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An American Heart of Darkness: the 1913 Expedition for American Indian Citizenship

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An American Heart of Darkness: the 1913 Expedition for American Indian Citizenship University of Nebraska - Lincoln DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln Great Plains Quarterly Great Plains Studies, Center for 1993 An American Heart of Darkness: The 1913 Expedition for American Indian Citizenship Russel Lawrence Barsh Apamuek Institute Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/greatplainsquarterly Part of the Other International and Area Studies Commons Barsh, Russel Lawrence, "An American Heart of Darkness: The 1913 Expedition for American Indian Citizenship" (1993). Great Plains Quarterly. 751. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/greatplainsquarterly/751 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Great Plains Studies, Center for at DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. It has been accepted for inclusion in Great Plains Quarterly by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. AN AMERICAN HEART OF DARKNESS THE 1913 EXPEDITION FOR AMERICAN INDIAN CITIZENSHIP RUSSEL LAWRENCE BARSH In his pungent essay on Conrad's Heart of car Signet on a 20,OOO-mile journey that would Darkness, Chinua Achebe explores Europeans' take them to eighty-nine Indian reservations in literary use of African stereotypes to work out a little more than six months. Everywhere the their own psycho-social dilemmas.! The jour­ Signet stopped, Indian leaders were gathered to ney into Africa was in reality a journey inside listen to recorded messages from the president the confused souls of explorers and missionar­ of the United States and the commissioner of ies who sometimes found salvation there but Indian affairs, to hoist a large American flag to never saw, heard, or found the Africans. The their own drums, and to sign a vellum "Decla­ Africans they imagined were only a dark reflec­ ration of Allegiance of the North American tion of themselves. Indian." When the Signet returned at last to Eighty years ago, Joseph Kossuth Dixon, his Philadelphia, just before Christmas, a weary son Rollin Dixon, New York photographer John Dixon jubilantly proclaimed "a new epoch" in Scott, and a technician from Eastman Kodak American Indian history. The "new epoch," of set off in the specially equipped private railway course, existed solely in Dixon's mind. The 1913 "Rodman Wanamaker Expedition of Citizenship to the North American Indian" was a distinctively American Heart of Dark­ ness, in which a single troubled and mysterious Russel Lawrence Barsh is associated with the Apamuek man was able, through his connections with Institute, a Mikmaq tribal research center in Nova the inner circles of American wealth, to impose Scotia, and the Four Directions Council, an indigenous­ peoples' organization in consultative status with the his romantic fantasies on every Indian tribe in United Nations. He began to study the Wanamaker the United States. An echo of his illusions can Expedition after hearing stories about a post-1900 "Red still be heard today in the flag songs that open Bam Treaty" from friends on the Pine Ridge Indian every Indian pow-wow. Like one of Conrad's Reservation. protagonists, he was thrust deeper into his am­ bivalence by his own apparent triumph, as he [GPQ 13(Spring 1993): 91·115] slowly realized that he had become just one 91 92 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, SPRING 1993 more deceiver and victimizer of the people he Glenn Curtiss' pioneer flying-boats and Com­ had intended to save. mander Byrd's transatlantic flights in the belief that businessmen would someday travel rou­ THE CAST OF CHARACTERS tinely by air. He served for many years as New York City's official host and, as an early advo­ The Expedition for Citizenship enjoyed a cate of corporate social responsibility, filled his cast of thousands. At least nine hundred tribal stores with educational exhibits and concerts. leaders participated in reservation ceremonies. Rodman and his father actively backed the Taft A "Committee of One Hundred" wealthy presidency, socialized with the "Robber Bar­ Americans, including John D. Rockefeller and ons," and were intimate with the British royal William Randolph Hearst, helped back the family.2 expedition. Presidents Taft and Wilson en­ In an interview shortly before his death, dorsed it. James McLaughlin, author of My Rodman admitted that he had been "interested Friend the Indian, played a critical supporting in the Indian" since childhood. "I can remem­ role, and Thomas Alva Edison provided the ber reading the tales of Fenimore Cooper long sound. "Buffalo Bill" Cody and artist Frederic after I should have been asleep, and then, Remington made cameo appearances, and a when the lights went out covering my head with young Franklin Delano Roosevelt was invited the bedclothes." He was a great admirer of to the opening. No other event in modern "Buffalo Bill" Cody, whom he praised in 1909 as Indian history has involved private American "typifying American manhood" and, of central