EXAMPLES FOR THE WORLD: FOUR TRANSITIONAL SIOUX WRITERS AND THE SIOUX LITERARY RENAISSANCE By RUTH J. HEFLIN Bachelor of Arts Kansas State University Manhattan, Kansas 1985 Master of Arts Kansas State University Manhattan, Kansas 1988 Submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate College of the Oklahoma State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY May, 1997 COPYR±GHT by Ruth J. Heflin May 1997 EXAMPLES FOR THE WORLD: FOUR TRANSITIONAL SIOUX WRITERS A.ND THE SIOUX LITERARY RENAISSANCE Thesis Approved: Thesis Advisor Dean of the Graduate College 11 PREFACE Transitional era Sioux produced some of the most prolific and most influential writers among American Indians of the time. They, as an individual Indian nation, deserve a closer analysis in respect not only because of the sheer number and range ofworks--from autobiography to opera--they produced, but also because of the depth and quality of their writings. While American Indian writings should not be judged solely based on their adherence to EuroAmerican literary traditions, their contributions to those traditions should be acknowledged. Charles Alexander Eastman, Gertrude Simmons Bonnin, Luther Standing Bear, and Nicholas Black Elk all contributed to the tenor of Modernist American literature, perhaps more accurately labeled Transitional American literature for all writers from approximately 1890 to 1955. This study examines Eastman, Bonnin, Standing Bear, and Black Elk as Sioux writers who were affected by and who in tum affected Modem American literature and the writers, especially other American Indians, who followed. While examining them as Sioux writers, arguing in effect for acknowledgement of the Sioux Literary Renaissance, I examine the effect their cultures--both Sioux and EuroAmerican--and their individual choices had on their writings. lll ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This dissertation began as an essay for Dr. L.G. Moses' history course over American Indians. Dr. Moses introduced me to Eastman and Standing Bear's works, which I combined with my interests--spurred by Bonnin's American Indian Stories which my husband bought for me and by my longstanding respect for Black Elk Speaks--in autobiographical writings. My initial interests in these writers were as autobiographers alone, but I realized during the course of my research in the last two years that these four writers were not alone in their endeavors as Sioux writers and wrote so much more than just autobiography. So my research broadened and deepened as I began to examine, and appreciate, their other texts, with continued guidance by Dr. Moses, who helped me to see them in a context among other writers, Indian and nonlndian, of the period. For his encouragement and dauntless assistance, I am most appreciative. I would also like to thank Dr. Eric Anderson, whose guidance and suggestions helped me stay focused as we worked through drafts of this dissertation. His knowledge of current scholarship, his tireless assistance, and his continued support and encouragement kept my ideas in perspective and my computer keyboard clicking. My appreciation also goes to Dr. Leonard Leff, who took the time to provide written feedback on parts of this dissertation before the defense, and Dr. Linda Leavell, my academic advisor, who offered prudent, scholarly advice and saw me go from literal birthing pains to dissertation defense. IV Kirtland Card from the University of Nebraska Press was also genuinely helpful in providing me with information and sales figures regarding the books written by these four Sioux writers. Linda Van Hamme, Director of Research at the Akta Lakota Museum at St. Joseph's Indian School, was also helpful in providing me with some of the few available materials written contemporaneously by Indians about these writers and their works. The Mid-America All-Indian Center in Wichita, Kansas graciously allowed me the use of their library, for which I am grateful. Of course, most important to all my scholarly efforts have been my husband, James Cooper, and my son, Harley Cooper. They provide the healthy balance needed to keep me sane and productive. Their love and support has always been the balm I need to counter the stresses of graduate school, as well as the fire I need to persevere. I would also like to express my appreciation to other professors who have passed on needed words of wisdom which have also carried me through my scholarly endeavors: first, Dr. George Keiser, who once told me that it never matters with whom I study because only I can determine the direction and quality of my scholarship--a statement which gave me the fortitude to resist those who would change me into their kind of scholar instead of the scholar that I am; and, second, Dr. Linda Austin, who reminded me that those who persevere succeed. V TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter One--An Introduction Refining a Type Through Example 1 Some Historical & Cultural Background 12 Some Literary Concerns 31 Chapter Two "This Life