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1993

An American Heart of Darkness: The 1913 Expedition for American Indian Citizenship

Russel Lawrence Barsh Apamuek Institute

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Barsh, Russel Lawrence, "An American Heart of Darkness: The 1913 Expedition for American Indian Citizenship" (1993). Great Plains Quarterly. 751. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/greatplainsquarterly/751

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Great Plains Studies, Center for at DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. It has been accepted for inclusion in Great Plains Quarterly by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. AN AMERICAN HEART OF DARKNESS THE 1913 EXPEDITION FOR AMERICAN INDIAN CITIZENSHIP

RUSSEL LAWRENCE BARSH

In his pungent essay on Conrad's Heart of car Signet on a 20,OOO-mile journey that would Darkness, Chinua Achebe explores Europeans' take them to eighty-nine Indian reservations in literary use of African stereotypes to work out a little more than six months. Everywhere the their own psycho-social dilemmas.! The jour­ Signet stopped, Indian leaders were gathered to ney into Africa was in reality a journey inside listen to recorded messages from the president the confused souls of explorers and missionar­ of the United States and the commissioner of ies who sometimes found salvation there but Indian affairs, to hoist a large American flag to never saw, heard, or found the Africans. The their own drums, and to sign a vellum "Decla­ Africans they imagined were only a dark reflec­ ration of Allegiance of the North American tion of themselves. Indian." When the Signet returned at last to Eighty years ago, Joseph Kossuth Dixon, his Philadelphia, just before Christmas, a weary son Rollin Dixon, New York photographer John Dixon jubilantly proclaimed "a new epoch" in Scott, and a technician from Eastman Kodak American Indian history. The "new epoch," of set off in the specially equipped private railway course, existed solely in Dixon's mind. The 1913 "Rodman Wanamaker Expedition of Citizenship to the North American Indian" was a distinctively American Heart of Dark­ ness, in which a single troubled and mysterious Russel Lawrence Barsh is associated with the Apamuek man was able, through his connections with Institute, a Mikmaq tribal research center in Nova the inner circles of American wealth, to impose Scotia, and the Four Directions Council, an indigenous­ peoples' organization in consultative status with the his romantic fantasies on every Indian tribe in United Nations. He began to study the Wanamaker the United States. An echo of his illusions can Expedition after hearing stories about a post-1900 "Red still be heard today in the flag songs that open Bam Treaty" from friends on the Pine Ridge Indian every Indian pow-wow. Like one of Conrad's Reservation. protagonists, he was thrust deeper into his am­ bivalence by his own apparent triumph, as he [GPQ 13(Spring 1993): 91·115] slowly realized that he had become just one

91 92 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, SPRING 1993 more deceiver and victimizer of the people he Glenn Curtiss' pioneer flying-boats and Com­ had intended to save. mander Byrd's transatlantic flights in the belief that businessmen would someday travel rou­ THE CAST OF CHARACTERS tinely by air. He served for many years as New York City's official host and, as an early advo­ The Expedition for Citizenship enjoyed a cate of corporate social responsibility, filled his cast of thousands. At least nine hundred tribal stores with educational exhibits and concerts. leaders participated in reservation ceremonies. Rodman and his father actively backed the Taft A "Committee of One Hundred" wealthy presidency, socialized with the "Robber Bar­ Americans, including John D. Rockefeller and ons," and were intimate with the British royal William Randolph Hearst, helped back the family.2 expedition. Presidents Taft and Wilson en­ In an interview shortly before his death, dorsed it. James McLaughlin, author of My Rodman admitted that he had been "interested Friend the Indian, played a critical supporting in the Indian" since childhood. "I can remem­ role, and Thomas Alva Edison provided the ber reading the tales of Fenimore Cooper long sound. "Buffalo Bill" Cody and artist Frederic after I should have been asleep, and then, Remington made cameo appearances, and a when the lights went out covering my head with young Franklin Delano Roosevelt was invited the bedclothes." He was a great admirer of to the opening. No other event in modern "Buffalo Bill" Cody, whom he praised in 1909 as Indian history has involved private American "typifying American manhood" and, of central enterprise and aristocracy to the same extent. importance to this story, installed Dixon in the The key to this is Rodman Wanamaker, one of "Educational Bureau" of the Wanamaker Com­ the wealthiest "merchant princes" of his age, pany for twenty years, so that he could pursue and his employee Dixon, a clergyman, photog­ his "research" on Indian life.3 rapher, and self-styled expert on Indian life. If Comparatively little remains of the life of the expedition had been a Hollywood film, it Dixon. He frequently granted interviews, pro­ might have been subtitled "the prince and the moting himself aggressively in the press and on showman." the lecture circuit, but rarely volunteered any­ Wanamaker was eulogized by the New York thing about his past or his personal life. He was Times as "the most heavily insured individual born in Germantown, Pennsylvania, probably in the world," and by President Coolidge as "a of German and Polish ancestors. He studied at merchant of high ideals." His father, John Wa­ William Jewell College, a Baptist school in namaker, a descendant of eighteenth-century Liberty, Missouri, and then attended the Ro­ settlers in New Jersey, built the Wanamaker chester Theological Seminary, another Baptist department stores in Philadelphia and New institution, where he presumably earned a B.D. York and amassed a considerable family for­ degree. The next thirty years of his life are tune. Rodman graduated from Princeton in shrouded in mystery. He married and had a 1886, joined his father's company two years son, Rollin Lester, but in his glory days with the later, and spent the next decade as its Paris Wanamaker Company never publicly discussed buyer, helping introduce Americans to French this period, when he may have been a mission­ art and fashions. On his return to the United ary or pastor in the West and made his first States, he became a partner with his father and Indian contacts. In 1908 he suddenly resurfaced by 1911 was manager of both the Philadelphia in his new persona as a famous "author, explorer, and New York stores. His abiding passions in­ ethnologist and authority on the American cluded the fine arts, with which he filled his Indian" and began his career with Rodman homes in New York, Atlantic City, Newport, Wanamaker. Even then, his personal life re­ Tuxedo, Philadelphia, London, and Paris, and mained a closed book. When his first wife died commercial aviation. Rodman helped finance in 1925, he married his secretary, Edith Reid, AMERICAN HEART OF DARKNESS 93 and died himself exactly one year later of unre­ official policy of "assimilating" Indians into ported causes.4 white society.6 In the "Expedition for Citizen­ Dixon is the Rasputin of this tale. How he ship," the same emotions crystallized into a first came to Rodman Wanamaker's Philadel­ physical journey to every tribe in the United phia office is unrecorded, but once connected States, to convince them to acknowledge white with the Wanamaker fortune, he made a career victory and white justice. of it until his death. Unlike "Buffalo Bill," who built his circus personality on the foundations THE FIRST AND SECOND EXPEDITIONS of real, albeit exaggerated exploits as a young man, Dixon simply created his credentials and The 1913 Expedition for Citizenship was authoritative demeanor from thin air. Indeed, actually the third Dixon-Wanamaker collabo­ the pathos of his life lay in the fact that, once his ration. Two earlier "expeditions" had been "Expedition" brought him into sustained con­ organized to produce a cinematographic record tact with real Indians, his fantasies abandoned of traditional Indian life before it disappeared. him and he struggled, too late and unsuccess­ Dixon succeeded in collecting 34,000 feet of fully, to become a genuine "Friend of the In­ motion-picture film and 4600 stills. In contrast dian." with contemporaneous work done by the Bu­ There is, in some sense, yet another principal reau of American Ethnology or pioneering an­ character in this story: the American mind in thropologists such as Franz Boas, Alfred the decade following the Spanish-American Kroeber, and George Bird Grinnell, however, War. The first years of the new century wit­ Dixon's work was maudlin, romanticized, and nessed a great outpouring of American smug­ commercial. He had learned his trade from ness and sentimentality, the self-confidence "Buffalo Bill." and self-congratulation of a young imperial The first expedition took Dixon and his power. Rodman Wanamaker was hardly un­ camera crew to Crow Agency, Montana, in usual in his conviction that America was "the 1908 where, with the blessings of the Indian strongest civilization that the world has ever Office, they made a silent film of Longfellow's seen" although it was still predominantly agri­ Hiawatha with Crow Indians in the leading cultural, and dwarfed by the great powers of roles. (The idea was not original: it had been Europe in military and industrial terms.s Ameri­ done with Iroquois actors in New York a few cans expected to dominate the world, and looked years earlier.) Camped "60 miles from civiliza­ forward eagerly to the new order of things. At tion," as he later described it, Dixon "examined the same time, this made Americans very con­ 21 Indian maidens before I got a Minnehaha scious of their recent self-creation as a people. that would exactly fit the part," auditioned They worried lest some blot be found on their "hundreds" of Indians for the other parts, and escutcheon, some flaw in their genealogy. They "sent four expeditions of Indians to the Big knew their destruction of the aboriginal inhab­ Horn Range of mountains 40 miles away to get itants of the continent had not only been cruel a deer, so that when Hiawatha came to lay the but remained indecisive. If only the Indians had deer at Minnehaha's feet he might have a real formally surrendered, and melted happily into deer." Rodman Wanamaker was so pleased the mass of American life! As of 1900, they had with the results that he arranged for Dixon to not. deliver illustrated lectures on Hiawatha 311 This produced a need for national redemp­ times in Philadelphia and New York, where he tion and legitimacy, a need for Native Ameri­ was heard by more than 400,000 people.7 cans to capitulate gratefully to the nation so The following year Dixon returned to Crow Americans could declare, "we have triumphed, Agency and staged "the Last Great Indian but in triumphing we are just." This need was Council" on the site of the Custer battle. A reflected in popular literature, as well as the short walk from the town of Crow Agency, 94 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, SPRING 1993 the battlefield was used again in 1969 for the to that post by the Indian Agent, and fretted filming of Little Big Man. It was surrounded in about getting his hay put up before the fall 1909, as it is today, by Indian farms and rains. 10 ranches-scarcely the remote and uncivilized The artificial nature of Dixon's posing did wilderness Dixon made it out to be. His aim was not detract from the commercial success of his supposedly to document Indians' "superior ora­ photographs when he returned east, however. tory" and traditional forms of government, His silent film of the council was privately which offered "the secret of their great power in screened for President Taft, and the stills were resisting the aggressions of civilization." With published in his book, The Vanishing Race, that the aid of the Indian Office, Dixon chose is still in print today. The New York Times was twenty-one "chiefs" from eleven western tribes, unimpressed, however, observing that the value who he claimed, with his characteristic flourish, of Dixon's volume "lies rather in its spectacular represented "nearly every Indian tribe in the features than its data of Indian life."ll United States." Gathered in camp, they were instructed to tell their life stories, bid farewell to THE AMERICAN INDIAN MEMORIAL each other, then ride off into the sunset­ literally-for the cameras.8 Dixon had just returned from this "Second Dixon exaggerated the value of his photogra­ Expedition" when Rodman Wanamaker orga­ phy by emphasizing the imminent and tragic nized a testimonial dinner at Sherry's in New extinction of the Indian race. The Indian "would York City for "Buffalo Bill," who was playing the not yield. He died. He would not receive his Hippodrome with his Wild West Show. Among salvation by surrender; rather would he choose the more than a hundred guests were General oblivion, unknown darkness-the melting fires Nelson Miles, the acclaimed "Indian fighter," of extermination." artist Frederic Remington, and Chief lronshell Dixon's aim in assembling the remnants of and his son Henry Ironshell, representing the this doomed people had been not only scien­ Sioux Indians touring with Cody. Early in the tific but humanitarian. "This last great council evening, Cody broached an idea that Rodman of the chiefs had for its dominant idea the had suggested to him privately: building a welfare of the Indian, that he should live at monumental statue of an Indian in New York peace with his fellows and all men," hence "the harbor, "as large as the Goddess of Liberty," for council became not only a place of historic the purpose of forever "welcoming everyone to record but a school for the inculcation of the this shore." The guests were enchanted and highest ideals of peace" in the final hours before spoke of little else as the festivities continued. his subjects entered "the grave of their race."9 Many veterans of western warfare extolled Indi­ In just a few days, Dixon singlehandedly settled ans' virtues. Miles was "gratified that there is centuries of inter-tribal warfare and brought now a feeling of generosity and respect towards peace to all Indians-a triumph of personal the departing race," and General Leonard Wood power and white superiority. agreed that "our American Indians are perhaps "For one splendid moment they were once the best of the brown races."12 again really Indians," he added, wistfully. In For most of the guests, the idea of building an fact, many of these "old-time warriors" were far Indian memorial was not an admission of na­ more assimilated than their portraits suggested. tional guilt but a celebration of victory. One of Runs-the-Enemywas a tribal policeman ("what­ the journalists present aptly described the affair ever they told me, I did"), and White Horse was at Sherry's as a farewell dinner for an entire race the Yankton Sioux Agency's Head Farmer and that was "swiftly passing from the world's stage." a missionary ("I have since done all I could to This view was subsequently echoed on the bring the other Indians into the Church"). One North American editorial page. "Even admitting of the "chiefs" told how he had been appointed that such racial extinctions are stern necessities AMERICAN HEART OF DARKNESS 95

