumi Amerika melawan kolonialisasi kulit putih. Tokoh kunci dalam film tersebut, Ohiyesa, merupakan adaptasi tokoh pribumi Amerika dari teks The Indian Boyhood (TIB) karya Charles Eastman. Artikel ini mengungkap pemaknaan terhadap tokoh Ohiyesa dalam film Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee. Penelitian ini menggunakan pendekatan adaptasi. Data didapatkan dari eksplorasi tokoh Ohiyesa dalam TIB dan BMHWK. Analisis data dilakukan dengan membandingkan Ohiyesa dalam TIB and BMHWK. Hasil analisis menunjukan bahwa: (1) Karakter Ohiyesa diadaptasi dan secara

297 dominan dimunculkan dengan nama Charles Eastman, (2) Karakter ini mengungkap mengungkap memori perampasan budaya pribumi Amerika, (3) karakter tersebut difungsikan sebagai agen asimilasi, dan menyuarakan konsep asimilasi budaya oleh kulit putih Amerika. Ohiyesa dijadikan agen asimilasi oleh pemerintah Amerika. Dengan pemaparan kuat melalui keberhasilan dia melalui perannya sebagai dokter sekailgus pelobi parlemen, pemerintah Amerika menawarkan harapan hidup baru kepada pribumi Amerika, yaitu sebuah asimilasi budaya. Ohiyesa telah menjadi simbol dari ketakberdayaan dan gambaran masa depan pribumi Amerika.

Kata kunci: Ohiyesa, pribumi Amerika, narasi, simbol ketakberdayaan

INTRODUCTION politics of memory (Grainge, 2003: Because of the great role of memory 97). in transforming commitments and The relationship between the responsibilities from earlier eras (Poole, American government and Native 2008), the study of memory has been Americans is hegemonic, i.e. one excellent in cultural studies. The belief controls the other. The American that memory is increasingly useful in government regards itself as the ruler studying humans and culture is getting of indigenous life so that it justifies stronger (Hermann, 2009; Harris, 2010). itself to regulate the natives. In other This makes many experts agree that the words, the American government was memory of an event can be built by the placed as the party that colonized and appearance of the work. The memory the natives were the colonized party. of human work manifests in the form of The process of interaction of the narratives and myths that are believed colonizer and the colonized are in a by both individuals and groups (Ferry, space between. This space shows the 2009). differences of the two parties, marking The study of film based on historical their position, their relationship, and stories is a study of narrative world at the same time becoming a place of of a community. Understanding the negotiation (Bhabba, 2000). history of a people can be understood Although the study of American by searching in the film which parts history is increasingly developing and telling about the people. Film, in fact, discussing the broad alignment of can be a site that invites viewers to the rights of people in America, the remember and even repeat history memory of certain groups still leaves with representation techniques (Sonja, problems. For example, the emergence 2007). This technique, according to Paul of stereotypes of Native Americans Grainge (2003: 1), places the study of which Cothran (2015) calls the concept cinema in the study of modern culture. of cultural continuity. Cothran (2015) Because the technology used in film shows a strong example of the present, production is believed to be capable of namely the incident when Osama Bin photographing past events, the film is Laden was killed by a special American considered as a work that contains the soldier. The code used when informing

