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An Archaeological Analysis of Gender Roles in Ancient Nonliterate Cultures of Eurasia

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An Archaeological Analysis of Gender Roles in Ancient Nonliterate Cultures of Eurasia Flinders University of South Australia Department of Archaeology An Archaeological Analysis of Gender Roles in Ancient Nonliterate Cultures of Eurasia Mike Adamson B.A.(Hons) Thesis Archive Submission March 14th 2005 Mike Adamson B.A.(Hons) 2005 The opened burial of a Sarmatian warrior-priestess at Pokrovka, just to the north of the Caspian Sea. The unambiguous evidence of the burial of women with cultic, warrior and high-status goods amongst the steppe cultures, exposed during the 1990s, has provided the material basis for challenging long-held assumptions concerning the universality of the gender norms with which our culture is familiar. Photograph courtesy Jeannine Davis-Kimball, CSEN, Berkeley, California. I Limited Copyright Waiver The Director of Administration and Registrar Flinders University GPO Box 210 ADELAIDE SA 5001 MASTERS THESIS I hereby waive the following restrictions: (a) for three years after the deposit of the thesis, readers other than academic staff and students of the University must obtain the consent of the Author or the Head of the Discipline or the Librarian before consulting a thesis; (b) for three years after the deposit of the thesis, no copy may be made of the thesis or part of it without prior consent of the author. NAME: .......................................................................... SIGNATURE: .......................................................................... Date: .......................................................................... II Declaration The Director of Administration and Registrar Flinders University GPO Box 210 ADELAIDE SA 5001 MASTERS THESIS I certify that this thesis does not incoporate without acknowledgment any material previously submitted for a degree or diploma in any university; and that to the best of my knowledge and belief it does not contain any material previously published or written by another person except where due reference is made in the text. NAME: ........................................................................... SIGNATURE: .......................................................................... Date: ........................................................................... III Acknowledgments The writer would like to acknowledge the generous assistance received from the following parties in preparation of this study, in particular those who discussed their work and offered personal comments to clarify various points. Margaret Cox, Bournmouth University for her illuminating comments on sexing methodology and the limitations thereof. Jeannine Davis-Kimball, CSEN, Berkeley whose generous assistance solved many a riddle. Bonnie Effros, Southern Illinois University for helping bring into focus the modern environment of the gender-bias debate. J. V. S. Megaw (retired) whose always pithy commentary helped keep the mantle of sanity on a debate that could easily have gone out of control. Eileen Murphy, Queens University, Belfast for her frank and clear guidance on the hard science supporting the conclusions. Sandra Olsen, Carnegie Museum whose comments on the 2000 conference on human/equine interactions in Central Asia were most helpful. Donald Pate, Flinders University of South Australia whose careful consideration of the material and always-helpful suggestions moved the project along smartly. Gerhard Poellaur, Austria for his clarifications concerning the Dodonna bronze. IV An Archaeological Analysis of Gender Roles in Ancient Non- Literate Cultures of Eurasia Mike Adamson BA (Hons) Contents: Acknowledgments IV Contents V – VI Lists of Maps and Tables VII Lists of Plates VIII – IX Abstract X Chapter 1: Introduction 1 Modes of Sex Analysis 2 Bias Factors 7 Early Sources 20 Chapter 2: Who Were These Peoples? 26 Celts 30 A Note on Current Controversy 30 The Standard Model 33 An Archaeological Perspective 39 Scythians 41 Sauro-Sarmatians 50 Saka 53 Altai Tribes 56 Far Eastern Horse Tribes 58 The Direct Historical Approach: A Flawed Tool? 59 Target Cultures: Discussion 60 Chapter 3: Ancient Evidence 67 Celts 68 Celtic Artworks 71 Herodotus: Histories 75 Scythia 77 Scythian Artworks 80 Tacitus: The Germania 83 Egypt 89 Arrian: The Campaigns of Alexander 90 The Legacy of Myth 92 V Chapter 4: Archeological and Anthropometric Evidence 96 Standard Anthropometric Methodology 98 DNA-based Methodology 109 Indirect/Implicit Sexing Methodology 110 Case Study: The Vix Princess 113 Case Study: The Warrior Priestess of Issyk 121 Case Studies: Discussion 123 Chapter 5: New Synthesis 126 Gender in the Greek, Roman and Etruscan Worlds 128 Environment of the Modern Debate 134 New Synthesis: Conclusions 144 Chapter 6: Horsemanship 148 Origins of Horsemanship 151 Load-Bearing 151 Draught 152 Charioteering 153 Riding -- and its Implications for Culture 157 Gender Relations in Other Horse-Using Cultures 171 Parthia 171 India 173 China 173 Bronze Age Denmark 174 Gender Relations Divorced from Horsemanship 175 Minoan Crete 175 Polynesia 178 Chapter 7: Discussion and Conclusions 182 Conjunction of Cultural Traits Between the Extremes 187 Transmission Vectors 196 Horsemanship and Female Independence: A Coincidental or Consequential Relationship? 