JEWISH RENAISSANCE IN 18m AND 19TH CENTURY AND ITS IMPACT ON THE MUSLIM WORLD: A RESEARCH ANALYSIS

THESIS FOR THE AWARD OF Ph.D DEGREE

Researcher: Supervisor: Tayyaba Khatoon Prof. Dr. Abdul Rashid (Silara-i-lmtiaz)

Department of Qur'an Suooah, University of Karachi

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CERTIFICATE

Certified that Ms. Tsyysbr Khatoon has €anied out

research on the topic

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Ph.D degree in Qur'an and SuMah, University ofKarachi.

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THE RISE AND FALL OF JEWS

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AND ITS IMPACT ON IIIE MUSLIM WORLD t76 l'-v! -r JEWISH MOVEMENTS IN NINTEENTH CENTURY

AND ITS IMPACT ON TIIE MUSLIM WORLD

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- rL g :'!tt t L &t * d.', P ",' 4 - t- I dit;* 6i&rQz-r,r'rt+r er,6,l,Jr4i/t.,: ,:9vtz/t CHAPTER ONE

Onrcrx or Juoarsivr

(i) Resesrch ofthc word Jew:

A. Ac.oding to Milb€h td lughlt & Al Mr.njid irlr 345b (1t-?,ii)\t3t./.!tr)

B. Acc.rding to Urdu Dictionrry

121- 7'f,1, u rL.A tt' itr o7 C. Accoding ro Quruic Diclionrry JP i,.t u rL o'u (ut"t, I oi/t :.v!'4 Et (3F+,' D. AocordiDg to tlrc BncyclQdir oftbc rcligion.

"Jcw, H.brcq Yehudi or Ychudhi, any Frsolr whcr. Eligion i! Judrise"(4)

E. Aooording to blamic Encyclop€diar yuhw.h '.ntt4" ,!- tfL trad ',,1Jvr (i3 if\.( )z z-r,; (sl - u t, +, f E)zi, t*l,6

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"Judaism, the rcligious bcliefs and pncric€s and the way oflifc ofthe j€ws, the term ir s.lfwas firsr used by hcll€nizcd j€ws to d€scribe their religious prsctice bur ir is the pr€dominandy modcm usage, it is not us€d in bible orh rabbinic lilentu{e snd only rar€ly in th€ li&r6!u! ofrhc mcdival pcriod"(?)

(ii) Who Are The Jews?

Thc word Jd came into dist ncc in thc 56 c.ntury BC ro rcf.. !o thc inhabitanB of th€ province ofJudc5 (now part ofl$!el), It dcrivca liom the Heb'Ilw word, Yehudi, and the Crc€k, ioudaios, for Jud€ans. Io time it was dso applied ro pcople who originatcd in Jud.5 but movcd .lsdhcr!. The Judesns wcrc d.scrndcd from the Israclit€s, an ancient p€opl€ whosc origins are stuouded in mys!ery.(8)

Jews, a peoplc who hav. msi aiDcd a disrinci cutlurat idrntiry originslly basd on the idca ofa cov€nant, or sp€cial relarionsbip, wirh God. Th€ Jewish p€ople arr among ihe oldest of the many p€opl€s known lo hislory, Their origins dste back at lerst 3,000 yc{s, and pcrtraps €ven funhcr. Duing ihis lcngthy period J.ws havc snled in all pais ofthe world and have had an impact on Et.a y civiliz:tions. Th€ J€wish r€ligion, Judabm, ha! exerted influcncc fsr bcyond its own adher€nts. Christianiry grew out of Judaism, and lslam acc€pted nany ofthc tnditions and pr.ctices ofJudai$n. Knowldgc ofthc history ofthe Jews and their cultur€ c.ntributes ro a fullcr understanding ofrhc hislory ofthe Wclt€m world and ils spiritud life.

(iii) Jews.

H.bw Ychudhi, or Ychudi, rny pqson whos rclision is Ju&ism

(4.rr, In the broader s€ns€ of lhc tenn a Jcw is any p€rson b€longing to the wo.ldwidc gloup that comtitutcs, thmugh d€s.rnt or c.rv.Bion, a continuation of thc ancicnr Jcwish p€ople, who wer€ rbems€lv€s dclcm&n|J of lhc Hcbrcws of thc Old T€stamcht. ln anci€dt tines, a Y.hudhi was originslly a mdb.. ofJud.h ,..4 €ithcr ofthc uibc ofJudah (ooe ofrh€ 12 tlibcs that took poss€ssion of $e Prcmis€d knd) or of th€ subs€qu€nt Kingdom ofJudah (inconF,3l.o the rival Kingdom of Isncl ro th€ nonh).

The Jewish p€oplc as a wholc, initially crll€d H€br€ws (lvrim), werc known as lsraelites (Yisre'€lin) fioft thc timc of their enttnce inb lhc Holy Land to thc cnd oflhc Bobylonian Exile (538 AC} Thcrcultcr rhc rerm Yqhudhi

(Latin: Judaeus, French: Juif, Cerm6nr Judc. 6nd Englbhl Jcw) was us€d to signiry all adhcrcn s ofJudaism, becsuse th€ survivors ofthe Exile (forln.r inhabitants of lhc Kingdom of Judah) w€re rhe only Isnelilas who had r€rain€d thcir distincrivc identity. (The l0 trib€s of the nonhem kinSdom of lsr.€l had b€en disp€rsed afre. $€ Assyrbn conqucst of?2l-Bc and wcrc gEdually ass;milated by other peoples). The rem Jew ;s rhus derived through the Larin Juda€us ed thc cft€k loudaios from rhe Hebrew Yehudhi. The latter term is ar adjectiv€ occuning only in the tater pdts of the old Tesramenr od signifyins a desccndant of Yehudhah (Judrh), the fourth son of Ja@b, whose bibe, log€ther with that of his hatf brorher Benjamin, constitured the Kingdom ofJudah.

In the modem world a definirion of Jew lhal would he srisfactory to all ;s virtually impossible ro construct for it involves erbnic and religious issues thal arc both complex aDd co roversial. In daily life for €xmple those who consider themselves Jews are genemlly accepted s such by Jews and non-Jem alike even fiough such p€rsons may not obseNe relisious pmcti@s- Wbile all Jews aA.ee tha! a child boh of a Jewish mothe. is Jewish. Reform Judaism goes beyond Orthodoxy and Conservarive Judaism

in affiminA that a child is Jewish ilcirhd one of the pamts is a Jew.

Fron a purely religious standpoint Gentile convens to Judaisrn

rc &epted ar Jewish itr thc fullesl sens€ of the lvord: bur in Isnel lhe mbbinate has onen plac€d obsracles in tbe reSistration of Jews who werc not conv€ncd under the supervision of Orthodox rabbis. For this reason lhe chief mbbinare of lsrael has been confronted in recent years with perplexing prcblems regarding th€ religious status of cetuin immigrants. The Suprcme Coulr ol lsracl howcvcr has bcen Naknrg incursions inlo rabbinic interpretaiions ofpersonal starus. Citizens ofrhe

State otlsrael a.€ called Israelb a lern canying no erhnological or relisious connotations.(9)

t; " 11",.i. (iv) Patertrsl rDd Mrtcrul History

Thc story bcgins as God tums io a EDn crll.d Abllm (who lai.r taka, lhe nanc Ah"lErn) .nd &lls hin ro l.av! his home in M€soporarnia qnd tnvel !o Cana.n, where a uniquc de$iny awails him and his childEn. Thc Abr.ham storics sct th€ ton€, a5 Abrah.n lnd Ns wifc. SaI.r'" sr! &scriH as p€ople at odds wirh rhe moral values of rhe polythcisric societi€s thar suround thdn. whilc not withour naws, Abllhlm and Salah ar. s€.n as f!. noE viroous than all othcF, pr.cis.ly bccause thcy show r.vd€nc€ for God. This viftu€ lcsds to a covcn nt of allcgianc€ b€twc.n cod snd Abrahan in which cod promis.s ro dir€ct rh. uniquc deniny of AbEham's muy dc$.odlnB and to Aivc thos dcac€nd$B rhc tand ofclDalrl as their sp€cial inhciiancc. Circuncision was the ourwsd symbol of rhis covcnan! and naoy Jews undersbnd it as such lo this dsy.

The lhcme that rbe God-revering children of Ahlham and Sarah src !o be ditr€nnt from dl oth€r p€oplc continues lhrough th€ storics of then s€hct otrspringi rhcir son Isaac ard his wiG, Rcbccci, and [lc pr€fcEEd grandlon, Jacob, and Jacobs wiv.s Rachel and lrah. Thse figures sll cncounter dongcrs outsidc lhcir Cod-rcvering frmily. Thcsc slories c€me lo b€ secn as des.ribing the origiru of rhc Jcwish pcople, and Inany Jews ref€r lo rhes€ figuIrs as lhe pariarchs end mltriorchs of the Jewish piople.(10) (l) Judaism

In Old Testanent God appured to Abnham and acrepred his inviEtion lo a dinner. Wc also find Jacob son of l$ac having a wresrling

match wilh Cod that conrinu€d.ilt morning. Borh coutd nor over pow€r each

other. God asked Jacob ro ler hirn go since ir was daybr€ak bur he refused to

do so dll tle god blessed him. At this poinr cod named him as krael m€ans

thc one who wrestles with Ood. He was rouched at rhe socket of rhe hip by God ad he was limping. Till to date rhe tsraelites do not €a. ihe tendon atlached lo the hip.

The next time cod spoke to mankind was in the time of Mo*s when he spoke ro him fiom the buming bush. The Cod of Isnel is a jealous Cod.

He does not toler.te a.yone who worships eorher cod. The said god is atso the God of IF€l only becausc he ke€ps refening to himself 6 god of lheir forefathem and not the god of orher mces. lsmelires are his ichosen people. He a@epts ale the exist nce ofother gods when he says I m Aod of gods. lf anyone dong IsFelis follows another god, h€ shall be pur ro death and the enfire dwelling will b€ burnr where rhese peopl€ lived dd never !o be r€built again. He also punishes lhe children for rh€ sic of rheir tbrefatheN to the third and fourth generadons. He is a cod who has .estricled hh blessing and bountes ro a particular nation only. He cares nor for anyone oulside the Jewish peopt€ and it is evidenr on more rhan one occasion when lpon his orders enrire ciries &d countries were wiped our. His scope is limited. He is also rhe cod of lhose who ee physicslty fit and arc without any birth def€c!. No ha.dicap p€non is .ltowed ned his aher. A p€rson hav'ng a binh defecr (illesilimare) is forbiddcn to app€ar in his pGence down lo lenrh 8€nerarions.

A- Descriptiotr of Jews in the Glorious Quran

Thrcu8h reseeh done on the word .Jw', it has b€en established thatin the holy Quran, Jews as a nation were nev€r addrcss€d byany sp€cific rirle. Instead in the Quran and other books of god lhey have been caued out as the descendants oflsrael.

This cleady means that ncithcr ofthe apostlcs or prophets sent by It also shows that Judaism was not launchd in thos€ Q'lm on san various plascesjews hav€ be€n called as:

orj +l.l r=lj' jl L€,;, L. !,.r ' r3i' i:ij 'jjri J,j-jlr ,J-; oic?ear ;)lJIJ[J+, (lr)

"O ye that srand on Judaism! If y€ think ftat ye ar€ fri€nds to . Allah, to rhe exclusion of (other) men, ihen expres you. desire for Dealh, ifye aretruthfult.

But in Quran Allah several times addresses them as:

Keeping in vi€w rhe backgcund ofthe descendanls ofrs.ael, ir comes to b€ known that before prophet Moses (peace be upon him), the nation of Isaac was addressed a! the descendsnts oflsmel. As in sumh-e- Al Inran arc

i;- n7 ,)'8,,J:;f

u I .r: i'iJJt< r/t! i'; J .J jr 4-e irs }t,rl ;J i.l F ' tlJ o 6;9 (12) All food was lawtul to th€ Children oflsrael, excepr whar tsrel Made ulawtul fo. itselt b€fore the Law (of Moss) was revealed. Say: "Bring ye rhe Law od study it, ifye b€ men of

B- The Description ofJews itr the Bible.

Through th€ study ofthe Old Testament in the bible, it comes lo

light that Jews had faith in innunerable gods among whom the one named Yahweh had lhe highest starure. He was chanct€rized by nonoth€ism md had th€ power to give fenility, succes, and other kinds of h€lp. He was ev€n capable ofprolongins life and producing offspring abundantly.

Israeiis would leave their first-born childien up to the name of Yahweh. (13)

Hence Yahwch's name was given a lor of rcver€nc€ by rhe Jews. Ir is mentioned in rhe Bible $at:

And i. came to pass after sev€n days, I .treamed a dream by Nighr, And, lo, the.e aros€ a wind ft.orn th€ s.a, that it moved all lhe wavs th€reof. ..t And God spoke aU hes€ words, sayins, Brough!, 2 u the LORD your God, who brought you ou. ofrhe land of Eg}?t, oui of th€ housc of bondase.(14) (i) Teacbitrg ofTorah

According to the torah's teachings, the prophets that cme to

the descendants of Israel, panicularly Abraiam, kaac or Jacob, were unacquainted with any god by the name ol Yahweh. In

fact at that lime, god was worshippei by the name of Elshaddai. (15)

Il was in thc time ofMoses p€acc be upon him, rhal god had

b€gun ro call himself by the name of Yahweh.( I 6)

In the lines above, we gave a brief hislorical introduclion of JudaiM with rcfcrence to lhe Holy ScriptuE and explica.ed it.

C- The OrigiD oftbe Jews.

Prophet Abralam p€ace be upon him w6 that apostle who had b€en chos€n by AIIah lhe almighty to spread his nessag€ universally. And from lhc oflsp.ilg of thc two apostlcs, lshmact lnd lsuc, scveral othc. messengers were se to rhe eanh. Among them, the reference to Jacob (also nmed lslel) is significot 4 being the ropic of our rhesis; Judahm ws bom after tbe downfall of dE descendants oflsrael.

(ii) Relatiotr ofJews to Judah Bin Yaqui.

According to Msududi, following the downfalland decline of the descendads of Ismel, firs! Judaisr4 then Ckistiuity cme in to exis.ence.( l7)

The early history of Judaism tells us that i1s cxistence attribuled to a family that wss rhe breed ofJudah, the son Jacob and thereby, in relation to rlis name, the p€ople were

called Jews.( I 8)

,Judaism While srudying Maududi's book, and Chistianiry', rhe fact that Judah and Benjanin w€re th€ sons of Jlcob and thar their rdbes migrat€d and inhabired rhe $me place, is also reveat€d. Due to ihe .Jew' donination ofthe tribe ofJudah the word was appti€d !o s ofthem. Hence fte beginDins of Jews or Jcwish hislory occurred well after rhe children oflsrael.

'nris finding is also ascarrajned in rhe hoty eula4 which addresse! lhe

childrcn of Israel as.Bani Israel'.

i;}r jlj ,q jrj.ir i I 'jg J,,t;tA.tti j,iEJ o..;a&,Y oe) And wc said ftereafier ro the Child.cn of r aet, ,,Dwell jn securely the l.nd (ofprcrnisc).': bul when the scond ofrhc warnngs cane to pass, We gather€d you together in a mingled

The Jews, on the orhe. hand, arc addrcss€d s?

(iii) O,Jews

Tlmugh the srudy ofrhe history it comes ro our knowtedge thBl the leadcrslip of thc descendanls of tsrael had.emained in the hands ofpropher Moses end prophet Arron folowcd by the propher yulha bin noon. The

l. zo 'i prophet Taloot, prophel David and prophet Solomon came in to power

(iv) Ileading

After the passing away of propher Solomon, god kept snding down bis wlath upon the descendants of Israel ftom time ro lime du€ to lheir constant pattem of disobedience and noncompliance, and rhey were repealedly ruined and d€stroyed et lhe hands of orher nations. Aflerwards, thoir unity had comc to 0n cnd ind thcy wcrc d;vidcd in to two groups.

One group calne in ro being by the name ofJudah whilc the olhq w.s known ss nonhem ruling lsEel.

The capital of Judah was Jerusalem while the capital of Israet was Samaria. lshakaim]

Sltl@ia had al.€ady been dest oyed ed Judah was overcone by Balnt-c- Na$ (20)

Allah\ wrath on Jews, aprovcn by theeumn.

In chapter the cow v6se 4l Aliah the alnighry says

(21) And r€member ye said: "O Mosesl we camot cndure one kind of food (.lways); so bes€€ch thy Lord for us !o produce for us of what the .anh grcweth, -its pot-h€rbs, dd cucumbe$, Irr aarlic, lenils, and onions." He said: "wilt ye exchange rbe better for the worse? co ye down to sy rown, and ye shal find what ye waDr!" They were covered with humiliation and misery; thcy drew on thems€lves rlE wrath of Altah. This b€caus€ ftey went on rejec.ing rhe Sisns of A[ah and slaying His Messengers withourjusr cause. This becaus€ they rebelted and went on rransSressing.

There is a predicrion in torah rhat god would disgrace and dishonor rhe Jews in ex€hange of their disobedierce. In rhe book ofEakiel it is

Jeru$l€m; I have s€t h€r in the center of rhe natioN, with coudries round about her. 6And she has wickedty rebelled again$ my ordinances more than the narions ud againsi my statutes mo.€ than th€ counties round about

her, by rcjecting my ordinsnces and not walking ,D my statutes. Ther€fore thus says th€ Lord cODr Because you ee more lurbulent thd th€ narions rha. are round abour you, and have not walked in lny srarutes or kept my ordineces, bu1 have acted a@ording to rhe ordinsces oi. tle natioos lhat ale mud sbour you; 8rhereibr€ rhus s/s lhe Lord GOD: Behold, I, even I, am aga;nst you; ud I will execute judgm€nrs in the midsr ofyou in the sight of tha ll.tioDs. gADd b.r.wr of rll yor.n ab@iD.!io! I witl do with you vhd I h.vc !!v6 j4.t d4, .rd tt6 [f. of gth:h I lxil Ertf rlo q.i!" l0Jb..o&.! ffilrs $dl ..r thlh rotrs in th! Dnls|t of yq|, od.o! sbdl cd rhdr tr q ed I will .x.or!. jrdgE ot! vto lEvivo I wil *dc to rll lb viDds.(22) HOLY QUR'Alt AND JEWS

In the lines menlioned earli€r, we described Jewhh hislory, rescarch and their @mpaison with different relisios Som which we infer lhat Jewish €volution did not pr€vail in the pqiod ofprophet Jeob, but until

thal time this na on would be known as lhe descendanB oflsra€t.

As il is written in tomh

And Jacob came ro Luz (thar is, Be6el), which is in the tdd of Cdd, he and all the people who wer€ witr him.(23)

Bul the peopl€ from the lineages of prophet Jacob's etder son Judah and his younser son Benjmin populated th€ surounding areas of palestne

and due to rhe supremacy ofjudah's lrib€ tle word J€w was applied ro them all. Acco.ding |o some $holm Judaism is the blend Chrisrieity_ As it is mentioned in Bible that:

l0 And Cod said-ro him, "Your nene is Jacob; no lonaer shall yo6 name b€ called Jacob, but Ismel shall be your n.me.'. So his was called Islael.(24) ']m€ ln ord€. to r€veal the relationship b€rween Islam and Judaism, we wi give a description of a brief hisrory of Judaisn in rhe tight of the euran. Here w€ will cover compacrly but concisely those chapters of eu.u, which include the rcferenccs of.Iews d|d lhe children oflsnel. The mentioning of the descendants of lsrael in chapter 'the cow'

ai"i:;iit i,j3\ Ja,;t et 6 J:4;" ,) Git € )1, (25) O Childrcn of Israel! call lo mind the (speciat) flvour which I

bestowed upon you, and tulfill your covenanr with Me es I tulfill My Covenanr wirh you, and fear nonc bur M€. .O Frcm vers 40 in the chapter rhe cow, Allah says: Children of Ismel! Call !o mind the (sp€cid) favou which I b€stowed upo, you, .nd fulfill you. cov€nant wilh Me as I tul{ill My Covener wirh you, ad fe$ none bur Me in rhis verse Altah the exalted reminds rhe children of tsrael

His blessings and favours; how he sstvasei rhem from pharaoh so rhar rhcy fulfiU their promis and wam rhei. nation agains! rhe mesege of proph€! Muhumad peace be upon hin.

This chaptd unveils a chract€ristic oflhe children of Israel tlat they would break th€irpromises md for the sake ofth€ir oM benefit would even bact ouL olrheirCo\enanr with sod. h de sme wa) in rersel

i!:i,:,i c,t is;it :i;, A b&irf t #,?r e;, r O rJ',Jr(JE (26) Childrcn of Israell call to mind the (spccial) favour which I bestowed upon you, and that I prefeFed you ro all o&er (for My Messase).

God said Childr€n oflsGel! Call ro Dind lhe (special) f.vour which r bestowed upon you, and that I p.efer€d you to allorher (for My Message).

In tlis chapter tiu $e end of lhe pan, ten blessings have been mentioned which Allah the almishry bestowed upon rhe children oflsrael. i *ly':';J'',; 6ia t?:t J\ :t i3t ii "t, a ;,+ i43 i','r,

t i;;1;.<.:i; ;;s;,Kt riqe'4;J- jri'ttt 'S;ar '4 iS'F 3i il:l'1i lAn ii.,t Stirtri ,r y t F3'::.t o e.:'.t,P, V $ 131; ;6' $t ru ii,Gr' t .jii #!;u i;; ^! c,. j- s r.y a $t'jo t'#;3n &-f li:;s\*:ja uy t;9t;s yi i sJtsti Li_j,.r,|.-.j, ,31u !,j t, ";:',;*u o ji]ri.i.Liiii|' ,J.L,ui,tl -2 /e.ii, td,i lit r tn, *t t;,4i,ll; L;gir,i;i i_! i, o :;'jJ ;Fr jL]l4; ;rt i lL, i i ; ri-;)

26:: );:t ri'i; )l rJii rpai,.As:,i, ',, t. l, : :1),,.,at :',) ," , , N\ J): V\Lrtttls rerF-r!'f * J.tt:t,J_!t o i.*-ij.,],j't'; iF r, (2' And remember, W€ deliv€r€d you from the people of pharaoh:

Th€y sct you hafd tasks dd punishments, slaughler€d you sons ad let your women-folk live; th@in w6 a rremendous rial

And rernember We divided th€ sea for you and saved you and drowned Pharaoh's people wilhin y;r very sishl,

And r€member We appoirted fony nights nor Moses, and in his ab$dce ye t@k the @lf (fo. wo6hip), dd ye did gieyous

Even then We did forgiv€ you; there wa a chance for you to be gatetul. And r€menbq We gave Moses rbe Scriprure &d lhe Criterion (Betw€en rieht and 'Ihere was a charce for "mng): you to be guided di8ht.

And remember Moses said to his people: "O my peoplet ye have indecd wronged yourselves by yoB worship of th€ calt

So tum (in r€penlance) !o youI Maker, ard slay yourselves (rhe w.ong-doers); fta1 will be beuer for you in ihe sight of you. Make!." Then He tumed towards you (in forsiv€ness)r For He

t' zl 1. rs O1t-Relurning, Most Mcrciful. And rcmember yc said: "O Moses! we shatt never bctiae in thee unlil w€ see Allah manifesrty," bul ye were dazed wilh thuder and lightning even as ye look€d on. Th€n We nis€d yor! up afl€r your dearh: Ye hld ihe chanc€ ro be gErefr,t. And We gave you the shade of clouds and senr down to you

Mdna and quails, saying: ',Est of the Sood things We have provided fof you:r' (But they r€b€[ed); ro us rh€y did no harm, but they harmed their o*n souls. And rem€mber We said: "Ente. this tom, and eat of lhe ptsty thcrein as yc wisht but enter the gate with humility, in posture and in words, and We shall forsive you your fautts and increjs€ (the portion of $ose who do 8ood." But the tmnsSr€ssors changed the word ftom that which had been gjv€n rhen; so We senr on the lEnsgrEssofs a ptaaue fron heoven, for rhar tbey infriryed (our comand) repearedly.

And rem€mber Moscs prayed for water for his peoptc; We said: "Strike fte rcck with $y staff'Then gushed fonh $ere trom

twelve springs. Each group l(n€w its own place for water. So eal and drink of the sustenance provided by Altah, ud do do evit nor nischiefon the (face of6e) earth.

On the one hand in the eurrn, Altah ref€rs to th€ favo6 of the childreo oflsra€I, and on the orher hand fteir growing disob€di€nce has also

28< (28)

And rememb€r ye said: 'O Moses! we c€luot endure one kind offood (always); so b€s€€ch thy Lord for us !o produce for us of whsr the €arth growerh, -its pot-herbs, ad cucumbers, lts sdlic, lcnlih, and onions.,' He sid: 'WiI ye exchan8e the better for tbe worse? co ye down ro any rown, dd ye shall find what yc aa.!. They w@ @v@d with humiliation ud misery; they drew on th€ms.lves the lerh of Allah. This D€caus€ rhey went on rcjecriDg rhe Signs of Athn ud slayin8 Hrs Messenge.s wirhoLrt jusr cause. This bccaNe rh€y rcbelled and went on transgressing.

The mentiodng of Alah's wrath on the childretr of Israel due to their disobedietrce

In the chaprer rhe cow ve$e number 4l Allah said finalty rhe defeat of Pharaoh by Moses p€ace be upon him &d rhe drowning of rhe descendants of Israel in the river Nile as wel as rhen worshippins tle calf and th€

:.:. 29 ; comingofgod's $mrh down upon them proves tbat falsehood, disobedience and each kind ofsocial evils would be found in thenl.

Discussing this debate fudhcr lhe incident of Sabbath ;s ne€essary. :: ).,,.,4. ,,. tr4! j-iJ j r' fd ;rJr J dlr 'Jir' JjJ';:;-r.rt O J;-tr n; (2e) And well ye knew thos€ anongst you who kansgressed in the ,,8. matier ofthe S.bbarh: We said to them: ye apes, dBpised

In ve$e number 65, tt is ssid ihatr And well ye knew thos€ mongsl you who transgBsed in rh€ matter ofthe Sabb.th: We said to rhem:

"Be ye apes, despised and rejected.',

And in verse 66, it;s said: &'ttt,{E 6t\eE j:J, : iiu( L,L+Li,_i o.#ill GL, So We made it an example lo rheir own rime ud to rheir poslcrity, and a lesson to hose who fee Allal.

By Allah's conmandmot, propher Moses forbade the d€scenders of Israel ftom carchirg fish on Saturdays but yet rhey corldn't rcfrain ftom their revolt and would hunl fish on ihe evening of Sarurday by taying the hooks on Friday. Bur, however ajl the dsendanls of Israel were not included in !hem. The Jews were the rebellious group. Henc€ god gave them the punishment ofrheir rcbell;on and tum€d rhem in ro ap€Vnonkeys.(3 l) (iii) Belief ofJews about prradise

This thought has been confirmed in rhe chapter of the cow ve6e numberlllasfollows:

,-ti'at'ti t3, rti l.i1i4,S-+tj;; Q'i. j6 o :;+o i3 atif:6'jt J! ii.I:ti (32)

"None shallcnrcr Pamdise unlcss he bea Jcw ora Christian.,'

Tr'ose are their (vain) desires. Say:

"Producc your proof if yc arc rrurhfol.,'

This verse lhows thar rhe Jews had a vain belieflhat no one would entcr paradise exccpt for themselves while god,s wrath was sent down upon

them rcp€aledly and yet they continu€d ro rcgard thems€tve.s as the origiral

Bri€flr the incid€dts ofJews in the chapter the oow, god's wtath upon the phMoh of E$/pt, rhe incident of tbc worship of catf, Jews' emergence

as r rcbcllioos nation and rhcn Allrh's punishmenr upon rhem havc been discussed. And the rel€vant Qu.nic venes have been quor€d.

W€ will now give a d€scription of Jews as discussed in $c other chapbrs ofthe Qunn.

;31 =': (iv)The description of Jew$ in the chapter .The family oflmrao'

Racial approach among the Jews

Jws' concepl of mcial sup€riority has b€en discussed in the chapler the ramilyoflftran veBes 65 66 and 67.

i r- j 1.-t Jy'' +t: !+,,j! j.;*' el

Ye Pmple of rhe Book! Why dispule ye abou! Ab..han, when the Law and rhe cospel Were nor revealed Till after him? Hav€ ye no understanding? A_h! ye ar€ $ose who fell ro disputing (Even) in mattels of wh;ch ye had some knowtedget bur why dispule ye in matteB of which ye hav€ no knowledge? tt is Allah Who knows, and ye who know notl

Children ofJews have beetr decla!.ed.

In veNe number 67, rhe proclarnation regdding the prophel Abraham beiry Jew or Chrisrisn hs been Ejccled which wE totd by rhe prophet Muhammad peace be upon him and it was prcved by reason that rhe age of Abrahan was far earlier fian the binh of Jews and he would follow the :,tzi. religion ofHanif (hlamic Monotheism). Thus, disroiion of fao6 according to the Holy Scripture, was a Fait ofthe Jem. n,'rJ;.j'tiij- t\t liit'A)re,'r,i,,ei+t;t iG t, o'f ;5 j3€ (34)

Abmham was nol a Jew nor yet a Christian; bur he was true in

Faith, and bowed his wil ro Allah,s (Whioh is Islam), and he joined not gods with Altah.

Jews distorted torah torah as described by Qurao

From v€rs. numbe. 69 onwards in rhe chaprer fte famity of Imran, Jews' inten ions dd theh po'rh€istic notion has been discussed and how they would stive to mislead Muslim elders and comparions ofrhe prophet Mlnanmad peace bc upon him by rcmpdna them towards Judaism.

;l-zt tr .1i.ur,g3 44rr tr4Jr.gi J irii o31 o i::,rL"6i (3J) 'n party of the people of the Scripture (J€ws and Chrisiians) wish to lead you astmy. Bur they shalt not lead astray anyone excepa $emselves, and they p€rceive not."

Where as in veBc number 70 it is said rhall

"O people of lhe Soripruret (Jews dd Chdstiant: why do you disbelieve in the AyAt of Altah, lthe V€|s€s abour prophet Muhammad (PBUH) presenr in the Tau.Ar Gomh) ad rhe

::lll Inieel (Gosp€l)j whil€ you (yourselve!) be& witn€ss (ro rh€n uuthl'

ln the verse an acl ofJews i.e. disbnion in torah, has b€en descfibed in which, they would make changes in the words of lorah in order to us€ them for their own designs ard deny consrantly, th€ proph€r hood of Muhamrnad p€ace b€ upon him dd srrive by all m€ans to c.€are doubrs in the failh ofMuslims.

oaher chapters, The Cow, verse no. 75 or 70 chapter women verse no. 46 the family oflmran v€rs€ no. 78 are about rhe disrorrion oflorah_

AN ANALYTICAL STUDY

a) Revealing of torah for the guidatrce ofthe children of Israel

O (36) "1jKir It was we who revealed rhe law (to Moses): rhercin was

guidance md light. By its srandard have be€njudged rhe Jews,

by the prophels who bowed (as in hlan) to Alla},s will, by the rabbis and the docrors of taw: fo. to rhem was €ntrusled the protection of Allah's book, and they were w,lnesses lrleretoi

therefor€ fear not men, but fear m€, and selt not my signs for a miseEble price. If any do fail to judg€ by (the l;sht of) whar Allah hath rev€aled, lhey are (no bette. ihsn) UnbelieveN.

(b) The assertiotrs of Jews atrd Christians for being the soDs ofgod is a sbeer falsehood.

ln verse 18 it has been mentoned quite cle&ly itat Jcws md Ch.istians have no extraordinary retationship with god but rhey aje ordinary men and women- ln $e chap.er the rsble verse no. t 8 ir is said:

i + Ui,q d..c!.1 6; :; "t, * ei * &il o ::4t At) v*. $) C ii9 ;,r rrJt 3 3, (31) ,,We (Both) the Jews and fte Cbristians sayr are sons ofAllah, ,.Wby ud his b€loved." Say: thetr doth He punish you for your sins? Nay, ye ar€ bua men,- of rhe ren he harh cieared: He forgiveth whom He pleaseth, and He punisheth whom He

pleaseth: and ro Allal belongeth the dominion of me neavens and the eanh, and all that is b€tween: and unro Him is rhe final soal (ofall)" In thb veNe it also b€comes clear $ar Allah has all power and wisdom 10 dccide as to whom he decidcs to tbrgjvc and whom hc dccidcs ro

And this declaration ofJews and Christan3 thar lbey are fte sons of god is sheer falsehood because god's rr,rath wd sent doM upon them most

-i'ni ,rit sit-t;t rtlj' i, :;J :F;:;J,,+ q ep' .i..+);, j'ii-ri9 5j niira,.;,.;,-. ,4;i oijrEtr (38) O ye who betievel take not the Jews ed th€ Chrisnans for your fti€nds dd protectors: TlEy are but Fiends ald protectors to each olher. An.l he amongsr you .hat tums to them (for fii€ndship) is ofrhem. verily AIah guideth nor a Fopte unjust. In vcNe 51, it has been made ctear quite explicitly that Jews m the

This verse nakes n ctear that bott Jews ud Chrisrians de rhe enemies of Islarn ed whoever ra.k€s rhem for a friend will be one ofrhem. c) A PUBLIC DEBATE:

A public debate betweetr the prophet Muhammad peaces be upon hiD atrd the scholars of Jews regardhg the childretr ofJacob peace be upon him.

r re '-1 The circumstances ofthe.€velarion ofrhe chaprer Joseph indicate rhis

fie Jews inquir€d Proph€t Muharrnkd (psce be upon him) about the

rcdons that led the chil&en ofJa@b lo migate to E$/pr ftorn Syria, as rhe chapter Joseph verse no.7 indicaies.

uJ+l-rJ ait'l' ljplJ ii j Js iii (le)

V€rily in Joseph od his brethEn de signs (or symbols) for seekers (after Trutn).