FIG. 1. Thomas Hasting's design for the National American Indian Memorial in New York City , from the printed program for the 1913 ground breaking ceremonies . Courtesy of William Hammond Mathers Museum, Indiana University.

does not lessen the poignancy of the tragedy," Some regarded the memorial as a kind of title the editors noted and while the Indians had deed, "a constant reminder of the vanishing many vices, "a dignity always attaches to the race to whom we are indebted for the great, free coming of death." Rodman Wanamaker himself gift of a continent." Still others conceived it as expressed similar sentiments when he praised a lasting beacon of American ideals, for the Cody's Wild West Shows for "teach[ing], in a Indian had been manner never to be forgotten, the world's great story of man's conquest over nature and hostile the first man on this continent to express the tribes, impressing youth and maturity with the ideal of Liberty, this nomad who coursed at labors, dangers and victories of the pioneers on will, who drank from every stream, whose this continent."13 sense of loyalty and devotion belittles our 96 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, SPRING 1993

modern notions of patriotism, who was un­ The bow and arrow, with the left hand hang­ opposed by trusts, who was no slave to ing entirely at full length, indicates that he is consolidated wealth, and who yielded only through with his war weaponry; the uplifted and unselfishly to triballaw.14 hand, with the two fingers extended toward the open sea, is the universal peace sign of Ironically it was "Buffalo Bill's" manager, the Indian. Thus he gives, in bronze, a per­ Major John Burke, who told the press that petual welcome to the nations of the world, America owed Indians "at least an apology for as he gave welcome to the white man when the exigencies of civilized man and his cupid­ he first came to these shores. ity in appropriating the red man's land." In a separate interview a few days later, however, It would be "a lonely, lofty figure, where the sea Cody himself was quick to add that "of course, will forever moan a dirge for a vanished race."I? it was all done in the name of progress, and To sell the memorial idea, Dixon appealed God had foreordained that it should be so, but not only to the vanity of Rodman Wanamaker let us build this monument as a lasting tribute but also to the vanity and self-esteem of the to a dying race and to the genius of the man nation. "Posterity will applaud the honor we do who suggested it."15 He had just arrived in ourselves in gathering up the life story of this Philadelphia with his Wild West Show, prom­ virile and picturesque race," he emphasized in ising audiences "a thrilling attack" on a stage­ his promotional publications, "while yet the coach by Chief Ironshell and his Sioux Indi­ rays of the setting sun fall upon their departing ans. footsteps." This generous token of respect by the As Dixon worked tirelessly over the next few victors for the vanquished would make America years to promote the memorial, he also began to a greater civilization; indeed, it was necessary enlarge its purpose. Its base "ought to be so to build the Indian memorial "for our own self­ ample, so dignified, so wild in its architectural respect in the history of the nations of the aspect," he wrote to Wanamaker, "as to repre­ world." Even the Indians themselves would sent some storm swept Mesa of the plains, and appreciate this magnificent gesture, and ac­ through wild passageways the visitor would cordingly find it easier to relinquish the conti­ find his way into a vast museum." This was not nent to their conquerors, "finding exaltation as all. "I would have it overmaster anything in the they become extinct."18 world as a museum," Dixon stressed, taking Sioux leaders later did commend Dixon for careful aim at Wanamaker's vanity, "as great in choosing a Sioux Indian as his model for the conception and execution as the biggest brained monumental statue, and asked Dixon to ensure architect and the most daring sculptor in that they would be able to participate in the America can make it," securing its stature as groundbreaking. Three Indians were on Dixon's "another WORLD-WONDER." Only this would mailing lists: Dr. Carlos Montezuma, Reginald adequately "preserve and perpetuate for the Oshkosh, and Henry Roe Cloud. Dixon did not inspiration of coming generations the nobility involve any Indians in the planning, however. and intrepidity, the heroism and exalted quali­ Instead, he enlisted the "hearty support" of the ties of Indian character."16 Improved Order of Red Men. The Improved As for the monumental statue itself, it would Order used Indian motifs and was organized in be a sixty-foot bronze figure, not of a "circus various "tribes" nationwide, but was neither Indian," but of "an Indian in a striking and comprised of Indians nor associated with any characteristic pose that reveals the soul of the Indian tribal groups. It was often consulted by Indian himself," that would forever act "as a Congress and the Administration in the formu­ witness of the passing race to all the nations of lation of Indian policy-often to the exclusion the world as they come to our shores." of actual Indian organizations. This group prom- AMERICAN HEART OF DARKNESS 97 ised to help raise funds for construction and was done with the statue may be guessed from the given seats on the board of the "Memorial Indian figure in his "Continents" group at the Association" established to supervise the project. New York City Custom House, pictured in Dixon also organized a "Committee of One Century in 1906.20 Hundred" to give the memorial credibility and An official groundbreaking was finally sched­ attract funding; its members included Theodore uled for Washington's Birthday 1913, at the site and Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Cornelius selected by the Fine Arts Commission: old Fort Vanderbilt, J.P. Morgan, Andrew Carnegie, Tompkins, a promontory on Staten Island over­ John D. Rockefeller, William Randolph Hearst, looking the Narrows, still part of the Fort Henry Frick and Ralph Pulitzer. 19 Wadsworth military reservation, which Tho­ Despite this dazzling display of support, it mas Hastings had declared "marvelous" when took Dixon two years to persuade Congress to he had first seen it. 21 authorize the use of public land, provided the memorial was built at no expense to the federal THE MEMORIAL GROUNDBREAKING treasury. Part of the problem, a capitol lobbyist confided to Wanamaker, was that "a few may To give the groundbreaking ceremonies at think it somewhat of an advertising scheme." Fort Wadsworth the best possible publicity, "Buffalo Bill" had offered a $250 prize for the Dixon not only arranged for President Taft best design for the Memorial in 1910, with New himself to handle the spade but promised to York newspaper artists to serve as judges, but bring "thirty of the most famous Chiefs from the nothing appears to have come of it. Designs for Indian Reservations" to participate. The choice the project also ran afoul of ethics rules. Dixon of "Chiefs" was left to the Indian Office, which originally sought help from Burnham & Com­ paid for their travel from Indian trust funds. pany of Chicago, builders of the two Wana­ Reportedly, "great care was exercised to have maker stores, but they directed him instead to the delegation made up of the most command­ Thomas Hastings, designer of the New York ing specimens of the race. Only those of striking Public Library and Metropolitan Opera House, and typical appearance were chosen, to give the and Daniel Chester French, sculptor of the true reproduction of the American Indian of the Concord Minuteman and the Lincoln Memo­ frontier days." Dixon moreover advised the rial. Dixon later claimed that the choice of Commissioner of Indian Affairs: Hastings and French had been Taft's from the start. Both men agreed at once, enthusiasti­ I can not impress upon you to [sic] strongly cally. Both were members of the Federal Fine the importance of having all the Indians Arts Commission, however, which was charged invited bring their War Bonnet, War shirts, by law with approving the design for the memo­ Leggins, Moccasins and entire parapherna­ rial. Dixon arranged for President Taft to give lia. I want them to dress as though they were his written assurance that this would not raise at a ceremonial or War Dance. Of course any question of impropriety, since "competition they will bring their blankets as it may be would be disastrous." Hastings and French were cold-also their bows and arrows and tom­ criticized by many of their colleagues nonethe­ toms. less, and withdrew from the scheme after their "temporary" models were approved. Hastings' He also requested "that you have some Indian design for the Memorial was reproduced on bring on a thigh bone of a Buffalo, or some other most subsequent Wanamaker Company promo­ primitive implement used by the Indians for tionalliterature, and might best be described as digging."22 a Maya temple atop the New York Public Li­ Many of the Indians chosen for the ceremo­ brary-with two bison, instead of lions, flank­ nies had played roles in Dixon's "Last Great ing the entryway. What French might have Indian CounciL" Others were wealthy ranchers 98 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, SPRING 1993 or elected tribal officers. Dixon, however, sen­ rancher, was the only Flathead Indian in the sationalized them all as "warriors who have group: participated in hundreds of battles," the "very Indians" who had slain Custer although in fact Though a conquered race with my right only one of them, the Cheyenne Two Moons, hand extended to the white race in brotherly had actually fought Custer on that day. While love, in my left hand the pipe of peace I they numbered but thirty and came from only herewith bury all past ill feelings for the great seven Indian reservations, Dixon told the press honor you have done the Indians in planning they were "representing nearly every tribe in the the building of this monument.25 nation."23 The Indian entourage first gathered in Wash­ Finally there was a typed document signed by ington, D.C., to visit with Acting Commis­ Plenty Coups, Robert Yellowtail, and other sioner of Indian Affairs F.H. Abbott and Inspec­ Crow Indians, apparently prepared while still in tor James McLaughlin, whom Abbott had de­ Washington, D.C.: tailed to supervise their