298 | LITERA, Volume 19, Nomor 2, Juli 2020 the death was, ‘Geronimo, Geronimo, the book. The book is considered to be E.K.I.A (Enemy Killed in Action). firmly standing behind the fate of Native The use of ‘Geronimo’ for murderous Americans and voicing the injustice expressions reinforces the stereotype of of the American government towards the relationship between the American Native Americans, especially related government and Native Americans in to the massacre of the Wounded Knee terms of violence. The visualization (Fixico, 2009). Although agreeing that of the example of violence continues the BMHWK book is a work that voiced on the American concept of empire the interests of Native Americans, the of innocence, namely America which book was deemed unfit to enter the was built with the story of white people academic table due to the inaccuracy of who are always the victims or the white the facts displayed (Prucha, 1972). Apart victimhood. from the strong spirit of advocating the In the above case, the memory of book against Native Americans and the Native Americans is still struggling with inaccuracy of the writer in compiling violence and murder. Moreover, related historical facts, memory politics has to the memory of Native Americans, the played its role. Richardson (2005) Native American massacre at Wounded calls it a contradiction in framing and Knee was commemorated with a site narrative analysis. that read, Wounded Knee was officially The memory of Native Americans designated a heroic of brave soldiers has changed. However, the change in over hostile, fanatical, and treacherous memory of Native Americans still places Ghost Dancers (Harjo, 1997: 13). Read the stereotype of inhumanity. Ferry by generation after generation, this is (2009) proposed the concept of memory one of the efforts to build memory for change in Native American history. Wounded Knee. This article presents an He formulated three major tribes, The analysis of the narrative world of native Tongva, The Mohegan, and The Pequot American seen from the character of initially as a memory of community. Ohiyesa who is adapted as Charles The arrival of white people with all Eastman in the film titled Bury My Heart the problems that occur, land grabbing at Wounded Knee (BMHWK). and murder, makes the memory of Ohiyesa is a native of the Lakota the individual who survived, which he Sioux tribe. His father, Many Lightning, called a cultural bearer. Then the cultural thinks that his child’s future is only in the bearer becomes an asset, which activists school. Ohiyesa successfully completed have revived in the form of a museum. her medical school and returned to the This museum is a collective memory Native American community under the of Native Americans. Collective name Charles Eastman. memories built with artificial buildings The BMHWK film is an adaptation force people into the stages of collective of the final two chapters of the book with imagination (Borer, 2010). Collective the same title written by Alexander Dee imagination tends to build perceptions Brown. The initial appearance of the of artifacts that it sees but is oriented book caused a debate. Even this debate toward the future, not the past. In this is part of the construction of memory by case, the existence of native Americans

The Narrative World of Native Americans Seen from the Adaptation of Ohiyesa ... | 299 is oriented towards certain perceptions. 2009: 15). Writing historical facts will Unfortunately, in many media (films) not be able to be at a neutral point, always the image of Native Americans is influenced by the author’s orientation. more of a rough and uncivilized nature Writing history often does not include (Basham, 2012). The politics of future victims who are not well known. orientation and avoidance of divisions Writing and artifacts tend to feature seem to be a tool of the American famous figures (Wiersma, 2009: 18). government in controlling Native The BMHWK film is also considered Americans’ memories of their past. successful in showing those who died American scholars help construct in the war. However, the book was not memories of Native Americans. able to display those who did not go to Their theorization contributed to war (Iverson, 2001). The adaptation the perception and belief in Native of Ohiyesa in this film is important. Americans. Slotkin (2000) describes Ohiyesa appeared predominantly in his study of literary and media texts the film as Charles Eastman, a Native from colonial times to the 20th century. American who had been an academic Interestingly, in his race war exposure, he success. He was incarnated as someone stated that Colonel George Armstrong who deserved or seemed idolized by the Custer was immortalized as a martyr next generation of Native Americans. after the massacre of the Lakota and The transformation of these key Cheyenne tribes at Little Bighorn on characters can clearly capture the world June 25 , 1876. On the other hand, of Native American narratives, from Jacoby (2008), in his book Shadows the history of violence to the expressed at Dawn: A Borderlands Massacre and hopes. the Violence of History, reveals that the Apache tribe has adapted to Spanish METHOD colonialism by adopting an economic This research used an adaptation usurpation, which creates hatred among approach. The Data resources were the Hispanics and O’odham. Because white memoir The Indian Boyhood (TIB) and a people were accused of embezzlement film entitled Bury My Heart at Wounded at the Camp Grant Affair, there was Knee (BMHWK). Both of them depicted war and massacre in the area. The way the character of Ohiyesa, a Native to commemorate the slaughter varies. American. This study used descriptive The Apache dictated their memories qualitative method. The data needed is to ethnologists, built a cultural center obtained by close reading of Ohiyesa’s to tell their stories, and inaugurated an character in books and films. Data annual memorial event to honor the related to Ohiyesa characters were victims. collected from observations of these The BMHWK filmization is characters in the film. This study treated inseparable from memory politics. At BMHWK film as a text. The first step in least, the book becomes part of the analyzing the characters in the text was politics of memory. As an artifact, film in-depth reading. Ohiyesa character has the same function as a museum that was examined by looking for historical tells the events of the past (Wiersma, sources in the book and compared with