Imsn Anm€d knan Brailwi inrerprers this verse in the book Kal@I Imam, saying that here the ;nquire|s Iseekers affer ruthl r€fer to those people propber who questioned the Muhdrnad (p€ace be upon hin) abour the circumstoces of the prophet Joseph and the r€alon of lhe children of Jacob's migrarioD iom the Teritory ofcanaan to rhe tand ofEglpt.

And Jews found all the incidenB according to the book oftorah. d) A brief reference of the chapter Joseph in the perspective ofJudah

When the brcthers of propher Joseph with the p€rmission of proph€r Jacob took Joseph ro the jungle on the pret€xr of playing, and as rhey reach€d the middle of th€ foresr $e brother began to beat ed raunt him for dr€am while auempting to kill him. Then Judah lhe eldesr brother rjed to save him from theh pushing and shoving and brrure by reminding rhe brothen ofthe promis€ they had mad€ anong themsetves about nor harming Josph. But al Judah's saying" howev€r, Jos€ph ws nevenhele$ tlrcwn into lhe well. Since that wll was lo@ted in holy land or Jordan, il b€comes clear thal the Propbet Jacob's Territory was the r€gion sMounding holy land.

Thr€e days later when a camvan or il3 way ro E$/pt stopp€d the.€, Propher Joscph was takcn out of thc well atld h€nce saved. This caravu having set out from Madian w4 traveling to E$/pr. Therc, p.ophet Joseph wa sold in the market to an E$etian ninist€r.

ln shon, aft€r havinS been pu shed for sins uncommittei, he was ser 1ie from jail. He arived in th€ coun of the E$/prid minisrer and 8reeted him in Arabic. The n]inisler wondered which languase it was, lhat Joseph spoke to him in. The propher dwered that, ir w6 the prayer ofhis uncie Isnmael (peace be upon him). repeared the pray€r in Hebrew ad added rhat it was his hther's mother tongue.

It mears ihat the prcphet Joseph had had a comand over Arabi€ and Hebrew laryuages borh.

When drought followed ed spread lhroughoot the region, prophet Joseph's brclhers came from Can@ !o purchase gFin and other provisions. wrlen they crlled on Prophel Joseph (p€ac€ be upon him) ro puchase rheir needs, Joseph immediarely recognized his brcihers. B.iefly when his brother

came to know about the digniry and homr of prophet Joseph, .he person who taveled back home ro share thc good ncws ofJoscph (peace bc upon him) being alive with his falher was none els€ but Judah once again. He led the toops saying rhal since e$li€r, ir was he who had approached prophet

i: 38 i Jacob with Josepht bloody shirt lo prove thal Joseph had died; he woutd be the flrst io share the good news with his father.

e) The mention of Judah the eldest sotr of the proDhet Jacob itr the Holy QuraL j6\kji;),i14. jJe;iii;;jr &i {i "r,;,ir;.u o;;li; : r" .itr , ;L;; ;, 53' (40) "Then when th€ beser of the good news (me, H€ c4t (rhe shin) over his face, and he fonhwith regained clear sishr. He laid: "Did I not say to you, 'I know from Allah that which ye

,Joseph, In the Holy euran's chapt€r, verse 96, as rranslated by YousufAii, is ss follows:

"Then when the bearer of the good news came, H€ ca$ (the

shin) over his face, and h€ forthwilh r€gained clear sisht. He said: "Did I nor say lo you, 't know from A[ah that which ye

Here, the b€der of good news of Joseph being found dd alive is Jtrdah.

Here Judah has been rcfered ro tlDoughoul our rhesis due ro ft€ facr lhal, he is lhe same Judah whos." fonh-coming generalion was ca ed le*s. f) The references regarding the clear descriptiotr of the Jews' character traits are fouod itr the followitrg verses.

,Spoils l-The chapt€r ofwar, boory', verse no. 56

D€scribes Jews os th€ breakers of their promises: t iiti, F J ;;4,, 6;,i4ij i-i- t.';w ;:-4j'

(41)

"They are those with whom rhou didst maie a covenanl Dur they break th€ir covenanr every rime, dd th€y hsve not lhe fear (ofAllah)"

2' 'lhc chrplcr g) The Cave' talks about the J€ws' denial of the Day of Judgment, as seen in Verse no. 2l: '''i. ' : d-u c.{-)r, ad Jrr+J ;.Js ;+' j ;tr Jy' /._- j FcJYr it;1 Gj ['# &i :i;:; s & : "Ju'*; f.!;';-- )i,r.Ls ,,i ]l,ly ]u;x gr, ij;.1+ r; 6ir.i6l (42) "Thus did we make their case kno*n to the people, that they might know that ihe promis€ of Allah is true, and thlthere can b€ no douh about rhe Hou! of Jud8menr. Behold, they dispute among themselves s to lh€ir affail (Some) said, "Comtruct a

'i';-:i building over them',: Their Lord knows best about them: rhose

who prcvailed over thei. affai. said, "L€t us surely build a place ofworship over them.,'

.l- fThe Believers)Verse no.26

;i rwi llrj; i,tj, ;; Uii J43t i'.J j. jtij o tL:ii\ j,'):i e'.atj oi'ri 3:4 j'g (43) Said PhaEob: "Leave Ine to stay Moses; and lcr hiln call on his Lordl What I fed is lest he should change your religion, or lest heshouldcause mi$hi€fto sppejt in rhe landt.,

h)A consprracy to murder tbe proplret Mos€s 4- The chaprer (Exile, Banislnent) Verse no. I

1, .,. o i:i;it'i-it jt;-:)t j v,, ri "?.).ri e6j.2\ +! Ei- (44)

Whalever is in th€ heaveN and o'l eanh, ler ir dectarc rhe Praises and clory ofAtiah: for He is th€ Exalled in Might, lhe

i) The enmity of lslrm as a trait of Jews. 5- The chapter (THE MNKS, BATTLE ARRAY) verse no. 5

' ni q&;rl;f t-, Jt Jr:r, \s! )ti J i, JLj iJj iPo'4 a't.' E lJt r.rr ' e U 'Frj alLJlrul O;'ir,iijr (4s)

a-- 4t .. And remembea Moses said to his p@pt€: 'O my p€optet why do ye vex and insulr me, ihough ye know that I am ihe messenger of Allah Gen0 to you?', Then when they wenl wrodg, Allah lel fieir hearts go wrong. For Altah suides not ihose who ar€ reb€llious lransgressors.

j) propbet Vexing rnd bothering Moses p€ace be upon him And remembe., Moscs said to his people: 'O ny peopl.! Why do ye vex and insuk me, though ye know rhat I am rhe messenger of Altah (senr) ro you?" Thcn when rhey went wrory, Atbh t€t their healr go wong, for Allah guides nor those who de .ebelious transg.esso.s.

6,TIe chapter (THE CONGREGATTON, FRTDAY) J"",14' yi,t }; p p u,i:t t'rtn: ;nt y; sa4.i 39 u ati7l;k ;;!t,;Jjr 3! ;!i.,i;:i

(46) The similitude ofthose who were ch&ged with the (obligations of $e) Mosaic Law, bur who subsequcnlty failed in fiosc (obligations), js lha! ofa do,key which can ies huge rornes (bur undersbnds them not). Evil is lhe sinilitude of p€opl€ who falsiry the Signs ofAllah: and Altah guides not p€opl€ who do

-;42= k) uscs thc mctaphor ofa donkey to dcscribe tbe J€ws, constant disobedience of Allah. "The similitude of those who were chnged with rhe (obligations of tbe) M$aic Law, but who subsequenrly failed in lhose (obligations), is that of a donkey which calries huge lomes (but uderstands them not). Evil is the sinilitude of

p€ople who fahiry rhe Signs of Allah: and Allah suides not people who do wong." (47)

jJJJ!. rit ,.4 ) ,: . |;i.r" jl!' jr'.}r cr o 4Jr;i;u,5* (48) "Those who rejet (Trutlr), anonS rhe Peopie ofthe Book and dong the PolytheisG, were nor goina to depan (fron thch ways) until there should come !o thetn clear evidence.,, l) Jews are the smallest itrtuitioDist Dstion in the world.

From the world popularion of about 6 billion, rhe Jews make up aound 15 million, while Muslims are l.t5 billions sd Christians, iwo billion.

Jews fimly bel;eve rhar they have been s€nr to earth by Aod almighry for ruling ihe world and dEy exclusively posss tuU righls over alt rhe resourc€s ofthe world.

In order to fulfill this pe.ception, rhey have raken control of rh€ world's cconomy and polilics.

:': 4J :: And b€hind rhe scene of the arena of i emarional politics and economy, rcwish ma$crmind has b€en tuncrioning for dccsdes.

In Quran is said:

ut 11611,t lrj,lt s4 gry'riirrli gjr r;Jj r; o;ltc;-,rrii1 (49) O Ye who believe! Pur nor yourselves forwsld before A aI and His Messenger; but fear Allah: for Allah is He Who hears end knows all things.

All these fatu€s have b€€n discussed wirh refcrenc. to rhe propher Isaac Gffc€ be upon him.)

Ard w€ find all thes€ characledsrics prevailing in thc Jewish ,arion. Jewish hold

Since anci€nt times, J€ws hav€ b€en in po$ession of the enrire world's resourc€s and cconomy.

m) Expaosior h populrtion

The puQose ofdescribitrg all rhesc refcrcnccs jn dcrait is ro study lhc Jewish minds€! alonS with thc procdgs ofrhcir rchabiliration.

How thcy occupicd a Muslim counrry, patcsrinc by cxpandina rhc; populalion graduauy and founded lsrael for rhe accomplishrn€nt of rheir

ln addition, havin8 conrtol over $e whole econony oflh€ world rhey established rh€ir monopoly in rhc world,s global ma*e!. Now we will have an anatysis of rhe pr€sent Jewish populatior in the world by showing an illusrrarive chan. In rhis chan the J€wish populalion

accordinS to irs continentat situation has be€n divided in three rges. And we

will draw au€ntion to the regions in which rhe Jewish population had s€nl€d in the l8th, l9'i and 20s cenruries.

n) Rehabilitatiotr of the Jews with refereoce to the Old Testament

Whcn we beein to read rhe book of binh in rhe Old T.stamenr, we

find oul tlat the Prophet Isaac's two sons naned prophet Jacob and Esau. (Peace be upon ftem) had lived in rhe country of CaDaa by (S0) rhe end of the prophet Isasc's life.

Thcn Esau t@k h;s wives, his sons, his daughters, memben of his hous€hold, his cattte, a his b€dts, and aI his prop€rty which hc had acquircd in the ldd of Canm; dd hc wcnl inb from his brorher Jacob.

rl And lhe people of Israel did what was evil in the sight ofrhe

Lord sid sewed rhe Ba alsj l2and rhey forsook the Lord, rhe Cod oflheir fa.he.s, who h.d broughr them out ofthe land of Egypt;

lhey went afler orher Aods, f.om a:nong the gods oftbe p@ples

who were rcund about th€m, and bowed doM to lhem; and they provoked rhe Lod to Enger. l3They forsook the Lord, end served rhe Ba'als and rhe Ash'taroth.(50)

1- Later the prophet Jacob whom god had given the narnc of tsraet,

2- by the will ofgod encanp€d in the .egion of ..B€thel" joumeyed Then dEy from B€rhel; and when rhey were sri some distance fiom Ephrarh,

l6Komh, caram, and Am'alek; rhese ar€ rhe chiefs of El'iph^z

in the land of Edoq(s I )

Th€n stayed at Edom-

These are- the chi€fs of the sons ot Esau. The sons of El,iphaz the fi$t-bom ofEsaurde chi€fs Teftan, Omar, Zepho, Kenaz, l6Korah, catam, dd Arn'alekt these de &e chi€fs ofEl'iphsz in rhe lard ofEdomi

These ee the descenclants ofEsau the fader ofthe E,donires in the hitl coutry Of Se'ir. These arE- th€ chiefs of th€ sons of Esau. The sons of El'iphaz the fint-bom of Eeu: rhe chiefs Teman, Omar, Z€pho, Kenaz, l6Korah, ca&m, and Am,atek; thse aE the chiefs ofEt'ipha in rhe land ofFdom;(sz)

Followins that Nino also joined the propher Jacob (psce b€ upon hin) dd began to live in the hilt coslry ofseir

These are the descendads of Esau the flth€r of rhe E,domites in the hill counry of Se'ir.(53)

The sons ofJacob peace be upon him sold Joseph peace be upon him to the people ofMidian 6 to protecr him from his brotheB, maticious designs.

Then Joseph (p€ace b€ upon him) was traded in the bazar ofEgypt_

I shall so down to Sheol 10 my son, moumins'. Thus his father wept for him. 36 Meanwhile the Mid,ianites had sold hin] in Eg/pt to Pot'i-phar, an oflicer of pharaoh, the captain of the sufd.(54) Subs€quendy, the entir€ family including Jacob peac€ be upon him dd his twelve sons aniv€d in ES/pt after th€ prophet Jos€ph had b€.arE lhe ruler.

So Joseph md it a sratute conceming lhe land of E$ryt, and it stan& to this day, thar Pharaoh should have the fifthj rhe land

ofrh€ priests alone drd nor become pharaoh s

27 Thus Israel dwelt in rhe land of E$/pt, in rhe lond of Goshen; and they gained posseslions in ir, md werc fiuilfll and multiplied exceedinsly.(5a)

Afler the pasing away of propher Jacob peace be upon him, the children of hrael lived in EAypr.

Th€n a tyrant had succeeded the prophet Joseph peace be upon him who subjugared the desceodanrs of lsracl boundlessty.

It was the lime ofthe prophet Moscs peace be upon him.

Afi€r having redeemed the descendants of Isr:ael from rhe cruet har$s ofphamoh thc propher Moses brought rhem to thc forcstofshur.

22 Then Moses led Israel onward fron the Red Sea, and they went into the wiiderness ofshur;(56)

According to the bible oftd rhar,th€y set out fiom etin

They sel out from Elin, and all lhe congegarion of lhe people

came to the wildemess ofSin, which is berween Elim and Sinai, on the filieenth day ofrhe second monrh after they had depaned from lhe land ofEs)?t. (57) REF'ERENCES CHAPTER-I

Jag1 &ut t L',q:i' ! r',,er,l j, vi,u! r) '.. ^ 4Q-, i

e, t^q.4, j : :. :-rt,, ^rJ. 4.:,,. ;', i / 3) 'rav cqt'"2)Clr:.\ii)1i' )l). iLtl 4) lanes Gardrc4 Enclctoperlia ol Retision of{'e wo .r, Dethl,2Wj, page 229, YoL ld

tf t tel,!t1 t7 }t $ -L4 0, 4t tr \ i :+r j w ( s +,, ;

6, J, )trrt-r.y1si )\i.;si t,,ttt. s1 ), :.). i;Jf;,rr !1.: pl 7, Qu.tna, Fs.er eais.r r.setrch, wr,t .qu.l/io.com

8) The Ehcr.lopedia Arne cona, yol. 16, Gmliq Incoryoradd,

Llbnry ofcongr$ publtsheh 1829, aSA, ps 71. 9, rhe Ne ' Encrclopeida Afittnntcq yol d, r,nnon, petet t. Chicago, Ea.yclopedta B ttnnla P'buth.6, 1768, pt SA lO, MSN Eacrrtu, hdp*enct ta,,s,Lcomtq{E 3 of I9n-21/200E J:52pm rrt Al Quan 62:6 rz) AI Quta 3:93 13) t' Jrt&qrr|v-'!;i'6,.t{}' M) N e, Exod6: t3:l-2 D Ibid:13:5-6 16) rbid

t. \ ) I : j, j,. l, -t J,!i\, ;t-GLv u * !..4: I :4, *. eL Ltttt a

lE) Ell

19) AI Quaa I7:1A 20, Baktt+ Nas, 2r) AtOtE@2:61

/2, 7h. BibL z.ki.l chop s:S-10

23, BibL 4cn6is 35:6

U) Biblc 4ensis 35:10

23) AIQ"rM 2:40

26) At QutM 2:17

21, At Owan 2:49-60

28, .lt Ouan 2:61

29, Al Quan 2:6s

30, At Qu.t't 2:66 tr') At Quron 2:65-66 foE 32\ Al Qann 2:111

33) AI Auzt,3:65-66.

34) At ouran,3:67

3s) AI Quoo,3:69

36, Al Qwan 5:11

37) Al Suaa 5:18

38, At Qann 5:51

39) Al Qunn 12:7

40) Al Qwan 12:96

4r, At Qurun 8:56

42) AlQu&tt 18:21

a3) /I Quroa 10:26 'a) At Quln s9:I a, Qwan61:t

46) Al Quaft 62:s aT At Quan 62:s rg At Q'.an 98.,1

49) Al Quran 19:53

50, Genesis,36:6

5r, Geneslt i5:I6 s2, G.'retb,36:t,l5,16 53, Genesis,S6:9

5q Aible pg. t, Aenesb,37:36 s, Aible pg. 12 , cenesit lT:26,27

56, BAe pg. 59 (Exodnt 17:22)

57) Bible rc. 59, Exod6 15: I CHAPTER TWO

Tnn Rrsn mo FAI-I. oFJEws

Since in the glorious Quran mosrly the words Banisrael the children of lsracl have been use for rhe Jelvs, lherefore Allah al diflerenr places in Quran has.epeit€dly related rhe fsvoun and sup€rioriry of the children of IsEel over other mtions witch wer€ .h€d presnr

r; jjji 3r ' " &r: si' u * t {* 8l;;ir}:,;

ojJit, o,.t jf,.u 5r rir,il; r;r:., (r) ^i:r

And call in rcnembmnce the favour ofAtlal uto you, and His covenant, which He .atified wirh you, when y€ said: 'We hear and we obey"r And fear Allah, for Allah knoweth well the secrets ofyour hearts.

The rise ofjews accorditrg to Quran

It is as said h the chapter the cow And rcm€mber Moses prayed for waEr for his peoplq we said: "Stike the rock with rly sraff.', Then gushed fonh there from

twelve springs. Each group knew its own pla€e lor warer. So ea1

and drink of the sustenance provided by Allah, and do no evil nor mischiefon lhe (face offte) carth.

Similarly in fte chapter fte rable h is said

And remenbe. y€ said: "O Mosest we cannor endure one kind of food (always); so b€secch thy Lord for us ro proouce for us of what the eanh growelh, -irs pot-herbs, and cucumbers, Its gaflic, leniils, and onions." He saidr "Willye exchange the bener for fie worse? co ye down ru u,y rown, rnd yc slull Und whrl ye wanrl,' lhcy werc covcrcd wirh humiliation and misery; they drew on lhemselves the wrath of Allah. This because ihey wenr on rejecling lhe Sisns of Allah and slaying His Messengers wirhout just cause. This b€cause rhey.ebelled and went on h-esgressing. ALLAH'S Rrwann FoRJEws wrrs RnrunrNcE To eunul'

ln the chapler rhe cow, jews' imparienc€ has be€n rclated so.

Moreover, wh€n rhc prophet noscs p€sce be upon him broughr the children of lsrael in th€ vdley of le€n a, rhe chitdren of lsrael started conplaining that they had been nad€ ro sray in rhe !ur: rhey were rarher b€ner liviDg in ES/pt.

The prcpbet Moses Fac€ bc upon him praycd ro god on witch aod sent ft€ clumps ofclouds which would provid€ rhe childr€n of lsrael wirh

Whercver lhcy would travcl th€ clouds woutd hover ov€r lheir heads

)),r i A +iiru't!' tbt;;i i';; 3;J jlutij, $ 3;4.+ *t ti z j i,it:!.;r

aLnrFe& w,reF .'lrur-6ilijj' ;!:,_; " t', c,(i tii'tn ai$ 61j5;jt foX; u7,i1 t '1i''... o^' i i,q;;ij.,i,l'l ,-o't JU j u ijt (4)

'',.,:_F.. W€ divided them into lwelve trib$ or nations. We direcEd Moses by inspiration, when his (lhisry) people asked him for warer: ''Srrike rhe rock with thy staff,: out of ir there gushed forlh twelve springsr Each group knew its own ptace for water. We gave them lhe shade of clouds, ud sent doM o uem ,'Eat manna and quails, (sayine): of rhe good thinss we have provided for you": (but they rebelled); ro Us $ey did no harm, bur rhey hmed rheir oM souh.

said in $e chapter the rable

(s)

Remember Moses said ro his people: ,'O my people! Call in r€menbrance the favour of Allah udo you, when He produc€d propheE @ona yoq mad€ you kings, and gave you what He had not given to ey orher among fte p€optes.

Meanwhile all those peopl€ who had set out ftom Egypr died.

After having conquered the westem Jordan the propher moses PBUH also passed away. Aft€r hnn h tI€ time of ioosha bin noon rhe israelies bccame capable of conque.ina thc Palcsfi ne.

Durins the time ofProphers David and Solomon Fzce be upon rhem, juish peoplc had remaired e influenrial ed pow€rfutl nation.

These facts my be found in rhe Qur.n md the Old Testdent, Bul many authors have aho reveated this maner in rheir respectjve

Th€ use of iron was first ever taughr to the propher David pBU by God al'nighty ;isag-:L ; 8+l

(6)

Th€ Prophcl David PALIH had not only rlken ov€r patestine and westem Jorda. but h€ had .siabtished rhe Ismcli Sovcmment in a large. pan ofSyria.

ln $at time 'fhe Palesrinians poss€ss€d rh€ secrer of making ircn witch was later unv€iled.(7)

for the first dlnc lhe Prophet David PBLH b€gan to wo.k on iron and used it for waEins ed fighrinS purposcs.

When the iron industly bccime popular, lhc olher surrounding cnemy nations stqrled causing roublcs .nd sutrerirys for his nation.(8)

Followins th€ P.opher Soloman PBUH worldlininded and mat ndistic approach eong J.wish p.ople inrdsitied cven turthcr

Fron there on their'mor.l decline and downfalt beSan to rake place.

Conscquently thcy b€gan fighnng &nons cach orher and finalty rhcy w€re divid€d in to two kingdoms. On€ of lhem carne in to existence by rhe natne oflsrael and rhe orher was knone as Jud.h. Thc capjtol ofJudah was Jcruslem,(g)

ln the folioing age SarSon who was the ruler of Ishorc desroyed the Israeli govemment. On th€ other hed after the propher Sotoman PBUH judah's people were also influedc€d by potytheirm ed o$er ilnmoratd€eds.

In the laie sth sentury b_c. Bakht N3ar,lhc king ofrhc ciiy of Babut altacked J€rusalem and occupi€d lhe country ofJudah,

The wall ofhaiklle soloman war €ven demolishcd,

The city ofJerusalem was completely destroycd.

h was the firN disaster fiom whitch rhe childrcn of lsrael had

be€n infomed and b€cause of thci crime rhey wer€ Siven fust puishm€m{ I 0)

This is related in lhe book ofJudges foltows:

And the p€ople of l$ael did whar was cvil in the sight of the Lord and served the Ba'als; and rhcy fo.sook rhe Lord, rhe cod ofrhei. fathers, who had broughl rhdr| our oflhe lrnd ofE$Ft; thry wcnt aftq other 8ods, from asong tbe god! ofthe peopts who w€r€ round about rhen, and bowed down ro them; and lhey provoked the Lord ro 4gcl They forlook the Lord, ed served dte Ba'ais and th€ Ash't3loth. ( I | )

The detlild descriprion of$is incidcnr cu atso b€ find in the l9d rhe holy Q'rran chapter fic poct6.

Ir is relat€d in QurBn that when .h€ children of Is.sel disobey€d divine order and made a golden calf for wo$hip arc idolization, then A[ah setttcd a punishmen for them rhat rhey would slay one snoth€r. (12) And renember Moses said lo his people: ,,O my people! ye tuve indeed wronged yours€lv€s by yos worship of the calf: So lum (in repentance) ro your Mak€r, and stay youmelves (lhe wrodg-do€rs); thar will be betr€r for you in th€ sishr of your Makq-" Then He tum€d lowerds you (in forgivcness): For He is Oft-Rcluming, Mosr Mclcitul.

Thus god gavc them torment and brought lhen to rhe falt.

h lh. same way we find in fi€ chapt€r rhe cow lhe rcferene ofgod's wra|h upon rhe childM ofJews which wss imposed bccaus. ofnot ro folow lhe Sabbath order ofCod.

wh€n tle childr€n oftsraet had bc€n sented in th€ ciry ofae€ta and they were order€d to worship on lhc dly ofsareday and hunting was also forbidden on that day bur howev€r rhey cl€verty defi€d th€ cotunandrnent t;ll they wer€ caughr in th€ punishnenr ofgod.

And god tumed then in lo apes.

In Quran this incident is rclated wirh |isu,;r ; ;4t3te,e;r-z.tr1 i;r";.ii9 iei;;-ijr j! 3!})) 4F ?;, i+i i,JL;.L-;j ?-!, riJri a i;'Y4i;tti'+ (13)

And well ye knew those amongsi you who traNgressed i, the datter ofth€ Sabbarh: We said to rhemr ',Be ye apes, despised

The detailed content ofthe verse is that the chitdren oflsrael d€nied the commandment ofgod and opposed fte book of toF}l, and mudered the

Jb;)r !J, 5*i-iiJ e15J,Lkt,-t;Jl *j, o,.d:.e;rtti-.:^a ta.:|.l (14) And we gav€ (Clerr) walnins !o lh. Children oftsEei in tlE

Booh $ar twice would rhey do nis.hief on the e3nh ud b€ elared with mighry arrogance (and twic€ would they be punished)l

As itwas in fte nature io kitl the aposrles ofgod.

Hence in the v€.ses given above th€ir such nature has been menrioned.

In Quran the Jews have b€en being wrmed time and again that then disobedienc€, defiance and malfeasance would resutr rn consequenr rcpested iG, itt i" JIJ f*, ir l'li) iJr*t oi-pi-r

When pharaoh had b€en ,nade kng ov€r rhe children of Israel, h. fding that any upcoming child in tuturc would kill him, had lhousands of children of rhcir molhc.s killcd and allowed the girls to livc. o i$t'lti;'st (16)

Said th€ cbi€fs ofPhsraoh's perple: "Wilt thou l€ave Moscs and his p€ople, to spread mischicf in rhe land, and to abandon thee and ihy gods?" He said: "Thcir m.le childrcn will we slay; (only) th€ir females will we save dive; and we have over th€B (power) in€sistible."

Said Moses to hb p€opl€: "Pray for hclp from Allah, and (wair) in patence and constancy: for rhe ennh is Allah's, to give as a heritage to such of His servanrs as He ple$eth; and th€ end is (best) for the nghEous.

They said; "W€ hav€ had (nothing bui) troubl€, bolh befor€ ed after thou camest to us." H€ said: "lt may b€ thd your Lord will destoy your enemy and make you inhe.itors in rhe eanh; $ar so He nay lry you by your deeds.'l We punished the people of Phamoh wilh years (of droushb) dd shortn€ss ofcropsj thst th€y might receive admonitioL ,,This Bui when good (times) came, ftey said, is due to us;', When gripped by calarnity, they ascribed ir ro evrr onens cometld with Moss and those wirh him! Behotd! in trurh the omens of evrl are rheiB in Atlahs sighr, bu! mo$ oflho do

They said (.o Moses): "Whatcvcr b€ rhe Siens thou brine€st, work therewilh rhy sorcery on us, we shall neve. believe in

So We sent (plagues) on them: Wholesale dearh, Locusts, Lice, Frogs, And Blood: SiSns opcnly sclf-cxptained: but they wcrc steeped in aEogance,- a people given to sin.

Every fime the p€nally fell on them, rhey said: 'O Mosest on you behalf call on thy Lord in vinue of his prcmise to the: If lhou wilt.emove $e peoalty from us, we shall truly b€tiev€ in thee, and we shall send away the Children oflsraet with th€e."

But every time We removed lh€ p€nalty from rhem accofding 10

a fixed tem which they had !o tuIfiI,- Beholdt They broke their

So we ereled rclribution from rhem: We d.oMed rhem in the

sea, becaus€ rhey rejected Our Signs and failed to rake waming

This event with irs long details may be read in rhe chaprer araaf verse no. 126 and 127- Funhermore Allah tale senr down the punhhment of worms , rhe punishment of da.kn€ss and gint, frogs snd rain aod other differcnl kinds oftormenlt l]pon the childrcn Iscel.(13)

As it is desclibed in Quran: . ... i. J JJlCr'u/1, :1,'. ta.:!;Qr jr..'];l., jrst t. ri,. \iJ, .!jri: ,. Ji oi'it-tll (r7)

(Allah) saidr "C€l th€e down from.his: it is not for rhee ro b€

arroganl herc: g€l out, for rhou arr of rhe m€anesl (ofcreaturet."

GoD's Rnw,mn Upon run CHrlnnnN on Isnau

As it is described in Quran: jrlrlil, rii'; g1 c.* sr"i sir 6* .^ | at b U; 'n ; G .,u a$ ,,iir a*:"i' fi. cii'o!jd+j i,;$r ;jt r,!tio'4rf,.)t ci't6;; v$i' chs, t !.:t a\|uiii p1;1 ."qj,; q.!ii jls J;';lJ Ji o !r33 '.! I,

| '.'',,'.-'''. otr+ * :JA t E t,Pjl' ; ji.--al (18)

Glory to (Allah) Who did rake His scrvant fo. a Joumey by nieht fron the Sacred Mosque b the fanhest Mosqw, wnose precincts We did bless,- in order that We nright show him son€ of Our Signs: for He is the On€ Who heareth and seeth (all thinss).

We gave Moses the Book, and made it a cuide to the Children ,Take of hrael, (commanding)r noi other than Me as Disposer of(your) affairs."

O ye tha. are sprung from 6ose whom W€ carried (in $e A*) with Noah ! Verily he was a devolee mosr gmretul.

And We gave (Clear) Waming to rhe Childred of Ismel in the

Book that twice would they do mischief on rhe eanh ad be eiated with mighry anogance (end rwice would rhey b€ peished)!

Alla}'s rewdd upon childreh of Israel with refe.ence ro eud: ri;Jr,,i.)! ji,j)L-j j;j.;; ,in ;J i;.ttr_;,;:, au'47 6b;1;\J4irrt e:Jjt4'Gt" U\ trts u t ) tr,tj JfLI e_:.-.! !S: :julet) r'r+ r-1 vJp,*-

( le) And we made a people, considered w€ak (a ofno account, inheritors of lands in boft easr and west, - Iands wh€reon We senl down Our bl€ssings. The fair promisc of lhy Lord was tulfilled for the Children of Israel, because they had parience

and conslancy, and We levelled r,o the ground lhe great works and fine buildings which Phanoh and his peopl€ erec&d (with such pride).

In chap&r the children oflsraelit is rclabd lhal

When allah salvasd the childrcn of lsrael from tb€ asony of phamoh

ad made th€ prophet moses peace be upon him the conquerer! allah save theB good news that in exchang€ of rhcir porncted forbearanc€ they had been made inhe.iter ud succecser ofE$/pr. And this is proved in euan.

In addition, Allah also Save the childrcn of Isrcl meo sdwa whitch is nentioned in Qutu a folloss:

niy s'j,:t, lt S;v u'j5 iu,nt a,,rrh-X:i: i;,t t y juis, r..:,r.+ $:tr,lL! - . .- (20)..

Ard we gave you the shade of clouds ed sent down to you ,'Ea! M.nna and quails, saying: of lhe Aood rhings we have provid€d for you:" (Bur they rebelled); to us they did no ham, but they hmed their own souls.