journey. Abbott ex­ plained that the groundbreaking ceremony would We, ... Proclaim abroad to all the nations of signify "their allegiance to the United States," the world the reassurance of our firm alle­ and mark "the union of the primitive life of this giance to this nation and to the stars and country with the civilization for which the flag strips [sic], that henceforth and forever, we stands." He suggested that they compose their are in all walks of life and endeavor brothers own oath of allegiance to the United States and striving hand in hand. arranged to meet them at their New York hotel on the eve of the festivities. They produced Abbott "consolidated what he thought best in three drafts for Abbott's review. One had been each" of these three documents and retyped it typed on Cosmopolitan Hotel stationery and for Dixon, who hand-lettered it onto vellum was marked "Sioux Indians": while onboard the Navy launch to Staten Is­ land.26 (See Appendix.) In the name of our fellow aborigines, we The day was marked by "dismal skies and renew our allegiance of declaration to the drizzling rain." Hundreds of distinguished guests glorious flag of this great United States. We had been invited to the ceremony, including hereby offer our humble hearts and soul to the cabinet, diplomatic corps, New York society your service. We greatly appreciated the figures, and several anthropologists, but only honor and privilege extended by our white one Indian, Omaha attorney Thomas Sloan. brothers who recognized and esteem the char­ The "Chiefs" were taken to the site by a spe­ acter of the red man to participate in their cially equipped Navy tug, accompanied by a honorable doings. The Indian is fast losing boisterous crowd of reporters, who were fasci­ his identity by the great waves of the Cuca­ nated with the spectacle of Indians in N ew York sian [sic] civilization extending to the four and the "irony of their invitation to the inaugu­ winds of the United States, by the paternal ration of their memorial as a race." Still another arm of the government. irony was the appearance of so many educated and articulate Indians "in the gaudy parapher­ The Sioux contingent included Red Cloud, Jr., nalia of the primitive savage." "You must think Red Hawk, and Edward Swan, chairman of the I look quite aboriginal tricked out in this outfit," Black Hills Council. 24 remarked Reginald Oshkosh, a Menominee A second draft was handwritten on Herald Carlisle graduate, to an astonished journalist. Square Hotel stationery, and marked "Flathead "Many of them were well educated and spoke Indians," although Angus MacDonald, a English as well as white men," observed George AMERICAN HEART OF DARKNESS 99

Kunz, a gemologist at Tiffany's who had agreed when you first crossed the ocean and I thought to serve on Dixon's "Memorial Association." you had merely come as a visitor," he said. "From "Many of those in Indian garb ordinarily wore that time to this day you have improved our civilized clothing when at home and some con­ country.... You have had me uplift the flag of fessed to feeling uncomfortable in the aborigi­ the glorious United States today and I will nal costume put on for the occasion."27 consider myself from now on a member of the Taft was a lame-duck president, with less country." The ceremony ended with the distri­ than a week left in the White House and a busy bution of hundreds of "Indian Head" nickels, social calendar. His staff warned Dixon that he issued for the first time. N either the news ac­ could not spend more than an hour on Staten counts of the ceremony nor Dixon's own papers Island, since he was due that afternoon to share are consistent as to how many Indians actually the podium with Helen Keller at an opening for participated, or which tribes they represented. the new Lighthouse for the Blind. Arriving at The number was between 27 and 33. Newspaper Fort Wadsworth to the roar of a twenty-one gun versions also confused Indians' names and tribal artillery salute, Taft struggled on foot up the affiliations, so that, for example, Red Hawk was steep hillside'to where a temporary flagpole and variously identified as Sioux or Cheyenne. Red grandstand had been erected, stopping often to Hawk had been chosen at the last minute to catch his breath and doff his hat to cheering replace John Grass, who could not come, and crowds. Taking a silver spade from Rodman Hollow Horn Bear, who was ill that day. There Wanamaker, the president spoke briefly. He are two different versions of his remarks. The observed that, although most Indian tribes one in the New York Herald agrees with an showed "very little advance from the lowest unpublished report on the ceremony and has human type," some achieved a "degree of civi­ been used here. Another, more polished ver­ lization" that made them worthy of study. In sion, came from the Brooklyn Daily Eagle. 29 Taft's view, The Indian delegation devoted the next day to sightseeing. "They enjoyed every minute of this monument to the red man, recalling his the day, and so did a considerable part of the noble qualities, of which he had many, and youth of Manhattan and the Bronx, for wher­ perpetuating the memory of the succession ever the warriors wandered through the city from the red to the white race of the owner­ they were followed by a jostling but respectful ship and control of the Western Hemisphere crowd." Traveling by the subway and elevated, . . . tells the story of the march of empire they toured the American Museum of Natural westward and the progress of Christian civi­ History, the Bronx Zoo, the Aquarium, Grand lization. 28 Central Station, the Woolworth Building, and the Statue of Liberty.3o From New York they Taft continued digging with an Indian stone went to Philadelphia to call on Rodman axe discovered on the site, then one of the Wanamaker and his father John, then re­ Indians took over, using the buffalo thigh-bone turned to Washington, D. c., for a last meet­ Dixon had requisitioned. The "Chiefs" then ing with Abbott and Dixon before returning raised an American flag, using halyards hung home. like a maypole, while a military band played At Abbott's office, Dixon emphasized the what the program described as Dr. Irving importance of the signed declaration, which he Morgan's "original Indian music, 'The Indian's called "this treaty of allegiance to the United Requiem,' typifying the 'Vanishing Race.'" Af­ States Government, your own composition, the ter they had all signed or thumb-marked their heart throbs of your own best impulses toward vellum "declaration of allegiance," Red Hawk the Government, your race, and the future." spoke in Lakota. "I was the ruler at that time Abbott added that they should "encourage 100 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, SPRING 1993 among their tribes a new loyalty to the Govern­ have already participated, in one common ment, a new initiative in industry." For the act. Crows, Plenty Coups answered, the declaration of allegiance meant that "It is friendship from "It is a high, imperative call," Dixon added, a now on. " final act of humanity, "before the last of this great race shall succumb to the iconoclasm of Don't wrong [the Indians] in any way or form, civilization. "32 but see and try to do the best you can, and at With characteristic exaggeration, Dixon home we are going to make a start to comply claimed that "No eye has ever yet beheld the with your wishes to be among our people as stars and stripes floating on any single foot of the white people, so that we all eventually land belonging to the Indian." The "Chiefs" at combine into one nation. Fort Wadsworth had nonetheless been deeply moved. "If these grizzled warriors, heroes of the "They are going to raise the monument to the battle plain and the chase, men who have never North American Indians, which we will recog­ owned a flag and knew nothing about the flag, nize as our protection," Mountain Chief felt such a thrill of patriotism because their (Blackfoot) agreed. "We now feel that we are a hands had lifted the Stars and Stripes to the part of this great country." They accepted an winds, then every tribe of Indians and all the invitation to ride in Woodrow Wilson's inaugu­ Red Men must have the opportunity to become ral parade the next day.l! a part of our country," he argued. Dixon pro­ posed that each tribe be given its own flag as "a LAUNCHING THE THIRD EXPEDITION prophecy, let us hope, of their coming citizen­ ship and uttermost blending with the civiliza­ Scarcely had the Indian entourage left the tion that crowns the age." In this way, nation's capitol when Dixon submitted a new Wanamaker himself agreed, the Memorial would proposal to Rodman Wanamaker. Dixon em­ "strengthen in their hearts the feeling of alle­ phasized that the Indians at the groundbreak­ giance and friendship for their country ... to be ing ceremony "expressed themselves with great eternally sealed as a covenant in the Indian earnestness as having had born within them a Memorial [as] a token to all the world of the one new feeling of loyalty to the Flag and a new and indivisible citizenship of these United desire for citizenship under that Flag," for the States."31 first time "affording the white man an open Dixon then secured the official endorsement door to the Indian heart," and thus a unique of new Secretary of the Interior Franklin Lane, opportunity "for the unification of this great explaining that the expedition would not only original race of people, to the principles of the "help to unify the entire Indian population and Government of the United States." link all the Indian tribes with the Memorial," but inspire them with patriotism and "inspire It is proposed that an expedition of citi­ in their minds a sense of new ideals and that zenship, of fealty to the flag be sent to every the white man wants something from them reservation in the United States and there beside their land, namely, their allegiance and an meet in council the most eminent Indians of obedience to the constructive work of the Indian the tribe, at which time the story of the Office." Memorial will be told them and they will be asked to raise the same flag, lifted by their The Indians have never had a flag. This brothers as Fort Wadsworth, using the same permits us to approach the Indian from the ropes and thus join with the 11 tribes who flag side, rather than from the land side, as I propose to present each tribe with a United AMERICAN HEART OF DARKNESS 101