300 | LITERA, Volume 19, Nomor 2, Juli 2020 the appearance of the character in the Knee. These changes can be in the form film. The next step was interpreting the of narrative elimination or addition. findings related to Ohiyesa character. Reduction of childhood narratives Meaning was linked to the concept of and indigenous traditions occurs in the native American narratives. The analysis film version. Little Ohiyesa is not told. of these findings was the attitude of the Friction with white civilization also text in presenting Native Americans includes additions. BMHWK in detail shows how Ohiyesa met, accepted, RESULT AND DISCUSSION and played a role in civilization. This Result does not appear in TIB. Changes of There were changes in Ohiyesa Ohiyesa’s narration in the two works character presentation in The Indian are in Table 1. Boyhood and Bury My Heart at Wounded

Table 1. Narartion of Ohiyesa in The Indian Boyhood and Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee Bury My Heat at No Aspect The Indian Boyhood Wounded Knee 1 Little Ohiyesa Riding horses, playing in Violence the woods, and hunting for food 2 Indian Life Adventure, Woods, War Legends 3 Impression of Civilization First encounter with First experience at school trains and white Introduction to religion American community Meeting Elaine Goodale (his wife in future) 4 During Wounded Knee Massacre - Becoming a lobbyist and a doctor

Ohiyesa character is so important. conflict, which still exists between He hovered between two civilizations these two civilizations. The appearance that never meet reconciliation. He of Ohiyesa in BMHWK is important, is never being fully identified as an because it acts as a narrative symbol of Indian and never being fully identified native American life. These appearances as a white. He is the symbol of the are in table 2.

The Narrative World of Native Americans Seen from the Adaptation of Ohiyesa ... | 301 Table 2. Ohiyesa’s appearances in Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee No Aspect Appearance (min) Details 1 Saved from the massacre 01:45 - 04:46 Ohiyesa was saved from a massacre 2 Meeting with his father His father conveyed the intention 08:40 - 09:59 to bring Ohiyesa to a white school 3 Introduced to cross necklace 10.01 - 11:07 Ohiyesa was given a cross necklace by his father 4 First experience at school 26:18 - 28:08 Cutting hair and look for a new gospel-based name 5 Parted with his father 31:59 – 32.00 Taken away by train. There is a feather symbol and a cross necklace 6 Introduced at the Congress 33:10 - 36:44 Ohiyesa has changed to Charles Eastman 7 Meeting with Elaine Goodale 36:45 – 38:45 Getting closer and intimately telling how he got the name Charles 8 Toward the reservation 01:07:54 - 01:10:19 Got a letter from Elaine describing the sad state of reservation due to illness 9 Agreement Failure 01:32:26 - 01:37:30 Native Americans reject all plans by Senator Dawes. Whites are thought to only be driving them 10 Victim of Wounded Knee 01:48: 25 - 01: 56:56 Charles Eastman took care of the massacre victims of the massacre. There are hundreds of fatalities from Native Americans 11 Future project from the 01:59:50-02:02:41 Census of Native American government children by finding names from the gospels

Discussion Ohiyesa to Eastman: Deprivation of The experience of Ohiyesa went culture through has symbolic of the native One of the principal figures in the Americans of that period. He was taken BMHWK is Charles Eastman, a Lakota from his native land by his father who Sioux also known as Ohiyesa. He was converted to Christianity while in prison. assimilated into white culture and did He was taken to Christian community very well through schools. Ohiyesa and converted to Christianity. He was began formal education when her father educated in white schools and sent to enrolled her in a missionary school in boarding school. This experience is a Flandreau. He was an intelligent Native portrait of many Native Americans. American, who managed to study at The discussion on the adaptation of Dartmouth and finally, he completed Ohiyesa are as follows. medical school in Boston, graduating