The desqibtion of mano salwa can also be foun in rhe old testament And the people of Is€el are the mama fody years, till $ey came to a habilable ldd; they are the manna, till they cde to the border of rhe land of Canaan.(2 I )

When eoing rhrough rhe chapter Joseph in euran we find out th€ fa€r that how hh brothers showed their enmiry rwaid the prophet .loseph and when lhe proph€r Joseph becme thc ruler in E$,pt his brothes md farher thc prophet Jacob w€re living hed ro mout during the rime of dlour in

When they affived in E$/pr, fte propher Joseph welcomed them and gav€ them rcspecl.(22)

It is said in Quran rhar:

(23)

Then when they enlered the presence ofJoseph, he prov;ded a home for his parenrs with himsett and said: ,,Enter ye E$/p! (all) in safety ifit pledeAltah.,,

In the book g€nesis ir is reported in detail.(24)

and it is said in the same chapt€r.

in Ql]@ the chapts the cow v€rse no. 47 is said thar ,.your They Phmoh said to Joseph, farher and your brorhers

have come to you. The land of [aypt h b€forc you; setre youl father md your broth€B in the besr of lbe land; let th€n dwell in the land of Gosh€n; and ifyou know any able men among rhcm, put th€m in charye ofmy cattt€.(25) 44..\ jiitiSttiJt A jtairlit thrlt:ij( di ur i.,--rj i4i ijti o ,r..ju trtj ir+ii.., .!ri c6t:t4iljJ s!,it';#rte j.c jjii;$;rt ilu Fij J;r'' 'i35,,q$r-, i;j, i;jjij o JlL, o j:Stjt t;i rt! ltilrti j;iir.AtiiJiio:,t* t;;.*4,51"lilui ;,;j, S'a ndi1r;ui it,EJ$\ti6,t "!' ;auii*t: o si+; o St ti,Jt$t Hr;*.6i sj,L::i, o;i.td.jr ;sUi,j'i ;3;i; t li,;i giirf' J:,A :#q O,j;Jtnr,J; (26\

T[e amlysis of the period of tbe childre! of Israel with referetrce to the Old TestaEetrt

It is Millen in $e holy bible $ when god lesred thc proph€r Abnham by asking him to sacrifice hi3 son in the path ofgod and whtr he succedcd in his t sr, rhen Allahssid: ,.By Abrahan a s€cond time ffom heaven, aDd said, mysetf I have swom, $ys the Lord, bccause have done rhis, and hav€

not wirhheld your son, your only son, I will ind€ed btcss you, and I will mulriply you! desc€ndhrs as lhc sier! ofheaven end d lhc sand which is on the s.ashorc. And your dcsccndads

:: 6? .:: shall possess the gaie of$eir eneni€s, ud by your descendants

shall all lhe nations ofthe earth bless rhenselves, because you have obeyed ny voice.(2?)

Funher sludy of this v€rse shows lhat the sane complem€nls were used for the propher Isa& and his d€scendants a! writter in rhe book 26 thar:

And haac wenl to cerar, to Abim'elech king ofthe phitisrines. ,.Do And the Lord appearcd to hirn, and said, no1 go down 10 [$,pt; dwcll in fte land of whjch ] shall tell you. Sojoum in tlris land, and will be wirh you, and will bless you; for ro you and to your descend€nts I will give all these lands, and I will tulfill rhe oatl which I swore 10 Abrahan your father I wil mulliply your descenddts as $e stars of heaven, od will give to your descendmts all lhese leds; ed by your d€scendants all

the nadons of the eanh shall bless themselvesi b€cause Abrahan obey€d my voice and kepr my charye, my com,randmcnls, my statules, and nry luws."(z8)

In the book of Genesis it js reveal€d in the incident of the prophet

So Pharaoh said to Joseph, "Sincc cod 6 shown lr! all rhis, therc is none so discreet and wise as/ou arc; 4o/ou shall b€ over ny house, ed all my p€ople shall oider .hemselves a! ),o! command; only as regdds the throne will I be greater than lo!. " 4lAnd Pheaoh said to Joseph, "Behold, I have s€t /o, ove. all th€ land ofEgryt." 42Then Phamoh t@k his signel ring Aom his hand and put it on Joseph's hand, sd @yed him in garn€nts of fine linen, and pul a gold chain about his neck;'

43and he made him to nde in his second chdior; and they cried befoE him, "Bow the knee!" Tlus he ser him over all lhe land of E$/pi.(29)

The age of th€ fall of the children of Isr.el it is proveD by tbe holy bible old testaDetrt

WheD after Prophet Josephh time, PBLiH came the new king in E$/pt, he feh concerned over the increasing number ed srren8th ofts€elis.

Due ro h. feat lhar they mighr arrrck him he beean ro involve rhem in vadous hardships a! liRins brick dd block and ofter hsld work etcet€.a.

It is as w.itten inthe book Exodus.

So Joseph mad it a statute conceming the land of E$/pt, and ir steds to this day, tbat Ph@oh should haye the fiff\ the lud ofthe priesls alone did not become Pharaoh's.

27 Thus Israel dwelt in the land of Eg$t, in rhe land of Goshen; ed they gained possessions in il, and were fruilful md multiplied exceedinsly.

Now there eose a new king over E$/pl, who did not know Joseph. 9 And he said 10 his people, "Behold, the peolle of hrael are 1oo many ed too mighty for us. l0 Come, ler us deal sbrewdly with lhem, lest they multiply, md, if war befdl us, th€y join our enenies 8d fight againsi us and escape from the Iand." Therefore they set tasknasters ove. them to afnict them with heavy burdens; and rhey built for Pharaoh srore-cirics, Pithom dd Ra-an'ses.(30)

Wh€n in the age of prophet Mos€s E$/ptians w€re ruleB the children of lsrael had b€en being supp.essed by th€ir kings since afie. the rime of Prophei Joseph peace be upon them.

They were spending their life in servirude.

In the book ofkhoum is writter lhat

l3so lhey made rhe people of Israel se with rigor, l4and nade their liv€s bitter wilh hud s€rvice, ir norld and bdck, and in all kinds of work in lhe field; in all th€n work lhey made dlem serve with ri8or. (31)

In 186 senlury bc E$/?tiu ruleB had become isra€lies ad untill the middle of 166 sentury rhe sove.eighty.nd power remained intad in lheir

Then from there on they became the slaves ofEgyptians.(32)

h is described in th€ book ofDeuteronomy:

"l ain the Lord your Cod. who brough you our oflhe land ofEgypr, out of the house of bondage." "You shall have no olher gods before me." "You shall have no olher gods before me.(33)

As lhc book ofgilli olso trcquently disclsscs thc punishmcnt broughl

ov€r Jews caused by their d€fiance and disobedienc€ ofAUatr

When they were going ftom Egipt and they promis€d to comply with

the commandments ofAllah, Allah s3id to Moss that:

:: 70 t': The Lord said to ,,Avcngc Mos€s, thc p€ople of Isract on the Midianircs; aft€rwad you shall be garhcr€d !o your p..plc".(34)

Thus prophd Moscs atong with rhe childrEn oflsn€t fouglr rhe battle and b.crmc vicroriou!. A! rhis is wdtt n with qlsplcr numt€rs velsc S2O chaPters 32.

12 Now th€ booty r.maining of rhc spoit lhat th€ men ofwar took waq six hundr.d and levcnry_fiv€ rhousand shccp, 33scvenry-two thou$nd catrlc, 34sixty_on€ tnoulsnd dsse\ 3sand thidy-two rhou$nd persons in alt, womcn who had nor known man by lying wirh hin. 36And rhc hale the ponion of thos€ who had gone out !o w!r, was in nurnbcr thrcc hundr.d and rhiny-seven rhousand fivc hundFd shcep, 37and rhc LORDS lribute of she€p *rs six hun&€d and scventy ffve. 38fic carile wcre thiny-six rhoussnd, of which the Lord,s rdbur€ was s.vmty-rwo. 39The aases werE thirty lhousnd five hundrcd, ofwhich thc Ld's tibute was sixty-on€. 4ofte p€rsons wlre sixtlcn thousrnd, of which rhe Lord's tibutc wss $iny-two p€rsons. 4lAnd Mos.s gave the tdbute, which ws3 the offcring for the Lord, lo El€3,?sr thc, pdcst _ as thc _ Lord coftnandcd Mos€s.(35)

Hence god once propher ain beslowcd upon Moscs viclory and ProsP€rity. But Since defiece and revolr lay in the nalure of Jews, therefore some ofthem starr€d pretending for nol being able to go ac.oss.

Th€n on rhal god sent his wElh and fury down over them.

Whirch is dscrib. in rhe book ofnumben as:

And rhe Lord,s anger was kindt€d on that day, and he sworc, sying, Surely none of the men who came up out of E$/pt, from rw€nry years otd and upward, shal se€ th€ tand

whicb I swore ro give b Abraharn, !o haac, and to Jacob, because lhey have not wbo y folowed me; none excepr Caleb lhe so! of Jephun,neh rhe Ken'izzit€ and Josnua rh€ son of Nun, for th€y have wholty followed the Lord.(36)

Jews or the children of rsrael has been a favoui& nation in th€ eyes of 80d.

Thrcud rhe siudy of Qumnic verscs it is tDone to besbwed his innumeFble bounties and rcwads upon this witch mano salwa was also

This is also menrioned in tI€ old teslament rhar rhey wenr on eating

And you shall remember aI th€ way which the Lord your cod has led you these forry years in rhe witd€mess, th.t he mishr humble you, testing you to kjow whar wa! in you hea4 wh€lher you would keep his conmandme s or not. And he hurnbled you and let you hunger and fed you wirh malllu, which you did Dot know, nor did your fatbers know; .nat ne mjght nake you know thal man does not live by bread atone, but rhat man lives by everlrhinS that proceeds out of the mouth

ofthe Lord. You. clothing did not wear out upon you, and yotrl foo! did not swelt, these fody years.(37)

ln this way when god gave theln good news of migrating to a country wh€re all the bounties were avaitable in abundance, it wa! describ€d as follows

For the Lo.d you. cod is brinSing you inro a good land, a land of brooks of water, of fountains and sp.ings, flowjng forth in valleys ad hills a land of whear ard bailey, of vines and fig lrees and pomeSmnates, a land ofoliverfec and honey, a land in which you wiu eat brad withoul scdity, in which you will lack nolhang, a land whose sboes arc iron, and our of whose hi s you cd drg copp€..(38)

gave Cod many victories to the children of Isel not only during rhe Ir'rc whetr yausha was alive but rarher after his deatb as we .

And lhen following thar in addiiion, sod made juda and iusha conquerors in other regions as it h writt€n in the chaplerjudges:

Aftef the dea$ ofJoshua the people' ofrsraet inqui.ed offte Lofd, "Who shall go up first for us againsl the Canaaniles, ro ..Judal figlt agaiNt rhem?', 2The Lord said, shal go up; behold, I have given rhe land inlo his hand." 3And Judah said lo ..Come Simeon his brc&er, up with me into the terribry allotled .o me, that we may fight agaiost lhe Canaanites; and I likewise will go with you into rhe tenirory altotted ro you.,, So Sim€on went wirh him. 4Th€n Judah wcnt up ad the I-ord gave the Cea.nites ed lhe p.r'izzites into their h&d; md they def€ated t€n thousud ofrhem

,at Bezek. SThey ca,me upon Ado'ni-b€,_ zek at Bezek, and fought against him, and d.f.atod thc CaDaeu€s od the Per';zzites.6Ado,ni-be,zek ned; but rhey puNued him, ad caushr hin, and cut off his thumbs and his greal roes. TAnd

Ado'ni-be'zek said,..Sevenry kings with their thumbs and then great loes cut off used to pick up scraps ,unde. my rabte; as I have done, so cod has requi@d met' And ftey broughr him to Jerusalem, and he died ftere. 8 And the n of Judah foughl aaarnsr Jerusslem, od took ir, ard smote ir with the €dge of the swor4 dd ser the ciry on fire. 9 And afteryard tne nen of Judah went do}r| ro fight against th€ Cana&iles who dwett in the hill munr-y, in the Negeb, and in rhe lowland. l0And Judal went against rhe Canaaniles who dwelt in Hebron (now rhe

nam€ ofHebron was formerty Ki/iarh-afba); and rh€y defeated Sheshai and Ahi,man and Tatmai.39)

12 A.d the people oflsrael again did whar wa3 evil in the sishr oflhe Lord; ed the Lord strengthened Eglon the king ofMoab against IsFel, because they had done whar was evit in rhe sigh oi the Lord. I 3 He gathered to himself rhe ADmoniles and fie Anal'ekites, and w€nr and defeated l$ael; sro uey took possession of the city of patms. 14 And rhe p€opl€ of Isael seryed. Eglon the kins ofMoab €ight€en years.(4o) The p€ople of IsEel did whar was €vil in the sighr ofrhe Lordi

and the Lord gave them inro rhe hand of Mid'iu seven years. And the hand ofMid'ian pr€vailed ove.Israel; and because of Mid'ian the people of Israet made for themselves the dens which are i! rhe rnonunhins! and th€ caves ud th€ sronghotds. For wheneve. the l$aelites put in s€ed the Mid,idres ed rhc Arnzl' ekits and the people of the Eat woutd come up and afiack rhem; they woutd encarnp against then ed desroy the produce the of imd, as for a, thc neighborhood of caze, and lcave Do susten&ce in lsrael, and no sh€cp or ox or ss. lior they would come up wirh $eir carle and their bnts, coming like locusts fornlmber;both thcy and their cmeis coutd nol be counted; so thal they wasbd the tsrd as they caDe in. dd Israel was brcughr very low because of Mid'ian; ed rhe people or Israel ci€d for help to the Lord;(4 I )

And und€. rhei. leadership Jews went on rejgning.

Bui just after rhem the children of Israet showed trler disobedience and deflance towdd god ard hence wcr€ caughr in the grip ofgod,s peDalry.

In rhe book of nurnbers the ref€rence of god,s angs and tury which caused wrarh upo! rhe childEn of lsraet is mentioned in which god asked the prophct Mose pe@ b€ upon hih lhar

loBu. the all congreaat€ said ro stone rhem wrh ston€s. Then the glory of rhe Lord appeared at the lent of meehng to ali the people oflsrael. llAnd the Lord said roMoses,..How lonSwitl Ihis people despise me? And how long wilt rhey nor believe in me, in spne ofall the signs which I have wroughr mong hem./ 12 I witl strike them wirh the pestilence and disiDherir them, and I will make ofyou a gealer and mightier thu rhey.,,(42)

In Erekiel it is related that:

Whercfore as I live, says rhe Lord cod. Suret, because yotr have defiled my sectualy with dl your detesrable things and wilh all you. aboninarions, rhereforc I wil cu! you oowl my eye will nor spare, md I will have no pity. l2A third pan of yon shall die ofpestitence and be consumed with fml,e in the midsl of youj a rhnd pan shall fall by the swold.ound about you; a dd third part t wilt scatt€r 10 aI rhe winds and wall unshsth€ the sword afur them.

13 "Thus shall my anser sp€nd irsetf, ud I wi venr nv liw upon |hem and satisry my*tq .nd thcy shall know rh4 I, thc Lord, have spoker jealousy, in my wnen I spend my fury upon rhem.(43)

In the p.evious chaprer we referred ro eumnic verses as weu as verses Aom old iestamenl and p.oved tbat how god bestowed his favours and rewads upon the nation of Israel and whar factoN caused godt tury and

As w€ proved rhe rise and fal ofjuish narion Fom the ve6es of in the same QuEn, mamer we rcferred lo lhos€ veNes D the old lesbmenr wilch giv€ the delaits ofrhe rewards and punilhnenB gryen to tnem by god. Now we will atralyze the rise and fall of Jews with reference to various other books and wnrers.

Jews came to EgJDt es the rulers and th€y we.e gven the mos. honomble srature over other nations in th€ world.

But when rhey srarted being disobedien and refused to tulfill godt coflnandmena, god disgraced rnd dishonored them and hcnce madethem slaves !o notive E$/ptians.(44)

Jews were the dwellers on the banks ofth€ .iver forat.

And their forefathen would live aroud th€ river forat.

According to rhe Jewish encyclopedia

Following the propher Moses peace be upon him rhe new generation along with Joshua bin noon enlercd rhe country ofpatesrine and lhu having defated fie people hving rherc occupied $eir land. yeas 100 after Joshua bin noon the pmphet David pe$cc be upon him had conquered the counrry ofEgy!,t end had b€cn enlhroned a! a new king. The prcphet david p€ac! be upon him also €nlarged the sia of his kingdom by kepturing muy other ar€a situared n€arby.

H€ PBUH having conquered Jerusalem layed tD€ comeBtone of the construcrion of holy remple.(46)

During the age ofProphet david Israeli state made great prosress. even du.ins the rime of th€ prophet joseph altah honowd and prospeled th€ prophet Jacob and his prog.ny.

lr,.1. o*' When the phaEoh made rhe proph€t joseph peace be upon him the ruler of E$/pr, he said ro him thal he hd bco rhc ph@oh and added that no one would movc even a sinsle step on rrE e3rth withour his order.(47)

Even afier rhe time of Prophet JosQh in rhe age of prophet Moses perce be upon tbem the childr€n of lsrael had remained vicrim in the cruel and b/rdt hands ofthe phdaoh.

The prophet Moses asked the pharaoh to bave faitb in the only god except who there is no oihe. god to wonhip dd funher advhed hin to liber.te the childr€n oflsrael ftom stavery.(48)

Following the prcphet solo man peac€ b€ upon him the chitdrcn of Israel du€ to their constan patt€m of defiance an disobedience, had rcmined in rhe sev€rc punishmcnt of god ud had .lp€aredly b€a nired and devastated by other narions.

Before the world lr 2 Jews or Ismelis wer€ not Dor€ ths 20

Durin8 Lie end ofrhird senrury snd eartier in the forth senlury when seckrimism amon8 Chrislre secrs war in il! in ful swing and the had been fighlinA among each other.

Wh€n rcmon Consrantine announced Chrisrianiry as an official religion, then under rhe patronage of roman emperor Chistianiry was slrenglhened in europ€an coluxtries as well as in th€ vast r%ions ofmiddte

:i 7E .:: ln borh th€se re8ions Jews were successtully competing in two fields, cducation and €conomy.

As a r€sult Chistims rased their voice against Jews.

And Jews once again had to sufi'er ftom injusrice dd cruelries.

Aut on account of rheir hypocrhy dd wicked nature $ey disgui$d themselves a! Cnristians ud joincd $c Cluistis. peopte.

But rhey never forgot their evil designs.

When the Prophet Moses Peace be upon hin $nt his 12 elders to Palesline in order to collect rhe information abour the circurnstsrces there and then he gave his nadon th€ idea ofarecking and kepruing the palestine, lhus his nation retused ro do so.

On wilch sod pmished rhem for rheir rcnEal dd excepr for two

€lders' ioosha and kalib, all men ov€r rwenty years old had ro sutrer d€arh.

Hence accordina ro rhis decision ir look th€ children oflsraet I I long y€ars to reach the desert of far an from the westem Jordan.(a9)

Meanwhile all those people who had set out from Egypt died.

After having conquered fie west€m Jordan.he prophel Moses PBUH

Aft6r him in the time of ioosha bin noon the Isnetis becMe capable of @nquerinsrh€ Palcstine.(50)

t, 19 :a REFERENCE CHAPTER-II

I) At Quloa,s: 7

Al Qatua 2:60

J) Al Qaroa 2:61

1) At Quro't,7:160 .u qutun, s:20

Al Qulon 21:80

I r. 7) J, ly\, ) /J ik, r t t t Il\ * : 4, ;\ t i.t j,,,.

E) rafteen 4 Qaron (Conn nt rr ofchoptet s)

J'1 t k.,. : 9) 'r. LYl. 7.J Jv tJ q, 7 e. r 4.|'\t l, ; :,,

. x \ _ n j jJrj,,elir ro) U {i\, ; ;iJ t!_,./,:rr.rlL1 j:r. li,e. ) BibLpg.2:11-13 r2) AI Qaran 2:51 t3) Al Qa,an, 2:65 r4) At Quran 14:1 t5) At Qkran, I7:E r6) AI Qunn 7:127-ri6 t7) AI Qan4 7:13 r8) At Sursa U:11

=80E 19) AlQulon,7:137

20) Al Quaa 2:t7

2I) Bibh E ad8 Chap 16:35 22) rbid

2s) Al Qula4 12:99

24) Gen.sis,37-50 25) BibI. H: 1I ) At Quro\ 2:a0-17 27) DibL, pg 17

28) Ribla,ps 20.21, :26

29) Bible, pg 36.:11,12

30) Bihh pg 369,10

JI) BiU.,pA 16: I3,t.l

32) The hoph., snd the rise oJ Judoitat, p. 263 33) Bibk pe t56 31) BN. pt 14 35) Bit'Lpt Ut 36) BibI. pgJ16

37) Bible p9,159 3E) Ibid

39) BitrL pg.20? isrS 10) Bit't ps.210: I2"u

11) Bible ps,213

14 AiUe p9.127: 10-12 13) BtU.E-716:ll-13

4) Rathir' AMd "A Cot,pt odl,. Sarnr of ndigioos 6@crri: Tohir So,', 20U), p 266

1S) fhe t vish Uriretsal Encrclopalila p. SEI

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" An Inquiry i.oto lhe historical value ofthe nanative oflhe pentateuch is beyond thc s.ope ofrhe precnt adicle. Sufiicimt ro say rhat by the oame "lsrael" we under stand that p€ople which, rhough not originally homogen€ous, had been formed into a single nation in palesrirc about a millennium before the Ckislain €ra. The twelve tribes of which in later limes, Israel was considered to be composed fall into four groups severally connected by descent ftom four women to whom they taced their anceslry. The Leah Foup included Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar and Zebulum: The nchel group Joseph (subdivided into Ephrainir and l,ranasseh) and Benj.miD3}, 14*.fr

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L' t, r 4' f {r L } 4 a L't * 7 -tn t,,f Q r ct o J q!+ Jt? c.. rt 3V 6'J-;.! | - t..-, eI 6/L ct E ytTc{v o{,! V rL, t ?- z t-t, i ar3 t j;t-;;- 2-!,,6,4r? tt vzz 6 ,.t,ilo,*!7 ^1i4.-t if zr, :-t ; ( | Jl JIL i vt Lt i,t+ itl L tt - t- Lt t e-' L Lh tv L - i ;:t'.: 2 th t- u,rt - {. tE& r) ;bL,}), Jt/,J,4 A€&n _ z lt1 " - db, L r) V L ec, / tJ i _ _,J tr p'.rl"U /-$ a, * V,/./Jt I U " The belietthat their ancestors had b€ert Aramaeans and had once lived in N.W. Mesopotamia may not, perhaps! be of very ancient origin and may be due 1o the pusion with Aramaean setders which took place during the 8th and 7th Centuries (8.C.) It was commonty believed among the Israelities that before the conquesr commonly believed amongh lhc Ismelities that before the conquest of Palestine their ancesrors had for some time so joumed in Egypt, where they had been compelled to do taskwo*, tom which they had been freed by Moses" (4)

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489.€ /- ,-jqz| !,,V J)J d+^tt'L/| f,! L a|j,* t,t a i:,Jf t- y6 y ",/,J 4L -i - 6,,,t +rL [t* -f r,?V.r L *i,f( st (t z)"- j trz-nz r,.* 7 1- F4 f { [ ;.1 =L J v t r,t,) t, ; G, f ,!,J V g ' " L,a -.-, tp & t| \)t* { o;ti c qr rl yt 6 a L -s,{ pQ-7 -'!6' I t' I, ;,!"t"y'{",t 7, q :e) firy t i y L u r 1!v,,\,t,t "Judaism is the religion Fopossed by a small people, the Jewish people, who numbered no more than sixreen million at their numerical before World warrl. "(18).

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-gla t [ 4t s 4,,b 6.;. tt q, t r v - z 6 {(- J - c,r' e-,7,r,, ei a) J,4 r rE t). : =,, itl "In Hebrew the scriptures are devided in three parts. The Torah (The prophets: Five books ofMoses), The and the Secret Writings, (20)i,

d' o F 6 y z v Lh ., Lt, t 7 fi - ;t 11 Genesis Exodus, Levitieus, Numbers ard peuteronomy. ':lr/Law ! Five Book of Moses ul'+& ,/,1 Ea,ty P *ehetd- i- (t rf- & c.4,,/, a 7 *,( n,opnas..n p, Minor ,, Jeremiah, prophe64l8 Ezekil.Later fP Samuel, Kings, Joshue Prophets -?t 1\Jlv 'DO -,4 J c-u/-Pec 1...f' s$et w itires2 t/: saAtflfn &o',"6a'lt o'ut!,j+ to,ut ft.-,,n,.t rtjitr =,r - t4 L L,, F 6o rt n t J t 6,,,.-.,+ iV &J,r,.t s"* x" "Blessed art thou, O ' Lord Our cod, Kitrg of the UniveNe who hast chosen us iom all peoples, and hast given us Thy TomI. Blessed ar thou, O ' Lord give ofde Torah,' (21)

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>.'h E 2- t ; z c. t, t, r- 'Jv,J' Q e)/') Jt c - 7 tv 6 I ;Lt,t * -,t 6:.t L v..-vt! i-t (t t t-' v - 7'f ct 14 "t " There are two v€rsions of the Talmud. One, completed toward fie end ofthe4th Cennrry resulted fiom workdone in the Academy ofJerusalem the Palestinian Talmud, and the orher was the result of the work done in the Babylonian Academy complered in the end of5rh Century and known as the Babylonian Talmud. ', (33) L o' t p"WA.-,r. L Jv U e nt C|i t 7 -' V {euv c)|,} t fb 6'V i' t - t-, 8, $,4' fu r' V ct n L L lvL t., , f,j',t,*.-,!-r -,Jt Jv.t,,'t e.t,v,,y'- fi i $t. Lt it.:.v,, rt J, jttltn 6 *- t L Jtl' r'z e- * c,- Jt ulJx t*J, 41, ;, o,,r j " "ttd -v,l,,)l ft .4 i/J t t,/ o, 4 o,. a iO u z- /ur- t i rt; z-, v G ctl: lt/. J.a,.Ant-Vtn g,,\)c. g ) c:j&Ja,t,t jP,1 g;691,4 j , (,,, z-, J, E fu V {c) G,' :;,, L,t ;c t- f-,f,J V 6 ri,r'. L o _ el " "t - q ?, Lf& d e * L 6 2 fq t r *,t, " -u, :e.blrt.i6td)4 j ,! u; 6 {-'t :a t,, { 6,V {,j 6, 4 J.v, L,tut L (*-./. ji t:2,4) | pt,s" (r! {,, it 7 ) i,.z'4 !7 r,},1,..v, +7,!,1' +./, e, 1,.4

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I . Beliof in the exist€nce of cod. c.f/'t,yw'r'J'tr{tj r 2. Belief in his Unity. c.tctit-<.

5. Belief tlat worship is due to ,Jy 6 Ct -:r-'V"l6 rt-'! '- -t, tr Him alone. Z-tt 6. Beliefin prophessy from a'l"tl-<,."rt Prophet. -" <- z ilr c. g t /. - / -7 ! t*,, 1 7. B€li€fthatMoses was the

greatest ofallo the Prophets. N u< €, t I U at 4 U'.,'f ]Jd! #.t J 8. Belieftbat lhe Torah was -J" revealed to Moses on Siiai, -?AlEt-t"l 9. That it is immotable. +if-c{t6 I 0. That God is Omliscied. ty',C-4/r?.tce)i,,tv.'

I I . Belief in rcward and puni

stunent in this World and in life hereafter, ctd-?i{6-"

I 2. Belief tu the coming of Messiah. rtc!', Lv l,t r,t L ",t L/ I 3. Belief in resunection of the dead.(3s)

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'V16+;t P r p tat { f i1,,-7"t -7, O l>7, l.rt e.7, pi e.7,tr^1-s4 -?{'t(P :oiiiF t!' t' z--')j t/'L t c- e,,141',!,t :!q - cl Jv Ly,tz,t o. 6 6,* z.-t p. jL 11: o1-tu-t1 x r)E ( V L L n lt -fu (8, ( b 4fi ),,,,ta-,, ) (ra)"-fut{,1,;-,.r"t/ -v'f6o)rt,rl rtg' :z',*4,.;it :*frJte.v,z,,?cttLot* "lt believes in a Universal God but it is not exctusive. It believes that this

; ss =:: world is good and tbal maD is capabte ofperfection. He possesses ftee will and is responsible lor his actions. Judaism rcjects any Mediator and sny Cosmic force ofcvil. Man is iea hc is not subjcct to Sabn: nor are the rnat€rial gifts of life in h€avently bad: w€alth may be a blessing as *ell as a curse. Man is made in thc image ofcod; Th€refore he is noble like lhe rest of the divine wo*s. For this rsson all men arc equally brolhers. Just as thcy werc udted ih the beginning at tlrc eod, so will they be dlawn together again at the end oftime. They will be brought near ro the Kingdom ofHeaven by the aid oflsrael. (46) ,tittt

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_._v v r,ut g t ( i v 61; { o 1, 4 *. L vL s ufi 9 r "The Sabbath and Festivals, sacrifice woFhip, homely ritual pious faihs and thanks givins for the eifts of nature must have been thc chief characteristics ofthe simple and inrocent life ofthe cod-fearing Israelite or Judaean, sanctified by rhe high morat lessons. which his prophets taught him. (48) ,:U{s1'4 ?i26'4 0\tslr'4,At'h/-rd'e-'-t,.tlL,,. aso,v o 4 !7df r) X'(.r - i! 1l Momang, Aficmoon anct Evening-servicea

ur $.- * v/- o,ls c -t 1 4 ; r; L Abraham introdrced $e moming prayer 2. Issae the aiemoon service. 3. Jacob the evening derurions.

: to2 :.: v: Ltlt'L e.ve o, ip 6 n a4 ui/- a. L U,,-? bL,.:t I A. " t1J' 4. Jt r* | 6Jl,'1, t! bt ;V,-,rL L x L _ih L 8- L'f I t, "'.t vc ,li_c{utlv z: at ana^ e.Neman4 h7{dL "There are words ofthanks for ev€ry enjoyed experi€nce on entedng in a newhome, enjoying a new garment and before eating anything we thanl Him. (49) W i,f/'.fcr ul t +r{V't' r-'v., t-VQ t { tl z-u, z /,ft1,,.t,} t

(Pu t - + -z r v,!,.t, -e!,i t. + { +'J,,r v" fu*Ia fi t {/- L ua- q tJV\t b.,AJ ht t,,t! i,:.bt'6,4. original Hebrew!f\,'i,,! : r)i,f,y'rf 3t/.,.- "t Jr-,t -,nt rl,lV,, - t L a t.- t,,, t r gc L L 6a *'.,,tL e-a $l e.4 { : v e.-, 4 - * 4q 1! ut : A,-t ,4_{n-qz-"titJ,,t "W€ know that cod does not need ouI prayen, Our words ofpEise and nothing to His greatness, Even our peritions need nor be expressed in words: for "He knows our needs before we utrer rhem_', (50)

q t7 t Jlf. 1,/ V u l /'.-, t-, - q t- a t 11 z 11' 4 d, L o, v "1' ^ rr1..l ,V | 1 \tr. O lt,tr. u,'fu il- L o i,/- q L n..6 6,t,t y- q zi,,:u,

;0 z tr tn t -, g t!'/:r 6'4(xobonrd' 7 -; ) 1!gi i,' c) t.i t L,e :t:. - + rtt satuatt) q:).6 t q,,.(7,".1 -'y$ Q,|A,( -u 1 rt - & z'<,,1 .)a "t, - q Q atri q1J { |c.rv " 4tirL ti x Vt V' - + O 6 vli,.2e> O {'+ fv 4t :1. I e.'Vit,"1 ;6, i. "The words of Jewish worship are based on our religon,s basic beliefs. These principals were armnged systematically, fiom time !o time by the philosophers ol Judaisn. (5I)

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t, Lt,/ | LExoDU s t ftt q (,1 b -2,,t/._,n 6 | c_,, { U tl _z_rlr,l,.ttz-r,/ l. And cod spake all these words, saying, 2. Ia am the LORD thy Ood, which have broughr rhee out of the land of E$,?t, out of the hose of bondage. 3. Thou shalr have no other gods before me. 4. Thou shait not make unto thee any graven image, or any likeness of any thing rhat iss in heaven above, or that is in tle eanh benearh, or that is in the water under the earth. 4. thou shalt not bow down thyselfto them, noi serve them: for I fie Lord thy God am ajealous Cod, visiting rhe iniquity ofthe fathers upon the childr€n unro the third and forjrth generation ofrhem that balc mer 6A. And shewing mercy unto thousands of them that love me, and kccp ll]y conxnaDdrDerrs. 7:'thous shalt nor Lrke lhe name ofrhe Lord thy God in vain: for rhe L-ord will not hotd him guiltless that takerh his name n vam. 8. Remember the sabbath day, to keep it holy: 9. Six days shalt thou labour, and do all thy work: 10. But tle seventh dav is the sabbath ofrhe Lord fiy cod: in rr rhou shatr not do -y *o,f. tio" no, thy son, nor thy daughter, thy manservant, nor thy daidservant, nor rhy cattle, nor thy srranger thar is within thy gates: lt. For in six day the Lord made heaven and eanh, rhe sea, and all lhat in them is, and rested the seventh dayr wherefore the Lord blessed the sabbath day, and hallowed it, 12. Honour thy father and rhy mother: rhar rhy days may be lory upon the land which the Lord thy God giventh thee. 13. Thous shalr not 14. kill. Thous shalr not commit adult€ry 15. Thou shah not steal. 16. Thou shall not bear false witness against thy neigbour. I 7. Thou shah nor covct lhy neighbouls housg rhou shalt not cover thy neighbou/s wife, nor his maidservaDt, nor his midservanr nor his ox, nor his ass, nor anv thing that is thy meighouls

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t' . L vlL D't(rb,( o f Ll L v - Ul. -,V c.V a ) :.v_2-,14tJ J, a.