Was Mine": Charles Eastman as Ohiyesa, the Winner 46 The. Brave Thing to Do: Following the Warpath of Assimilation and Acculturation to Create a New Literary Form 48 Eastman as a Modem Writer 66 Being Bicultural Versus Being Assimilated 85 Chapter Three Weaving a Magic Design: Gertrude Bonnin Creates a New Literary Tradition as Zitkala-Sa 91 Chapter Four "As long as you think I can't, I will show that I can": Luther Standing Bear's Quest for Honor 132 Chapter Five Black Elk Passes on the Power of the Earth: Melding Religions, Purposes, and Literary Traditions in Black Elk Speaks 162 VI Chapter Six--Conclusions and Continuances "The white man sees so little, he must see with only one eye," Lame Deer 193 "I am not the new Indian, I am the old Indian adjusted to new conditions" 208 Works Cited 211 Appendix A Indian Publishing Dateline approx. 1890-1955 222 AppendixB Personal Information on the Four Sioux Writers 231 Vll ABBREVIATIONS FOR TITLES AIA American Indian Autobiograpliy, Brumble AIL American Indian Literature, Ruoff AIS American Indian Stories, Bonnin BES Black Elk Speaks, Neihardt BEP Black Elk's Sacred Pipe, Brown DT Dakota Texts, Deloria DWC From the Deep Woods to Civilization, Eastman IB Indian Boyhood, Eastman ICL Indian Child Life, Eastman me Indian Heroes and Chieftains, Eastman ISC Indian Scout Craft and Lore, Eastman IT Indian To-Day, Eastman LSE Land of the Spotted Eagle, Standing Bear MIB My Indian Boyhood, Standing Bear MLS Myths and Legends of the Sioux, McLaughlin MPS My People the Sioux, Standing Bear NAA Native American Autobiography, Krupat NAR Native American Renaissance, Lincoln OID Old Indian Days, Eastman OIL Old Indian Legends, Bonnin RH Red Hunters and the Animal People, Eastman SI Speaking ofIndians, Deloria SOI Soul of the Indian, Eastman sos Stories of the Sioux, Standing Bear STS Sister to the Sioux, Elaine Eastman WE Wigwam Evenings, Eastman Vll1 CHAPTER ONE An Introduction Redefming a Type Through Example According to Deborah Sue Welch, "the conscience pangs of White America peaked in 1881 with the publication of Helen Hunt Jackson'sA Century ofDishonor denouncing U.S. Indian policy" (76). Yet, if the public felt guilty over government policy and the subsequent mistreatment of Indians on reservations, they had not overcome the stereotypical views of Indians as savages and worthless heathens, and seemed to devour every word about conflict between Indians and the government, with the press keeping a persistent eye on militant, and even not so militant, activities on the reservations. Indians were newsmakers. Not only did military leaders like Custer write articles for eager newspapers and magazines, newspaper correspondents also followed military troops whenever possible (Brady 346 and Moses 19-20), and harassed Indian agents for news, inflating situations beyond their real scope to appease a bloodthirsty reading audience (McGillycuddy · 202). By the time 3000 troops amassed on Pine Ridge Reservation in 1890 to quell the Ghost Dance Craze, as newspapers had labeled it, the general nonlndian reading public was undoubtedly preparing itself for gory details (Mooney 850). Why should we have expected anything else? Most EuroAmericans I had :frequently treated Indians as less than human since contact. Perhaps 1 In reference to those Americans who descend from any W estem culture, primarily those known as European descendents, I will primarily use the term 1 subconsciously, though, EuroAmericans had always known otherwise, given the fact that they had tried to ease their consciences by making an attempt at being fair with treaties for land rights and by sending missionaries to help and enlighten. But the only Indians most EuroAmericans knew were fictional, like those in The Last of the Mohicans, or on display, such as at a wild west show or in a live exhibit at a museum, wearing loincloths and war paints, as if that was always how all Indians dressed. Captivity narratives, which often provided gruesome details to justify nonlndian views oflndian "savagery," were also popular. All of these stereotypical images worked their way into the fabric of everyday life for the general American public. As western movies became popular, images of Indians became so stilted, in addition to being inaccurate, that all Indians were fashioned as plains Indians. 2 In contrast, most transitional period Indians, especially the four Sioux3 writers of this study--Charles Eastman (Ohiyesa), Gertrude Bonnin (Zitkala-Sa), EuroAmerican. I choose to use the term primarily to highlight cultural influences. I will also use the word nonlndian to refer to anyone other than American Indians, where appropriate. Other terms commonly used, such as whites, Anglos, and Caucasians, will not be used here because of their inaccuracies, as well as because the terms white and caucasian refer to race, not culture. However, when I quote a source which has used one of the other terms, I will repeat that source's term instead of inserting my own in order to preserve the tone and context of the ~uotation.