302 | LITERA, Volume 19, Nomor 2, Juli 2020 in 1890. Eastman then fought for the and begins with children. Ohiyesa is a rights of Native Americans, became native of the Lakota Sioux tribe. By his a Washington lobbyist for the Dakota father, Many Lightning, he was taken Sioux, and was commissioned by Teddy from the Native American community Roosevelt, and Calvin Coolidge to and placed in a white school. Lightning handle some matters related to Native thinks that his child’s future is only in Americans. the school. However, several scenes He writes about his childhood as a in the film show that the indigenous Native American, as well as his medical culture of the Sioux has been deprived. and political experience, providing a The meeting with Lightning at perspective of two extraordinary and 08:40 showed that Ohiyesa rejected unique worlds. Eastman is known for the new culture brought by her father. his appearance in the film Bury My He refused to be hugged by his father. heart at Wounded Knee. In the book That courage was also strengthened by BMHWK, Eastman did not appear at the visualization of the red shirt he was all. Incorporating Eastman’s character wearing. The scene of Ohiyesa’s haircut into the film provides a different at 37:39 is very powerful exposing the perspective space. Eastman is no longer deprivation of Indian culture. Ohiyesa’s known as Ohiyesa. He is narrated as a appearance was arranged in a way that figure as well as an object of the success was in line with the norms adopted by of the white civilization process of the whites. This scene is a flashback when natives. adult Ohiyesa (Charles Eastman) sadly Charles Eastman is one of the Sioux tells the story of the discovery of the tribesmen who became the central figure name Charles. At minutes 26:18 to in the BMHWK. Having the first name 28:08, Ohiyesa was in the school room Ohiyesa, Eastman was taken from the with a woman who was teaching. The indigenous community and schooled first question asked by the teacher in white educational institutions until was the identification of the names he could become a doctor. Eastman’s of American Presidents. Only those role in the film began when he was who already have Christian names are introduced to the white American allowed to answer. public. Eastman is considered a model Sioux beliefs have no place. The of civilization that is being offered to entry of Christianity marked the natives as well as an assimilation agent deprivation of their beliefs. The used by the American government. religion entered in conjunction with the In the BMWK, the memory of schooling process of the children of the cultural appropriation manifests in two Sioux tribe. Lightning, at 10:01, started institutions, namely school and religion. to introduce Christianity to the Lakota The school was the initial institution of Sioux community. He proudly showed deprivation of Native American culture. the cross necklace to his friends and Schools are used as agents to educate assumed that his helper was a religion indigenous children, but with norms with the cross. What’s more, at 30:39 that are believed by whites. Deprivation when Ohiyesa felt depressed because of culture begins with this institution of the burden at her school, Lightning

The Narrative World of Native Americans Seen from the Adaptation of Ohiyesa ... | 303 motivated her by giving Ohiyesa a cross present to the audience. The memory necklace. of the Sioux became clear with the emergence of this assimilation agent, Ohiyesa as an agent of assimilation that Native Americans could only live in Ohiyesa grew up and managed a white way. In addition, the emergence to become a doctor. Ohiyesa is more of Eastman’s assimilation agents also personal with Charles Eastman who is reinforces the memory that the failure proud of whites as the success of the of native Americans due to traditional assimilation process. Eastman appeared lifestyles, and the plans of the American with a white appearance. His acceptance government regarding native and Black began in the 33:10 to 36:44-minute Hill are mature plans that also consider scene when he was introduced to the the fate of the natives. This memory is white community. Completely wearing strong with Eastman being involved in a suit and not forgetting to show the it. cross necklace, He was admired by the The past of Native Americans community with a round of applause. presents trauma. The battle against The opportunity to make a speech was whites gave birth to memories of the used by him to convey the philosophy death of the ancestors, and even the of Indian language and its translation disappearance of certain tribes. With in English. Extraordinary welcome such trauma, the cultural assimilation with applause after he made a speech. program offered by the American At that time, He met with Elaine, a government. This assimilation was woman who studied Native Americans. wrapped up in a reservation project in He put his trust in Elaine. From 36:45 which whites could smoothly enter the to 38:45, He told his life story to get the ideas of their civilization. The text of name ‘Charles’ to Elaine. BMHWK presents past trauma through Eastman was directly involved in the the telling of the rehabilitation and the plans for the reservation and purchase programs in it. of Black Hill land. Together with The theme of cultural assimilation senator Dawes, in the minutes 46:57 is not very visible in the BMHWK to 48:57, He participated in designing book. In 19 chapters, this book more the plan. In fact, he did the hatching often portrays the cruelty of American directly to the land projected as a Sioux soldiers towards the natives. Indulgence reservation. From 50:26 to 50:36, in native life was presented as a result of members of Congress congratulated white greed and the defeat of the natives Dawes and Eastman on their plan for in various battles. The only description approval by all members of Congress. of assimilation in the two texts is the The plan is referred to as a white plan inclusion of the school program in the with a touch of Indians. reservation. Furthermore, the two texts Eastman acts as an assimilation do not provide an explanation of how agent. He was used by whites as a the assimilation took place. model. The success in Eastman’s life, The BMHWK film actually being an intellectual and a doctor, was presents the theme of assimilation as an example that the film wanted to the dominant theme in its telling. By