enterprise and aristocracy to the same extent. importance to this story, installed Dixon in the The key to this is Rodman Wanamaker, one of "Educational Bureau" of the Wanamaker Com­ the wealthiest "merchant princes" of his age, pany for twenty years, so that he could pursue and his employee Dixon, a clergyman, photog­ his "research" on Indian life.3 rapher, and self-styled expert on Indian life. If Comparatively little remains of the life of the expedition had been a Hollywood film, it Dixon. He frequently granted interviews, pro­ might have been subtitled "the prince and the moting himself aggressively in the press and on showman." the lecture circuit, but rarely volunteered any­ Wanamaker was eulogized by the New York thing about his past or his personal life. He was Times as "the most heavily insured individual born in Germantown, Pennsylvania, probably in the world," and by President Coolidge as "a of German and Polish ancestors. He studied at merchant of high ideals." His father, John Wa­ William Jewell College, a Baptist school in namaker, a descendant of eighteenth-century Liberty, Missouri, and then attended the Ro­ settlers in New Jersey, built the Wanamaker chester Theological Seminary, another Baptist department stores in Philadelphia and New institution, where he presumably earned a B.D. York and amassed a considerable family for­ degree. The next thirty years of his life are tune. Rodman graduated from Princeton in shrouded in mystery. He married and had a 1886, joined his father's company two years son, Rollin Lester, but in his glory days with the later, and spent the next decade as its Paris Wanamaker Company never publicly discussed buyer, helping introduce Americans to French this period, when he may have been a mission­ art and fashions. On his return to the United ary or pastor in the West and made his first States, he became a partner with his father and Indian contacts. In 1908 he suddenly resurfaced by 1911 was manager of both the Philadelphia in his new persona as a famous "author, explorer, and New York stores. His abiding passions in­ ethnologist and authority on the American cluded the fine arts, with which he filled his Indian" and began his career with Rodman homes in New York, Atlantic City, Newport, Wanamaker. Even then, his personal life re­ Tuxedo, Philadelphia, London, and Paris, and mained a closed book. When his first wife died commercial aviation. Rodman helped finance in 1925, he married his secretary, Edith Reid, AMERICAN HEART OF DARKNESS 93 and died himself exactly one year later of unre­ official policy of "assimilating" Indians into ported causes.4 white society.6 In the "Expedition for Citizen­ Dixon is the Rasputin of this tale. How he ship," the same emotions crystallized into a first came to Rodman Wanamaker's Philadel­ physical journey to every tribe in the United phia office is unrecorded, but once connected States, to convince them to acknowledge white with the Wanamaker fortune, he made a career victory and white justice. of it until his death. Unlike "Buffalo Bill," who built his circus personality on the foundations THE FIRST AND SECOND EXPEDITIONS of real, albeit exaggerated exploits as a young man, Dixon simply created his credentials and The 1913 Expedition for Citizenship was authoritative demeanor from thin air. Indeed, actually the third Dixon-Wanamaker collabo­ the pathos of his life lay in the fact that, once his ration. Two earlier "expeditions" had been "Expedition" brought him into sustained con­ organized to produce a cinematographic record tact with real Indians, his fantasies abandoned of traditional Indian life before it disappeared. him and he struggled, too late and unsuccess­ Dixon succeeded in collecting 34,000 feet of fully, to become a genuine "Friend of the In­ motion-picture film and 4600 stills. In contrast dian." with contemporaneous work done by the Bu­ There is, in some sense, yet another principal reau of American Ethnology or pioneering an­ character in this story: the American mind in thropologists such as Franz Boas, Alfred the decade following the Spanish-American Kroeber, and George Bird Grinnell, however, War. The first years of the new century wit­ Dixon's work was maudlin, romanticized, and nessed a great outpouring of American smug­ commercial. He had learned his trade from ness and sentimentality, the self-confidence "Buffalo Bill." and self-congratulation of a young imperial The first expedition took Dixon and his power. Rodman Wanamaker was hardly un­ camera crew to Crow Agency, Montana, in usual in his conviction that America was "the 1908 where, with the blessings of the Indian strongest civilization that the world has ever Office, they made a silent film of Longfellow's seen" although it was still predominantly agri­ Hiawatha with Crow Indians in the leading cultural, and dwarfed by the great powers of roles. (The idea was not original: it had been Europe in military and industrial terms.s Ameri­ done with Iroquois actors in New York a few cans expected to dominate the world, and looked years earlier.) Camped "60 miles from civiliza­ forward eagerly to the new order of things.
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