FIG. 2. Joseph K. Dixon (left) and his assistants on the 1913 expedition prepare to depart in their specially-equipped railroad car, Signet. Courtesy of Department of Library Services, American Museum of Natural History.

States flag, to be left floating, the property of since the Indian "in almost all cases has no the tribe in each reservation . . . as an telegraph, no postoffice, no newspaper, no tele­ incentive to translate their patriotism into phone; he knows only his pony and dog, the better homes, better farms, and better great wide stretches of the prairie and wider schools. It seems to me that the sentiment sweep of the sky and the Great White Father in thus aroused in the minds of a race hitherto Washington." Thomas Alva Edison was also in many instances antagonistic to this flag delighted with the plan and donated the equip­ will help to mellow the soil for the reaping of ment and technicians for a recording at the just such a harvest as you have in your White House on 23 May 1913.35 thought.34 Wilson's message was conciliatory but scarcely apologetic: Lane suggested that President Wilson be asked to record a message to all the tribes. Dixon There are some dark pages in the history was ecstatic. The impact would be enormous, of the white man's dealings with the Indian, 102 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, SPRING 1993

Rodman Wanamaker Expedition of Citizenship

• Reservations o 200 400 600 800

FIG. 3. The route followed by the 1913 Expedition of Citizenship circled the entire country in a clockwise direction, covering more than 20,000 miles. Map by Brad A. Bays after the Report to the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, 1909.

and many parts of the record are stained with will usher in that day which Thomas Jef­ the greed and avarice of those who have ferson said he would rejoice to see, "when the thought only of their own profit; but it is Red Men become truly one people with us, also true that the purposes and motives of enjoying all the rights and privileges we do, this great Government and of our nation as and living in peace and plenty." I rejoice to a whole toward the red man have been wise, foresee the day.36 just and beneficent. The Great White Father now calls you his Brief messages from Lane, Abbott, and Rod­ "brothers," not his "children." Because you man Wanamaker were also recorded. Lane ex­ have shown in your education and in your plained that it was his job "to sit up and watch, settled ways of life stanch, manly, worthy to keep the wolves as far away from you as I qualities of sound character, the nation is can," while Abbott appealed to Indians to be about to give you distinguished recognition guided by the ideals of "lofty patriotism and through the erection of a monument in useful citizenship." Rodman urged his listeners honor of the Indian people, in the harbor of to repeat the following words, as they raised the New York. The erection of that monument flag: AMERICAN HEART OF DARKNESS 103

Under the blessing of God, who has made the Red Man and the White Man one and "A NEW EpOCH FOR THE RACE" alike in heart, and under the great dome of blue, where the White Man looks for his Dixon was predicting enormous success even Heaven and the Red Man looks for his before the Signet left its berth in Philadelphia, Happy Hunting Ground, we are assembled and his assessments during and immediately in solemn council this day to attest anew, in after the journey were jubilant and egotistical. common brotherhood, our love for the Great His reports from the field emphasized the great Mystery, for Man, and for our CountryY hardships he was suffering for the cause of justice. From Oregon he wrote: At each reservation, "eminent Indians" in full regalia would be assembled at a temporary This far-sighted and patriotic expedition flagpole. Dixon would explain the ceremony, to the North American Indian is an exposi­ then play the phonograph recordings of Wilson, tion of altruism and an exponent of patrio­ Lane, Abbott, and Wanamaker. The Fort tism. It is unique in the annals of history. Wadsworth flag would be hoisted by the Indi­ Nothing comparable to it has happened in ans to Indian music followed by the "Star the dealings of one race with another. Spangled Banner." McLaughlin would "speak to the Indians as their friend and counselor," [T]his has meant in many instances hard­ stressing the "meaning of [the] flag and how ships that would be difficult to conceive. It [the] Indian may translate his patriotism in is safe to say that no red man would undergo home, farm, and school." After Dixon and the stress of the terrific heat and the delirium McLaughlin presented the tribe with its own of thirst in the desert and the hard mountain flag, there would be a "response by some Indian climbing for five hundred miles over the orator pledging loyalty for his tribe," and all mountains in northern California, to carry a the Indians present would sign the declaration new ideal to the white man. But this the of allegiance.38 expedition was called upon to do to carry the Abbott gave instructions to reservation su­ flag to the red man.40 perintendents to assist Dixon fully. "It is impor­ tant that as many of the Indians within your As he saw it, Dixon had overcome the Indi­ jurisdiction as possible should be encouraged to ans' initial reticence by playing the patient be present," adding that "it is highly desirable father to their child-like innocence. for historical purposes that Indians who may care to do so should appear dressed in their At first the Indian could not understand native regalia." The declaration was particu­ why the white man should come to him and larly important. "So beautiful and patriotic is give him something without asking some­ the sentiment contained in this declaration thing in return. It seemed a message out of that its influence cannot fail to be helpful to all the blue that the white man should come to who may read or hear it." Abbott sent similar him from the flag side rather than the land letters to tribal leaders, to whom he promised side. that Dixon's visit would bring "real construc­ Attending the ceremonies at first with tive benefit to the Indians on your reservation, stolidity and reserve, suspicion and prejudice by increasing their self-respect, inspiring in forced to the front, when once convinced of them higher ideals and broadening their the brotherly love of the white man they views."39 Thus on 7 June 1913, the "Rodman said: "If it is true that the white man is our Wanamaker Expedition of Citizenship" set out brother, and we feel now since you have on its 20,000 mile odyssey around the country. come to us with the flag that it is true, we are 104 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, SPRING 1993

FIG. 4. Flag-raising ceremony at Fort Apache on 19 luly 1913. Dixon, at left, invites leaders of the licarilla Apache to take the halyards of the Fort Wadsworth flag. Courtesy Department of Library Services, American Museum of Natural History.

happy because a brighter day is coming. been available to the Government hitherto," Then the clouds of suspicion melted into the expedition had helped Indians "feel that blue sky. somehow or other they have assumed a larger measure of responsibility, that they have been According to an "acute observer," Dixon was honored and advanced a step toward a new order able to achieve this miracle in six months of things." because "his kindly, sympathetic nature wins the confidence of the Indians. They appear to The influence of the flag has prepared the know instinctively that he is their friend."41 Red Man to unite with the White Man in a In Dixon's estimation, the results were noth­ common purpose, common aims, common ing short of epochal. In addition to collecting a aspirations. He realizes now, for the first great deal of ethnographic data that had "never time, that he is part of the great country AMERICAN HEART OF DARKNESS 105