304 | LITERA, Volume 19, Nomor 2, Juli 2020 taking the character Charles Eastman, and separation from the indigenous this film seems to advocate the US community became a traumatic space government assimilation project. This for him. The trauma felt stronger when can be seen from the description of he had to adapt to the educational the figure of Charles Eastman and his environment. The scene of how he involvement in assistance programs for got the name Charles was strongly Native Americans in the reservation. presented. Even this scene appeared At the end of the story, the film strongly when Eastman was talking about his features Charles Eastman who received identity. The habit of holding a weapon the project of renaming native children. (knife) must change with a stationery On the contrary, Eastman character is and a cross. The change of trust is not not displayed in the BMHWK book. easy and always a memory for Eastman. As a model of the success of the He also had a debate with Senator white civilization process, Eastman Dawes over the planned purchase of affirmed the alignment of indigenous Black Hills. His position was firm that identity with whites. Appearing in the Dawes’s plan had never benefited the white public as intellectuals, Eastman natives and would instead destroy them. was physically dressed in a white Eastman’s defense was due to his direct American style. As if to emphasize that involvement in observing native life in he is a native, he used native language in reservations. However, in the end, he starting his speech. In other words, this was unable to stem the efforts of Dawes film confirms that a Native American and the American government. After the can be equal to white Americans. This massacre at Wounded Knee, Eastman became the same as the spirit of the and Elaine returned to Washington. At native character (not in the film) Charles the congress building, Dawes rescued Eastman who campaigned for the total him for carrying out a new task, the alignment of Native Americans with census of Native Americans. He had white citizens through his work entitled to find a Christian name and give it to From the Deep Woods to Civilization (1961). all Native American children. He was Eastman’s involvement in determining described as very frustrated with the the Act with Senator Dawes seemed to task because the search for Christian strengthen his position before the white names was a traumatic thing for him. Americans. What’s more, this character The BMHWK film presents a strong is shown directly to the indigenous ending that affirms the complexity community through his involvement of Eastman’s feelings while offering a in the reservation. He came to give future for the natives. This film shows treatment. Together with an educator, Eastman returning to the river where Ealine Godale, he was busy treating sick he played as a child. He then took out natives and even witnessed the ferocity a bird’s feather and a cross wrapped in of the Wounded Knee massacre. animal skin. He will throw these items Eastman is a role model for natives. into the river. However, he finally saved Eastman’s identity rift is presented it. Items such as crosses and bird feathers through a description of the past that that are stored are the embodiment of he always remembers. War violence the mission that will be carried by him.