_ J/-,j *./,:r * 7t s \): =),,, 6,V / |. The Orthodex 2. The Con servantive, 3. Th+Rerorm. q t +,t,(1 if4d |io',,' a -zt/Jscl8 6,t-" oRthodex _| i-.f-te4v u i Jt" _ t,1 a *,f/- I { i,1 -,,1!,4 6r L ijrop ctr LR atti l.eo t""gr.,2 4 L oa,oa", u* e,y {l7b,v, {,/Jn q

" our people never know any distinctions b€rween Jew ,lheology' -a#frl?l the problem of abstracl did not trouble a rue Hebrew. Because he satisfied himself with living a life in Cod, The ninteeDd Century brought abot a change when a part ofour brothem broke wirh the Jewish Past and called themselves ',Reformels'. They named th€se ,'Orthodex,,The who remaioed loyal, man or woman who tives in according with Jewish Law.. (52)

!r- rdft)t z-t ( "t,,n { 6'4 fl-i r(!, ( o*oaexvf, Jz & - uf / s C hJ' r,o ( i/"1- U' * r-,f ',, 6'i t'/, ( Ly'L ;x, r ( '1,(,1 e,f L1 €:.p!?.,,? 6,V. Gfu|

i':-106 1.."- (Lg t t ( {./t +rr. zt ft/ u tf /- L e: A *,t z-tt 4 v tft(st 4U14 q - t-'r,.h -,V' A /'.F v',.t t r " To us Jews ihe Torah is the book ofcod, revealed to Israel and throush lsrael ro all men. we belive implicity in its Dilinc Origrn. we accepr it-as the skndard ofour life. We obey ils commandments. We know why we should love our neighbour The Torah says he is ,,as thyself, (teviticas) we know that the sabbath is a great blessing and that if man generally adopted it, tho day of the Messiah would be nearer. But we keeD the Sabbath because Cod has cornmanded it.,, (53 ). L rtt,t4" L,),1 tfz,.t, v, L6,r4,: tl /" a lru"conservative -r

t ew ish | J.v L Theoto sicat Serltjnry$ / h,i,Sr t ; Vi f 14, t ',2 =2 1 "e L z-'.'.-.;f Rabbit)tr 1JJl*.y'+: +t L@t. sorono,y'jyfl; LV -Y&'1. lJdar,t, Oy, L./.1 t._ qy', u)4)1,a -ft 1,/j, z!_ ,tt Irz4Jl:O 4 /"clL/t,r Lioc,r, {Lt z Li/{ /,,t,,_,r,t -,f'.8 Lt i,=J F.erorrn ( ] q L,01, ( - -t - - ) -',!,! v,l,.r' 1.u. . 4u{-r!,t;vl,t7tu d( qt4 4,,o,-f t,4{,-.,.tq T" {='10 1,t,t L ;t J4.- cvr,J2 ;gt ;t 6ny1s4.jlt,, consewati!e

U Urlhodex-!6::rJ mrddle of*e road berween Orrhodex and Reform

v' r -- 6 fu -t-,",& J w,f q i_,1) i / r d consew at:v eO,t =' - ^n - 7 6,-t t u t gr Lo,. a t eea. eJ q ll I "We do not seek to differentiate our selves from others. We gladly accept fion oahers wharever appears ro us lo make Judaism nor meaningfut and attractive. We are not afraid of being called Reformed Jews because we

! lo? --i acc@ted the practice of Uis group, nor are we afraid of being called Ofihodex because we obscrve the Sabbalh uaditionally, nor secularisr! bccause wc believc in the cxistence ol a politically ind€pend€nt Isracl. We know that e{ch one of thcse and msny similar pFctices and ideals help to stre[gthen Judaism aDd ro make ir more meaninful to its followers." (54).

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-- t22 :: ct-,b y, y'-L $t ?4 i{^4tt( r{* 1 !, olao.$), o t tp1.t x so'.d,s1'fig lg t'- tt 1' t et, d. fu +t f : ct { t 6",h,h,}U, e,lt{ oI ul4t:, (L,Jr4^,.1L"( v. (.6J "4 &rn 6 irlv *r1/ n,c,,tt b ju-4/11!,u4 -'r" J a 1 i**(iy ist.lL stu sg rB'J t,a,4 -qt{oJvqTo-a{*,}rt, REFERENCES CIIAPTER.III

zt- L t P- | p 2 - -7 $ 7 L{L lr"+, t) t fi tuAi\/ { fui:.)i i _l t' i t iZ L',f1 tz',.sr L g t z L,it t 2- 6.f, 2 p '.F-r I ? 4 1) v:rgilt

Encyclopedia ofRetigion and Ethicsp. 5g I _r

The Jewish Unjversal Encyclopeadia, p. 329.

r y "- z- * a r-< ; G li sr { 2.t, r 6( /cti "a-:)'!,.fu =r -r,) " ) .

\t:r L4l '''',.., v7t!, v-trtrr-,:

i'41

t4t

i"4t _tf

Our Jewish Heritage. P. 169

tr24i rt f. lrrlt_v ltrt _tl oftr 14 Ja 6nr OI/t -tl Soci.l.nd R.ligious ltirtory ofth. JowB, p. 169 -tL Tho Grter Rcligioo ofthc Mod.m Wdl4 F 2lO -tA ID'iilP.ns Jl OlI Jewish Hdirlge! p, I I -r. Ibittp.ll -r Eilbry ofthe Brglirh Biblc, P. 63 -n IbllP.65 -rr trc.tr/JV6'ry _rr 14 -tt tftt4l _14 -rr t!'t6 y' _l?t -r. tlJl -l4t -r ...f orA -fl z].,r l;Ct -r. tr.6l;4r -rl .tir l;dt _"r Ourreflirh gtcii.gc P.201 -r't Eosyolop€rdiaof BritaoictP. ?tS -flr &cdopo.dic ofRcligior ard ESic6 p. 581. -nt nr. t2,)pV;r,i -r.t 8,ff t)AP4r_g4 nt"*+f-W rn^,Ji\rlu,it i _r1 .t- ^.2.o&iD tl,rr.?&f,iri N.r\ .U?l n ,J4iui l,r ,l2rjit i 1,/ .4) ,(6

Encyclopeadia ofReligion and EThics p. 709

Our Jeyish H6itrge, p. 66

Encyclop€adia ofReligion and EThics p. 713

Ou! Jewish Heritag€ P. 69. Ibid P.58

rbid P. 60

Ibid P. 22 -01 r:,n,t\,rt,i

Our Jewish HeritageP, 26

Ibid P.32 -00 dvt ^6,r tu cJ:Pl tlr.r o't?l ftt lr t)i/l _ol n.r oi7l r.,r iill -ll \\ tfte.iti -tl r,q di/l -!r tnn di)l c,t6 t)1/l fir t)ql _t't ( ,r si/l tq\n1 rti)l r. .^t r)i?l _tt z1,t c)I/l nr\/fJr6'v-t rvktl ,tfr,,;t i *z,rr Jt1.ir,1 ft,6 a)I/l v {)r,L z-t 2 ttra*-l4 c,_,+.L_6,;LL _ ^!tt)r)l)r Lrt 1 tvt zo - l-Ei N,\f ,,, q/V\\),.L rt I u; t,L q t_, n,r gilt _tt nrn gilr -zz. n ,t^ tJiTt -z^ t J!-tfih\)F* _aa Atnt xtb zt t 4) fr.r6.ta 4j ltlt 9b

r.r c)121 r^hr gl2l oryt ^,L4.. v .t a etf/l nnctryt l4r U12t ^6.r -.. vr g1/r -;r r..r 14 _cr rrr {ru} -r ra.t Jtltitt _.r, ni dl/t -ro n.r. [rr-l _11 a,r blt -i. rn\ l;lt -1A n^W _.i bt v l;lt -t. 6nr lat _bl ahr llt -t r At,r W J.r AA ,r. tr'.]t _bfl L7- n.r 4Jtg.iUJ _t o ()||Irevirh H..ibgc p.66 _h'r nhi o12t _h. Sociat&dRcligiourlfllmyofth.&wilhp.240,r.^ O|frcai.hHqihge, p. 22 -hr lr .r dI/t _n. CHAPTER FOUR

JEwrsH MovEMENTs rN ErcnrnnNrn cruruny Ano Irs INrpAcr ON TnB Muslru Wonr,o

a) Philosophy

Modem Orthodoxy comp.ises a fahly brcad specltum of movemcnis each drawing on several distincr, rhough related, philosophies, which in some combinarion provide the balis for all variations of the movcment loday; tbese ee discussed b€tow.

In 8fteral. Modeh Odhodoxy holds rhar Jewish law u nomal,ve and binding, whil€ simultan€ousty anaching a positive vatue to ml€racrron wirh the .,be modem world. ln this view, Orthodox Judaism can enriched., by ils inleFection wiri mod€mir); frlnler. 'nodem sociery creaes opponuniries to be productive citizens ensased in rhe Divine work of trapsforminq lh€ world ro benefit hummity,,. At tle same time, in o.der to preserve rhe integdty of hal.kha, any area of,powerfut inconsislency and conftict,, between Tomh md modem culrure musr be fitGred out. E.

Modem Odhodoxy, addirionally, assigns a centml role ro rhe 'peopte oflsrael" B. Modem Orthodoxy, in general, places a h,gh national. as welt as religious, significance on tne State of hrael, and Mod€m Onhodox ;nstitutions and individuals are, lypically, Ziglig in orientarjon. An addilioml manifeshtion is thai involvem€nt with non-onhodox Jews will exlend beyond "oubeach" to conlinued institutional r€tations &d @op€ratio|! see &4h9! undet Toruh Unaddo. b) Roots

Modern Onhodoxy traces irs rools to th€ works of Bebhi! Azie! Hiidesheime. (1720-1799) ad Sanson Raphael Hi.sch (1708_1288). Note that while Hildesheimets rcle is nor disputed - comprising distincr philosoohic and pmemtic contdburions - Hirsch's rcle is less clear, wirh sooe Hi6ch scholds uguing $al his ',Torah im D€.ech Erct2,, phitosophy is in fact at odds wilh that ofModem Orthodoxy; see turrher belgs and !a lhd8ildesh€imer anicle.

Torah im Derech Eretz .Tollh Hitsch's Toruh in Daech ErcE (n)li.r trb Tr.t rrl _ with the

wy of the Land") is a philosophy of Orthodox Judaism which formatises a relationship betwcen halakhically obscryst Judaism ald thc mod.m world. Hirsch held that Judaism .equires rhe applicarion ofTorah philosophy to all h'lmn endeavor and krowledge compatibte with it. Thus, secutar education becomes positive ,'Judaish a rcligiou duty. is not a nqe adjuncr ro tif€: it compnses .ll oflife... in the synagoSue and the kilchen, in rhe field sd rhe waEhous€, i! the ofiic€ and th€ pulpit... with the Fn and rhc chisel" u. Hirsch s vision, although not unqualificd, exiended to the sciences as well as (Cerman) philosophy to lireratur€, and culrw€. Torah im Derech Eretz remains influentialto this day in all breches of Orthodox Judaism.

jro3 Note tbat Neo Orrhodoxv. the movemenr descended from Hirsch,s Frankturt community re8ards itself 6s posirioned, idotogica y, oLrtside of contemporaly Modem Orrhodoxy; s€e turrher bgley. Hild€sheimer's pragmatism

Azriel Hildesheimer, along with Rabbi Hjrsch, was inshtent that for Ortbodox Jews iiving in rhe west, there was no possibility !o segregare oneselfbehind shetto wdls. On the contrary, modem Jewish €ducation must teach Jews how best to confionr ed d€at with rnodemity h all of iis

.CulrDred His approach, O.ihodoxy,', w6 defined as represenling ''uncondilional agreement with the culture of th€ presenr oay; narmony betwe€n Judaism and science; bu! also uncondiiionai stesdfasrness in rhe faith and tradiiions ofJudaism', E.

He was, however, "the pragBari$ rathe.lhan fie phitosopher", and il is hb acrions, .ath€r than his philosophy, whjch have b€come iNftutionaliz€d 6, in Modem Onhodoxy and rhrough which his influence is slill felt.

He eslablished Jewish education fo. males and femates, wbich included borh relisious a'd lccular srudies.

H. established HildBheim.r Rabbinical Seminary. the first Orthodox veshivot incorporaring modern Jewist, studies and acadenic scholarship in irs curriculum.

He was non"sectarian, and worked wirh comunal ,€4ers, even non_ Otthodox ones, on issues that affected the comneiry.

i', nr '1: . H€ maidained t"adirional atachn€nts ro d,e Land of lsnel and worked wirh the non-(hhodox on its behalf.

c) Torah aod Secular Ktrowledge:

Torah Unaada (r'11:l rDr, - 'Tomh and seculat knowledge,') is a philosophy conceming rhe secutr. wortd and Judaism, and in parricutar secular kDowledge 1nd Jewish howledge. Ir €nvisions a pqsa!4! (as opposed to theoretical) ''svnrhesis,, between Tofah scholarsh;D and Westem. secultr scholarship, entailing, also, positive involvement with the broad€r ,'individual comuity. Herc, rhe h3s absorH the ahirud€s chaEderisric of scterce, democ..cy and Jcwkh life and rcsponds app.opriatcty io divqsc @. reialions aDd contexts" The resulranr mode of O.thodox Judaism is refened to as "e!4[isL Onhodoxv'

philosophy, Thh as formulated roday, is to a ldge exrent a producr of the te.chinss ed philosophy of HaRrv Jo*ph Soloveitchik ( 1703_ l zgj), tsqEh Yeshiva .'Rav at Yeshiva Universiw. tn Soloveitchik,s,, rhoughl, Judaism, which believes rhar the wodd is "verv qood", enjoins man b engage in tikkun olan- "Halakhic Mn', musr thercfore att€mpl to bring the tucriry and puiry of the trasc€ndert reatm into the mteriat world u. Centist Onhodoxy is rhe doninanr mode of Modem Ghodoxy in the United Stares. while ToFl Umadda remains clos€ty ssciat€d with yeshiva Universiry. Torah Umadda is related fo H'6.h's Toruh in Derc.h E eE, but see bslgy for a comparison between rhe two.

.::. 132 : d) Religious Zionism

Modern Onhodoxy draws on the t€achings of Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook 11764 - 1735, " both .s regards irs views on Jew;sh P€oplehood md as regards the (related) interaction with the seculd worrd.

"Rav KooP saw Zigailp as a rnn of a divine schene fDally ro resull in the resettl€ment of the Jewish p€ople in its homeled, bringing salvation ("Geula') to the Jewish p€ople, and the emire world.

In Rav Kook's thought Koder, and Crol (ecred dd profane) play u extremely imponet role. Herc, KoAer, is lhe inner raan (rcason) of

reality and the meding of existence while Clol is tha! which is detached fiom (oder, and i! without ey mmiDg; Judaism, then, is lhc vehicl€ "whereby we sanctiry our lives, and atbch all th€ pmctical,

secula! elements of life to spiritual aoals which reflect the absolutc m€aning of existence - G-d Hinself' u.

In Is49L the Reli'rious Zionism of the "Dati Leuni" (1r', ,xi'', "National Relieious") donimt.s Modem Ortho.toxy. Here roo, rhc ideological basis is la.gely drawn from the teachings of Rav Kook u, and lllere is fterefore much overlap; philosophical differences, as well a! other "non-modem" foms ofReligious zionism, arc discuss€d b9!9!. See also Mbftchii Blei1lLDqi llslbrslMEplgelei ueldcli !4shlrqi gllLEzluzi Tod Et.tz Yist@l. e) Comparison with oaher movemeots

Various, highly d;ferins views are off€red uder the banner of Modern Orthodoxy, ruging iom traditionalist to revisionisr. In addition, some elem€nts of Ha.edi Judaism ("Ultm-Oihodox Judaism') appear to be more receptivc lo messages that have tradirionally been part of the Modem- Orthodox agenda. At the same dme! Mod€m O.thodoxy's l€ft wins nay app@ to align with mo.e tnditional elemenb of Consrvalivc Judai$. Thus, in cladrying its position, ir is usetul io discrEs Modcm frhodoxy with reference to orhd movenenc in Judaism. (i) Haredi Judrism

See also undet Centrbt Othodtu aad Diyire prcyidence fo.further etabo.otion ofthe diferyaca dtcEsed here.

Altlough there is some queslion a3 how prec'*ty ro define rhe distinction between Modem Onhodoxy and &redlllllqlsD, th€.€ is basic agreement that they may be disringuished on th€ ba!i! of three major

l Modem Orthodoxy adopts a relatively inclusive attilude sbnce toward sci€ry jn g€neEl, dd th€ leger Jewish communiry in panicutar.

2. Modern Onhodoxy is, in comparison, accommodating, ,,if nor welcoming to EgdsljlL general scholarship and !qi9!s9.

3. Modem Onhodoxy is almost unifonnly rec€ptive loward Israel and Zlglisq viewine the Stare of Israel (in addirion to rhe Land of Isael) as having inherent religious significance.

A fourth difference suggested, relares to the acceprabitity of mod€ration within Jelilb by. Both Mod€m Orthodoxy and Ultra Orthodoxy regard llala,t'a 6 Divine in origi4 ed a such, no posirion is 6med withour justifi cation in the Sbslkisjlrlb and in rhe Achrc m.

,.i l3a 'i: The mov€ments differ, however, in their approach lo strictu.es (ahula) and leDiencies (tras).

Modem Orthodoxy holds ftat strictures are nor !g!!44!iyg, rather, thes are a matter ofpersonal choice @; 'lseveriry and leniency &e rclevant only in circumstanoes of faclual doubt, not in siruarions of debale orvdied practice. In lhe laner situations, fie conclusion should be based solely on the legal analysh,'. Note thoush, thar in recenl yeds, many Modem Odhodox Jews e described as ,'increainsly st ing€nl in thetu adherence ro Jewhh law,, @.

h the Harcdi v;ew, on the other hand, "the mosr sever€ posirion_.. is ahe most likely basis for unity ard commonaliry ofpFctice within th€ Onhodox comunity and is th€.efore to be prefered". Further, "such severity... r€suli! h the grearest c€nainry that God,s will is being M- Wrtorrlled." Harcdi Jadaism thus rmds ro adopt crlnr6 as a

(As to the contenlion that Modem Orthodoxy's standards of observance of !4!4kbs arc, in facr, "relaxed,,'as opposed to modemte, see !9!9y under cfir,c'sn.) (ii) N€o-Orthodoxy:

Both Modern Orthodoxy and Neo Orthodoxy. rhe movemenr directly descend€d from Hisch's Frankfurt community, have combined Torah and secular knowledge with participaion in oontemporary western life, and.hus some mainlain that there is a d€gree of practical ard philosophical overlap between the two. The movemenrs are nevenhel€ls dhtinct, and in general, Neo-Orthodoxy has takcn a mo.e qualified approach ths Modcrn

:. r35 r: odhodoxy, emphasizing thd followeG musr cxe.cise caution in eDgasem€nB wift fte s€cule world.

Nole thouSh that difT€.ences between the movemenrs may be more than a question ofdegree: Hirsch scholars algue rhat Hischie philosophy is ar odds with that ofModem Orrhodoxy u, while Modm Ofhodox schols maintain that Modem Odhodoxy accords with HiFch's worldview @. These philosophical distinctions (though subrle), manifest i. markedly diverge rcliAious attitudes and p€Fpeclives; in facr, Shimon Schwab. second Rabbi of this comunity in the Uni.ed Sbt€s, is described as being "spirirually very distanf' fiom Yeshiva University and Modem Orthodoxy @.

From the viewpoint of Neo-Onhodoxy, ihat movement ditrers Som Modern Onhodoxy (and padcularly Centdsr Orthodoxy) on three main

. Thc role ofsccular lifc lnd culturc: In thc Hilschian vicw. inlcrncdon with the secular - and lhe requhite acquisition of cultur€ snd knowledge - is encouraged, insofar as ir facilirares the application of

Torah 10 wordly matte|s. For Modem &hodoxy, on the orh€r hand, seoular culture ed knowledge are seen a5 a complement to Torah, and, to some extent, encouraged for their own sake. Some woutd suggesl that in Modem Onhodoxy, Judaism is effich€d by inr€racrion wilh modemity, whereas in N*O.thodoxy hl]man exp€ricnc€ (and modemiry) e enriched by the applic{tion of ToEh ourlook and

. Priority of ToEh ve.sus Seculd knowledse: In the Hir$hian view, Torah is the "sole barom€kr of r.urh" by which ro judge secutar

lt6 disciplines, as "there is only one uuth, and only one body of knowledge that can s.rye as the statldard... Comped to it, all the other sciences ar€ valid only provisionally.', (Hirsch, comenrary ro LwiliN 18:4-5). By controlt, id the view ol Modem Orthodoxy, although To.ah is the "preeminent cenrer!', seculd knowledge is considered to offer "a diferent perspective rhar may not agree at all with tTorahl ... Ibu0 bolh toselher present rhe possibiliry of a larg€r truth." (ToMh Uhadda, p.236\.

Broader cornrnunal involvemctrt: Neo-Onhodoxy, influenced by HiNch's philosophy on /!aq4 (secassion), ',could nor counrenance rccognition of a non-beli€ving body ss a legitimate representarive of the Jewish peopl€", and is lherefore oryosed to the L[jzlsgL! moven€nt, wh;ch is afiiliared wirh the World Zionisr Orqanization

and lhe Jewish Asencv N. Modem Onhodoxy, on rhe other hand, is chaEct€rised by ils involvem€m with rhc broader J€wish Comunirv and by its Reliqious Zionism.

(iii) Religious Zionism

Broadly defined, Reliqious Zionism is a movement which embEces the ids ofJewish national sovereianN. ofren in connection wirh rhe beliefin the abilib, ofthe Jewish people to bring abour a r9d9a!d!9_!E!e through natuml means, md onen atriburing f€tigions signilicmce to the modem (This atiilude is rejected by most Hredim - but not all, patticulady the Hardal movement.) Thus, in this sense, Religious Zionism in facl encompases a wide spectrum of religious views including Modern

ll? ij Nole how€ver, that Mod€h Onhodoxy, in facl, ov€rlaps to a lege extent with "Relieious Zionism" in its narrower fom ("rhrcughour rhe wo.ld a "rcligious Zionisi day $hool" is a synonym for a "modem Onhodox day school"'llll). At ihe lerst, the two are not in sny direcr conflict, and generally @, coexist sharing both valucs and adher€nt5. Funhq n pBluce, exc€pr ar iheir extremes, the difrerences b€tw€en R€ligious Zionism ud Modem Onhodoxy in Israel are not pronounced, and they are often identical,

€specially in recent years and for the younger generaiion @.

Neverlheless, the two movemenb are pHlosophically distinct on rwo

. Firstly, (conservativ€) R€ligious Zionisls ditrer witl Mod€m Orthodoxy h its approach lo seculu howledge @. H€re, ergagement with the s€cular is permissible, and encour€ed, but only insfar as this benefib rhe SE!9_9]LI!E9L secular knowledse is viewed d valuable for practi@l ends, lhouah nol in dd of itselt See turthe. under Torah Unadda.

. Secondly, under Religious Zionisn, a 'hationaiistic colo.ation" is Aiv€n to lradilional religious conc€pts, whereas, by conlrast, Modem Onhodoxy includes "a greater balance which includes openness to the nonJewish world" B; rhus under Religious Zionish lhe Jewish nation is conccivcd of as rn "organic unily", whcrcas Modcrn Odhodoxy emphasises fte individual ru.

Applying the above distinolion, in I!!qg!today Modem Orthodoxy - as distincl ftom Religious Zionhm - is reprcsented by only a handtul of institufioN: the Reliqious Kibbutz Movemenr, Neeaaaei Toruh y Aloda,

138 j the Ulsilsd political pafly, and rhc Shslom Hartm.n Institutc (some would includc Y€shivat Har Etzion and Yeshivat Ham;vt.ar / Ohr Torah Stone Institutions).

(iv) Conservative Judrism

In some ares, Modem Onhodoxy's left wing appears to ali8n with moE tEditioml elements of Conservstive Judsism, ed in fact som€ on the lefr ofModcrn Onhodoxy havc allid with the forn€rly Consenative Udg! for Tnditional Judaism. Non€theless, th€ rwo movcmenrs aft complelely distirct. tubbi Avi Weiss - ftoft thc left ofModcm Onhodoxy- strcsses rhat Orthodox and Cons€rvativc Judaism ,E "so vcry differ€nt in ... thrce ftndaneftal ar€asr Torch ni-SiaL rabbinic interpr€tation, and rabbinic legislatiotr" G!.

. Toruh nisiMi ("To.a\ Fron li!si"): According to Wciss, Modcm Onhodoxy, in line with thc rcst ofonhodoxy, holds lhat Jewish law is Divine in origin, ed as such, no und€rlying rirciple nay he conpromkcd in accostinS for changbS politic.l, socill or cconohic conditions, whereas Cons€walivc Judaisn holds that Eglkb should make us€ of litenry and hislorical analysis in dcciding Jewish la% and may rev€rs€ decisions of lh€ As@!b that ore held to b€ in.pplicsbl€ today. @. "The Cons€rvariv. Mov€ftenr hainraiDs that the purpos€ of th€ law in the lirst place is ldaely to concretiz! moral

values, and so the specific form ofthe law cln and should be changed ;f ir is nor effcctively doing lhaf' @. (Within lhe contexr rhar'lrjhe halatlic sysEm, hilto.ioally consid€red, evinces a consllhr Ftrem of respondveness, change at|d vdicry. Cons€Barive Judaism did not

+lnpE read lhat r€coid as can€ blanche for a mdical revision or even rejection of ihe system, but rath€. a3 wanat for valid adjustmenl where absolut€ly necessaiy" m.)

Rabbinic inrerprelation: weiss argued dar (Modem) Onhodoxy conten& that leAal authoriry is cMulative, ard that a contemporaly ze{e! (de.isot cd only issu€ judsneD.s basen on a tull hisiory of Jewish legal precedent, whereas th€ implicit argument of rhc Conservative movemenr is that prec€dent provides illustntions of possible positioN Eth€r than binding law. Consenatism, lher€fore, remains free to select whichever position wilhin the prior history appeals to iia$. "Conservadve rabbis have grear respect for the S!!llla!]\ryt!, but do not view ii as the ultimate authority becaus€ it was written over 400 yem ago &d nuch has changed since lhen in th. halakhah, io society and in ou outlook on life" @.

R bbinic legislation: Weiss arSued that since the Onhodox community is rituatly observ$t, R bbinic hw lesislatei by (todays) Onhodox Gbbis ca' meaningtully bccome binding if acc€pted by th€ coffnunity (se€ 4i!bgg), while Conservative Judaism has a largely non-obseryant laity. @. Thus, although Conservatism similarly holds that "no law has aurhority unl€ss it becomes pan ofthe conc€rn and praclice of the community" @ (and, in fact, the decision of when change is necessary is b€coming "a communal matter at lh€ congr.gational level"), sinc€ its constituency is generally not composed ofritually observant memb€rs @, commulal acceplance of

:: 140 !: a "permissile custom' is not me$ingftl , ed. as a resul! rclared Rabbinic legislation cannot alsune ihe siatus oflaw.

ln geneml, Modem Orthodoxy does not, therefore, view the process by which the Cons€rvative movement d€rides ,ala*}a as leaitimare - or with th€ non-nomative weiShting signcd to halakha by the Conseraarive movcment. ln paniculd. Modcm Orthodoxy disa8rees rh mmy of Conservative Judaism's Aalarric rulings, panicularly 6 resdds issues of ggAl]3lislil!4. See tunher on the O4hpdgr_yiqs and rhe Conseruarive vie$.

Modem Onhodoxy clearly diff€rs from the approach ofRefom Judajsm and Reconstructionist Judaism which do not consider ralat a to be obligalory.

(v) Right and left

The philosophical specbrm within Modeb orthodoxy has be€n redefmed by vdious challenges nom both lhe right and the left over the last 30-40 ye3$. Among the issues have been thc €xt€rt to which Modem Onhodoxy should c@p@te with the mor€ liberal doominations, suppon seculd cademic pusuits combined with religious leiming, and embrace eFons to give women a larger rol. in Jewish leaming and worship I2ll, the acc€piability of modem textual criticism as a tool for Torah stldy is also

To de ideolosical risht, lhe line between Hedi ed Modem Onhodox has blured in rccert years (some have refened to this trend as "haredization" @). In addilion to increasing stingency in adherence to Halakha, nany Modem Onhodox Jews expr€ss a srowing sens€ of alienation ftom the ldger secular cultur€ u. Here "the baldce has ripp€d heavily in favor of Tonh ov€r madda ... lal|d tnany] have rcdefined "madda" as suppon for malidg one's livelihood in th€ secule wor)d! not cullurally or intellectually engaAing with i!" E.

A! th€ same time, adherents on the ideological leii have b€gun 1o develop new institutions that aim to bc outward looking whilst maintaining a discou$e betwen modemity and halalhah. The r€sultant @e!_O4hsCslr $eks ro rc*ngaBe with se.ulu studics, J€ws of all dcnomiEtions and global issues. This Dovement ha! its own Yeshiva in New Yodq Yeshivat Chovev€i Torah. Some wilhin this movement have experimented with orthodox eSalitadanism where sender equality solutioN ee found throush halathah. This has led to wom€n Eking on more leadeBhip roles. Others in this movemenl are increa3ingly re-engaging wilh social .justice issues from a halakhic poinr of view @. Criticism

Oen€ElisatioB conc€ming Modcm Ododoxy @ difrcult to d!aw, and, 6 such, uy elilieillq My be aimcd at a !gs!!s!. This section deals with criticism r€lari.g to standeds of observance ed to s@ial issues; as resards ils lhilelppbr se "Criticism" under Tonh Umadda.

Stsndards of observance

There is an often rep€ated conlenrion thai Modem Or'lhodoxy has lower standards of obsewance of tradnional Jewish laws md customs lhan other branches ofonhodox Judaism N. This view is largely anecdolal, and is based on individual b€havioui, as opposed to any formal, institutional positionr @

ir42a "Ther€ are at least rwo disrinct rypes of Modem Orthodox.. One is philosophically or ideoloqicallv modem, while the other is more approprialely characlerized as behaviorally modern... [The] philosophicauy Moddn Onhodox would be rhose who are meliculously observanl of H6lakh.h but nre, nevertheless, philosophically modem....The b€haviorally Moden Orthodox, on the orher hand, are not deeply concem€d wilh philosophical ideas...by and large, they define themselves as Modem Onhodox leither] in rlle sense thar rhey arc not meticulously ob$rvant [or] in refercnce to... riehr-win

Iotroduction of "reform3"

whercas lhe Modem Onbodox posidon is (gencnlly) presented s "unqu€slioned allegisnc€ to rhe primacy ofTorah, and that fie apprehension ofall other irtellectual disciplines musr bc rcoted and viewed drcugh lhe @, prism of Torah" Eqedi e,orpt havc sometimes compared Modem Orthodoxy with 6ly Reform Judaism in Cglloely: Modem Onhodox Rabbis have be€n criticised for auempting ro modiry &E!!Lls!a in adaptins Judaism to the needs ofthe mod€rn world.

Note that claims of rhh naturc hav€ been comrnonplace wirhin Orthodox Judaism s;nce $e firsr "reforms" ofl34lgl&gphsglEirsgb and Aziel Hildesb€imer. Thus, in Eq9E9 of rhe esrly 1700s, all ofJsdsS@ tha! difered fron the strictest forms pr$ent at lhe time was called. "Reform,,. Then, as now, Modem Onhodoxy took paiN to disunce its "reforms" -

:.. t43:: those which could be justified as bascd on rhc ShslkleLlstkh and pa*ilq - liom those ofthe Refom movem€nt, which could nor.

"It is foolish to believe thal it ;s the wording ofa lmyer, th€ notes of a synagogue tune, or the orde. of a speciql service, which form the abyss beiween lRefonn ud Othodoxyl... It is not the so-cslled Divine Service

which s€parares us, lrarher it] is the theory - the principle lof faithfulness to Jewish law]... ifthe TgrcL is io you the Law ofggd how dEre you plac€ another law above it ed so along with God and His Law only s lons d you tnereby "progress" in orher respects ar the same time? (Religion A ied to Progess, Sanson RaphaelHirs.h")

Sociologisl and philosophicrl dibmnrr

@ rhat the abiliry of Mod€m Orhodoxy ro attmct a large following and maintain its srrengrh as a movement is, (ironically), inhibited by the fact that it ernbnces !!gdg!!ig - iE raison d'e|e - ed ah^t it is highly !4i9!sl and i ellectual.

. The very te.m "Mod€m Orthodoxy" is, in sofn€ sense, an 9!qgr9!. One of the characteristics of all r9!gi9s!__94b9d9ri9t is tlle submission to the authority of iis rradition - authoritv and tradition re a prerequisite for onhodoxy, and within e onhodoxy, the individual is expe€ted to perceive himself as not having any choice bul to

confom ro all of its dictates, Mod€milv. by contrast, €mphasiz€s a

measurc of personal auronom) as well as rationalisr rmlh @ Some implications are that Mo.lem O,thodoxy is, almost by dcfinilion,

::-144:: inhibit€d ftorn b€coming a sEong movement, b€clusc this would .which edtail organization ,nd autho.ity to a dcg!€ goc, agsins! rhe very g.ain ofmodemity". A related difficulry is lhat Modem Onhodox 4bbi! who do adopt stingencies may, in the proce$, losc ihc suppon ofpreciscly lhc 'Modcm' group which thcy sought to l€ad.