FIG. 5. Sitting Bear (Arikara) places his thumb-print on the Declaration of Allegiance as Inspector James Mclaughlin (left) and Dixon look on. Fort Berthold, North Dakota, 29 September 1913. Courtesy Department of Library Services, American Museum of Natural History.

which once was his own, but was taken away Albuquerque Indian School, felt that the expe­ from him. He realizes now, for the first time, dition had "resulted in much good by instilling that he must do something for himself. He in the Indians a feeling of patriotism and caus­ realizes now, for the first time, that the white ing them to consider our country and flag as man is sincere in his friendship and spirit of their country and flag." At Otoe Agency the brotherhood, and thus the Expedition has expedition had caused the Indians "to feel more changed the destiny of a whole race of than anything heretofore that they are a compo­ peopleY nent part of our citizenship and as such should aspire to live up to the ideals thereof," and at Dixon was indeed able to assemble an im­ Fort Hall Agency, "the ownership of a flag pressive file of positive statements from Indian wholly their own" had helped the Indian school Office field staff. Reuben Perry, in charge of the focus its classes on citizenship, and attracted 106 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, SPRING 1993 more interest in the school's daily flag cer­ breaking eleven months earlier chose not to emony. Jicarilla Apaches were so "enthusiastic cover it. over the new responsibilities they feel they are to assume," that there was a "jealous dispute as THE ILLUSION AND THE REALITY to who is to take care of the 'Flag' which they consider very precious, and there are numerous Even before the expedition set out, aspirants for the honor." A clerk at Hoopa McLaughlin warned Dixon that he should not Valley Agency was so impressed that he sug­ expect "clear sailing" on the reservations. In gested the flag-raising ceremony be reenacted particular it would be "difficult to overcome the annually on every reservation. The older Indi­ inherent distrust of the average Indian to sign­ ans at Hoopa Valley understood the ceremony ing any paper, fearing that it represents the to mean: "Welcome, my White Brother-Here cession of land or the relinquishment of cer­ is my hand and your Red brother will be your tain other rights." The special Indian agent for brother evermore," while the younger Indians western New York likewise cautioned Dixon just said it was "All right." that he would "probably find many of the As the expedition drew to a close, Dixon and Senecas averse to taking any steps which might his staff met Abbott and George Vaux, Jr., be construed as having a tendency towards chairman of the Board of Indian Commis­ citizenship." The resistance was in fact much sioners, at Fort Wadsworth. Also present was wider and was reportedly strongest among the one Indian-Henry Roe Cloud, a young Pueblos, Hopis, and Navajos, who did not want Winnebago missionary who had recently gradu­ to acknowledge the flag until their land rights ated from Yale. Dixon once more raised the were secured.45 flag he had carried around the country, with Fortunately, a transcript of the expedition's Roe Cloud alone assisting him. As the flag stopover at Isleta Pueblo has survived, offering rose to the sky, Abbott declared the "citizen­ some idea of the reality that lay behind Dix­ ship epoch" in American Indian policy, and on's triumphal self-appraisals. As we join the Dixon intoned, with true Biblical solemnity: action, Dixon has just handed the halyards to the governors of Acoma, Isleta, Laguna, and It is fitting that a full blood Indian Sandia Pueblos. They are about to raise the should aid me in hoisting this flag-the flag flag. that is a symbol of the conquering power of our Anglo-Saxon civilization. It has dem­ PABLO ABEIT A [Governor of Isleta]: I feel onstrated its power over the primitive In­ personally that I cannot sign this allegiance, dian mind, and that civilization has been because I feel that my people have not been crowned in an Indian life, for you, my treated right by the United States Govern­ brother, are a graduate of Yale university. ment's people ... Thus the flag reaches its triumph over the life of the Indian. Let me gather its sacred When such men as you gentlemen come folds about the two of us together. The red and talk friendship to us, it reminds us of the in the stripes shall symbolize the red of tricks that were played on us. your race-that white in the stripes shall I do not mean to say that this is another of symbolize the white in my race.44 the tricks. But until our rights are settled to the satisfaction of the Indians as well as of It was anticlimactic. Again, it rained. But the Indian Office, I dare not sign. When all gone were the triumphant crowds, the military is settled as above said, you can get me to band, and the glory. Most of the papers that walk clear to New York to sign the name of had given extensive coverage to the ground- Pablo Abeita. AMERICAN HEART OF DARKNESS 107

DR. DIXON: ... you have hold of my hand; Pueblos sign, because it would leave a gap. it is an honest hand and it represents an Pablo, your speech was fine. honest heart and honest speech, and what­ ever the other people may have done in the [THEY ALL SIGN.] way of tricks, this is no trick. And I want to tell you that the new spirit in the White DR. DIXON: I want to assure you that you House is going to bring about just what you have conquered yourselves today, and in want: true justice and fair play. conquering yourselves you will help conquer the Government. I pledge to you by every PABLO ABEIT A: Fair play and true justice fold in that flag, and every red stripe, and is all we ask. We have always been under the white stripe, and the white stars in the blue American flag, and have honored and re­ field that the next time that I come to the spected it, and will always honor and respect Isleta pueblo, you will say, "Weare glad you it, and it seems to me that my heart is not in came the first time." signing this .... Abeita remained on friendly terms with Dixon, DR. DIXON: If you sign this allegiance writing him a few days later to wish him "success today, what is the Government going to say? and all kinds of good luck," adding teasingly, "I They are going to say, "Pueblos are loyal to hope Major McLaughlin won't let the 'bad the flag, and we are going to help them." Indians' take your scalp off."46 You be the first man to put your name down This exchange is rich in clues as to why there .... Indian tribes went along with Dixon's romantic You are simply putting your name in the charade. They were deceived, cajoled, and in records of this great memorial in New York the end given no choice. They were promised Harbor. their rights but threatened by the Indian Office officials who still controlled their daily lives. PABLO ABEIT A: When I consider myself Some believed that their participation would and my people,-my people first, and then incline the Indian Office in their favor. Others the flag. simply hoped that, if they humored them, Dixon and his allies would soon be satisfied and go DR. DIXON: That is right; that is right. We away, like so many white idealists and reformers are here today in your interest; we are here before them. today to help you. I want you wonderful men The most negative assessments of Dixon's of the Pueblos to be linked to that great work came from educated Indians who had freed monument in New York Harbor, which will themselves from the power of the Indian Office, tell the story of your Indian life and Indian and resented Dixon's ignorant and presumptu­ character, years and years after you are dead ous advocacy of citizenship and Indian rights. and gone. Now if you will just put down the The Society of American Indians (SAl), founded names of the different pueblos- in 1911, boasted several hundred Indian mem­ bers, most of them professionals. At its first PABLO ABEIT A: What do you advise, Mr. annual conference in 1912, Omaha lawyer Hiram Lonergan? Chase led a lively discussion on the status of Indian treaties under international law. Argu­ SUPT. LONERGAN [Agency Superinten­ ing that treaties guaranteed the right to tribal dent]: Sign. self-government, Chase emphasized that:

MAJOR MCLAUGHLIN: I would be very [T]he Indian's rights do not depend upon his sorry to leave here without having the citizenship, but upon the fact that he is a 108 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, SPRING 1993