The Narrative World of Native Americans Seen from the Adaptation of Ohiyesa ... | 305 The future of the natives is represented He seemed to reflect the pain of his by the union of these goods in the hands people. The reservation policy also had of Charles Eastman. a violent impact on Native Americans. The BHMWK presents historical In addition to poor shelter conditions, trauma for Native Americans. Defeat Native Americans are limited in against white expansion resulted in carrying out their religious and cultural having to be eliminated and uprooted activities, and are introduced to the from their culture. The trauma white American judicial and law underwent a transformation in the enforcement system. The shelter is BMHWK spacecraft. Both works considered the beginning of a difficult present trauma through a series of life. All the land for herding cattle has historical native-white relationships been taken by white Americans. displayed through the theme of battle. Eastman’s disappointment at the The BHMWK film shows the trauma facilities obtained by Native Americans more strongly as a personal experience made him write a letter asking for of a native figure who was not involved medication aids. In scenes 01:26:22 in battle. Personal trauma is framed by through 01:29:35, senator Dawes came the appearance of success. A mixture of to the reservation to proceed with the successful and traumatic imagery was land purchase plan. He presented the presented as a future offer for natives. plan and Eastman listened in the back It appears that both books eliminate row. From 01:32:26 to 01:37:30, Dawes the character Charles Eastman, even did the same thing but was stricter. though he is also a perpetrator of He wants a signature of approval and history. The BMHWK film included disapproval. Sitting Bull appears and is him as the main character. The attempt trusted again. Together with Red Cloud to place Eastman’s character in the film they confront Dawes’ plans. Eastman affirms the mission of the American listened and saw all the events. He government regarding cultural looked disappointed with Dawes’ plan. assimilation. No matter how bad the From scenes 01:37:31 to 01:40:05, He trauma felt to the natives, their future is argues with Dawes. Eastman felt that in the process of assimilation. Dawes’s plan did not benefit Native Americans and would even destroy Telling the pain them. Dawes said that he was also Eastman managed to become an pressured by the congress. Dawes thinks assimilation agent by whites. He was that Eastman is no longer an Indian and directly involved in handling the Native cannot represent the Sioux. Eastman American problems in the reservation. loudly said if one of Dawes’s enemies In the scene 1:07:54, Eastman began his was him. After the debate, Eastman role in the reservation and saw firsthand looked sad. In the scene 01:41:57, He the conditions of the Native Americans. looks serious watching Ghost dance. Beyond the concept of assimilation that After the massacre at Wounded is used as life expectancy for Native Knee Creek, Eastman and Elaine Americans, disappointment and pain returned to the city. In scenes 01:57:52 can be seen in Eastman’s character. to 01:59:37, Eastman with a formal suit

306 | LITERA, Volume 19, Nomor 2, Juli 2020 met Dawes at the congress building. times filled with struggles in the forest Dawes greeted him and said that he and Indian myths do not appear in the had a new mandate. Eastman then was film. Ohiyesa character was adapted given an assignment in a census project to be far from indigenous American of Native Americans. He had to find a traditions. In fact, the peak of the Christian name and give it to all Native conflict in the film was marked by the American children. killing of Ghost Dance dancers. The In the scenes 01:59:50 to 02:02:41, dance is a form of tradition and hope of He felt unacceptable with the Native Americans to be free from white assignment, he was angry and kicked a shackles. Eastman’s character is not pile of papers for the project. However, told close to the traditional scene. He He continued to work. In the scene only came into contact with the victims 02:02:42 to 02:05:03, which is also the of the Wounded Knee massacre. This final scene from the film, He was in the reinforces the image of him who is river where he played as a child. Riding, always close to white trust. The symbol he pulled out feathers, animal skins, and of the cross that tries to be combined cross necklaces. He plans to throw these with bird feathers is a manifestation items into the river. However, he ended of ambivalence in looking at Native up storing the items and returning home American traditions. riding across the river. Native American identity has Eastman has a strong role as a cover always been associated with pride in of memory for Native Americans. their traditional beliefs and objects. After the massacre, this film presents The identity is blurred in Charles a scene that does not sympathize with Eastman. His Christianity had created the massacre. Eastman was asked for a the ambivalence of the Indianness special mission, and he lived. The film order. Furthermore, he was required builds the Native American ‘defeat’ to complete the task of indigenous memory. Native Americans were Americanization by converting their ‘exhausted’ after the events at Wounded names to white names. This is the Knee, and what continued was Native future of Native Americans offered Americans who lived according to through the character of Eastman. white norms. Although he also presented two cultural symbols (feather and cross), indigenous Ambivalent attitude toward Indianness traditions had been successfully mated Eastman was dominantly presented with white culture. This ambivalence as a symbol of the life expectancy of is offered as a hope for the future of Native Americans. In other words, Native Americans. Eastman has become a model for the future of Native Americans. There CONCLUSION was an ambivalence of treatment to The memory of Native Americans Indianness when Eastman was made was built through the figure of Ohiyesa. a role model. All things cultural in The original figure of the Lakota Ohiyesa’s life were significantly not Sioux tribe was taken and made an shown in the BMHWK film. Childhood assimilation agent by the American