. Modcm Onhodoxy's "highly i cllecnrd and nrional $anc.', pres€nrs iB own diffculties. Firstly, the ideolog/ cnlails built-in tensions and filqucntly rcqlires conscious living wirh inconsistency @ (for insrarce, modemily vs. odhodoxy). In fsrq evm amon$t its lcaddship th€re is limitd agr€em€nt "on the philolophicat paramereF of nodem Odrcdoxy" @. Secondly, th€rc aE also rhos€ who qu€stion whcrhs "the lit€tanu!... with irs in&llcctudly elidsr bias fails to dircctly ad&€ss rhc majolity of irs p6ctitioneF' @. Thc

sugS€stion herc is that Modcm Odrodoxy may nor providc a dir€ctly applicable th€olo$/ for th€ contemponry Modem Onhodox fdily; s€e frrdh€r dis.,.rslion under Tonh Unadda.

Modern O bodox advocrcy grcups

There arc a few organizations dedicat€d to turthering Modem Onhodoxy !s a rrligious EEnd: The largest ad oldesr ar€ lhc O4hgdElbig! Onion of Onhodox Je*ish Conglgations ofAmcrics), which sponsors yourh $oups, kashrut sup€nision, and many other activities and its rabbinic counterpar! the Rabbinicrl Council of Ameica (RCA). Bodr havc tsr.€l and diaspora (oursid€ th€ land of Israel) pro$ms.

. Nstionsl Council of Youne l$ael is a consortium of 200 mosrly modem-onhodox sFagogues h dre Unit€d Stales and l$acl. M€imad is a political/int€llcctud altemativ€ to Israelk highly r€tigious partie! or !hos. hGtilc to modcm s@uldisr

Th€ Jcwish Orthodox Feminilt Alliancc (JOFA) a forum for cnhecing th€ roles of Orthodox Jewish *om.n wirbin rh€ Onhodox community, and reducing Onhodox r€ligiolls disabilitics agairur

Reconstructionist Judtillt

Recomtructionist Judai$ is a modcm American-bas€d &!4irh EsysEs!! based on lhc iders of the la& !!es!esai-r!4pl!! ( l78l - 1783). The movement vicws Judaisn as a proSr.ssively evolving civilizarion.u h originaled as the radicrl left branch of Cons€rvative Judaism bcfoE it splinier€d. Thc movemeot devclop.d from thc late smrcenrh century 1720s

!o 1940s, and ir cstablish€d a rsbbinical colleg€.

Th.r€ is subsbndd deoloSical divqsity within rhc movemcnr. Halalhs is not considered bindin& but is lreated as a valuable cultural r€mnanr rhat should be upheld unless therc is r!3son for th€ contrary. The movement €mphasiz$ positivc views rowards lSgd@igE end considers r€tigious custom to b€ subsdvient to pcrsonal auronomy. R€.o[shdionisrs find Faditional lheistic vicws found in Judaism ro bc inc.npariblc wilh modem thought and p.opose a naturalisric ourlook insGad.@ a) Origitr

Rcconsluctionism wls dev.lop€d by Babbi! Mord€cai Kspls ( | 78 l- l?83) and lra Eiscnstcin (1706-2000) over a period of tinc spanning ftom

tl 146 7." the late I 720s to the I 940s. Il made its greatest stride in becoming th€ founh hovement in Norlb Am.ricu Islsirs (Onhodox, CoNcrvative and Blfe4q being the other three) with the founding ofthe Reconstructionisr Rabbinical e9!9e9.

Reconstructionisl Judaism is rhe first major movement of Judaism ro orisi@te in Nonh Americai the second is th€ Humeisdc Judaism mo!ement tounded in 1963 by Rabbi Sh.Min wine.

b) Belief:

Rabbi Mordecai Kapls believed !ha! in light of adveces in philosophv. lqissg and hi$gry as they existed in the 1930s and 1940s, it would b€ inpossible for modeB Jews !o oontinue to adherc to mdy of Judaism's taditional lh€ological claims. Kaplan's !3qrsUsle !h9q!99 hd ben seen as a variant of Johr Dewev's philosophy. Dewey's natuElisn conbined 4h9ig beliefs *ith rcligious terminolo$/ io oder to consfucr a reliSiously satis8ing philosophy for thos€ who had lost faith in traditional r9-!icig!.

Kaplan amrmed that God is not pcrsonal, and lhal all anthfopomomhic descriptions of Cod are, at best, imperfe.l metaphoN. Kaplan's theology went beyond this ro clain thar cod is the sum of all naaural proc€sses that allow man to become lelf-fulfilled. Kaplan Mote rhar "to believe in God means ro take for granied lhat it is man's destiny to ris above the brute and io eliminate all forms ofviolenc€ and exDloitation from

t: t47 :.1 Not all of Kaplan's ldtings on the subject w€re consistent; his position evolved som€what over the yea$, and rwo distinct theologies cd be discemed with a carctul reading. The view more popularly associar€d wilh Kaplan is sticr naturalism, a /a Dewey, which has been criricied A using religious terminolo$/ to mask a non-gsiqlg, ifnor out iahl atheistic, posnion. However, a s€cond strand of Kaplanian thmlo$/ exisrs, which

makes clesr that at times Kaplan believed that cod ha! omoloqicll reatity, a real and absolute existence iddependenr of human beliefs. In rhis latrer lheolo$i, Kaplan srill rejects clacsical forms of theism and Ery b€lief in

mimcles, but holds to a posidon thlt in some ways is neo-Platonic.

Mosl "Classical' Reconsructioni$ Jews [rhos€ following Kaplan] reject tradirional forms of rheism, lhough lhis is by no means univ€6s1. Many are dgilg a s'n3ll number accept r\abbalistic views of cod, or the conceDt ofa Dersonal God.

Though many of Krplan's followers foud his ideas sbout God compelling, Kaplan's theolos/, a! he explicitly ststed, doe! not r€present the only Reconstructionist und€rs.anding of th€olo8/. Th€olo$i is not the comeEtone of the Reconstuciionist movelnen . Much morc cenFal is the

ids lhal Jud.ism is q civilizstion, and lhat the Jewish people must take on activc role in ensuring;!s futurc by panicipatina in its onaoing evolution.

Consequently, a strain of Reconstructionism exists which is distincdy non-Kaplarian. In this vi€w, Kaplstl's assenion! concemins belief and pmcfice arc largely rejecred, while the tenet! of an "evolving religious civilialion" uc supporlcd. fhc ba$is lbr rhis approsch is rhar Kaplan spokc

for his gen{alion: he also wrore that cvery gcneration would need to defin€

i_ 148.; itseif and its civilizstion for itself. In rhe thinking of these Reconstructionists, what Kaplan said conceming belief ed pracrice is nor applicable today. This approach may include a belief in a personal cod, acceplance of fie concept of I'chos€nness,', a belief h some form of rlesurrection!' or continued cnstenc€ of the dead, a.d thc edstence of s obligato.y form ofHalakhah. In fie late., in panicular, there ha! d€velop€d a broadd concept of,Halakhah, wherein conccpts such as ,'eco-Kashrur" c) Jewish law and tradition

As in Seform Judaism. Re.onsulcrionisr Jud.ism hotds tnal contemporary West€m s€cular monliry has pr€cd€nce over J€wish law and theolo$/. It does not ask lhat its adhcrcnas hold !o any partic'tlr! bcli€fs, nor does it ask thal Jewish law be accepted as normative. Unlike classical Reform Judaism, ReconstructionisB holds rhat a p€rson,s default position should b€ to incorpod€ J€wish laws and rradirion inro rheir lives, unless lhey have a speaific r€ason to do orherwis€. The most imponarr disrinction b€tween Reconsrucrionist Judaism and traditional Judaisrn is rhat Reconstructioni$n feels that all of hqlskbs should b€ categonzed as "&j@}!", and nor as !ey.

RecoDslructionism promolcs many rraditionsl Jewish practices, while holding lhat contemporary Wesrem seoular moraliry ha! pre@dence ov€r Jewish law. Thus, !qi!s$t (commandments) have been rcplaced with "blt!sIg", non-binding customs rhll c.n bc dcmocrulically lcocprcd or rejected by lhe congreSations. Folkways rhar ar€ promot€d inclu& keQinS E9br9! in the plalgr scrvice, studyirg 1p!4h, daily prayer, weating Lipgf Cturnuftar). El!i!e! and letll! durins pnyer, and obscrvance ofth€ &!isb holidavs. d) Principles of belief

ln pEcticc, R bbi lkplan's books. espccially Itr€ lrear ing ol Cod in Modem Je$sh Religion and Judaitn at a Civilization a& de facto slatenenb of principlas. ln 1986, the Reconstructionist Rabbinicrl Association (RRA) and lhe Fedcrltion of RcconsFucaionist Congregations and ltavuot (FRCH) psssed tlla oficial Plat om on Recoathetionisn (2 pagcs). lt is not a mandatory stalement of principles, but rather a cons€nsus of cur€nt bcli€fs. [Se€ thc FRCH Newslcttcr, Scpt. 1986, pages D, E.] Major poinB ofihc platfonn s!a!e that:

"Judaistn is the rcsult ofnaNrsl human dcv€lopment. Th€r€ is no such thing as divine int€rvcntion; Ju.Lai3'n i3 an cvolving rEligious civilization; Zigqillq and aliyah (irunigration to lsrael) arc .ncougcd; RcconsEuctionist JudsisEr is bosed on s d€ftocratic connunity whc.c thc laity c{n makc decisions, not just nbbiq The &Bh was not inspir€d by God; it only com€s ffon the social and historical dcvelopmcnt ofJewish pcoplq The classicll view ofcs! is r€jectcd. God is rcdenncd as lhc aM of natural powcrs or p.ocass€s lhat dlows mankind to gain self-tulfillncnt and moml imp.ovcmcdi Thc idca rha! Cod chose the Jewish people for any purpose, in sny wsy, is "norally un&nabl€", bec.us€ anyone who has such beliefs 'impli€s the superiority of d|e clcc! comrnunity and lhc rcjection of

ISO .-- -E Most R€constructionists do not believe in l9!9bj9! (the idea rhaa Cod can reveal God's will to human b€in$). This is dismissed as supematuralism. Ksple posits thsr rgJElgligs "consists in disengaging ftom th€ lradinonal contexl lhose elemeds in ir which answer permanent poslulales ofhuman natue, and in integrrting them inro our own ideolog ... the resl may b€ relegaled to archaeolry.tt (The Meaning ol God in Moderr

Many writers bave criticized fie novemenfs mosr widely held th€ology, rtliqious natumlism. David R.y Crifiin and Louis Jacobs have obj€ct€d to th€ redefif,ilions of th. rem! 'rcvclarion" and "cod'as bcing intellectually dishonesl, and as bcing a form of,'conv€rsion by definirion"j in lheir critique, these redcfinitions rlke non-thcisric beli€fs and atiach th€istic terms to them.

similar critiques havc be€n pur fonh by Rsbbis Nei.!.lcilbq3! (Sac'el Frasae,rr, p.200); !!!l&[S!9i!bcr8 (Milton Steinbery: Portait oJa Rabb, by Sinon Novcck, Krav, 1978, p.259-260; snd Mich^el Samuels (7'he Lod it My Shepherd: 'Ihe meoloe/ ofa Carihs Ood 1996).

Re@nstructionist Judqism is gggLEdg! with rcsfct to qcndcr rcles. All positions ar€ op€n to both Sendeq they arc open to lesbians and gay e) Jewish idetrtity

Reconstructionist Judsism allows irs lghbis !o d€rermine lheir oq policy regaiding officiation ar inrermadages; sbout two-thirds will do so. Some congr€gations accept petxillrgql d€scen! as well as !44d!!ssl! ;.e.,

{ r5l i children of one Jewish parent, of either sex, are considered Jewish if mis€d as J€ws. This is less restridive than the rad;rionat standard that only

considers children wirh Jewish mothers to be Jewish, rc8ardl€ss ofhow rhey

The role ofnon-Jews in R€codtructionist congreSstions is a mater of ongoing debate. Pracdccs vary widely belw€en synagogu€s. Mosl congr€ga.ions striv€ to srrike a baldcc berween inclusivity and inregrit of

bounda.i€s. The Jewish Reconsrruclionist F€deration (JRF) has issued a non- binding staremenr atcmpting ro delineare the process by which conSreSations set policy on d.sc issu€s, and s€rs fonh sampt€ recommendalions. Thes€ issues are uhimarety decided by locat tay leadeBhip. [Ca, Halakha Liye? by Rabbi Edward Feld, ft.

Rec o,15 | ru c t i on is t, Y 01.59 (2 ), F all | 99 a, p.u -7 2l

D Reconstructiotrist orgadzatiotrs

Ove. 100 synagogues and hatrror , mosdy in rhc Unit€d Skres od Csada, e amliated with the Jewish Reconstrucrionist F€derarion. The Recodstructionisr Rabbinical Colleq€ educat€s tabbis and canto6. The Reconstruclionisr Rsbbinical Aqsocislion is the professional orgsdzation of R€constfl ctionist mbbis.

Affiliated corsregations Os€h Shdom Svnacocue r|-aurel. MaNland) g) Relation to other Jewish mov€ments

Originally an offshooi of Cons€rvative Judaism/Maloni Judsism. Reconstructionism reBins warm relstions wirh both the Conservative/l4asoni novcmcnr and B9broj!d4i!@. Odhodox Jldaism,

: lt2:i how€ver, considers R€construcrionism ro b€ heretical.A The E:!i!b R€constructionist Fdention is a memb€r of the World Union for Proqreisivc Judlism.Ill

Jewiib Renewrl

Jewish Rencwal is a r€cenr !qglgE9!! in JlddlE wNch end..vo6 to rcinvisonG modem Judaism $/idr rygiesL E!sid!e, !q!r!93l lnd Edye a) Overview

The tcrm Jewish Rcncwal describe "a set ofFacrices within Judaism that attcmpt to rcinviAoEte what it vic$ s ! moribund and uniDspirina Judaism wfth nysticrl, tlasidic, mulical and nativc pracricrs drawn fioln a vadety of tradirional and untradirional, ,cwish and other, soutres. ln lhis scnsc, Jcwish r€ncwd is an approach !o Judaism du! crn be found wirhin s.gmenb of eny of the Jewish dcnominadons."l@l

The term also rcfcrs to ah emcrging Jewish movemenr, the Jewish Renewal movement, which dc$ribes irself as ,,a worldwidc, trsnsdenoninalional moveftcnr ground€d in Judrisn's Fophetic and nyslical t?dition!." fll Thc J€wish Rdrewal novcmcnr inmporat€s social vicws such as f€minism. .nvironmcnralisft snd peei&s.

Th€ novcrncnt's most prominenr l..dd is Rsbbi ZglEg4..l!9h!9bt9l Ste!g4i. Other promincn lesd€€, teachers and auihors associated wirh Jcwilh Rcncwal includc Dr. Aihur crc€q Rabbis Prm Baugh, Ihvid coop€r, Ellio. Cinsb€rs, Shcfa Cold, Ly!!.tiedjeb, Miles lk&rsen, !!icb!cl t949r Goldie Milarm. Marcia prager, Daniel Siesel, Shohama Wiene., David Wolfe-Blmk, Stan Lcvy, Ti%h Firestone, and Arthu Waskow.

Jewish Renewal brings lebbqli$ie and Hasidic rheory and pracd@ into a non-Qlbgdq{, eqalitdian franework, a ph€nomenon somedmes reren€d to a! nco-Hasidism. Like ttasidic Jews, Rencwst Jews often add to tradhional worship ecsktic pracdces such as mtion, ghsd dd @99 ln augrn€nting J€wish rhual, some Rencwal J€ws borow ft€ely and openly from Buddhism. S!i!E and orher fairhs. b) Hirrory

Jewish Ren€wal, in ils mosl S€neml s€nse, hss ils oriSins in th€ North American Je*ish count€Fculnr.al nends ofthc lare t960s and eirly 1970s. DurirS this period, groups ofyoung rsbbis, academics and potiricrt activisr5 founded €xp€r;m€ntrl Elaargf (singular: cra'ryai) or ',felowships,, Iior PEyer and study, in reacrion lo wha! rhey perceived as an ovcr- iNtilutionalizedand unspiritual Nonh Anerican Jewishesrablishmem.

Initially the main inspintion wes th€ picaislic feltowships of tbe Phais€es and other ancient Jewish secrs.

Also initially, some of 6esc groupi likc the Boston-area flavrar S4@ attempted to tunction as tuLfl€dged comnuncs aft€r the nodct of lheir secular counterpans. Others fomcd as communities widin ihc u.be or sububan Jewish establishm€nt. Foundcrs ofthe havuot includd th€ tiberal political aclivist Arthur Walkow, Michacl Strassf.ld (who lal€r becune mbbi for a Conservative cong€ga.ioD and then moved on ro serve a major Reconsructionhl congregation), snd Zalman Schachter. Although the leadership and ritual privileges wcre initially men-only, as in Onhodox lsl4lh praclice, the 's@nd wav€" of Anerican fminism soon full integration of women in these comunities-

Apart Aom some rentative anicles in Rerpo6" md other Jewish studenl magazines, the eady havurot attracted little attenlion in the wider Nonh Amer;ca Jewish comunity. Then, in l9?3, Michael dd Sharon Stassfcld relea$d fte Ja ish Catalog: A Do4-Yourself Kit. Ptrrctocd afrel the .ecetuly-published cou&r-cuhure Whole Earth Catalog, rhe book seryed both ss a baic reference on Judais dd Ameri.in Jewish lifc, s well as s playtul mmpendiuin ofJewish crans, recipes, marional pracrices, ed political aclion ideas, all aimed ar disaffected youDg Jewish adults. rr" Je ish Catalog became one of the best-selling books in Ane.ics Jewish hislory to lhat date and spaMed two s€quels. A nuch more widespread haruah movement soon emerg€d, including self-gov€ming havulo! wirhin Bgjbr!!, g9!s9ry4i!9 dd B9!9!es!9dg synagoeues.

By 1980 an increasing nunbet of hdwot haA moved away from slrictly tradirior8l Jewish woBhip plaotices, as membes added Englhh readlngs and cha s. poery ftom other spiritual rraditions, percussion instruments, ud ovenll e less fomal approach to wo$hip- c) Renewal and tbe cotrtefipor.ry Jewish commuoity

Sbrislics on the nmber of Jcws who idenn& themselv€s as "Renewal" are not readily ayailable. Nevcnh€less, the movem€nt has had a significan! impact on ihe other non-orthodox strem of Judaism within the

United Slates. Perhaps the greatest impacl has been on the Reconslructionist movem€nt, which bege .s d avowedly mtionalistic ed intellectual irsri phenonenon but, uder rhe influence of rabbinic dd l.y leaders with a R€newal orientalion, ha come to emb€ce lewish mystical imagery ad pFctice, Fnicularly in ils wholly new s€ries ofpnyer books issued in rhe 1990s. The often-controveNial rend in non-Onhodox movemenrs lo*eds increEed ritual md leadeFhip privileges for wom€n, lesbitus and says alguably has its orisin in the liberal political activism of those havurot which fomed the kemel of ReneMl.

SiSns of Renewal influenc€ can b€ found elsewh€.e; it is nor ucomrnon for congregtioN not associated with the Renwal movement to feature workshops on J€wish mtion and various Judaized forms of yoga. Many melodies and liturgical imovations !re als shaed among the Refom, Ren€wal, and Reconstructionist movements. Even mbbis trained by one of thes movemenb have begun to $ac congreAations with orhc! 6ffiliations. An exdple of a Jewish Renewal codnunity can b€ foud at Bg$Mkld:in Sd Fr.ncisco, founded by Rabbi Michael Lemer in 1996.1u

Criticism Nnd response

Crnics of Jewish Renewal claim that the movem€nt emphasizes individual spirkual experience and subj€ctive opinion ov€r communal norms dd Jewish Exrual literacy; the above-mentioned formalization of lhe ALEPH ordination progEms may be a respotre to such criticism. Some cntics wilhin lhe Jewish comlnuity have disroised Jewish Renewal s "Ngylgg Judaism."@3 Oders r€ply that the oiticism is overblown and thal th€ community values a range of practices and that textual lit€racy is a pdority witlin the movenenl as a whole.

:156.i sone find fault with whar they consider to be excessive borowing from non-Jewish traditions. They hold lhal just as Jews cdnor Edopr Chrisaian beliefs ed practices and slill oonsider rhemselves to be followers of Judaism, one ctunot adopt Buddhist, Sun, and pol)aheisnc beliefs ard pEctices ed still @Nider themselvcs to be part of Judaih. Some Rencwalists counrer that Jud.ism hos loos siocc Gsimilated Cuaanirc, Babylodar, Hellenistic and Muslim clcmenrs wirhour ham to its inregrity, dd that Renewal-sF/le "deep ecm€flism.' poses no tbreaa to Judailn.

Like all relisious movements, th€ movement faces challenses roday.

Some within the Renewal community maintain that the movement has been more successftl in providins occasional ecslatic "peak experiencest' al woNhip services and spiritual retreaB rhan in inculcatins a daily discipline olreliSious practice. OtheN have obscrved a tension within the comuniry between $o* who prefer to focus on lib€nl social acrivism on Ame.ican, Middle East Dd global issues; and rhos€ who favor e emphdis on mation, tex! study ud worship. These, bg.rh€r with the challenge oftEining and r€cruitiDg irture AeneEtioos of l€aders, aie among lhe issues facing Jewish Renewal today.

Rabbinic Judaism

Rabbinic Judaism or Rabbinigm (l|brc\\: "Yehadut Rabahn" - ,lt1h r:tn) is the mainstred .eligious system of post-Clelpgrs Js!hi!q. 11 evolved after lh€ destruction of the S999!sL&!qp!9 in 70 CE by the 49!ee! E!4p!r9, when ir be(me impossibl€ !o practice the religious cusroms and rittral d'mal srifices lhat were a! lhal lin. @nEul to Jsish obs€rvance. R.abb;nic Judaim developed as a successor slslem b€twen rhe second to

:rr7a sixth centuries CE, wirh the development of the lqlllsd sd oEl law ro guide lhe inlerpretetarion of J9!ai!h_!9!i!grq dd to emble the pracdce of Judaism in the absence of Tenple sacrince ed other practices no longer possible. Rabbinic Judaism is based on the .radirion rhat ar Moun Sinai !!9!99 received directly from Cod th€ 19!ab rPenrareuch) as well as additional oml uderslanding snd r€velation, the "onl law,' that was tmnsmihed by Moses to the p€ople in oral fom.

Mlinstream Rabbhic Judaism conbasrs with KaEile Judaism, which dispules tle val;dity of the g!allg!" and the proc€dures used ro interprel Jewish sdirture. Although there are now profound ditTerences among Jewish denominalions ofRabbinic Judaism with respecr to the bindins force of lsl4t!4 and the willingness to challeng€ p.ecedins interprctations, all identiry themslves as coming ftom the tadirion of rhe oral law and the

Rabbinic method ofddysis. It is this which distinguishes then as kbbinic Jews, in comparison to the K@ire movement.

a) Backgrouod

In k€eping with the commandnents of the I9!4h Judaism hsd c€ntered tiShdy on religious prac.ice and lacrifices al the Temple in Jerusalem. However, afier the destuction of the Temple, Jews werc deprived ofa central place of worship and.eligious activiry, we.e sable to fulfill the templ€-relaled practices mandat€d in the Tanakh. and werc scatler€d amund fte world.

:.: 158 = b) Written and oral law

The Mitten part ofJewish lsw exists as fie &reh, o. the five books of !49!9s known to Christians 4 the I949!9!9b. The oral revelaiion is eid to have been transmited by word ofmouth ftom lhe generalion pr€s.nt at Sinai to their descendants up 10 the time ofth€ ssond T6ple in Jerusalen. For example, in Ergd!! t 8 and NuqbgE I I of &LBD!g, it is r€corded that Moses appointe.l clde.s to govem with him md to judge disputcs, impanitrg to them details and guiddce of how to interpret the revelations from cod while carryinA out lheir duties. c) Development ofRabbinic Judaisd

As lhe Rabbis were required to face a new reality-mainly Judaism without a T€mple (to sewe as lhe cent€r of te&hins ad study) and Jud€a without auionomy-there was a flurry of legal dis.olrse and the old system of onl scholaEhip could not be nniniained. It is duing this p€riod that Rabbinic discourse began 10 b€ recorded in wdting.o The theory that the destruction ofthe Temple and subsequent upheaval led to the comm;ting of oral Law jnto writing was fint explained in the Episde of SheriE Caon dd

The o.al law was subsequently codified in the Mishna and Cp4clsh dd is interpreted in Rabbinic lireratur€ detailing subsequ€nt mbbinic de.hions and writings. Rabbinic Jewish literature is predicated on lhe beli€f that the Writlen Law cannot be properly understood withoul r€course ro the Oral Law (the Mishnah).

4159.:: Much Rabbinic Jewish titeratur€ concens specirying what b€havior is sanctioned by the law; fiis body of interprerations is cdled halakha (the wat'r.

d) Modertr developments

Un$l lhe Jewish enliqhtenment of the lare lTth century, and the resulting division of Ashkenazi Jewrv into religious movements or denom;natiops. especially in North Ameri@ and anelophone comties, halakha had the univeGal status of rcqdred rcligious practice. Tlis remis the prevailing position among Orthodox and Conservalive Jews. 8gt@ &!! do not genemlly treat halakla as binding. Humsnistic Judaism

Humanistic Judaism is a movemenl wirhin Judaism that emphasizes Jewish cullure and history-nth€r than belief in cod-as the sources of Je*ish idenfiry. Its rituals and cer€monies do not include pEyer o. ey invocatiod ofa deity. Its philosophical outlook is derived ftom Humuism or lgsbl.&D3Ei!!q and its beliefs may be summarized as followsi A &! is someone who idendfies with lbe history, qlgrg and tuture

Jsbislq is the historic culture of rh€ J€wish people, and r9!!Si9! is only one Pan ofthat culturc;

People possess the power and responsibility ro shap€ their own lives independent of supe.nalural aulhorilyl Ethics and moFlity should sede hul'E needs, ard choics should be

based upon coNidemiion of lhe consequences of actions ralher rhan pre-ordained rules or cornmandments; and,

Jewish history, lik€ all history, is a purely human and natual phenomenon. Biblical and other traditional texls ar€ the products of h'iman activity and ee b€st understood through &chaeolo$/ and other sciedific analysis.

a) OrigiEs

Secularism ed N9!&9iq! became widespre.d among Je*s only in the l9th century dwins the Es!k4!4h, or Jewish Enlishtement, many of whose leaders rejected alt lraditional religious practice dd belief in favor of realon and the scientific method. Among the aclivist and intellecrual leadeN at the €nd oflhe l9rh and beginning ofthe 20th centBi€s who contributed mosl lo the development of Humanistic Judaism wer€ Ahad lta'an. SiEq! Dubnow. and Chaim Zhitlovskv. In ;6 cunent fon, Hmuistic Judaism was founded in 1963 by Rrbbi $lelaiLwiae. As a rabbi tr.ined in Bsbllc &daiqe wiih a small secular, ron"theistic congresation in Michigan, Wine developed a Jewish litugy that reflected his, and his congregation's, philosophical vie$?oinr by ernphasizing Jewish culh.rc, history, and id€nlily along with Hmanistic ethics while excluding all p.ayers and references to God. This con8resation developed into the Ehi!sb!q_&!q9le, now in Farminqlon Hilh. Michieo. It was soon joined by a previoully R€form congr€Sation in lllino;s led by Rlbbi Duiel F.i.dmu, d well ss a sroup in wesrpon, Connecricut.

:., t6t :.4 tn 1969 lhese cong.eaalioro and others were united o.ganizationally under lhe unbrella of the Society for Humeistic Judaisn (SHJ). The lnFmational Fed€ration of Secular Humanistic Jews, comprised of organizilions in th;rteen countries, was founded in 1986. There are an esrinated 50,000 members wortdwide.

b) Principles of belief atrd prsctice

In some ways, the pdnciples of belief of Humanistic Judaism sre similar to those of nany within Reconslructionist Judaism, with i1s €mphasis on relaining J€whh identity while acc€pting a scienlific worldview and a hunanistic erhical oudook. However, HMistic Judaism preseds a far more radical departurc frorn tradilional Jewish relieion than Mordeca; lgpls! ever € isioned. Kaplan redefined God aod other traditional religious terns so as lo nEke them consistent with rhe materialist outlook, and continued to use traditional pray€r languag€. Win€ rejected dris appro&h 4 confusinai since participanis could ascribe to these words whatever definitions they favored. Wine slrov€ to achieve philosophical consistency and slability by cMtinS rituals dd ceremonies that w€re purely non-theistic. Services were cr@t€d for Shabbar Rosh Hashanah. YOE Mpps! and other Jcwish holidays and fcstivals, onen with rcinterprctation of the me&ing of the holiday to bring it into conform;ly wirh S99glg! U!4sq!!!ig philosophy.

Hudistic Judaism was develop€d as a posrible solufion to the p.oblem of reraining Jewish iden ity and @ntiNity asong nor-religious, secular NonI American Jews at a $me when other organiational forms of secular Jewish idef,tity were fading, including J€wish cultural natioMlism,

i rcz? Yiddishism, and various forns of Zionism. Recognizing rhal congregational religious life was ttrivilg, Wine believed lhat *cula Jews who had rejecred th€ism would be atiracted to an orSanization thar provided dl the snne

forms ud sclivities as. for exanple, Refom teDples, but which expressed a p@ly S€cular Hummistic viewpoinr. The Intemational Institutc for S€cular Hundistic Judaism, which is sponsor€d by the Societv for Hummisric Judaism, the Congress of Seculd Jewish Orgariations, and lhe workmen's

Circle/Arbeter Rinq, trains rabbis and orher leaders in lhe United Srar€s and in lslael.

c) Jewish ideDtity atrd iDtermarriage

Within Humanistic Judaism, Jewish idenlily is largelya mauerofself- identificalion. Rabbis dd other trained lead€rs ofiichte et inter-faith maniages belw€en Jews and non-Jews and the Humanistic Judaisn movement do€s not ta.ke dy position or acnon in opposirion to inteFfaith marriages. Many, but not all, Rabbis in th€ Refom movement $ll ofiiciaie at an inter-faiih marriage(with sidct guidelines), but ConseNalive and Orthodox Rabbis will noi These views conceming Jewish id€nlily and inter, faith mdkge de criticized by those who believe that they will hdten the a3similation ofJews into the general society ed ti6 adveBely affect Jewish continuity. Wine and othe$ wilhin Humanistic JLtdaism rcspond by saying that such outreach io non-Jews is rccessary to pr€vent fieir Jewish partreB ftom rejecting Jewish identity. They say that Jewish continuity cannot be preseNed by institutions that reject the incr€asing number of Jews who ma.ry outsid€ fte laith ud @ secular in their outlook.

i ro -1. d) Egalitariadsm

Hunrnistic Judaism is ggcligd!! with resp€ct to gender 0nd gend€r identification, J€wish status, and s€xu.l orientario'. Baby-namnE c€r€monies, similsr for boys and girls, arc used rather than th€ bri!-!qil4b which is lhought 10 give f.vored status to mal€ babies. Thosc who identiry as Jews and those who do not, as well as op€nly gay, lesbian, bis€xual, and tEnsgender membeN, my panicipac in all ways in ntuals and l€adership a) Religious beliefs

There is one GgrL the same God recogniz€d by the Hebrew oroph€ts;

Their view ofcod is th€ sarn. e! the Jewish biblical vicw ofcodi

The &Igb was siven by cod to M!s!!;

Mount Ce.izim. not Jerussld- is the on€ rue sctuary chos€n by lsmcl's Cod;

Many Sama.itals believe rhat at th€ end of d.ys, the dead w;ll be

resurrecied by f4heb, a restorer (possibly a prophet, some say Moses);

They bel;eve in Paradisc (heavcn)i

Thc pricals @ the interpreG.s ofthe law and the keepets ofrBdition; unlike Judais4 there is no distincrion betwffi rhe priesthood gtd the !gb9lcE;

. Th€ audoriry of classical Jewish rqhhilies! works, tne Mishnah. and $. Talmuds are rciectedi

. Sainaritaru reject Jewish codes of law; {rorE , They have a significanrly differ€nr veBion ofthe Ten Comnandments

(fo. example, their loth cotunandncnr is about !h€ sancriry of Mr. Cerizim).