198 Observations on Offensive and Defensive Roles Amongst the Sauro-Sarmatians 198 A Final Observation Concerning Perspective 199 Conclusions 201 Recommendations for Further Work 203 References 204 VI List of Maps Map 1: Iron Age Europe and the Expansion of the “Celtic” Peoples 31 From: Megaw & Megaw (1989), reproduced in The Celtic World, Miranda J. Green (ed), 1995 Routledge, London pXXIV Map 2: Iron Age Eurasia and the Territories of the Steppe Peoples 42 Reproduced courtesy Jeannine Davis-Kimball, CSEN, Berkeley, California Map 3: Vix Locality Map 114 From: James, S. (1993) Exploring The World of the Celts, Thames and Hudson, p21 List of Tables Table 4.1: Classic Traits of the Male versus Female Pelvis 103 From: Byers, S. N. (2002) Introduction to Forensic Anthropology, Allyn and Bacon, Boston, MA. Table 4.2: Characteristics of Male and Female Skulls 106 From: Byers, S. N. (2002) Introduction to Forensic Anthropology, Allyn and Bacon, Boston, MA. VII List of Plates Frontispiece: I Sarmatian grave at Pokrovka; photo courtesy CSEN, Berkeledy, California. Plate 1: 73 VOTIVE OFFERING FROM THE SEINE FROM THE CELTIC WORLD, MIRANDA J. GREEN (ED), (1995) ROUTLEDGE, LONDON, P83. Plate 2: 85 THE “WINDEBY GIRL” FROM CELTS: EUROPE'S PEOPLE OF IRON, (1994) TIME-LIFE, ALEXANDRIA, VIRGINIA, P152. Plate 3: 94 THE DODONA “YOUTH” \ FROM BARBARIAN TIDES, (1987) TIME-LIKE BOOKS, P85. Plate 4: 104 COMPARITIVE STRUCTURE OF MALE AND FEMALE PELVES FROM BYERS, S. N. (2002) INTRODUCTION TO FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY, ALLYN AND BACON, BOSTON, MASSACHUSETS, P174. Plate 5: 107 COMPARITIVE STRUCTURE OF MALE AND FEMALE SKULLS FROM BYERS, S. N. (2002) INTRODUCTION TO FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY, ALLYN AND BACON, BOSTON, MASSACHUSETS, P180. VIII Plate 6: 115 THE VIX “PRINCESS” FROM CELTS: EUROPE'S PEOPLE OF IRON, (1994) TIME-LIFE, ALEXANDRIA, VIRGINIA, P48. Plate 7: 141 SEXUAL DIVISION OF LABOUR TOP: FROM TRIPPETT, F. (1975) THE FIRST HORSEMEN, TIME-LIFE BOOK, NED. P149. BOTTOM: FROM BINFORD, L. (1983) IN PURSUIT OF THE PAST, THAMES AND HUDSON, LONDON, P223. Plate 8: 154 RECONSTRUCTED CELTIC CHARIOT FROM THE CELTS: EUROPE'S PEOPLE OF IRON, (1994) TIME-LIFE BOOKS, ALEXANDRIA, VIRGINIA, P57. Plate 9: 164 DETAIL FROM THE CHERTOMLYK AMPHORA FROM TRIPPETT, F (1975) THE FIRST HORSEMEN TIME-LIFE BOOKS, NED. P149. IX An Archaeological Analysis of Gender Roles in Ancient Non-Literate Cultures of Eurasia ABSTRACT Ascription of sex to inhumed remains on the principle basis of grave-goods, as distinct from anthropometric data, can be a vague process due to incipient gender bias in interpretation. Cross-matching of athropometrics with gravegoods can some- times generate results that appear ambiguous or paradoxical as they may not accord with preconceived relationships be- tween gender roles and sex. This reduces confidence in the demography of various archaeologically-revealed cultures, especially those of Iron Age Europe, which were erected on the basis of what we may now see as potentially flawed analysis. Comparative and contrasting analyses are made of contempo- rary and related cultures to investigate gender role assump- tions on a wide basis. Regarding nonliterate cultures, arch- eologists have limited means to interpret the relationships between sex and gender-roles, and these methods are explored. The traditional outlook is assessed for functional bias in light of its origins and perpetuation, and a new synthesis is propos- ed for ongoing analysis. This synthesis includes strict appli- cation of refined anthropometric methodology and the reso- lution of paradox by adoption of a revised underlying hypothesis. A correlation is observed between use of the horse and a significant blurring of gender role stereotypes, occurring in nomadic cultures whose legacy persists to the present day. This is examined in light of the proposed new synthesis for a consequential or coincidental relationship, the former being apparent. It is found that gender role bias has played an uncomfortably large part in Iron Age scholarship, and that outdated socio- cultural assumptions continue to foster an unsupportable view of elements of world history. X Adamson/Gender in Nonliterate Cultures/1 Chapter One: Introduction In our culture patriarchal values are an historic legacy. When the fields of archeology and anthropology blossomed in the 19th century, neither these values nor their
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