The Narrative World of Native Americans Seen from the Adaptation of Ohiyesa ... | 307 government. With a strong picture of Cothran, B. (2015). Enduring legacy: his success being a successful person, the U.S.-Indigenous Violence and The American government offered a new phase Making of American Innocence in of life to the natives, namely living in The Gilded Age. The Journal of the accordance with white norms. The memory Gilded Age and Progressive Era, 14(4), of the natives through the figure of Ohiyesa pp. 562-573. DOI: 10.1017/ still struggles as the traditional weak and S1537781415000377. rejects progress. Ohiyesa, who changed her Eastman, C. A. (1904). Indian Boyhood. name to Charles, became a powerful actor New York: McClure, Phillips. in building memories of indigenous defeat, Harris, J. (2010). “Old Norse Memorial especially the Sioux. With the continuation Discourse between Orality and of the naming project in accordance with Literacy” in Along the Oral- Christian religious norms, the Sioux tribe is Written Continuum: Types of Texts, up. Native American life is finished. What Relations, and Their Implications remains is life defined and normalized by Utrecht Studies in Medieval whites. Ohiyesa described all of these things. Literacy, 20. Turnhout: Brepols. The dominant mention of Charles Eastman https://doi.org/10.1484/M. is one of the offers of cultural assimilation. USML-EB.6.090708020500030503 Native American narrative world, by the 04000707. character of Eastman, is voiced as a world Harjo, J & Gloria, B. eds. (1997). that is supposed to follow the offer of Reinventing the Enemy’s Language: assimilation even though it feels painful. Contemporary Native Women’s Writing of North America. New York: WW ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Norton. This paper is a part of writing projects Hermann, P. (2013) Saga Literature, on cinema studies in doctorate program Cultural Memory and Storage. of Universitas Indonesia. Expressions of Scandinavian Studies 85(3) gratitude are devoted to Dr. Suma Riella doi:10.1353/scd.2013.0043. Rusdiarti, M.Hum, and Dr. Joesana Tjahjani, Ferry, M. L. (2009). The Thin Red Line: M.Hum who have guided this writing. Native American Culture Bearers, Memory and the Museum (Order No. REFERENCE 3379464). Available from ProQuest Basham, M. (2012). Unmasking Tonto: Can Dissertations & Theses Global. Title vii “make it” in Hollywood? American (304853401). Retrieved from Indian Law Review, 37(2), pp. 549- https://search.proquest.com/docvi 596 http://digitalcommons.law.ou.edu/ ew/304853401?accountid=17242. ailr/vol37/iss2/5. Fixico, D. (2009). American Indian Bhabha, H.K. (2000). Nation and Narration, History and Writing from London and New York: Routledge. Home: Constructing an Indian Borer, M. I. (2010). From Collective Memory Perspective. American Indian to Collective Imagination: Time, Place, Quarterly, 33(4), 553-560. Retrieved and Urban Redevelopment. Symbolic June 8, 2020, from www.jstor.org/ Interaction, 33(1), pp. 96-114. https:// stable/40388487. doi.org/10.1525/si.2010.33.1.96.

308 | LITERA, Volume 19, Nomor 2, Juli 2020 Grainge, P. (2003). Memory and Popular Richardson, M. I. (2005). Constructing Film. Manchester: Manchester two cultural realities: Newspaper University Press coverage of two american indian protest Iverson, P. (2001). The Road to events (Order No. 3188597). Available Reappearance: American Indian from ProQuest Dissertations & History Since 1890. Montana; the Theses Global. (305432151). Magazine of Western History, 51(4), Retrieved from https://search. 72. Retrieved from https://search. proquest.com/docview/305432151 proquest.com/docview/217953230 ?accountid=17242. ?accountid=17242. Poole, R. (2008). Memory, Jacoby, K. (2008). Shadows at Dawn: A Responsibility, and Identity. Social Borderlands Massacre and the Violence Research, 75(1), 263-286. Retrieved of History. New York: Penguin July 1, 2020, from www.jstor.org/ Press. stable/40972060. Prucha,F.P (1972). Dee Brown. Bury Slotkin, R. (2000). Regeneration My Heart at Wounded Knee: An Indian through Violence: The Mythology of History of the American West. New the American Frontier, 1600-1860 . York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Norman: University of Oklahoma 1970. Pp. xvii, 487., The American Press. Historical Review, Volume 77, Issue 2, Wiersma, J.M. (2001). Politics of The April 1972, Pages 589–590, https:// Past: The Use of Abuse of History. doi.org/10.1086/ahr/77.2.589. Renner Institute. Yves S and Daniel G, (2007). Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee, HBO Films, DVD.

The Narrative World of Native Americans Seen from the Adaptation of Ohiyesa ... | 309