The Samaritds retained the Ancicnr Hebr€w scnd. rhe high pricstbood. ao;mal !!etj.!$!, rhe eariDS ot lsEb! d t assover, and rhe celebration of Aviv in spring a! th. New Y€ar. Yom Teruah (the bibtical name for Rosh Hashanah), at lhe beginning ofThhrci, h nol consider€d a new ved as it is in Judaism. Their main lgrqh_&e differs ftom the LIs!9!9!iq&E as well. Some differences are doctrinal: for exmple, their ToEh explicitly mendons rhat "the place that cod HAS CHOSEN" is Mount Gerizim 6 opposed to Jewish Torah rhat says, "rhe place rhat cod WILL choose." Other diferences are minor and s€em mor€ or less accidental. b) Relatiotrship to maitrstream Judaism

SMirans refer to the'nselves as a",e y.i.ya"/ ("Children of Isnel't) which is a lerm used by all Jewish denominations as a for the Jewish ')me people a a whole. They however do not r€fer to then*lyes 6 Yehudin,the stdddd Hebrew nde for Jews, considering the latter ro denote only

Thc Talmudic attirudc cxp.csscd in trelllc KutiD is that they src 10 be treated as Jews in matere wh€re their praclice coincides with the mainslream but re treated a! non-Iews where their practice differs. Since the 19rh c€nlury mainstream Judaism has regarded the Samaritm 6 a Jewish sect and the tem Samaritan Jews has been used for th€m.@ c) Religiou$ texts

Samaritan law is not $e sa.me as halakha (Rabbinical Jewish taw). The Saftaritsns have several groups of r€ligious &xrs, which equale to Jewish halakhah. A few exmptes ofsuch texts ar€: (i) Torah

o Sanaritan Pehtatetch: only inspired rext. (Contoins abour 6,000 veiations frcm the Mdor€tic texr. Most a€ mino..) (ii) Historical writitrgs

a Sahatittu Chronicte. The Tolidlh (Crcation ro $e rime of Abishah)

. Sanaritan Chrcbick. The Ch.onicte of Josh! (Israel dudng

the time of divine favo!) (Founh Century, in Arabic and Aramaic)

. Sanaitah Chronicte, Adler (Israet from the time of divine disfavor util the eile)

(iii) Hagiographical texts

. Sanarnm Halakhic Tar, The Hillukh (Code of halakhah, nariage, cncumsio., e&.)

o Sanariton Halakhic rdr, &e Kirab at-Tabbah (Hatacha ad int€rpretation of some vers€s and ch.pters fiom rhe Torah, written by Abu Al Hassan t2th century CE)

roe 3 =- o Saneitan Halakhic Tst,lhe Kir.b al-Kafi (Book ofHalallah, wdtten by YosefAl Ascar l4dl ceotuF/ CE)

. At-Atati-lege\dary tuamaic texts form llrh l2th centuries,

. Hagadic Midrch, Ab!'l Hasan al-Suri

. Hasgadic Midruth, Nlemar Markah-3rd or 4$ @ntury theological lreaties a0ributt ed \o Hakkan Ma&ha

. Haggadic Mi&ash,Pitlkhas on the Taheb ' Haggadic Midnsh, Molad Masch (On rhe binh of Moses)

. relie., prayer book ofpsatms and hyftns. @ d) Samaritatrs i! the Christiatr Gospels

The Christian cospels mention Sa|nsiras on four occ2sions. Je$$ who liv€d and &!ed wirhin a sociery where centuies-long hostility ro and prcjudice agains! Samariras were deeply rooted, evidentty soughr b teach ihat actions speak louder than ethnic identiry or pious appearances:

. The PaEble ofthe Cood Samarirll. AeSins in Lukc t0:30.

. Ic!q! asks a Samarite woman ofSELe! for warcr fron Jeob s We .

. Jesus heal€d l0 bpe4 ofwhom only one retumed io pFise cod, and he '.v6 a Samaritan. Luke l7:t I

' ln the cospel ofJohn, Jesus is &cus€d ofbeins a Samadlan dd being d€mon"possessed. John 6:48 ;. wa Luke has lhe parable of the Cood Samarir$ and rhe story of the Samffitan lrper, but it als @nrain! a story ofa Samadtan village denying hospilaliry to Jesus and his disciples, b€cause the viltag€rs did nor wmt to

facilitate a pilgrimage ro Jerusalem-a practioe which they saw as a violation of the Law of Moses.Luke 9:5 |

ln MaBhcw l0:5. wheD inst ucting his disciptes .s to how they should spread th6 wo.d, Jesus tells rhem nor !o visit any Smdilan city, bur i.sread go to the "losi sheepoflsmel".

The Gospel of Mdk contains no mention of Samarira6, either e) Samaritatr media

rhe Samaritans have a monftly magazine staded in 1969 called ABi The Smd;irn Ncws. which is w.ircn in Sal@itan, H.brew, Anbic, and English ud derls wilh cunetu and histoncal issues with which the Sanaritan @mnunity is concemed.

The Samadran Updare is a bi-monfity &newsletter for Smarit n studies [4

=168= REFERENcES r) l Modem onhodoxv in IsraellJudaism lFind Anicles ar BNET.com

2) 1 bllL1lshna.corn/feb0 I /termsn.hun

3) l Rabbi Norman Lamm: Som! Commenrs on CenFis Onhodox

4) 1S. R. Hirsch: "Reliqion Allied io Proqress,' 5) ^' ! htto://w.vutoEh.orer' shiurimPzzFTugyosFshapiloyo2Epdf r o ( 6) " Judaism: Dil€mmas of modem onhodoxy: s@iotocical md philosophical

7) ^.!hnp://ww.wtomh.orq,/ mlr6iats/AcF4B2B.pdf 8) l rlvll

9) t hltp://*a.r.vbmnorah.o.s/archiv€/rk I -kook.htrn l0)

) thttp://w\rv.edah.ore,6&kend.[oLrmalAnicld4 I waxman.odf 12) ^ " Sgelgblsgg l3) ox Judaism Toda l4) 1 see, for exampl€: Joseph Elias' inlrod\tcrion ro The Nineteen Lette$. Feldhei4l995. ISBN 0873 066960 l5) 1 sce, for exdrple: NorEan LM I'orah Utudda: 'rhe Erco'nter of Religiow Learhlhg and Wo dly Knoreledge in the Jevish Tradition. Jason Aroson, 1994. ISBN 1568212313

=l6e= l6) I Prof. Chaim Waxman Dilennas of noden oihodon: socioloeical and phil^ophicdt

17) I See, for emple, Jos€ph Eliass Introduction to ,,The Ninetem Letters", F€ldheih, 195. ISBN 0873066960: nore ale rhal others claim ttta! thes distincdons - savc th€ last one - ar€ unclezr and/or

uffubstantialed Siven the slecriv€ nature ofthe evidence.

18) 1 Ernst J. Bodenneiner and Nosson Scheman iarri Josep, ,re!e/r The Rav ofFtunktun. U.S.A.

19) aRat Yosef Bla! Relipiolls Zionirn And Modem Orthodtx'

20) l Charles S. Liebman lrlode orthoAofl in lyael 21) " s' Shlomo Fischet Fukdanettalist ot Robantic Nationatist?: Israeli Modet" O hodo

22, a Ami lsserctr Relisios Zionisn Revisitt the State of Isruet

23) :Ray YosefBlN Relidio8 Zonisn Ad Modem OthodN

a 4.4 zq ^ D)|a",zrbq a ! 25) ^ How ConseNative Judaism Makes Decisions in Jewish law hebtle 26) t hno//M.itsa.edu/abouvcTecrcdclusler.shcnld6

21) 1 Consewativ€ Responsa in hra€l - Masodi R€sponsa - Scheh&r Innirure ofJ.wish Slud;es - SIJS

28) _ *ersacredclusrer #6. nsa.edu ard Conservative Halakha

29) 1i. - Yeshiva U. conftont! fault lines ofnodem Onhodoxv 30) l BBC - R€liqion & Ethics - Modem O.thodox

3l) 1 What is Modm Orthodox? - Hashkafah_com

t huo://vuweb addr.convv6lig/news/edah.shrml

33) 1Melsa-sahgdsaj! lscellllCeilalIlld Anicles ar BNET com 34) t http://vuweb.addr.com/v67i7lcuhure/rovou.hlmt

3s) 1 Judaism: Dilemma of modem orrhodoxy: sociotoqical and philosophical

36) : Vodem Onhodoxv in America possibitiries for a Mo\ement lnder Sieee - William a. Helmre'ch and Reuet Shinnar

37) thnp/M.edah.o&/backendroumalAnicle/4 I britt.pdf

38) Platfom on Recohstncrbnisn, FRCH Newsleder, Sept. 1986, pag€s D,E

39, Exploting Judaita: A RaNtrudio\i:tt Aryt@ch, Rebecca T. Alpen od J.cob J. Slaub, The Reconsrudionist pr€ss, 1988

40) David Gifiin's Arricle 1n Jewish Th.otog atd process Thought,Ed. Sad6 B. Lubarsk/ md David Ray critrD, Sllt€ Universiry of New York Press, 1996

4l) Louis Jacobs God, Torah, rsruet: Tractitionatisn Withou! Fudaneatalisn Hebrew Union Coltege press, Cincinnali, 1990;

42) Judaisn As a Civilitudo, Mordecai Kapld, The Jewish publications Society,1994

43) Mordecai rlaplBn "The Meaning ofcod in Modem Jewish Religion,,, t962 inri .Biosraphicgl 44) 1 Lener, Micha€l (Mayrune 2005). Notes on Rabbi tetasr". I'lt*!,. Rerrieved on [email protected]!I.

4s) 1Katz. Leslie (Ausust 1996). ' Conboversial or: Iikl

46) Michael Lcme\ Jdish Renewat: A path to Hqtina and rtutshmation (1994)

41) Zalna\ Schachr€r-Shalomi, paradisn Shift: Fron the Jqish Reb*at Teachirsr ofReb zatnat Sch^chtq-Shatoni (t993)

48) Arlhur Waskow, col,rBlizg ( | 9?8)

49) Adhur Waskow, Se6ons ofo'r Joy: A Handbook ofJdbh Fativats (1982)

50) Goldie Milglam Reclainina J'daisn a.t a Spirifi/at prcctice: Hoty Dors and Shabbat (2004)

5l ) Goldie Milgram Mea,ins & Mitdah: Daity pructice, hr Rectaining JudaXd thtough Pruye\ God, Totah, Hebrc\ Mitzyot & peoptehood Q00,

52) Goldie MifSram Liyina Jedsh Life Ctcte: Crcati,8 Mqningfu!

JNish Rites ofPassqse at Every Stase ofli{e ?AOS)

53) 1 See, Sback, Hetmatf:., Intrcduction to the Tatnud and Mi*ash, .Fhe Jewish Publication Sociery, 1945. pp. -12. Osl Lawl was

hondcd dowr by word of mou$ durjng c long pcriod...lhc fir.sL

attempts to wdte down lhe haditionat inaner, rhere is reason 10 believe, dale from rhe firsr halfof rhe second posr-Christie cenrury.,,

s- r72 :i Strack th€orizes that rhe gro*rh of a Chr;slian canon (the New Tesldent) was a factor thar influenced rtte Rabbis ro r€cord the oral law in wdting.

54) 1 See, for example, cfty,El, A History of the Jews, penguin Books, 1984, p. 193.

55\ Judaish Berond God: A Radical Nq Va! to Be J?wi,h,SheNin-1. Wine, KTAV Publishins Housc and Society for Humanisri€ Judaism, t996.

56) God-Optional Judai:n: Alternativea lor Cuhurat Jews Who Love Their Hittory, HeritaAe, aad CoDD@irt, Judith Scid, Ciradel pE$, 2001.

57) Judaisn Ih A Secular Ase - An Antholas of Secutar EManistic Jaish Thousht, ed by: Rene€ Koscl and Zev ktz, KTAV pubtishing House and lntemational lnsiiture for S€cular Humanislic Judaism, 1995.

58) Jevs Without Judaisn: Conyersations with an LJnconyentiohat Rabbi, Ddiel Friedrnan, Pionerheus Books, 2002.

4 ! q 59) ^ "Dev€lop€d Cotmudty', A.B. The Samffilan Ne\rs Bi-W€ekly Magazine, Novenber 1, 2007

60) 1 "Tte Samarirans' Passover Ynemews, YleL2, 2B!4

6t) 1 David Noel Freedman, The Anchor aibte Dictionaty, 5:941 (New York Doubleday, 1996, c1992). ,,"rsr3eli 62) ^4,Friedman,Matri eO0Z-03:!3). sinqs fo. her estransed p9gpu'. Atsociakd Prcss (Sun March 18. ?!OZ, 2145 pM ET).

:: |1, ; Yahoo! ,.Today News. Archived iorn rhe oriqinal on 2002_0326. there are precisely 705 Samairan!, accordinA ro the sects own t lly. Halflive near the West Bank city ofNablus on Mi cerizin I...1. The olher half iive in a compound in the rsraeli ciry of Holon, near Tel

63) : I:he Keepers, t, I\trudrction to the Hirtor), ahd Cutture of the -t. Sana.na6, hy \obqt Andersod .nd Te.ry cit€s, Hendrickson Publishing 2002, pages I l-12

64) a http://philtar.ucsm.ac-uUencvclopeditiudaisn/sama..mmr SMaritars:Hisrory

65) lNMnqlish rranslarion of John 66\ 1 Jesus ed the Samaritan Woman / A Samaritan Woman

Approachs: I .

67\ 1 What is the Abominalion ofD€solstion? r r 68) ^ Dans Ros€nblatt (Ocrob.r 14. 2!gD. "Anid conflict Sanadrans keep unique idenriw^, CNN.com.

69) 1 Samaritans. World Cuhure Encyctopedia

70) 1Shen, P; Lavi T, Kivisild T, Chou V, Sengun D, cefet D, Shpirer I, Woolf E, Hillel J, Feldnan MW, Oefner pJ (2004). ,,Reconsrruction

of Patrilinaqes dd MaFitinsqes of Sanadhns end Orher lsm€ti

Pop'rlations F.om Y-Chromosome and Milochon&ial DNA Seouence Variat:on" . Hunan Mulation 24i 248-260. &jtt')olAhmt .2OO7.t . PMID t5300852.

-:;_ 174 ::: 7l) 1Cruciani, F.; La Fratta, R., Tononi, A., Underhill, p. A., Scozzari, R. (2006). "Molecular pissection ofthe y Chromosome Haploqroup E-M?8 (EJbls): A Posreriori Evaluation of s lvticrosare ;re-Nerwork- Based Aporcach Throuqh Six New Biallelic M'rkeN,'. fl!,ra" Mutation 916 Apil2006.

?2) l Reclnstruction of Patrilincaqcs and Matdlineaqes of Sana.iros and Other Is@li Populations From Y-Chronosome dd Milochondrial DNA Seouence veiarionlDF (855 4jD, Hu lMrtat 24:248-260, 2004.

73) 1 Yohanan Ahdoni, Michael Avi-Yonah, Arson F. Rainey, Ze,ev Saftai, The Macnillar Bible ,.1/ar, 3rd ion, Macmillan publishingl New York, 1993, p. I15. A posthumous publication ofrhe work of lsraeli archaeologist Yohaoan Alarcni and Michael Avi-yonah, in

collabodion with Anson F. Rainey and Ze'ev Safra;_

74) 1 Shulanit Seta, fte Head oI the RabbMite, Karoite dn.t Sana,itn Jews: Ot the History ofa ntle, Bullerin ofthe Schoot oforientaland

Africs Studies, University of London, Vot. 57, No. z (1994), pp. 255-267

75, :Sanaitak Docudents, Relatins To Their Hbto.y, Retision and Life, lranslaled and ed by Johr Bowman, pittsbush Original Texrs & T.anslalioB Series Nunber 2, 1977. CHAPTER FTVE

Jewrsn Movnnaei.lrs IN NrNrnBxrn CnNruny AND Irs Iurpacr ON Tnn Musr,ru Wonr,l

Orthodox Judaism

Onhodox Judaism is lhe formularion of Judaism that adheres to a relatively siricl interpretation and applicalion of the laws and ethics firsr canonized in the Talmudic texrs ("QsLIe!4h") ad developed and applied by th€ later aurhoriries lnoM as the Caonim, Rishonim, and Aq@olM.

Onhodox Judaism is charac&rized by belief that the l9r4h and irs b,w! are Divine, were bansmitted by ggd to M9s9!, are €temal, and ae unalterable; beliefthat there is also a! oral law in Judaism. which contains the authorilalive interyretation ofth€ written Torah's legal sections, and ;s also Divine by vinue of having b€en ransmined by Cgd to !!q!9! alons wirh tI€ Wriu€n La% s €nbodied in the lg!!!4 Midmsh, and innumemble rclat€d texrs. atl intdnsicslly 6d inherently enrwined wirh the writlen law ofthe Todb belief$ar cod hls made d exctusive, unbr€akabt€ covenant wirh the Children of Israel ro b€ govemed by rhe Torah; adherence to Halakha, or Jewish l.w, including acceptance of codes, mainly the Sbulchan Aruch, as authorit live p€crical guidance in applicalion of both

: 116 .< th€ writoen and onl laws, as well as acceprance ofhalakha-following Eabbi! d authorirarive interpreten ed judg€s of &!!!L!!llC; belief in Jgyilh eschatoloqv. Onhodox beliefs may b€ mosr found in theh adhercnce 1o the

thideen J€wish pnnc;oles of faith as srared by the B3!qb4a (Maimonides). ' Refraining fton murder, idolatry, and c€rbin biblically-prohibited sexual pr&nces such as edulgll and i!!g{ (See Self-sacrifice under Jewish law).

. Sbabba.L rcfraning tom acriviries rhar violate the Jewish sabbath, and Jewish holidavs.

. (e!hq! the Jewish dierary laws,

. Tsharat Ham;shpacha. the laws of @i!y_!!r!q, resldcting sexual relations around menstrualion rrd childbinh.

. Circu'ncision for males. Beck Ground:

Onhodoxy is not a sinSle movem€nr or school ofrhoughl There is no single rabbinic body to which all ib rabbis ale expected to belong, or dy one organiz3lion representing its nember mngregarions. In the United Statcs at the pres€nt mon€nt, th€re @ a nmber ofonhodox @ngregational organizations, such as Aqudath Isra€|. th€ Orrhodox Union. and rhe N4igas! Council of Younq Isrel: none of which ce claim to reprcs€nr even a najority of all Orthodoxcongresatiors.

What the exact foms of Judaisn w€re duins the rimes of Moses or during thc ems oflhe Mishnab and l4hsl cdnor be exacrty known today in .ll lheir details, bul O.thodox J€ws mai .in rha. conlemDorary O.thodox

t t71 = Judaism maintains the sane basic philosophy and legal fanework lhal

exisled throughout J€wish ffstorv, wheress the olher d€nominations deparr

from it. Ir may be said lhar Orhodox Judaism, as ir exisb loday, is an outgroMh that slretch€s from th€ time ofMoses, ro the aine ofthe Mishnah

and Talmud, through the oral law, and rabbinic literarure ongoiog until rhe

In $e €ady l9th century, el€mcnls within ceman Jewry soughr to reform Jewish belief and pnctice ;n rcsponse ro The Aqe of Entilhrenmmt and the Jewish Emanciparion. In lighl of cont€mpoEry scholanh;p, lhey d€nied divine authorship of rh€ Torah, declred only lhose biblical laws coDcerning ethics to be binding, and srared thar rhe rest of halakha (Jewish law) need no longer be viewed ar nonnative (see Refom Judaism).

At the same time, there were tho$ CeI1rm Jews who actively maintained their traditions ud adherence to Jewish taw while simulhnously eng€ing with a pos!-Enlightemenr sociery. This camp wd besl .epresenred by rhe work and $ought of Rabbi Smson Raphel Hirsch. Hirsch held that Judaism demands an appticarion of To.ah thought to rhc enlire realn of human experience-including the secular disciplines. This philosophy is rermed "Tonh ih Dercch Eretz',. While insisting on strict adherence 10 Jewish beliefs and pmoric€s, he held that Jews should .{empt to engsgc and influenc€ the modem worid, dd encorraged rhose seculd studies compatible with Torah rhough!. This fom of Judai$n is somerim€s lermed 'necorthodoxv". The retigious ard sociat realities of W€slem Europ$n Jewry are consider€d by some lo be the p.ecunors to V9!19!! Onhodoxv. While Modem Onhodoxy h consider€d rradirioml by most Jcws

I l?E i- loday, some within th€ Orthodox communiry groups to ib righl consider il of quesliomble validny, and the neo-Onhodox movement of today holds that Hi6ch\ views are unalike in essence ro those ofModem Onhodoxy. In

the 20th century, a larse segmenr of the Orthodox population (notably as represented by the World Acudath Israel movemen! formally established in l9l2) disagreed, and rook a srricter approsch. For a few ofrhem, the mouo "recenl is forbidden by To.ah,'wa3 app€aling, bur they too fouowed various

routes of obsenance and praciice. The leading rabbis of Orrhodoxy viewed

imovations and modifications within Jewish law ard customs with extreme car€ ed @ution. Sone today refer ro dis form of Judaism as ,,Heedi Judaism". or "ljltra-Onhodox Judshn'. Bolh rerms de controveNial: in I'Fraredi', sone circles, the label is considered pejoratve, as is the 6e of&e label "ult:a&hodox'.

Th€ v&ious approaches have provcd resitienl. Ir is estimat€d that presently there arE more Jews studyinS in ycshivol (Talmudical $hools) ud Kouelin (post-snduab Ta[nudicat colteges for 'ffiied studats) than ar aDy o$er rin€ i. hisrory. In l9t5 Yeshiva Collese (laler yshiva Univ€Biw) and irs Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theolosicat Seminary was established in New Yo.k, New York for raining in a Modem Onhodox m'lieu. Eventually a school branch w6 established in Los Aneeles- Califomia. A number of oth€r influenrial Orhodox seminaii€s, mostly Haredi, were also esiablished thoughout th€ country, most norably in N€w York, New York, Baltimore, Maryland, and ghi!3gg, llinois. Beth Medrash Cpyshq, the Haredi yesbiva in Lakewood. New Jers€y is rhe largest Talnudic academy in the United Stares with a student body ofover 5,000

I 179 l:: a) Origitr of fiOrthodox'l

Whilc many Onhodox Jews accept rhe label "Orihodox", others re.jecr and criticis€ it because it vas never Faditionally applied ao Jews who sEicdy inter?ret€d and followed halakha in ancicnr times or the Middle Ages. Mdy Onho.lox Jews prefer to call their fsith lgraLlslalsq. The word ,,orthodox' itseif is derived f.om the Cr99k ofd,or mesins 'straishrcoftecr" utd dM

Use of the 'Or6odox" lab€l seens to have begun rowards the besiMins oflh€ l9th @nhry. P.abbi Ssa!9a-Bapb3elEiE!,h Mote in 1854

.-.i! was no! "Onhodox" Jews who introduced the wo into Jewish discussion. It was the modem "progresdve" Jews who first applied the nee ro "old," "backwud" Jews a a d€rogatory tem. This name wa... resented by "old" Jews. And riehrtully so...

Othen, however, say lhat Rabbi ls3.c Leeser was the fi6t !o usc the rerm in lbe US in his joumal "The Occident,', whose tarser audience was the more "traditiooal" or Onhodox Jew. Yet others explain thar rhe rerm arose our of the gro*d of the lhen-new Reformer Movement, which was ',unorthodox.', hence making the tradirionalists th€ 'orthodox." b) Belief of Orthodor:

Orthodox JudaiM's central b.licf is that Torah, inctuding both lhe

V4!9!tq4 and the 1c!@s1, was given dircdy non Oed ro Moses md cd never be altered or rej@ted in.ny way. As a result, all Jews are required to live in accordance wiih the Comhandmots ud Jewish law.

-l8oF Howev€r, s;nce there is no one uniting Onhodox body, rhere is !9 one canonical sratemenl ofprinciples of faith. Rarher, erch Onhodox g:oup claims to b€ a non-exclusive heir ro the received radition of Jewish theology, whil€ still amrninS a literal acc€ptdce of Maimonides' Oii994 PrllgiDlg!.

Givd ihis (reldive) philosophic nexibili(y, veiur viewpoinrs ec possible, particularly in areas not explicitly demarcared by the Halakha. The result is a relatively brc d mngc of h*hkafot, o! wond views, wnhit Orthodoxy- The greatest differences within stnins ofonhodoxy de overl

. the degrce lo which an Odhodox Jew shoutd ;nre8€re 0ndor disengage from secular sciew;

. the exlen1 of acc€ptance ofTorah,/Talnud,/AggadaUHalakha rhrcugh

rhe viewpoim of IabU!! ard fieir rabbinical lilersrure as a principal oudook on all maneB of the exremat wortd including scienlific! ed political man€6, vir,a-yir acceptng secular

. the seight assigned Lo Torah sudv veF6 secuta! sludres or orher

lhe centrality of rg!!iy3! as the place for p€.sonal Torah study; ' lhe irnportance ofa cenrral spiritual guide in deas outside ofHalat

the mpo.lanc€ of naintaining non-Iialakhic custoN, such as drcss,

. the relalionship ofthe mod€rn sr.re oflggg,lto Judaism;

;l rrr i in (relisious) society.

the mture ofth. lelationshiD with non-Jews:

Orthodox sects

The above differences de realised in fie vdious subsrcups of Onhodoxy, which naintain signiticm! social differences, ed differences in un.lertdding Halakha. These groups, broadlyi comp.ise Modern Orthodox Judaism and Haredi Judaism, lhe laiter also conraining th€ smalle. subgroup

Modem Onhodoxy comprises a fairly broad specrrurn ofmovehenb e&h dEwing on several dislinct, rhough relsted, phitosophies, which in some combination provide lhe basis for all valiations of rhe movedenr today. In general, Modem Orthodoxy hold! tha. Jewish taw is a9@alirag md binding while sirnultan.ously anachinA a posltive vatue ro inlemctioD with cont€mporary sociery. h rhis view, Orrhodox Judaism can ,.be e ched" by its inteNction wirh mod.miry; tunher, ..modem society c@les oppornuities to be productive citiz€ns €ngaged in the Divine work of trdsfominq the world ro benefit hmanirv". At the sm€ time, in ord6r to preserve th€ integity of halakha, ey area of,,powertul inconsisrency md conflicf' betwe€n To.ah and ftodem culturc musl be avoided. u.

Modem Ofhodoxy, addirionally, assigns a central role to the ,'people s. oflsrael" Mod€.n frhodoxy, in general, ptaces a hieh aaje!4, as well as .eligious, sisnificance on rh€ Slsts_gllssgl, and Modem Orthodox inslitulions and individuals arc, rypically, Zjg4igi! in orientarion. An additional meifestation is that involvement with non-orthodox Jews will

:., tEz :: '9!E9e9! (Kjlgy)" lo conlinued iBtituiional relatioN dd tunhet $det Toruh Unadda.

Hredi Judaism advocates scgr€gation from non-Jewish culrure, although not nom non-Jewish sociely enricly. lt is characterised by its focus on comunity-wide Torah study (in conlrast wirh Modern Ofihodoxy, wh;ch in pr&tice decentralises the role of Torah siudy for lay pmpl€ through th€ emphdis of orher concunenl religious values).

Haredi Orthodoxy's differences with Modem Onhodoxy usuaily lie in inte.pretation of lh€ nature of l.aditional halakhi€ concepts and in mdesidding of what constitubs acceprable appli€adon of these concepts. Engagire in the coffiercial world is often seen 6 a legitimale neaDs ro &hieving a liv€lihood, but panicipation in mod€m sociery is not perceived as an inherently worthy anbirion.

The sme outlook is applied wirh rcaed lo obtaininA degrees neessary to enle. oneis int€nded Fofessior: wher€ rot€mted in the Hlredi society, attending secula. inslilurions of high€r education is viewed d a n@essary but infe.io. activiry. Pur€ acadehic inl€r€st is insread direct€d lol@d the religious edificalion found in the yeshiva. Depending on veious factoN, both boys and girls a$end school and proceed 1o higher Torah study, starting anywhe.€ between the aSes of 13 and I 8. A siSnificant prcporion ot students, especially boys, rcmain in _rprriya untjl mdriage (which is often dased thrclgh facilitared dating. See lhlbgD, ard mxly sudy in a La!!g! (Toral study institute for maried mei) - for many years after maniage. Most men, even those nor in Kollel, will make certain ro study l9r4h daily.

'j)- r$ : Families tend to be ldge, reflecring adherence to the ToEh cominandm€nr "be fruittuland multipty" (Book of Cqlsi! l:28,9rt,7).

Halidic Judaism originated in Eastem Europe (what is now Bghrs! and Llcaipe) in lhe lSth cen ury. Fourdcd by Israel ben Eli€zer (1698- 1760), it originated in m age of pels€cution of the Jewish peopte, when Europ€e Jews had tmed inward to &bsd sndy; nany f€h thai mosl expr€ssioru of Jewish life had b€come loo 'acadeDic" ed that th€y no longer had my emphasis on lpiriu4liq or joy. The t4?l Srez lov ser out ro improve lhe situation.

c) Religious Practicet

For guidance in pnctical application of Jewish law rhe majority of Othodox Jews appeal, ultimately, to the !Is!gbg!]!sgh ("Code of J€whh

rrw" composed in the l6th century by Rlbbi Josoh Caro) togerher wirh it's

sunoudding cotmota.ies. Thus, at a general l€vel, there is a large d€gr€e of unifonnity mongst all Orihodox J€ws. Concehins rhe derails, however, there is ofien varianc€: decisions Inay be based on various of rhe sLBndqdized codes ofJewish Law ihal have be€n made over the ceniuries, as well as on the various responsa. These codes and responsa may dilTer from each other a r€s.rds detail (and reflecting the above diferences, on the weight assigned to veious issues).

By and large, however, th€ differcnces result fron the bi$grig disp€rsal oflhe Jews and the cons€quenr r€gional ditrerences in practice (see minhae).

:-: ls4 3 !!4ahi and Sephddic Onhodox Jews bse rheir pmcricc on fte Shulche Aruch. Two recent works of Halaklu, Kaf Hachain and Ben Ish Chei, have become authoritlrive ;n nany Sephardic communities. Thus Miaahi and Sephddi J€ws may choose ro follow the opinion of the Ben Ish Chai when it confficrs with th€ Shulchan Aruch. Some of th€se practiccs ale derived ftorn th€ Kabbatisdc

Ashk€nazic Orthodox Jews havc traditionally based most of rhci. practices on the x€za, the g!9!r on the Shulchd Aruch by Rabbi Moses Isse.les reflecting diff€renccs berween Ashkenazi and Sephardi cuslom. In ihe postwar period, fie Mishnah Berurah ha3 become aulhoritative, and Ashkenazi Jews may choose 10 follow lhe opidion

of the Mishna Bnrah idsread of a panicular derail of Jewish law as Present€d in the shulchan Aluch.

elsba! Lubavirch ILlidilq geneElty rolow the rulings of Shgs! Zalman ofliadi in rhe Shulchd Aruch HaRav.

Tradidonal Bskli and por paim (fuedleLcyo base most of tbeir praclices on the Misbneh Tofab, Maimonides' earlier compendium of halakla, wdtten several centuries before rhe Shutchan Aruch. The Talnidei haRanban also keep Jewish taw as codified in the Mishneh Tomh.

An even smaller number - such as $e Romaniote Jews - rradirionally rule accordirs ro rhe Jerusalem Iehld over the aabvloniar Tatmud.

consider the Shulchan Aruch as

but differ frcm oiher Sephardin by making less

il rss ? allowance for Inorc r€oent autloriries, in particular customs b6sed on thc Kclbshh. Son€ c$toms arc b$cd on Msimonidcs or the Albssh IldE.

(Not! lhat on an t dvrldlai lcvcl thcrc is a considerable range in rhe lcvel of observanc€ aDongsr "Onhodox J€ws". Thus rherc are thos€ who would consider lhe|nlelvcs "Onhodox" and y€t msy not be observant of, for example, tle laws offamilv puriw.)

Therc are s€veral Jewish laws thar Orrhodox Judaism has radirionally placed an emphssis on. Amongst them ar€ the rules of Kashrut. Shabbat, Familv PuriN. snd lelElsb (Prayq).

Extcmally, Orthodox Jews can often be identified by rhcir manner of dress and family lifcstyle. Onhodox women will traditionally dress nodestly; kecping mos! of their skiD cover.!. Additionally, most madcd women will cover th€L hair usudly in rhe form of har, band6na, o. wig. frhodox m€n traditionally we€t a skullcap knoq,n as a Klpq Har€di Inen oftcn distinguish thcnsclv€s by growing b€ards, wcaring black hsrs and dressing in formal a$ire. d) Jewish principles of faith

13 Principles ofF ith: l. I believe with p€rfect faith thar rh€ Cr.ator, Bl€ss€d b€ His Namc, is lh€ CrEator and Guide ofeveryrhinS rhal ha! b€en crcaled; He alon€ has made, does make, and will make all things. z. I believ€ with perfect faith thai the Cr€aror, Blesscd be His Nam€, is One, and thaa there is no unity in any maruEr lik€ His, End that He

alone is our God, who was, snd is, and will be.

3. I b€lieve with perfccr fairh that the Crearor Blessed b€ His Name, has

no body, and lhat H€ is fice from all the prop€ni€s ofrnancr, and thar

there can b€ no (physical) compaison ro Him whatsoever.

I believe wilh perfect faith that the Creator, Blcascd b€ His Name, is the firs! and the last.

5. I believebelicve withwiln perfectpertbst failhfaith that to the Creator, Bl€ssed be His Narne, and to Hin alone, it is righr !o pny, and that it is nor righr to pray ro any b€ing bcsides Him.

6. I bcliev€ with p€rfet faith that all the words ofthe prophets are trE.

7. I b€li€vc wilh perfect faith that th€ prophecy of Moses our ieacle., peacc bc upon him, was true, and that he w€s rh€ chi€f of dle p.ophcil, both thos€ w ho preceded him and those who followed him.

I believe with perfect faid rhar the eftirc Torah rhar is now in our

posseisioD is the same rha! was Siven !o Moses our teacher, p€ace be

9. I b€lieve with pe.fect fairh rhar this Tomh will nor b€ exchanged, ed thal therc will never be sry other Torah fiom the Creator, Blcssed be His Nam€.