man, endowed by God with the same in­ Dixon never coordinated his work with SAl, stincts, the same love of life, the same hopes although its meetings were certainly more rep­ and aspirations as any other man .... We do resentative of Indian politics nationwide than not need to be citizens. his "Last Great Indian Council." Dixon fo­ cussed on the "old warriors" because he could As the discussion continued, Charles Eastman romanticize and patronize them. They were drew applause for saying, "there is no Christian powerless, in turn, to resist his courtship, at least civilization," and accusing American society of as long as he commanded the support of the being materially brilliant but spiritually empty. Indian Office. Dixon's thinking appears in his Only Indians could teach white Americans to efforts to insist that Indians were a "vanishing regain their spiritual footing, Eastman con­ race": tendedY That was just months prior to the Expedition You will see bulletins ever and again in the of Citizenship. The expedition was making its papers, notices that the Indian is increasing. way through the Great Lakes when SAl adopted He is not. The old-time Indian is vanishing, its 1913 political platform, advocating a precise and we are just now in a transition period legal definition of Indian status, access to the between the old and the new. The old-time Court of Claims to resolve land matters, and a warrior and the modern Indian are two abso­ "complete reorganization of the Indian school lutely distinct types. 50 system." There was no mention of Americanism or citizenship, but rather a call for all Indians "to For Dixon, plainly, the members of SAl were not serve not only their own race as the conditions really Indians at all. His self-appointed mission of the day permit, but to serve all mankind."48 was to redeem the "old" type, who might be This inconsistency between the political grateful for his ministrations, rather than the aims of educated Indians and Dixon's worldview "new," who had no wish to surrender to the myth is neatly captured in a scathing letter directed to of white conquest and superiority. Interior Secretary Lane by Arthur C. Parker, then Secretary of SAl, and curator of the New PATHOS: DIXON'S LATER CRUSADES York State Museum. Dixon's photos were posed and lacked any ethnographic value, Parker ob­ The Expedition of Citizenship strengthened served, and his "Last Great Indian Council" Dixon's ambitions, and he continued to exploit had merely been a "theatrical affair." "The very Rodman Wanamaker's name and his employ­ name smacks of jingoism and impresses one ment in the Wanamaker Company to maintain with the expressions of a circus manager." He credibility for another thirteen years. He never wondered, then, whether the government rec­ returned to Indian country, however, and what ognized the declaration of allegiance "as legally he had seen and heard in 1913 gradually made binding and as expressing absolutely the wishes him more of a realist. As Dixon began to publi­ and ideas of the tribes," and whether the govern­ cize the social and health conditions on reserva­ ment believed that, before Dixon arrived, "Indi­ tions and later to advocate unconditional In­ ans had not been loyal to the United States," nor dian suffrage, he not only suffered a bitter seen a flag. The expedition had been marked by falling-out with the Indian Office, including "sensationalism, personal exaltation and even McLaughlin, but growing difficulty in keeping fakery" from the beginning. "Mr. Dixon has Rodman Wanamaker's personal interest. overestimated the value of his labors," Parker Plans for the Indian Memorial rapidly fell concluded, and "his continual reiteration that apart. Dixon went to San Francisco in 1915 to the Indian Office and the Government are display his photography at the Panama Pacific backing his work does not react with credit upon Exposition, and thus "create the sentiment of a these high authorities."49 Nation-wide movement" for the Memorial AMERICAN HEART OF DARKNESS 109 project. Rodman proudly described it as Dixon's must pass through his office. A Christian "expedition to the White Man," and it brought civilization should regenerate. The reserva­ him a gold medal and grand prize from the tion degenerates-it devastates, dethrones, Exposition jury. Lecturing several times daily destroys. Is it a mockery to call it civilization? for months on end to an estimated million Is it slavery? Have we freed one race and visitors, Dixon returned with numerous expres­ enslaved another ?52 sions of public sympathy but no financial com­ mitments. Undeterred, Dixon prepared an am­ Dixon appealed desperately to Rodman's bitious plan to mobilize American youth by vanity. "Has it not fallen to Mr. Rodman establishing an "Order of the North American Wanamaker to reverse these conditions?" "The Indian" for school children. He also proposed sentiment has gained headway in the nation publishing an Indian magazine which "could that Mr. Rodman Wanamaker is to be the become a mighty power in moulding public emancipator of this race of people."53 But Rod­ sentiment [and] would afford an opportunity for man had new priorities, such as his experiments the Indian to take a hand in his own develop­ with flying-boats. ment." He w~s apparently unaware of-or chose Within another year, the Memorial project to ignore-the American Indian Magazine which was overtaken by events in Europe, and as the was already in circulation. Dixon even sug­ United States prepared for war, Dixon struck off gested establishing an "Indian Valhalla" at Fort on another tack. Excitedly, he proposed to Wadsworth, beginning with the burial of Two Rodman Wanamaker the idea of organizing all­ Moons, who died in the summer of 1916. Two Indian cavalry regiments, which he promised Moons' relatives would not agree, so this idea "the press will hail as an idea of startling propor­ was also shelved. Not another penny was ever tions." Dixon explained that, "in gaining the aid raised. The Memorial Association's account of the North American Indian to help free the remained at a mere $143.10.51 world from these unspeakable barbarities, we The national psyche had moved beyond the help to wipe from the escutcheon of the Nation, need to confirm and legitimize white domi­ the tyranny we have imposed upon a whole race nance. Dixon himself was no longer satisfied to of people within the confines of our own land of celebrate the past and ignore the present. He boasted liberty." The nation should issue the began writing to his government colleagues Indian: about the starvation, disease, and poverty he had seen during the Third Expedition, but with A call to COME FORTH-and in coming, little effect. At first he blamed this on public find his manhood, find his self-independence. apathy. "The Indian problem is NOT the ad­ A call to COME FORTH and present himself ministration of Indian Affairs," he confided to a burnt offering on the altar of a nation that Rodman, "BUT the education of the American has shut him away from the joys of sharing in people to a rational interest in the North Ameri­ the triumphs of the country in which he lives, can Indian." Finally, he admitted that the prob­ for-he is a "man without a country." A lem was the Indian Office, with which he had CALL OF WELCOME to leave the ranks of worked so closely since 1908. America's slaves to join the ranks of America's HEROES. 54 The reservation is without mitigation a system of slavery, despair, and vagabondage. Dixon argued that Indians possessed "all the The Indian may not leave the boundary of his qualities of the natural soldier" and suggested prison acreage without a passport. The will of that Indian enlistment would "inspire the the reservation superintendent is law, and he patriotism of the nation."The Indian Office and alone is responsible to the one power above military authorities rejected the idea of segre­ him. All requests, however small or personal, gated Indian units, but one in four Indian men 110 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, SPRING 1993 served in the war anyway, and the effect of involved. "One must feel that the great finan­ public opinion was as Dixon had predicted.55 cial backing of the organization of which you When the war ended, Dixon turned his at­ are the Secretary has momentarily intoxicated tention to citizenship for Indian veterans. Al­ you unto the belief that [you have] such tre­ ways the promoter, he persuaded Rodman to mendous influence," one of his critics wrote. send him on a tour of military hospitals and Dixon meanwhile tried to revive the Memorial, the battlefields of Europe, taking photographs without success. Rodman seemed to have lost of Indian soldiers and the places where they interest in its fate, although he continued to had fought or fallen. He then used this arse­ tell reporters that it had been called "the nal to launch his legislative campaign, indulg­ greatest single idea of the century." Even that ing in the kind of romantic excesses that had was an exaggeration: The New York Herald always been his trademark. "The stories are had called it "the biggest single Idea ... in thrilling" he told Congress, "scores of Indians many a year."58 have won the D.s.C.j hundreds of them have Dixon devised some new schemes, hoping to lost either an eye, a leg, or an arm." Dixon was revive his benefactor's enthusiasm. He pro­ disappointed with results, however. Congress posed building a museum in Philadelphia in directed the Interior Department to review the form of a "Tribute Wigwam" surmounted by individual veterans' eligibility for the franchise, an Indian figure in uniform, rifle and flag in and successful applicants were few. 56 hand. It would contain a library, a gallery of Dixon reconciled himself with the Society Dixon's Indian photographs, a "Hall of Fame" of American Indians and went on the lecture containing war photographs and relics, an audi­ circuit with its new president, Thomas Sloan, torium, and offices of a permanent Rodman with an appeal for unconditional citizenship. It Wanamaker Indian Foundation on Indian rights was the same rhetorical Dixon, but with a new and education. Beneath it would be a "crypt" cause, blaming Indians' misery on the con­ with an eternal flame, as "an emblem of the spiracy of the Indian Office with "predatory Indian's undying patriotism," guarded by wax wealth." He painted a vivid picture of Indian figures of Indian soldiers. The building would war veterans, "the flag fluttering about their serve as a "tribute to the Indian soldier dead," heads, not a thread of which they could call and a "place of welcome" for visiting Indians, their own, for they were not citizens," while especially students, a testament to the Indians' Sloan condemned the "unlimited tyranny" of passage "from the wild poetic beauty of the Indian Agents. Rodman was persuaded to join vanished West to the triumphs of a larger civi­ the fray by announcing, somewhat disingenu­ lization." Without a permanent edifice, Dixon ously, that the Memorial would not be built warned Rodman Wanamaker, "all of your great until Indians had been made citizens. He would Indian work would be made null and void."59 not allow it to be a "tomb stone." Instead, it When this idea failed, Dixon embarked on a should celebrate "the emancipation of that race plan for reproducing a "Maya Temple" on and would also attest the nation's sorrow for its Philadelphia's Fairmount Park Driveway, en­ treatment of a great race of people." Alarmed listing the support of a number of museums as by a bill that would again have left individual well as the mayor of the city. The building's citizenship decisions to the Interior Depart­ interior would be filled with dioramas of Indian ment, Dixon wrote in exasperation to a friend life, famous chiefs, and war veterans, which in the House: "Why not make a clean sweep Dixon promised Rodman would "visualize your of it? and simply make every Indian a citizen?"57 entire Indian work," and stand as an everlasting That is precisely what Congress did before "MONUMENT TO THE FOUNDER." Dixon went so adjourning, and Dixon tried to take all of the far as to review some preliminary designs with a credit for it, antagonizing those Indians and Mexican architect, Francisco Muj ica, but Muj ica Indian-rights groups that had also been directly grew weary of Rodman's indecisiveness and AMERICAN HEART OF DARKNESS 111 tried to sell his elevations to the city. Dixon was Makahs accepted their flag in the same spirit as enraged, and spent his last months trying to stop the Six Nations used to exchange wampum: as "the mad career of this Mexican pilferer."6o He a gift that sealed a covenant between peoples. It died within a year, having built none of his would be kept, they told Dixon, "as a pledge of castles. freedom."63 A century and two centuries ago, tribal leaders took out and displayed their wam­ EPITAPH: THE FLAG LEGACY pum and treaty medals as evidence of their good standing and brotherhood with European pow­ The flag that Dixon had carried to eighty­ ers. Dixon's flag was to be the treaty medal of nine reservations disappeared a few years before the twentieth century, but its original meaning his death. The original vellum Declaration of has now largely been forgotten. Allegiance went into private hands and was Was the Declaration of Allegiance really a resold as recently as 1980. Dixon's negatives treaty? It certainly was a treaty in the minds of and Edison cylinders were stockpiled in a ware­ the Indians who first signed it at Fort Wads­ house after his death, since "Mr. Wanamaker is worth, judging from their discussions with Com­ no longer int-erested in them," and were finally missioner of Indian Affairs Abbott a week later. donated to the American Museum of Natural The Indians who signed it later, during the History in 1938.61 Fort Tompkins, where the expedition, could see the signature of one presi­ National Indian Memorial was to stand, be­ dent on the document and hear the recorded came the west footing of New York's Verra­ voice of another president promising them zano-Narrows Bridge. Scarcely any mention of equality and justice. The New York Herald Wanamaker or Dixon can be found in histories called the declaration a treaty, and applauded of American Indian policy. Indians for meeting the government "more The Expedition of Citizenship nonetheless than half way." It is a longstanding principle of left its mark on Indian country. It probably u.S. law that Indian treaties are to be construed contributed to the level of Indian participation as the Indians themselves understood them, and by in the First World War, and returning soldiers this standard the declaration may indeed be the played an important and distinct role in reser­ nation's last and most controversial broken vation Indian politics for the next thirty years. promise. Indians understood their signatures to It may have mobilized greater support for citi­ mean, in Abbott's words, that their children zenship at a time when Indian activists like would be made "more prosperous, better edu­ Hiram Chase were trying to focus the Indian cated, happier and more useful," and that, as movement on treaty rights and self-determina­ Plenty Coups said, the government would "not tion. There is no doubt, however, about the wrong them in any way or form."64It must have impact of the 1913 expedition on everyday raised many hopes. But the Indian Office took Indian life. Dixon reported that the Pueblos it so lightly that they did not even make an and Makahs had declared annual holidays to effort to retain the original document. In this commemorate his visit, and a thousand Indians and many other matters, Dixon also felt sorely gathered at Neah Bay in 1924 to dance around betrayed. the flag Dixon had brought there in 1913. Dixon's personal hold on Rodman Wana­ American flags and flag songs have become a maker, and Rodman's power, and vulnerability, routine feature of Indian "pow-wows," and the gave Dixon the opportunity to involve the flag is generally displayed at tribal meetings, entire Indian people in a melodramatic charade often accompanied by a flag song or flag sa­ from which Indians gained nothing but empty lute.62 promises-a charade fossilized in rituals of The 1913 expedition had great cultural im­ patriotism. As for Dixon and his associates, it portance because it did, in fact reach its audi­ was a journey into the darkness of their own ence at a personal and symbolic level. The hearts and the racism of their civilization. 112 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, SPRING 1993