10. 1 bclicve with p€rfect failh rhat fie Creator, Bl€ssld be His Nam€, knols all the deeds ofknows all lhc dccds of hunan bcings and atl

'; 187 3 lhei lhought!, as it is wdn n, "Who fashioned the h€rns of rhem dl, Who compr.h€nd! sU rbcir actioff' rpsdrm 33: l5).

ll. I b€licvc with perfcct fith that lh€ Crcaroa Blesscd b€ His Nrme. rcwards thos. who k€ep His conmandmenrs and punishB lhose that u?nsgress lh€m.

12. I believe wirh perfc.r fairh in dc coning ofrh€ lbdab and cven lhough hc mly tany, non€thclcss, I wait €very dry for his coming.

13. I believe with pcrf€ct Aidt that th€re wilt be a r€vivat oflhe desd ar lhe time when ir shall plcas€ the Crcslor, Blessed tre His name, rnd His menrion sh.ll bc cxdted for cver and ever.-!bh9!idq

Orlhodox Judaism is composed of diffcnnr grups with inbnwining beli€fs, praclices and thcologies, atrhough in rhcir core beli€fs, aI Onbodox movcments shsrc the sam€ principl$,

Ontlodoxy collcctively c.nriden itsclf thc onty ruc bcir to the Jcwish

tradidon. Tftc Onhodox Jcwish movcments gcncnly consider alt non_ Onhodox Jewish moveme s ro be uns.aeptable deviarions from luthendc Judaisn; both b€causc oforhcr denominarionJ doubt coDccming lhc verbal revel6tion of Written and Oral Torlh, and b€c5usc of thcir r€jecrion of Hal,khic pMr&nt ae bindin& As such, most Orrhodox a.oups ch6r.cr€risc non-Onhodox foms ofJudabn as hcrctical; s€€ rhc article on Rclationshios berwc€n Jcwish relisios movcme 3.

Onhodox Judaism atr'ms nonorh.ism. or lhc bclief in one cod. Anong thc in-depth cxplanatioN of that b€ticf ar€ Maimonidcan mtiorali$n, Icbbslisric mvsricism. and Chaaeidic philosophy (Cha*eidu0. A f€w amrm s€lHimited omnisci.ncc (rhc rheotog/ clucidar€d by Cersonid€s in "The Wars ofthe Lord'.)

Onhodox Judaism mainrains th! historic.l undcFr0nding of Jewish identity, A Jew is someone who $,as bom to a J€wish moth€r, or who convens to Judaism in accord.nce wirh Jewish law and tradirior. Onhodoxy p$iline€l thu! rejccrs de!.cnt as a merns of €stablishing Jewish nalional identity. Similadt Onhodoxy strongly condems inlerrnatdaae. Intdmarriag. is seen as a dclibeE& rejccrion of Judaism, ,nd an inleflnarried person is effectiv€ly cut oll from mosr of rh. Onhodox community. However, somc Onhodox Jcwish organizations do .€ach out lo

Orlhodox Judlism hotds rhat rhc words of $c Toruh, inctqdins bolh the Wiiten Law (Pcntateuch) and those psrrs of rhe Oral Law which are hal@|n leMathe n'Sinai,wq. dictlt d by cod ro Moles csscnrialty 6s rhcy cxist roday. The laws conraind in rhc Wdttcn Torah were given atong with d.tailed €xplanations ,s how to apply srd inr€rprer thcm, the Ont Law. Allhough Onhodox Jcws betieve rhar nany clcments ofcurenr r€ligious law werc dccfted .'fenc€s,, or 6dded as around thc law by rhc rabbis, a Oithodox J€ws b€ticv€ that rber€ is an unde.tying cor€ ofsinaitic law and that this core of thc religiou! laws Orthodox Jews know to

How€ver, there is significan! disagreen€nl wirhin frhodox Judaism, panicularly betw€en Haredi Judaism and Modern Orthodox Judabm, about the ext€nt snd circrmst nces uDder which the prop€r application ofHalakha should b€ re-exanined as a resutr of changing reatiries. As a general rule, Haredi Jews believe rhar when at aU possjble.he law should be mainrained as ii has beer practiced rhrough rhe generarions; Modem Orrhodox aLithorities are more wilting ro assum€ that und€r scrupurous exmainarion, idenlical principles may lead to differenr applications in the context of modem lif€. To rle Ortlodox Jew, hatakha is a guide, cod,s Law, goveming oe stdcturc daily of tife from the moDenr he or she wakes up to the momenr he goes to sleep. It includes oodes of behaviour appljcable !o a broad range of circunstances (ud many hyporherical oncs). There e $'ough a number ofrEra-principles thar Suide the halafthic p.ocess and in an instance ofopposilion b€rween a specific hatakha and a meu_princjpl€, the meb-principle ofien wins out. Examptes of Hatachic Mera_principtes are: D@cheha Darchei Noan-tbe mys of Torah arc ptssan! K^wd Hab rot- basic respect for pikuach hMan beirt}s, Nefah"n\e sanctiry ofhuman life. Orthodox Judaism holds that on Mount Sinai $e Writren Law w6 lFnsmitted along wilh an O.rl Law. Thc words of rhe Tomh (pcnlat€uch) were spoken to Moses bv cod; the laws conrzined in this Wri$en ToEh, !b9 ntEvor. were given along tyirh detajled explanations in rh€ orai rldition as to how to lpply and inrqpret them. Furthenore, $e Oral taw includes principtes designed to creare new rul€s. The Oral Iaw is held to be transmitt€d with an exremely high degree of accu.acy. Jewish theotosians,

who choosc 10 emphasize the more evolurionary narure ofthc Halacha point

to a fanous slory in the Talmudtn. where !!g!eq is rnagica y lranspoded ro the House of Study of Rabbi Akiva and is cl$rly unabl€ to folow the

According to Orthodox Judaism, Jewish law roday is based or rhe

commandmenrs in rhe Tonh, as viewed ihrough the discussions and d€bates contained in classic.l rabbinic lirer.ture, especialty rhe Mishnah ed the Talmud. Onhodox Judaism thus hotds tllar ftle halakha rcprcs€nts the ,'will ofcod", €ith€r dirccrlX or as closety to directly a possible. The laws re 1iom the wofd ofcod in the Torah, using a set ofrules also revealed by cod to Moses on Moud Sinai, md have been derived with the utmosr accuFcy and cee, and ihus rhe Oral Law is considered to be no less the word ofcod. Ifsome of rhe details of Jewish law may h.ve ben tost over tle millemia, they were reconsrrucred in accordancc wirh inrematty consistenr rules: se€ The I 3 rul.s bv which Jewish law was derived.

In this world view, ihe Misbnaic and Tatmudic rabbis ar€ closer to.he Divine revelatioq by corollary, one ftust be exrremely conservative in changing or adaplins Jewish taw Futhermore, Orthodox Judaism holds tbaq aiven Jewish lav/s Dvine origid, no unde.tying principle may be conpronised in accounting for chsnging poliricat, social or econonic conditions; in rhis sense, "creativhy" and development in Jewish taw is held to have bcen limited. Orrhodox Jews will also srudy th€ Talmud for its own sake; this is considered to be the greatesr !qi!44h ofalti se€ Torah studv_

irj' ;;r" -' Haredi and Modem Orthodox Judaism vary somewhar in rheir view of

the validity of Halakhic reconsideration. It is held virtualy as a principle of belief mong many Hdedi J€ws thar halatla never chda€s. Hsedi ,udris thu views higher criricisn of the Tatmud d inappropriat€, and almost certainly heretical. At the same time, many within Modem Orthodox

Judaism do nol have a prcblem wirh historical scholdhip in this @4 See the entry on Hiqher criticism of the Talnud. Modem Orthodox Judaim is also somewhai more wiliing to corsider revisiting quesrions of Jewish law through Talmudic argmenrr. Altholgh in pFctice such instances d€ rare, tbey do cxist. Notable examples includ€ acceptdce of rule penninine farming during ihe SIlqils ye]al and pemining rhe advanced retisious e) Organizatioos atrd Groupsi

Tle Union of Onhodox Jewish Congresations ofA,ndica knoM a the Onhodox Union. or "OU,,, and the Rabbhical Councit of An€nca. "RCA" arc organizations that represent Modem Orrtrcdox Judaisn, a laSe segment oforlhodoxy in the Unired S&lcs ed Canada. Thcse groups should not be confused with the simitarly narned Union of Onhodox ltabbis

The Natioml Council of youne Isra€I. od rhe Council of youq htul Rabbis ar€ smau€r grcups tha! wcre foud€d as Modcm Orthodox organizations, ar€ Zionistic, and are in the rieht wing of Modem Onhodox

Judaism. Young Ismel srrongly suppods and alties irrelf wirh rhe settlemenr movement in Israel. While tbe lay membership ofsFagogues amlated with th€ NCYI are almost exclusively Modem O.thodox in oricnration, tte i pz7 rabbinical leade$hip of the synagogues ranges fi.om Modem Onhodox !o llaredi.

The Chief Rabbinat€ of IsBel was fomded wirh th€ int€ntion of representing all of Judaism witlin the Srate of Israel, and has two chief nbbis: One is Ashkenazic (of ih€ &5r Europed ud Russian J€wish tradition) and oDe is Serlhardic (ofrhe Spanish, No.tn Afican and middl€- eesl€m Jewish tadition.) The nbbimte hrs neve. b€ln e@p0ed by most Ismeli Haredi groups. Since &e 1960s the Chief Fbbinare of tsrael has moved somewhat closer to the positions oflkredi Judaism. ChiefRabbjnate gflqeg!

Mj4d! dd pohical panies such as lbtdel and Narronal Union (hmel) all r€present certain seclors within the Reiiqious Zionisr movchcnt, bolh in diGpora and IsE€i. cush Emunim. Meima4]zgLqr !e

Machon Meir, Merkaz HaRav and Rabbi Shtomo Avina. Another secror includes the l&sl4! facdon, which lends !o be unaltied to the covernrnenl

Chabad Lubavitch is a branch of ltasidic Judaism widely known for i|3 emphasis oD g!@sh and education. Tte organization has b€en in existcnce for 200 years, ud espccidty afrer rhe S{and World War, it began s€nding ou. enisseies (.rnl,c/,ip') who have .3 a mi$ion the b.insins back

:a r93 I- of disaffected Jews ro a level of observanc€ coisistenr with aurhenaic and proper norms (ie! ordDdox Judaisn). They are major players in what is known as !h€ Baal T6h@a movemenr Their mandare is to make nonobservanr Jews more Jewishly sware.

Aqudath Israel ofAme.ica is a tarse and influentiat Haredi group in America. Its roors go back to tbe estabtislmenr ofthe original founding of the Agudrth Isrsel movement in l9l2 in Katowitz" Elg$ic (no* KatowicePol.nd). The Aserican Agudath rsEel was fouded in 1939. There is an Aqudar lsrcl (Hsidic) in rsraet, r.d atso peeer HaToEh (noFHaidic

"Lithueian"), as well d an Acudarh Is.ael of Euope. Thcse groups arc loosely affiliated thrcugh the Wortd Aqudath hraet, which fi.om rime lotime holds a major gathering in Israel call,ed a knessia. Asudah unires muy Ebbinic leaders from the rhidic Judaism wing with those of rhe non_ Hesidic "yeshiva' world. It is geners y mn-narionalisric.u

In Israel ir shaes a simila! agenda with the Sephadic S!i! poliricat palty, al|hough Shas is more bipanisan when it comes to its own issues ed non-naljonalistic-baled with a hugc emphasis on Sephardi Judeism and Mizrahi Judaism. Shas has ir! own positions and plays a more prominenl role in gov€mmenr the ofthe SraG, usualty having something to say about almost every Jewish issu€. Ir is ulualy in fierce contention with Agudat

Th€ Agudath HaRabbonin, also known as the Union of Onhodox Bebbic of the United Srares and Canada, is a srull Har€d eeins o.ganizadon foun.led in 1902. tt should notbe contused with "The Union of orthodox Jewish CongEaations ofAJne,ica', (see above) which is a sepaFte

:, t94 i: org.nizztiotr. Whilc ar onc titne influcnrial within Orthodox Jud.aism, the Agudsth HaR.bbonin in rhe lasr s€ver.l d€cad.s has progEssively novcd tufher 0o lhe dSht; irs membcrship he, b€.n dropping ard ir has bcen .€lativ.ly iDactive. Sone of ir! memb€n att 6bbis iom Chabad Lubavitch: some arc also tncmbers oflhc RCA G.c above). Ir is currEn y mosr farnous for irs 1997 dcclar.rion (ciring rsn€ti ChiefRrbbi yit"Iak Hakvi Hcrzoe. Lubavirchcr Rebbc Menachcm Mc .t Schr€e6on. and Mod€h Orthodox Rabbi Joscoh Solovcitchik) lhlr rhe Con$fl5tive ad gglbl!! movcm€nr! are "nor Judai$h at all.'t

The &ud HsXsbbonim,lhe R.abbinicrt Altianca ofAmcrica, is a s|lufl lLaredi organizarion. Found€d in 1944, it clains over 650 mbbis: r€cem esiimat s indicatc ihat less rhln t00 ofits mdnbcrs worldwidc acrurlly work

Thc Cdlisl Rabbiniql Con@s of th. Unicd Sktes Md Clnad! (CRC) was cstablishd in 1952. lr is sn rnri-Zonisr H.Ildi oraanizstion, consisting maioly of lhe Ss!!!I Hasidic goup, which hss about 100,000 adh€rlt|ts (an unknown numbcr of which sr. nbbis), and like-mind€d Harcdi groups.

During rhe psst y€€rs, the lcft-wing Modcm Onhodox advocacy emup, Bhb consisting ofAiErican Mod.m Orthodox r.bbis. Mosr of iis memb€Bhip calnc from s),nagogu€s atrlidd wirh rhc Union of Orthodox Congr€gations and RCA (above). Their motro was, ',The courage ro be Modem and Onhodox'. Ed.h cealed fibctioning in 2007 and hcrSed somc ofils progltns into rhe lefr-wing ycshivat Chov€vei ToGh. The Bais Yakov movement, begun in 1917, inrroduced th€ concept oiiormal Judaic schooling for Odhodox women.

f) Jewry in Israel;

The Orthodox mmmunity in Israel, approxi@rely 800,000 peopl€,

represenrs d mporrant economic nich€. Because rhe comunity is an an$lu one and menb€rs ob€y rheir rabbis, ir wield! sisnificdr powe. in the narketplace and polirics. 0 Cooservatiye Judaism

Conseaarive Judaism (also known as Masorri Judaisn ;n lsse! and Elllqpg) is a modern $!9q! ofJudaism thal arose out ofimellectual currenrs in Gemanv in the lnid- 19th cenrury and took instrutional forrn in the !Jai!Er! !!e!9! in tne early 1900s.

The PriDciples of Colservitive Judaism:

. A dedicalion ro Halalla... [.s a] guide forone's life;u teaching of Jewish princioles of &i$;

A positive atdnde ioward modern cuhure; and

An acceptece ofbotb tradir'onal lsbbiqis mod€s ofstudy and nodem scholmhip od critical text study when consideriDg Jewish religious

Conservative Judaisn has its roor! in the school ofthoughr kro$r as Positive-Historical Judaism, dev€top€d in 1850s cem,nv 6 a reacrion to the morc liberal religious posirions rlken by Reform Judaism. The term @nvnative w6 meait ro signiry rhar Jews should atrempt to coa"a" Jewish tradition, rathe. tban rcfom or abandon i! and dc€s nor imply th€ movements adhe.enca ec polilicallv consesarivc. Becausc of this pobnrial

for contusion, a nurnb€r ofcons€rvarivc nbbis have propo$d renming rhe movemen/2l, and outs;de ofthc Unired States and e3@!h, in many counlries ircluding Israelr and the trK@, ir is bday known as n-{dorri Judaisin (Hebrew for "Tradilional"). Beck Ground:

Like Reform Judaism. th€ Cons€Nsrive movement developed in

Europe and the Uniled States in rhc I800s, as Jews r€acted to rhe changes brought about by the Enliqhtenment and lgt4ili j!q3!gi@ie!. rn Europ€ rhe movenor was kroM as Positivc-Hislorical JudaiM, srd it ;s stiu known.! "the hi$oncal school." a) Positive-historical Judaism

Positive-Historical Judais, rhe intellectual fo.EMer to Conservative Judaism, was dev€loped as a schoot of thought in the 1840s and 1850s in Gglqsry. Irs principal founder was Babhi zecheid Fnnkel, who had broken with rhe Germar BplbrE l$lsisq in 1845 ov€r its rejection ofihe primacy of the Hebrew language in Jewish prayer_ In 1854, Frdket becme the head of the Jewish Theological Seminary of Breslau. cermanv. At the smirary, Fmnkel taughl that &ylgLblg was nor $aric, but €ther has always dev€loped in response to changing conditions. He calted his apprcach towards Judaism "Positive-Hhroricat,', which metut rhat onc

l: 197 i should have a positive atrirude roweds acc€pting Jewhh law dd rradition as nomalive, yet one should be open ro dev€lopingth€ law in the sane fashion tha! it ha always historically developed. F@kd rcjeced rhe imovotions of Refom Judaism as insufficiently based in Jewish history and communal prac$c€. However, Frarkel's usc of modem methods ot hisroricat scholuhip in analrzing Jewish r€xB and developinA Jewish law set him apan Aom neo-tuhodox Judaism, which was concwntty developin8 under th€ leademhip ofRabbi Sdson RaohaetHiBch. b) Cotrservative Judaism ln America

In the laner half oflhe l9th cenrury, the debares occuring in Oerman Judaism were .eplicared in Ainerica. Conservative Judaisn in America similarly began 6 a reaction to Reform Judaism's rejecrion of taditional J€wish law and pEctice. The ditrerences between the more rnodeh and lraditional branchs of Ancrica, Judaism cahe to a h€ad in 1883, at the "Trcfa Banquet" ar the Hiqhland House €nbnainment @vilion. whicb war sr lhe top of the MoMt Adams Inclinelrrl6r - wher€ !bgl!!sh dd orher non_ 8a$9r dishes were served ar rhe cetebralion of th€ fi6t graduarins clals of Hebrew Union Colleqe in Cincinnat. Th€ adoprion of the radical piusbu.qh Platform in I 885, which dismissed observsrc€ of the ritual commddmenrs and J€wish peoplehood as ',anachronisdc,', crealeo a pemmen( wcdAe belween the Refom mov€ment and mor€ traditional Americu Jews. c) Jewish Theological Seminary

In 1886, Rrbbis Sabato Morais and H. PereiE Mendes fouded $€ New York City as a more tradirional

;198f shemativc ro HUC. The S€minary's brief affiliation with rhe traditional congregadons tlat eslablished thc !Jd@ onrrqations in I 898 was lev€red du€ to th€ Orihodox rcjcction of rhe Sminary,s academic approach to J€wish l4ming. At O|e tum ofdre cenrury, tlle S.'ninsy lackcd a souce of permanent frnding and w!! ordrining on sversge no more rhan

The fonunes of Coruepative Judaism undcrw€nt a drarnatic tumaround wh€n in 1902, the f8mcd scholr! Sql949!:&i99b!9r accapted the invitation to be.omc president ofJTS. Under Schcchtcfs lcadcrship, JTS attracted a distinguished faculty snd b€camc a highly r€earded center of Jewish leaming. In 1913, the Cons€rvativc Movemenr founded it! c.ogregaliond am! th€ Unilcd Synagogue ofAnencs.

ConseNarive Judqism cnjoy.! rapid growth in ihc first hdf of rhe 20th century, bccoming thc largcst Americm Jcwish denonination. Irs combination of modcn innovarion (such as nixcd scndcr sclring) and traditiond pnctic€ particul.dy sppeal€d to first ard slcond-aeneration Fislem EumFu Jcwish imrnigllntq who found Onhodoxy too r.srriclive, bul R€form Judaism for€ign. Affcr ]l&tkl!&Lll Cons€rvarive Judaism continucd lo thrive. Thc 1950s and e3rly 1960s fcatured a boom in maqoquc consmrdion as upwadlyjnobile Anerice Jcws movcd to the !!rbsl!g. Coosenative Judaism occupicd an snviablc middlc position du.ins a period whcre American socicty prized coruensus. d) Rise of Recotrstructiorism

The Conservalivc coalition splinGred in 1963, whcn advocates ofth€ Reconslruclionist philosophy of Mordecai Kspl6n s€cded fiom the {rsg3 movemena to lorm a distino Reconslrucrionist Judaism. Kaplan had been a leadins figure at JTS for 54 yens, s had pr€ssed for litugical refjom ud inrovations in rirul pEctice from inside ofthe fi-anework of Conseryative Judais. FrusrGred by the perceived dominance of the more rraditionalist voices at JTS, Kaplm,s followers decided thar the id€as of Reconslruclionhm would be betrer served tluough the c.earion of separate denominalion. In 1968, the split became fonnalized with the establishment oithe R€consructionisl Rabbinicat Colleqe.

e) Modertr Practices of Conseryative Judaism

In rhe I 970s md eady 1980s, CoDservative Judaisn was divided over issues of gc[der eoualirv. In 197J, rhe Committee on Jewish Law and S@dgrlb voted, withour adopring an explanatory responsum. to p€rmit syraSogues to count women toward a !q!!La4 but Ieft the cho;ce lo individul congregations. Afld a tunhe! de6de of debate, in 1983, JTS voted to admir women for odiMrion as Consewative nbbis, atso wirhour adopdng u explanarory rcspons{rm. Sornc opponenrs ofthese d.cisions len the Conservaliv€ movement b form rh€ Union for Traditional Judaism.

In 2002, the Conunittee adopted a rcsponsum that provid€s an ofiicial religiouslaw foudation for its pasi sclions and anicutates rhe curenr CoNenadvc 6ppro&h to the role ofwomen in Jud.i$.@

In De€ember 2006- a responsum was adopred by rhe Commine€ that approved the ordinalion of eqy and l$Digq Ebbis and permirled colm'tment ceremoni€s for lesbian and 8ay Jews (bui not same-sex mdiaqe), while rnainraining rhe raditional prohibition against anal sex between men.B An opposiDa responsum, thar mutaiDed the rmditionat

r- 200 = prohibitions againsl ordinaa:ons and commihen cercmonies, was aho approved. Both responsa were e@ted as majority opinions, with some melnbers of thc Comittee voting for bolh. This result gives individual sFagogues, rabbis, and jabbinical schools discretion to adopt eirher approach.l9

f) Movementrs Direction:

At rhe time of the | 990 N!$9!eL je!a!h_&!!le!i9!__S!ryq! Corcryative Judaisn remined the larg€st dmonination in Am€ric4 wirh 43 prcent of J€wish households amliated with a slnagogue belonging ro

Corsewative synagogues (compar€d to 35 p€rcen! for Refom and 16 perce for Orrhodox). ln 2000, the NJPS showed &at only 33 percent of syn.gogue-affiliaied Americd Jews belonged ro a Conservative synaAogu€.

For rhe first time in nedly a century, Conservative Judaism is no lone€r the tdAest denomination in Ame.ica. A! *€ same time, how.vcr, enain Conseryative institutioN, panicular dsy schools, hav€ shoM sigific.nt golth. CoBewative leaders agree thal th.se conrrathg trends indicat€ that the movemenr has reached a crossroads as ir heads into rhe 2lsr cenhry. g) Beliefs:

For much of the large movement's history, Conservative Judaiso avoided publishing syslenatic explications ofthe Jewish principles offaith.

This was a conscious attempt to hold togerher a wide coalirion.

ln 1988,the leadership council ofconservative Judaism finally issued an oflicial statenent of belief, Enet ye-Enuah: Statene"t of Prkciptes of Consenatiye Judailn.In a!.ord with classical nbbinic Judaism, i! agre€s that Jews must hold ceiain bcli€fs. How€ver, it holds ihar the Jewish collvnuity never dev€loped any on€ bindinS ggEghjl!!. Thus, it is difficuh

if not ihpossibl€ to pick out only onc person's format cr€ed snd hold ir as bindine.InstraA, Enet ye-Emrr, allows for a nnge ofJewish b€liefs that Conservative rabbis believe e authenrically Jewish andjustifiabl..

'lh.us, Enet ye-Enunth lffirms bclief in cod and in the divine inspiralion of th€ IqBh; however, it d$ amms thc legirimacy of multiple inlerpretatioN of these issucs. Atheisn. Trinilaian vicws of Oo4 and polvtheism aft all rul€d out. Conservarivc Judaism explicitty r€jects relativism. yet also rejeds tund.unenralism.

(i) God:

Conservativc Judaism atrIms o9!9!h9!!!q. lrs members have v6ied beliefs about the narurc of @L and no one und€rstoding of cod is mandated. Among th€ b€licfs afiirmed arc: Maimonidean rarionatism;

Kabbalistic nvsricism; Hcgtlg pancn$.ism (neo-ttasidhm, Jglaigh BEleEeD; limi.ed theism (as in H.toldKnstErs when Bad Ihihes Happen to Good Peopleti snd orSsnic d nking in thc fashion of AIfted Nonh whiteheld and Chales Haruhomc. atso knom ss plggg$lhEqlesr (such as Ratbis Max Kaddushin and William E. Ksufhan).

Mordecai Kaolm's religious nar@lism (Reonsiructiopisr Judaism) used to havc an influential place in the movemmt, but since ReconsFuotionism dev€lop€d as an in{hpmdenr movemen! lhis influcnc. has waned. Papers from a recent Rabbinical Assemblv conference on th€olo$/ were pdnted in a special issue of the joumal Ca,s nati'e h.dai,n

i zoz -t (Wintd 1999); rhc oI! nore dur lGplan s !!OIgU!!q seenrs to hav. dmpped from thc movcmcnt's radsr scI.€Ir.

(ii) Revelation:

Comcrvative Judaism allows its adhcrmrs io hold !o s widc sr.y of vi.ws on tlc subject of Evclation. M.ny CoNcrvarivc J.ws rcj.d the tlldiiional Jcwish id€a lhar Cod liErdty dictatrd the words ofthc Tomh !o !!9t$ ar Mount Sinai in a vctbat rgyd!$g& bui rh€y hold rhe rraditioD.l Jewish b€lief thar Cod iNpir€d thc tarcr llqlEts to wrirc rhe rest of tbe &!a!!. lvlany Corl.servarive Jews b€liev€ rhar Mos.s wls insDired bv cod in the ssmc mamer as lhc larer proph€ts.

Cons$vative Jews who rEjecl thc concrpt ofvcrbd rcvelarioD bclieve lhal Cod r€v€aled his !i!! to Moses rnd olber prophets in s non-v€rbot form - that is, Cod's r€velation did not include the particulrl words ofthc divin€

Conservltive Judsism is comfortable wirh lhe hieh$ criticisn.

including dle docum€nlofv hvpothesis. rhc rlEory thar rhc Torah was r€dactcd ftom s€vcral cadier sourc€s. Tbe movcmmrt lsbbinic autho.ities and its offciaf Torlh cArun .'|!.ar! (EE Hcyin: A Toruh Connenlary) affinn lhat Jews should makc use of modcm critical lirqary and hbloricrl analysis !o undcrsrand hoir the Bible devclopcd. h) Jewish law:

(i) Conservrtivc Hrl.kha

conseivsrivc Judaism views !Eb&!4 (J€\rish r€tisjous law) a! nomlivc dd bindirg. ExaDining lerigLbislqlt a$d Ebbinic tirc.alurc through the lens of acad€nic €riricism, ConseFative Judaism believes thar

halakha has always evolved to meet the chanSing realities ofJewish life, and that it must condnue ro do so in rhe modem !ge.

This view, rogether with Conservstive Judaism's dive.siq of opinion conceming divine revelarion, accounts for som€ of th€ d;v€rsiry and disagreement in the Conservaiive movement,s halakha. When considenng changes to halakha, Cons€rvative Judaism's rabbinicat aurhorities may rely o0 historical analysis as well as religjous consid€mtioN. As Solomon

Schechter noted, "however great the lit€rary value ofa code nay be, il does

no. ir wi.h ;nfallibility, nor does ir €xempt ia ftom the studenr or the 'nv€st Rabbi who dak€s use ofir fioln the duty ofexamining each paragnph on its o\|r Derits, and subjecting i! to lhe sam€ rules of interpreta.ion that were always Aplied to TEdirion,'.@

(ii) Revelatiotr of Torah

Conc€ming the degree of.evelarion of Tomh Conseryative Judaism rejects the Onhodox position of a dirccr verbat revelation of rhe Torah. Howev€., Consepative Judaism also rej€cB rhe Refom view, that th€ ToEh was not revealed but divinely inspired.@ Id conlrast 1o borh, mosr Cons€rvative positions affu the divine bul nonverbat r€vetatioo ofwrinen Tonh as the authentic, historicaly cor€ct Jewish view. rn this view, @! Tgrsb is considered inspir€d by Tomh, bur not neceswily of a straishrforward divine ongin.

,- 204 = (iii) Interpretation of Halakhr:

Conccmins intcrpretation of Hgls&s (or Jewish taw): b€cause of JudsiM's l€gal tradirion, rhc filndfienlrl diff€renoes betwen modem Jewish denominalions also involvo rhe relcvance, inre.prerltion, and applicanon ofj€wish law and radition. Coruervarive Judaism beli€ves that its approach is th€ most suthentic expression of Judaism as it was taditionally pacticed. Corserv.tivc J€ws bclieve that novemerb to its teft, such as BElb@ and R€construcrionist Judaisn. hsve erl€d by rcjc.ting the traditional aulhority of Jcwish law and tradirion. They b.li.v€ thst lhc Orilodox J€wish nov.ments, on tbc thcologicd righ! havc crr€d by slowing down, o. sroppin& lhc hislorical dcvclopment ofJewish law: ',Consepativ€ Judaism b€lieves that schohdy study of Jewish texts indicscs that Judaish has clnstantly b€cn evolving ro m€ei $c necds of rhc Jewish p€ople in

varying circumsrances, ,nd that a ccnFal halakhic authoriry can mntinue thc halathic €volution rod!y.' (Soc. Cul$rc. Jcwish Us€nct Ne*sgroup FAe) The Cons€pativc mov.ment mak€s a conscious effon to us€ hisrorical souces to d€ledinc whar kind ofch.nges ro J€wisb lrldirion have occured, how ,nd why th€y oocutre4 and in what historicst conrcxt. Wirh this inforrnation lhey bclicvc rhat csn bett€r undcrstand rh€ proper way for r.bbis to inlerpr€r and apply Jewish l.w to ou conditions today. Se also und€r Modcm Ortft odox Judaism.

Conservative Judaism acc€pb rhar rhe Onhodox approach to hslokhah is generally valid. Accordingly, a Co$crvarive Je{, could sadsry their halakhic obliSations by paniciparion in @bgdgI nuab.

-: 205 i- i) Movemetrt orgsrizatiol

In the mor€ limitcd s€nsc of the icrm, Coruervsrivc Judaisrn is a unified movcmenq rhc interDarional body of CoN.rvativc Iabbis is lh€ Rabbinical Assenblv (RA), the organization of synagogu.s is fic !hi!94 Svnmoeue ofcons€ryaiivc Judaism (USCI), and $. p.inary scminarics ,,. rhe Jewish Theolorical Scmi')d of Amcrics (JTS) in N€w ].ork Ciry and the Zieqlcr School of R.abbipic Studies ar lhc Americqn Jdish Univ€rsitv (fonnerly th€ University ofJudai$n) in !O bgelg!. Cons&v..ive Judsism outside the USA is otun cdled M.sorti Judlism; Mrsorri nbbis b€tong lo the R bbinical A$€mbly.u

Afiilia&d s€ftinffies ourside rh. USA include thc Ma$hall M€v€r Seninario Rabi ico tatinoarne.ic$o itr l!lp!!i!& and Machon Sch€cher (in Jerusalcm.)