ApPENDIX

DECLARATION OF ALLEGIANCE TO THE GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES BY THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN

Fort Wadsworth, New York, February 22, 1913

We, the undersigned representatives of the various Indian tribes of the United States, through our presence and the part we have taken in the inauguration of this memorial to our people, renew our allegiance to the glorious flag of the United States, and offer our hearts to our country's service. We greatly appreciate the honor and privilege extended to us by our white brothers who have recognized us by inviting us to participate in the ceremonies on this historical occasion. The Indian is fast losing his identity in the face of the great waves of Caucasian civilization which are extending to the four winds of this country, and we want fuller knowledge, in order that we may take our places in the civilization which surrounds us. Though a conquered race, with our right hands extended in brotherly love, and our left hands holding the Pipe of Peace, we hereby bury all past ill feeling and proclaim abroad to all the nations of the world our firm allegiance to this nation and to the stars and stripes, and declare that henceforth and forever in all walks of life and in every field of endeavor we shall be as brothers, striving hand in hand, and will return to our people and tell them the story of this memorial, and urge upon them their continued allegiance to our common country.

[Thirty-one signatures of the "Chiefs" including some with thumbprints.]

I hereby attest that this document was inscribed by the Indians herein named, on the hilltop of Fort Wadsworth, the site of the National Indian Memorial, on the Twenty Second of February Nineteen thirteen. President of the United States. Wm H Taft

The text of the Declaration of Allegiance of the North American Indian, which was signed by President Taft and the "Chiefs" who participated in the groundbreaking ceremonies at Fort Wadsworth. We regret that we cannot print a photograph of the original historical document, belonging to the people of the United States, which is now in private hands.

NOTES

The author appreciates the permission to use materials from the Wanamaker Collection at the William Hammond Mathers Museum, Indiana University. He thanks the staff of the Smithsonian Institution (National Anthropological Archives), American Museum of Natural History, John Wanamaker Inc. (Philadelphia), and the Jenkins Company (Austin, Texas) for their assistance and encouragement. AMERICAN HEART OF DARKNESS 113

1. Chinua Achebe, "An Image of Africa: Rac­ May 1909; "Buffalo Bill Lauds Indian Statue Idea," ism in Conrad's Heart of Darkness," Hopes and Im­ Philadelphia North American, 24 May 1909. pediments: Selected Essays (London: Heinemann, 16. J.K. Dixon to R. Wanamaker, 7 July 1912 1988), pp. 1-20. and marked proofs, "National American Indian 2. "R. Wanamaker Dies Suddenly at 65 in Memorial Association," (C. 1913), DPHM. Atlantic City," New York Times, 10 March 1928, 17. Marked proofs (note 16 above) and printed p. 1. program, Indian Memorial groundbreaking, 23 Feb­ 3. Typed transcript, interview with R. ruary 1913, DPHM; Hearings ... H.R. 1671 (note Wanamaker "on his Indian work" on occasion of his 7 above). lecture to the National Press Club on "The Ro­ 18. Printed program (note 17 above); Hearings mance of the Vanishing Race," c. 1925, J. K. Dixon ... H.R. 1671 (note 7 above); J.K. Dixon to Daniel Papers, Accession 62-8, William Hammond Mathers Chester French, 24 July 1912, DPHM. Museum, Indiana University (DPHM); The First 19. Percy Phillips (Promise, South Dakota) to American (Philadelphia: Wanamaker Company, Dixon, 19 February 1912, DPHM; First American 1909), pp. 37-38. (note 3 above), p. 34; Henry Kuss (Improved Order 4. Dixon appended "L.L.D." to his name in of Red Men, New York) to Dixon, 25 September published work (Joseph K. Dixon, The Vanishing 1911, and typed report, "The National American Race: The Last Great Indian Council [Garden City, Indian Memorial," 8 March 1916, signed by Dixon, N.Y.: Doubleday, Page, 1913]), but Rochester only and membership list, New York Committee of One granted a B.D., hence Dixon's references to himself Hundred (c. 1913), DPHM. as "Doctor" were pure inventions. See "Miss Edith 20. C.W. Smith (New York) to R. Wanamaker, Reid Weds Dr. Joseph K. Dixon," New York Times, 9 January 1911 and E.R. Graham (D.H. Burnham & 27 August 1925, p. 19; "Dr. J.K. Dixon: Friend ofthe Co., Chicago) to J.K. Dixon, 7 September 1912, Indian," New York Times, 26 August 1926, p. 19. DPHM; marked proofs (note 16 above); Thomas 5. First American (note 3 above), p. 38. Hastings to Dixon, 18 July 1912, and Hastings to R. 6. Russel Barsh, "Progressive-Era Bureaucrats Wanamaker, 6 December 1912, and Dixon to Presi­ and the Unity of Twentieth-Century Indian Policy," dent William H. Taft, 12 July 1912, and Taft to American Indian Quarterly 15 (1991): 1-17. Dixon, 14 July 1912, DPHM; "For an Indian Monu­ 7. Henry Hale [Day Allen Willey], "Hiawatha ment," New York Times, 21 April 1910, p. 11; Daniel Played by Real Indians," The Critic 47 (July 1905): Chester French to Dixon, 8 August 1914, DPHM; 41-49; Hearings before the Committee on the Library Charles DeKay, "French's Groups of the Conti­ on H.R. 1671, A Bill to Provide a Suitable Memorial nents," Century 71, no. 3 (1906): 419-31. to the Memory of the North American Indian, p. 4. 21. Hastings to Dixon (note 20 above). House of Representatives, 62nd Congress, 1st Ses- 22. Typed guest list and program, "The Inaugu­ sion. ration of the National Memorial to the North 8. Dixon, The Vanishing Race (note 4 above), American Indian" (December 1912) and F. H. p.9. Abbott, commissioner of Indian affairs, to J .K. 9. Ibid., pp. 4, 200-213. Dixon, 13 February 1913, Individual Indian Monies 10. Ibid., pp. 60, 67, 94, 205. authorization form for Superintendent, Tongue River 11. Hearings ... H.R. 1671 (note 7 above), p. 4; Agency, 24 February 1913, National Archives and "A Vanishing Race," New York Times, 25 January Record Service, R.G. 48, CCf 1-320 (NARS); "In­ 1914, section 6, p. 35. dian Memorial Starts This Week," New York Herald, 12. "Indians at DinnertoCody," New York Times, 17 February 1913; Dixon to Abbott, 7 February 13 May 1909, p. 7; First American (note 3 above), 1913, DPHM; typed fragment signed by Robert p. 19-21. Yellowtail and others, 19 February 1913, DPHM. 13. "Huge Indian Statue to Welcome Ships at 23. "President Taft, Aided by Thirty Chieftains, Gate of Nation," Philadelphia North American, 13 Consecrates Hilltop to Memory of Red Man," New May 1909; "The Vanishing Race," Philadelphia North York Herald, 23 February 1913; "Indians See Taft American 14 May 1909; First American (note 3 Handle Spade," New York Times, 23 February 1913, above), p. 38. p. 3; "Last of Great Indian Chiefs to Gather for 14. Beverly Page, "Lo, the Poor Indian: A N a­ Memorial," New York Herald 21 February 1913; tional Memorial to the 'Vanishing Race,'" Los An­ printed program (note 17 above); "Indian Memorial geles Times, 3 October 1910; "A Lasting Tribute to Starts this Week" (note 22 above). the Indian Race," Philadelphia Evening Telegraph, 21 24. Typed notes on Declaration of Allegiance May 1909. (22 February 1913) and typed draft on Cosmopoli­ 15. "Indian Again Will Greet White Man at tan Hotel stationery, marked "Sioux Indians" (22 Nation's Portal," Philadelphia Evening Telegraph, 20 February 1913), DPHM. 114 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, SPRING 1993

25. Handwritten draft on Herald Square Hotel 39. F.H. Abbott, Commissioner of Indian Af­ stationery, marked "Flathead Indians" (22 February fairs, to Edward J. Holden, Superintendent Hoopa 1913), DPHM; "President Taft, Aided by Thirty Valley School, (April 1913), and Abbott to W.e. Chieftains" (note 23 above). Rogers, Principal Chief, Cherokee Nation, 10 April 26. Robert Yellowtail and others (note 22 above), 1913, DPHM. "Indians Vow Fealty on Site of Statue," Brooklyn 40. Typed report, "The Rodman Wanamaker Daily Eagle, 23 February 1913. Expedition of Citizenship to the North American 27. "Indians See Taft" (note 23 above); typed Indian Visits Oregon," (August 1913), DPHM. guest list, Indian Memorial groundbreaking (23 41. Wanamaker Company, Purpose and Achieve­ February 1913), DPHM; "President Taft, Aided by ments (note 33 above) n.p.; "Wanamaker Expedi­ Thirty Chieftains" (note 23 above); typed report of tion Visits Oregon" (note 40 above). the American Scenic and Historic Preservation 42. Wanamaker Company, Purpose and Achieve­ Society, "National Indian Memorial" (March 1913), ments (note 33 above) n.p. DPHM. 43. Reuben Perry, superintendent Albuquerque 28. Itinerary, "Trip of the President to New Indian School, to J. K. Dixon, 12 December 1913, York" (February 1913), DPHM; "Indians See Taft" and Ralph P. Stanion, superintendent Otoe Agency, (note 23 above); American Scenic and Historic to Dixon, 12 December 1913, and Evan W. Estep, Preservation Society (note 27 above); "President superintendent Fort Hall Agency, to Dixon, 20 Taft, Aided by Thirty Chieftains" (note 23 above). October 1913, and E.O. Greene, superintendent 29. Printed program (note 17 above); American Jicarilla Agency, to Dixon, 28 October 1913, and Scenic and Historic Preservation Society (note 27 Charles D. Rakestraw, clerk Hoopa Valley Agency, above); "Indians See Taft" (note 23 above); "Presi­ to Dixon, 7 December 1913, DPHM. dent Taft, Aided by Thirty Chieftains" (note 23 44. Typed report, "Expedition of Citizenship," above); "Indians Vow Fealty" (note 26 above). 13 December 1913, DPHM; see also "Ends Peace 30. "Visiting Chiefs Go on Sightseeing Trip," Trip to the Indians," New York Times, 14 December New York Times, 24 February 1913, p. 16. 1913, Section 3, p. 13. 31. Typed transcript, "Council of Eleven Tribes," 45. James McLaughlin to J.K. Dixon, 26 May 3 March 1913, DPHM; "Forty Indians in Parade," 1913, and Thomas Murphy, special Indian agent in New York Times, 4 March 1913, p. 3. charge Salamanca, New York to Dixon, 10 Novem­ 32. Typed proposal, "The Third Rodman ber 1913, DPHM. Wanamaker Expedition to the North American 46. Typed transcript, Proceedings at Isleta Indian" (March 1913), and typed proposal, "Expe­ Pueblo, 27 June 1913, and Pablo Abeita, governor dition of Citizenship" (March 1913), DPHM. Isleta Pueblo, to Dixon, 2 July 1913. 33. Wanamaker Company, The Rodman Wana­ 47. Society of American Indians, Report of the maker Expedition of Citizenship to the North American Executive Council on the Proceedings of the First An­ Indian (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Railroad Co., nual Conference of the Society of American Indians 1913) p. 6; Wanamaker Company, The Purpose and (Washington, D.e.: Society of American Indians, Achievements of the Rodman Wanamaker Expedition to 1912), pp. 146 (emphasis supplied), 149. the North American Indian (Philadelphia: Wanamaker 48. "The Society of American Indians," The Co., 1913) n.p.; Wanamaker quoted in Dixon, Van­ Indian's Friend 26, no.2 (1913): 41-49. ishing Race (note 4 above), pp. xv-xvi. 49. Arthur C. Parker, secretary of the Society of 34. J.K. Dixon to Franklin K. Lane, Secretary of American Indians, to Franklin K. Lane, secretary of the Interior, 10 March 1913, emphasis supplied, and the Interior, dated 2 January 1913 [sic] but stamped Dixon to Lane, 15 May 1913, DPHM. received 5 January 1914. 35. Dixon to Lane 15 May 1913 (note 34 above); 50. Hearings ... H.R. 1671 (note 7 above), p. 5. Dixon to Lane, 22 May 1913, NARS. 51. Typed report, "The National American In­ 36. The Rodman Wanamaker Expedition of Citi­ dian Memorial," 8 March 1916, signed by J.K. zenship to the North American Indian: Address of the Dixon, and typed transcript, interview with R. President and Other Messages (Philadelphia: Wanamaker "on his Indian work," (C. 1916); J. K. Wanamaker Company, 1913) pp. 3-4. Dixon to R. Wanamaker, 26 June and 29 June 1916, 37. Ibid. p. 6. and J. P. Morgan Co. to Dixon, 9 October 1922, 38. Typed "Proposed Program for Rodman DPHM. Wanamaker Expedition of Citizenship to the North 52. Dixon to Franklin K. Lane, secretary of the American Indian" (April 1913), and typed "Pro­ Interior, 15 January 1914, and "National American gram to Be Followed in the Field" (April 1913), Indian Memorial" (note 51 above); Hearings before NARS. the House Committee on Military Affairs, North Ameri- AMERICAN HEART OF DARKNESS 115 can Indian Cavalry, 65th U.S. Congress, 1st Session, 59. J. K. Dixon to R. Wanamaker, 12 May 1920, 1917, p. 7. DPHM. 53. "National American Indian Memorial" (note 60. J.K. Dixon to R. Wanamaker, 17 April 1925, 51 above). and Dixon to W.P. Wilson, Director, Commercial 54. J.K. Dixon to R. Wanamaker, 25 March Museum of Philadelphia, 13 June 1925, DPHM. 1917, DPHM. 61. Dixon to Peeples, New York City Wanamaker 55. Dixon to Wanamaker (note 54 above); Hear­ Store, 14 September 1925, DPHM; Dorothy Sloan, ings on Indian Cavalry (note 52 above), pp. 13, 17; Jenkins Company, to author, 20 October 1980; Russel Barsh, "American Indians in the Great War," Clark Wissler, Curator of Anthropology, American Ethnohistory 38 (1991): 276-303. Museum of Natural History (AMNH) to George H. 56. Granting Citizenship to Certain Indians, Sen­ Sherwood, director of the museum, 10 December ate Report No. 222, 66th U.S. Congress, 1st Ses­ 1927, accession files, AMNH, New York sion, p. 2; J.K. Dixon to Rep. Clyde Kelly, 7 May 62. Barsh, "American Indians and the Great 1924, DPHM. War" (note 55 above); Wanamaker Company, Pur­ 57. Typed transcript, "The National Creed vs. pose and Achievements (note 33 above) n.p.; "1,000 the Nation Greed," Dixon lecture at Engineer's Indians Dance Around American Flag," newspaper Club, 1 June 1920, and typed transcript, interview clipping, 27 August 1924, DPHM. with R. Wanamaker "on his Indian work," (c. 1922), 63. Wanamaker Company, Address of the Presi­ and typed tra~script, interview with R. Wanamaker dent (note 36 above) pp. 10-11. by Alice Lawton, Christian Science Monitor, 3 March 64. "Indian Chiefs Pay Honor to the Flag Again," 1921, and Dixon to Thomas Hastings, 19 October New York Herald, 23 February 1913; Felix S. Cohen, 1922, DPHM; Dixon to Kelly (note 56 above). Felix S. Cohen's Handbook of Federal Indian Law, 58. Joseph C. Latimer to J.K. Dixon, 4 August 1982 Edition (Charlottesville, Virginia: Mitchie 1925, and typed draft "Statement" on the Indian Bobbs-Merrill, 1982) pp. 220-225; Wanamaker Com­ Memorial, (c. 1924), DPHM; "Indian work" tran­ pany, Purpose and Achievements (note 33 above) script (note 57 above); First American (note 3 above). n.p.; "Council of Eleven Tribes" (note 31 above).