Many Jews both insid€ and ourside of lhis fonnal CoNervativ€

movement id€ntiry Cons€rvarive Judaism .r a worldview which is significrntly larger lhrn thc USCJ and RA. Sociolo8icdly ad r€ligiously, thde is social and rcligious overlap berwecn rhe USCJ, rhe lJqiga_.lh Tnditional Judaism. rnd much of the Chrvumh movcm€nt.ka{dd4 A gowing numb€r of cong€garions *hich ale nor afiiliated, bur which id€ntit thems€lves a3'post-dcnominarional,,, piacticc Fadirional Judaism whilc emphalizing equal roles for wome4 for .xampt€ as pray€r tesdcrs.u Rabbis trained ar JTS 6nd lbe Zi€gler School often scrv. m€se symSogues and chavuot, and memb€rs ofthes€ synagogucs and cha\oroa onen pmy aq or are mcmb€rs of! USCJ sln6gogucskLldld44. j) Jewish ideltity

Conservativ€ Judaism mainbins the R bbinic understanding ofJewish identity: A Jew is somcone who wss bom ro a Jcwish morher, or who convens ao Judrism in accordance with J€wish law and radition. Cons€rvatism thus r.jcct3 parrilineel dcsccnt, which is acclpt€d by lhc Rcform movement. Cons€nativ. Rabbis sre not allowed to oerform intlrmrlliagest@ (n6niag€s h€tween Jews 6nd non-Jcws). How€ver, lhe Lc5d€Bhip Council of CoN.Nativ€ Judsi$n ha! a ditr€r€r'r sociolosical approach !o lhis issue than doc., Odhodoxy, alrhough agrccing rcligiously. In a pr€ss r€l€ase it ha3 statcd:@

"ln lh€ past, intcnEllilge...wa! viewed a! ar act of reb€llion, a reje.tion of Judlism. Jews who int€m.nied r|/crc csscnridly excommunicsrcd. But now, inrmlriiage is offcn thc rcsulr of living in an op€n socicty....lf our childten end up marrying non-J€ws, we should nor rcject then We should continuc ro give our love and by that rcrain a mcrsur€ of influencc in lhlir lives, Jcwisbly and otberwis€. Lifc consisrs of constant growtb srd our adult childrcn lnay y€r re&h a sragc whcn Judaism has new mqninS for then, Howevcr, lhe mariage betwem a J€w end non- Jew is not a c€lebration for thc Jcwish crmmunity. Wc th.rsforc r*ch out to the couplc lrirh lhc hoF thar rhe non-Jcwish p.nn€! will move ctoser io Judaism and ultimately choose to conven. Sinc€ w! know thar over 70 pclc.nl of childrcn of intcrnsni€d couplcs &c nor bcing niscd a! J€ws...wc want to encourlgc th€ Jewish partn€r to maiMin hig}lc! Jewish identity, and raise lheir childrcn as Jcws."

s_ 2A ?: Criticism Criticism of Conserv.tive Judrism Conscrvativc Judaism has comc under criricism iom a varicty of

. Ontrcdox Jews who question the movemmts commihent ro &!ckl&

. CorueNadve Traditionalists who cdticiz€ tbc Hdakhic pe€ss when

dealing with issues such as t{omcn in Ju&ism as wclt as homosexuality.

Odhodox Jewish lesdds vary corBidcnbty in thci! dc5lings with lhe Conssvativc novcmcnt and wiih individual Conscrvativc Jcws. Som€ Modcm Oihodox l€ad€B coopclar€ and work wirh th€ Coffcwstive movend't, wNle bsgCi CulEa"Orilrodox') Jew! ofrcn cschcw form.l cont ct r{ith CoNervative Judaism, or ar l@st irs labbiDrc.@ From th€ Onhodox pqsp€crivc, Conscrvarivc Jcws are coruiddcd jun as Jewish ss Onhodox Jcws, but they arc viewcd as misguid€d, clnsist€nt violatols of halakh!-!4

Over the y.ss, CoD!.darivc Jud.aism h.s cxp€ricnced intemat c.iticism. Due !o halakhic dispuies, such as ihc conEov€rsiee ovcr th€ !g!!!f ygEgq md !9!09!E&eI!, sone Conservative &bslig scholars and €xpert! in hslauls have left lhc Jewish Th.olosicat Scnirsrv and thc Commit!.e on Je*ish Law and Srandads.@ and rhc semina4/s former Chsncellor, R.lbbi Israr Schorsch. complained of the ,novcment,s "crosioo of lirsl fidelity ro ]lslach! ... lwhich] brings [ir] clos€ ro Refonn Judaisrn."u

-i zor 3 ln mtrers of maniase and r[r9l99, th€ State of IsEel relies on ib ChiefRabbinate to detennine who is J.wish; the ChiefRabbinare, foltowing Orthodox pmcti@, does nohecognize the validiry ofconveBions perfom€d

by CoNeryative Ebbis and wilt rcquire a J€w who was conven€d by a

Conserative rabbi to undergo a second, Onhodox convenion ro be resdded as a Jew for narriage and other purposes.

Reform movement in Judaism

'Rerbm nownent in Judaism is a hisloric and on-going religious and sociat movement thar originated simultaneously in the earty Dineteenth century in tle United Statesru and Eurooelrl. The rerm h use.l by rwo widely read and trequ€ndy cired historiaDs ofthe movm€nr David ph;lipson and Michael Mever. Philipson wlte The Refom moyene"t in Judatjn 090t. l93l) coverine th€ movement tom its b€ginninSs up util 1930. Meyer wore Reqo6e to L{odemity: A Hbtory of the Relord Move@nt in (1988). ,/arh Meyets book, the fi6r aenerat history of the novement since PhilipsoD, updates Phitipson,s @vela8€ ro reflect modem concems with bi6 ed to extend th€ history ofthe movem€nt up to the 1970 s.r Throughout its hislory, Jewisb betiefs and p.acrices in the refom movement hav€ undergone dynarnic chang€s and innovarions. Due to ils origins in Enliqhtenmept-era Cermany, th€ refom movemenr ms eyeo faditional Jewish betiefs tbrough rhe tens of lilgrat thought, such as autonomv, modemitv. universalism, and the hisrorical,philosophicat cntique of retision. The reform movemeot in Judaism challenged mey rradi.ionatisr Jewish doctrines, adapted or eliminated pracnces, and int oduced irs oM rheological ud cornmunal innovarions.

I ?09 :< Wh€ther in suppon or reacdon, llrhhlsz! Jewish dcnominations cm trace their intelle.tual and organi?.lion origins to rhis criticsl time in Jewish history,

a) Movemert Colceraed with dilferela cortrtrig itr the trimteelth celtury

(i) Germary

A.man Rcfotn moyenent Uudabnl

In respons€ to lhc Hsskalah. Entiqhtenm€nr and J9!4i!h Emancioadon. r.form-ninded thinkers withh Ccrmsn Jcwry, such es I!!!E! Jacobson. Abmhan Ceicer. Samuct Hotdh.im and Leopotd Zunz, sought ro ch4gc Jewish bclief and placticc. lniridty, rhe refomcrs did nor cdl for a scparate oqanizational sructue. They convcn€d synods but did not fornall, cstablish indepcndent o.ganizarioB or a rabbinical body. However, rEform effods shifted afrcr rhe C€rman sta& p€rmiued rhe esrabtishment of s€pmtc organiational shctures in tbc J€r{ish clmmuniry, inctuding congrcgatiorl!. During the 1840,s and 1850,s, s€psrare rcform congr€gations wcrc s€t up tn rwo major ccnret! of th€ ccnnan J.wry, Franktun and B9![s. No oth€r s.par.tist rcform congqalions wlre esiabtishcd for dccadcs in Germary and key rcformen, includirs Ocigcr, did nol scrve in rbes€ separ.te synaAogues. The movement did rakc the significanr srcp, in I 870, to creale a mbbinical s€minary and r.scarch center known as the Hochschutc fflr di. Wisrenschaft d€s Judenturns.

izroS (ii) Beyotrd Germrny

]n D€nmark, contoversial Rcform movemmr efforts w@ undertak n by Mendel Levin Nathmson and Isaac Noah Mannh€im€r. The dispute was sparked by a .efom confinnadon service in 1817. Meyer sraresi,'... the Copenhagen comunity.emained divided between mbending badhionatists ed J€wish minimalists. ... Amons rhc r.fome.s were hishly assimilat€d fdilies, includinA lhat ofNathanson. whos hold on Judaisn wd so weak that it could not prevent apost sy in rhc nexl gene.ation.6

In Austda, Viema was inrroduced to the Reform movemenl throush Isec Noah Mdnheip€r. who leli Copenhagen in l82l and found in Vienna that "lhe Jewish elile dngled freely wirh highly pl&ed Gentiles," gained sometimes geal wealth, yet whose 135 families were barely tolerar€d by the empir€. This elite build a large, high status new Temple and recruir€d

Mannheimer. Sinc€ Mannh€imo was "known as a man who in Denmark had express€d patotly rcfornist views,,, the T€mple and its comuniry souSht to dampen r€form and called it "r€storation' instesd. tr

Around the sme time, reform efforts in Norrh Am€rica started to emerge, but wilh none ollh€ governmental opposilion and reSulation facing their European counterFrts. Chistian Ainericans may have been prejudiced, but th€ separation of church and $are philosophy atlowed for rh€ Reform movem€nt rc blossom ditrerendy ovsseas. tn addiaion, North America lacked rabbis of uy kin4 Orrhodox or reformist.@ In I 825, lay members of Beth Elohin in Cheleslon. Sourh Cmlina founded the Refomed Society of kruelites as a brcakaway eround seeking mild refoms.s In Amer;cq, while the Charleston effort .was only slightly influ€nc€d by the ceman mod€l,' rhis soon ch.nged: 'lhc classicrl Rcform ideolo$/ in America was alnosr fttly d€veloped in Euop€ .nd transpt&ted !o the United S!!les."@

In Hun8ary, a supponer of Ggjgel and of rhe Hmburg Tempte emerS€d as an influential rhiDk€r and lerdcr: 49r9!-.le!9!i! (17661844). Chorin "served as a valuable adhority for the Ccrman R€forlners" and. albeit from Hungsry! was 'one of rh. movenent's pionccrs.' A rdmudic

scholar, Chorin was raditional ar firsr but rhen 'began !o deviatc from rh€ norn." He chang€d rhc krshnr rc{uir€mcnts, condqnned kabbdah. institut€d somc of the c&liesr ch$gcs in rhc a/€z pnyc. pmcdcc, and abolished 6mulets and rh€ kol nidr€ pray€r of IAKi!!!!. Accrrding ro Meycr, "Chorin was a r.fomcr oo lhc basis of Haskatlh. not hisio,ical dcvclopm€m. Wirh his rabbinic traiiing, he wmte Jcwish taw reroopsa to p€rmit train lav€l snd organ playing on S!!bb4. u yet Cho,in wls noi thc only Hugari.n reforner.

In Esdapggt rhcr! w€rc "lcss rhoroughgoing retigious r€form€rs' wbo w€re inspi!€d by rhc rcform Tcmple in V!!!!!. Bud.perr rcformers, in rum, "mod€dc rcfoms" w.rt und€nak€n in various ciri€s and out€ach efforts were madc to vadous Gcrm.n nbbis, including Zlcharigs Fnnkel. widety se€Il s tbc pionec! ofConsdt rrive Ju&ism.@ Ignaz Einhom, a Hunsarian- bom rabbi, "pur forward a prog&n bas€d neither on halakhic rcform nor on

'Mosaic' Judsism - in facr not on a rEform ofhistorical Judaism ar a , but on an all! native h,rd of Judaism cslld 'Reforn., Though Einhom said litrlc which had not alrt|dy b.cn exprcased by Holdhcim, nowhen g€viously had the principl€s and progras of a radical R€fonn Judaism b€cn formularcd !s clearly."u Einhorn sousht to abolish rhe ceremoniat elemenr of Judaism .Very and retain its faith and morality. Says Meyer, much lik€ Z€charias Frankel, Einhom found his authoriry in what he called 'the rclisious consciousness ofrhe people' exc€pl rhat here the peopte (Volk) coDsisred of thc mosr acculutrated among fte J€ws, those most .ooted in lhe pEsenr.,, He permitled rnix€d morriages, end€d 9ir9!E9id9!, shifted Shabbai worship to Sundays and, "sounding a rot€ rhar would bc heard ofi€tr rhereafier in Aheri@ Reform Judaism, wes lc{osniz€d simply by his idea ofcod and th€ moral dicta on which h€ acr!.u

Out of thcs€ multi-facctei Conrincntal European refom developments, rherc amse a varicty of thinkers who, lik€ lgnaz Eiohom, anticipated or participared in refom elsewhere. For iNtscc, afle. tcsvinA G€rnany, a rabbi wss appointed for a brief srinr in Budap€si who proved insEunental to reform both in Europe and Amcrica: Dsvid Eiphom, unrehtcd to lgn David Einhom wss a "ralcntd radical who would taGr become s leading figw in American R€form.' u Indecd, Einhom had participat€d in the conrrovcFial Ftankfitlt assembty and his ,,Reform philoephy had q./stalliz€d" in Europe.ltq

In Great B.itain, reform effons werc spark€d by effons to change the lirur$/ at London's B€vis Marks. es had be€n donc with the HuburS Teinple. Dcspite some inirial reforms in 1836, tudher altdarions wer€ r€buff€d iD 1839. in requesred the jnroduction of src, alterations and noditicatioE a: were in the line of the changes inboduced in the Relom syasogue in Hanbug and othet ptaces. "fhe Biristt rcformers esrabtished jnd€pendent an congrcga.ion, rhe Wesl London Svnaeoeue ofBrilish Jews,

€ zn7 on I 5 April I 840. The West London Synagogue refomers paved rhe way for lhe modem British refom movemcnt, the Movcment for Refom Judaism. In 1E56, Acr of Pdlidnent was passcd ro allow th€ minister of rhe Wesr London Synagogue ofBrirish Jews ro rcgisler mariage ce.emonies. This act established the tull autonomy of rhe cong.eSarion dd ensued its equality before the law with the Orthodox congregations.

Across the Atletic, by 1873 suflicienr Refom conAregarions had eD€r8ed to organiu as the nion of Ahericar Hebrcw Consresarions

(UAHC). Shonly afrer, in 1875, the Hebrew Union College was esaablish ro improve the qudiry ofrabbis in the Us.

As in Europe, rhere were significanl disasreements among fie .efo.mers over the .ole of iradition, In 1883 a banquer was planned ro celebrale the first gmduating class of rabbis trom Hebrew Union Colleq€. The nore mdical eleinert plann€d rhe banquet with a menu containing sluinp. Soon after this banquer, known as ihe Trefa Buquer, inrensified the conflict beMe€n the ndical and codservative .efomers.@ The conflicr fudher int€ruified in 1885 when a fierc€ debate broke oul berween Kaufmann Kohler and Alexander Kohut over the nature ofreform.

In response to debaie, Kohler ca ed a conferenc€ of reform_minded rabbis in Pittlburqh. Pemsvlvania. Isaac Maver Wi*_ the rabbinicar head of Hebrew Union College, presided over the @,faence. The confeme produced the Pinsburql Platfom. This platfom was hishly co rov€rsial ad an orgeizational split berween lhose more ed less conservativ€.tllr h 1887 a separare Gbbinical school, the Jcwish Theoloeicat Seminary was

.-i zu i round€d. In 1889, $e morc liberal mbbis organized under the banrer oflhe Cenral Conference of Arnerien Rabbis. b) ReforE MovemeDt ir lventieth Centur.y:

At the st4r of $e twentierh century, th€ Eu.oped rcfom movem€lr gahed new sted! orgeiationally. In Cermany, mbbis dd follow€rs orseized unde. fte bamer of Liberal Judaisn. Meanwhil€, inspired ldsety by Claude Montefiore, Lilv Monraqu spearheaded refom etrorls in C!e4 E!!]!ai!. Around 1902, following liturgical cheaes and debates, they formed the Jewish Religio6 Union ;n London. Liberal Judaism sreadily gained adherents afte. the founding in l']l!! oftho Libcral Jewish synasogue, thc fiNt ofrnore than thirt Liberal cong€gations in the UK.

A. the sam€ rime, r€form-minded Frcnch Jews estabiishe.i the lJnion Libetule Isrcelite,whiclrwas criticiz€d as a r€volution.ry schism.q

In 1926, r€pr€sen alives ftom rhe U.S. ad Eu.op€ convened the firsr intemational conference for th€ Refom movement in Judaim dd fomed Wodd Union for Prc@sive Jud.ism-@ Wirh British dd rhen Americo leadersHp, the wlJPJ spread the refo.m movemen to many counEies, mosr notably Ismel, 10 which rhe WUPJ hcsdquaners were relocated.

In the UDited States, lhe Reform movemeni grew significantly thrcugh the Union of Ame.ican Hebrew Concreeations od its afliliat€s. In 1922, Refom Rabbi Srephen S. Whe established the Jewish ttrtitute ofReliqion in New Yo.k, which merged with Hebrew Union Colleqe in]ll!. Other centeN were op€ned in Los Angeles 0914 and Jerusalen (!9{r.

::_ 215 :i On policy matters, lhe Arne.ican Reform novement has had a nurnb€r of omcial platforms. The Columbus rtatfom was wrirl€n in 1937 by lhe Refom movement's Central Confercnc€ ofAnerican Rabbis (CCAR). The CCAR rewre its principles in 1976 with its Centenary pe5patire and rewrole them again in rhe 1999 as ,t Statenent of pinciptes for RefoM Judobn. Accotding ro tte CCA& p€rsonal atonomy stilt has preced€nce over fiese platforms. In !9E1 the Central Conference ofAmencan Rabbis took one of irs mosr controversial $ands and foma y afiirmed ihat a Jewish

id€nrity caD be passed down through eith€r the nother or rhe falher, if rhe child is ds€d wilh a Jewish identity.

c) The emergerce ofConservative atrd Recoostructionist Judaism

Conse.vative Judaism I Recobst u.tioiist,Idabh,

Historians of Conservativc Judaism trace its inre ectual orid$ 10 thinkem like Zachdias Frmkel. who held a religious middle ground b€twe€n German Reforners and Orilodoxy. lnstirutionalty, the Conservative movement in the US deveiop€d in reaction to.eforms. For instance, a group ofmbbis split with rhe Reform movemed due ro th€ conrroveFiat pinsbuleh

Platforn.@ In 1887, they founded of a sepamte Ebbinicat school, the Jewish Theoloqical Seminarv and, in 190t, Consewariv€ rabbis organized as the Rabbinical Assemblv and by t9l3 their congregaiions banded rogether under lhe bannffoffte Unided Svnaeoque ofConservarivc Judaism.

From th€ Conservative movem€nl. arother lib€rat, non-orthodox Judaism app.oach was created by Mordecai Kaplan. Inirially, Mordecai

aa 216 = Kaplan wa deeply opposed to rhe formation ofyet another Anerican Jewish denomination. In 1955, the Reconsrrucrionist Felowship of Congregarions was fonned. This organizarion allowed reconsrructionisi congregalions to share conunon concems but r€quir€d members to be dud amlatd with either th€ US Reform or Comervarive movsn€nt. In 196l lhe dual

afliliation requiremen! was dmpped and R€constructionist Judaisn b€came a tull fldged third dBnonination on fte Am€ricad scene.@ After building its

own rabbinical semidara and congregational presence, th€ Reconst uctionisrs eventually amliated@ in the 1990s wirh rhe World Union of Progressive Judaism.

d) Orthodoxy atrd the Reform movemeut in Judaism

Historians, slch as Jacob Katz DeyillEllgllga ald Sbnuet Feine., sce the co

Since the very besinnings of th€ movenen! rcformeF &d tradilionalists have ofien been strongty criticat ofooe another.

Reformers often felr traditionalists *crc mcouraging secllarizrtion od assimilalion by oeatinA an identity rhar J€ws could not relate ro or be

>lzn? nurtured by. They accused rradirionalists of being inalionat or intellectually naive in rejecting what nodem tcxtual critichm, hhto.iography, psychoto$/, anthropology, and sociology hsd to say about Jewish hirrory ud

TraditionaiisB of.en argued on behalf of iradition making much the same claimsr that reformere were cr€aring a meaDingless Jewish identity that encomsed assimilalion and failed to nulture rhe Jewish spirit. They accused retbm€B of dishonoring Torah, ed even cod in their pusuit of the

Yet despite this ofren biner inaerchsnge, rhere has fton time ro time been a posilive flow of idea! b€rw€en the communities. Many of rhe ealy reformen had a rich knowledge of Jcwish text and rr.dirion ro draw on, a knowledge nunued by years spenr studying in t'aditionat y9!hi!9!.

When Westem mod€s of univeFity study began ro dominate the educalioral ladscap€ ofth€ refonners, lhcy soon found themelves with a generation of educators who knew a grear d€al about modem scholarship and very littl€ about rhe hhroric conr€nr of Judaism. In r€cenr years non- orthodox Judai$ns have rumed lo the caditional yeshiva or bet-nidrash model, ed even imponed Ordodox reachers io help them m.inr.ain the comection to lradition. Thus rhe US conservative movement ha its Conservative Yeshiva in Jerusalem and borh the New york md Jerusalem school ofHUC sponsor pan-dme batei-midrash.

There has been a similar flow in the other direcrion as well Modem Qdhellely still maintains a traditional approach to Halakhah, but has been inqeasingly comfodable with the study lechniques pioneercd by rhe

"i,i' i .r Wissenschaft des Judenluns school. Some ofthe products ofrhar found today on almost every yeshivs dcsh even those that historical crincal method: among thcm rhe Ammaic dictionary of M!ce! Jg!@y dd lhe concordanc€ ofAbraham Even-Shoshu. Organizational identity

Elements of Othodory dev€lopcd their cohesiv€ identity in r€action to lhe Refom movemenr h Judaism.r

ln the United States, reformers took control of sev€ral synagogue bodds, prompting Odhodox membcc ro sepeate md form new congreaations. For exmple, in Charlesron, South Cdolina, the fis! reform s)naSogue in the UDited States, in 1939, th€ canror ofBeth Elohim asked rhe congregation for d organ. T.adifionalisls opposed the proposat and when the congregation supported th€ proposal, the tEdilionatisrs left ad forned thek own conAreaation, Sh€dirh hrcl.A

In the UDited Kngdom, Onhodox conglgations mainrained conl.ol of state sponsored religion and rcforners were forced to seDar.te and form lheir own comunities.

AIso ;n the United Kingdorn, the Masorti movement feqnservative) sLlled in .he 1950's wh€n rhe Chief Rabbi at the tim€ refused to appoinr

Louis Jacobs a principal ofJews, Collcse and retused to allow him to retum to his former congregarion. A crisis ensu€d and the majodry of the congregalion left and fon€d the New London Svnaqoeue in l9&. Orher synagogu€s laler joined rhe New London Synagogue and formed rhe Assemblv of Maoni Svnaqoques.ru

:: 2r9 I Haredi Judaism

H.orcdi or Ch.reidiu Judai$n is rhc nost thcolosicalty consepariv€

fo.m of Onhodox Judaism. A foltower ofHarcdi JudlisEr is cslted a ta,edi (Hdedin in r\e plwal\.

Haredi f110, is derived Som chando, rnaz!,ifile f€sr or arxiety, which in this cont€xr is interprqld as 'one who trsnbtes in alrc ofcod" (cf. Is€i5h 66:2. Ieiah 66:5).@

Haredi Jews, lik€ orhcr Odhodox Jcws. conside! lhcil bclief sys&m and religious pracdces ro extcnd in an unbroken chaio back !o !!9!9g and rh€ giving ofrhc 19!sh on Mounr Sinai. As a r€sult, thcy consid€r non-Harcdi denominations to bc unjustifisble deviations fiom autbeotic Judaism. Mosr llarcdi Jews consider thc rcrm Uba-Onhode a pgowivc tabel, atlhough th€ tern is used widely in secubr aclderaic and scculer ncws sourccs. EnSlishlangu.gc rlalldi nedis \ts. rh. We[]lllg chorcidi ot ch.redi.E a) Religious Practices and Beliefs

(i) Vie*s of Halachr

One basic beliefoflhc Orthodox co[ununity in gcn€nl is that i! is lhe lat€st link in a chain of Jcwish continuity cxcnding back ro th€ givins of the Torah ro Mos€s ar Mounr Simi. lr b.ticves lhar rwo guid€s ro Jcwish lar{ w.e given to rhc lsr.€litcs ar rhst tims thc fi!!! known as tE Torah she-bi- lr@, or rhe "Wrincn Law' is lhe lglcb as Jews know it today; rhe second, kro\|n .s r}€ l'oruh shaba,al @h ('Orat La!r',), is th€ €xposition s3 rctaycd by lhe scholarly and orher r€ligious l.5det! of cach gm€rarion. The

z 220 E eaditional iderpr€tation ofth€ Ocl Torah is considered as the authoritative reading of tle Wrinen Law.

Jewish law, known as h9!s9!! is considered a set of cod_siven iNtructions to effecr spiritual, moral, r€tigious and personal perfecrion. As such, it includes codes ofbehavior applicable lo virrually every imaginabte

circumstuce (and ntuy hypothericat onet, which havc bccn porcd ovcr and dev€loped duoughout the generatioN in a ooffrantly expanding coll€ction of rcliqiops liteEture. The earliest wr;tten oompilation ofralacra, the Talmud, is considered authorirarive.

Halacha is n gaida for evcrr.rhing rhc tradirional Jew does tiom rhe

moment he wakes up to th€ moment he goes to st€ep. It is a body ofintr:cate laws, combined with the rcasooing on how such conctusions rc reach€d. Halacha incorpontes as rut€s nany praotices rhat began as cusioms, some pased doM ov€r the c€nturies, and e assorrnent ofingEined behaviors. It is the subject ofinrense stMy in religious schools known as wrrt6.

Throudout history, halacha has addresttr:d issoes oo rhe basis of crcumstance ed p.eedenl Ther€ have be€n som€ signific$t adaprarions, including more formal education for women in the early rwentiefi centuy, and the application of halacha to modem i€chnolo$/. White t{aredim have O?ically been morc conservalive than their Modem Orthodox courerparts reSardng new pnctices and rulings on new applicarions of halachic conc€pts, Orlhodox Judaism views these types of innovalons as consrstent with traditionally expolnded hatachic conceprs. Haredi Orthodoxys ditrerences with Modem Onhodoxy uswlty lie in interFetation ofthe nature of lradilional halachic concepts and in understanding of whar consritules acceptablc spplication of thes. concepts.

Modem inv€dioru hav€ been studi€d and incorpo.atcd into the evB- .xpedinA halacha, acccpt d by both Hlr€di ed oth€r Onhodox colmsilies. For instance, rulings guid6 rhe obscrvant abour the prop.. us€ ofglglEieiE md oth€r technolo$, on lhe J9r4ilLfuhbaD ud holidays. Mosr major poinB arc th. subject of consensus, although fine poinrs are the

subject of a greater Enge of opinions. While discussions of hdacha are colnlnon ahd €ncouraS€d, lalTErsons arc dor sulhorized ro make final determinations a! to thc applicabiliry oflhc llw in any given situarion; the pfoviso isr "Coruult your local Onhodox mbbi or ?q!et (rabbinical au$onty)."

(ii) Lifcrtyle ond family

Har€di lifc is vcry farnily"€entered. D€pending on various factoN, boys and girls anend s€parate schools and only tloys proceed ro higher lgrqb tu!!1, i^ a rgll/1aot senintry r€spectively, sladin8 an)1{,h€re bctween rh€ ases of 13 end 18. A significrnt prot'orrion ofyoung men renain in)€sr'w until maniage (which is often amnged tbrough facilirsted dating. S€e shiduch), and many study in a &qkl Go.ah s.udy insritur€ for hatlied men) - for dany years after mardage. In many Harcdi cornmunities, studying in secula! institutions is dis.ouaged, alrhough some have educationat facilities for vocalional t?ining or run professional programs for men and women. Most m€n, even those nor in t9!!91 will makc c€rrain to study &tgh daily. Fmilis tend !o b€ larac, r€necting adherence to the Torah commandmen(

"be fiuitful ed multiply" (Book ofcelgs!! I :28, 9: I ,7).

.) zzz 3 Som€ Haredi pen&!!q (autho.ities in Jewish law) forbid rel€vhion and !lE!, r€ading secular newspaoerc and using the I$gqs! for non-business pur?oses. They feel that Egui&_phelg! should be programmed ro disable intemet and other fimctions that could influence their ueB in udesir€d ways, and mosl companies in Isnel now offer basic cellphon€s wirh limned capabilities to accoryndate Harcdim. u How€ver, it app€an tha! many Haredi poople ue tle Inteme! as evidenced by the large nurnber of panicipanb in "Har€di chatrooms."0

Beck Ground

(i) Modern origins

For several centuies beforc the Bmancipation of European Jewry, most of Euope's &!e wer€ forced !o ljv€ in ctosed clll|Inuities, where their culture dd rcliAious observuces werc preseryed, no t€ss beeuse of intehal press@ within rheir own comunity rhan becaus ofthe retu$l of the oubide world !o accepr then. In a pr€dominelty gEislb! sciery, rhe only way for Jews to gain social acceptance wd to conv€n, th€reby abandonins all ties with one's own family ad communiry. There was very linle middle s.ound, especially in the ab9t9, for people to negotiate between the dominmr culture and the communtly.

This bese to chanae with the lg:kqlsb (.Enlishretunenf') dd calls by som€ Europee libemls to include lhe Jewish popularion in the energing empires and nation sta&s. For some J€ws, the mericulous and rigorous Judai$n p@ticed in the C&gq interfer€d wilh rhe new opportunities. Th€y hcld lhat acceptece by rhe non-Jewish world n@essirat€d rhe reformation of Judaism &d rhe modificarion of rhosc plinciples deened inconsistent with this soal. ln the words of a popular aphorism coined by e9EI9!, a person should be "a Jew in rhe home, and a aez.r, G@d pelson)

Other Jews a€u€d that ihe division between Jew and gentile hd actually protecled lhe Jews' religious and social culrure; abudonirA such divisions, they algued, would lead to the eventual absdoment of Jewish religion through assimilalion. This lat{er group insisted that rhe appropriare

.€sporse to the EnliShtenment was ro maintain strict adherence to haditional JgsilLby_c4dlc{els lo pr€vent the dissol'don of authenlic Judaism and ensure the survival ofthe Jewish peopl€.

The former group argued tt|at JudaiEm had to "refom" itself in keeping with the social cheges tqking place alomd them. They wer€ the foremers of the Refom mov€ment in Judaism. This srcup ovewhelmingly asinilar€d inro the surrounding cultue.@

Evo 4 the debare raged, .he r.l€ of integrarion and assimilarion grew proportionalely to th€ deAre€ of acceptance of the Jewish population by the hosr societies.@ In oth€r ooutries, paniculdly in E9!ts8_Eq9p9, acceptance (ud integration) wa! much slower in conins. This was especially true in the Pal€ of Settlemen! a region along Rslsb's w€stem border includins most of mod€rn 89!g!d, to which Jewish settlement in Russia was confined. Ahhough Jews here did not win the same official acceptance as they did in Western and Central Europe, thar sarne spirit of charge peNaded ihe air, alb€it in a looal variant. Since it was impossible to gain acceFance by th€ dominant culture, many Jews tumed to a nurnber of differ€nt movem€nil that they expected would offer hope for a beraer future. The prcdominant movement was socialism; other importanr altemarives were the cultural autonomists, inoluding th€ B!!d sd th€ Zie4i$!. These mov€ments were not neurral on the ropic of th€ Jewish religion: by and luge, they eniailed a completc, not inftcquently contemptuor8, rejection of rraditional religious and cultural norms.

Those who opposed these ohanges reacred in a variery ofways.

ln Gennanv, th€ usual approach was to accept the tools of modem schola$hip and apply them in defence of Onhodoxy, to as to def€al the Refome.s at their own gMe. One proponent of rhis approach w4 R.bbi Smson Raphael Hirsch. who coined th€ slogan Torah tm Derech Eretz (Tonh with civilization) and l€d a secession ftom ceman J€wish communal organizations to fonn a stricdy Orthodox movement wilh ils own nerwork of synagogues dd schools, known as Adath Isruet. His movdn€nr still has followers, and aheir standard ofobseNance i! very $rict, but because oftheir acc€ptance of secula! leaming rhey are not nodally ctassified as H&edim. Some Galician scholars, such as Zvi Hirsch Chaves. fo owed a soinewhar

A closer precursor to today,s lhredi Judaism was lhe ehasm Sofer Chief Rabbi of Pressbug (now B.stislave, Slovakia). In resrrcnse to those who stated that Jlrlsillq could change or evolve, Rabbi Sofe. apptied the le chadash 6* min ha-Toru, (nru xotr nt nntlir), ,'The ,nev/ is forbidd€n by the &Iah" originally refeding io new (winter) wheat that had not been sanctified through the wave offering culminaiing in rhe Countinq of the Oas in the Tclnple in Jerusal now broadly undcNtood to mcan "imovation" in Seneral. The Chalam Sofe. held that any movement

.+. zzs 1 €xpressing the nccd to 'modcmize' Judaisq or €xpressing dle dubiety of th€ verbal r€velation of th€ Writt n and OtlI Torah, w€r€ outside th. palc of authcnlic Judaism. In hb vicw the fundarndtal b€licfs lnd tener! ofJudaism should not, rnd @uld nor bc alGrcd. This b€came rhe dcfinins id.! behind $e oppoDcrts of Rcfor'n and in sone fortrl, it has influcoccd lh. Onhodox respons€ io olhs innovations.

In Elslcm Europc thdc was lide in lhe way of organisd Bglb4 ls!hi!!!, bul th€ advo$les of modcrnity conc uDdcr the umbrella eirher of the le*slcb or ofpolilicsl movements such as B!!r!!!!! or Zionism. The ttaditionalist opposition was aen€mlly associaied eiths wilh rhc valious Eslidjg groups or wilh the glwing nctwork of ygshlrg! amonS the Lithushie Jews. som€ of which (e.e. rh€ ll9!9abi!-J9!hiys) cven closed nthcr th.n comply with th€ Rugsian Govcmtncnr,s demand for secular studies ro bc incrrporsted inro rhe cuniculuh.

ln GemEny the oppon€nb of R.fom nlli€d io Rlbbi g9!tr9! R.ohAel HiBch 6nd his Adath Israel. In Poland Jc$ truc ro F.dirionst valucs gath€r€d under thc balm.t ot Asudar Shlunei Enrnei ybroel.a't7t9 de.hiv. cvcnt came in l9l2 with rh€ foundarion of rbc Ag$lqlllqgl moven€nt, which becamc ! potent polirical force and even obiained scsts in th€ tg!!h lqb bdlirmcnt). This movcmcnr cont ined r€pr€scrratives of several of thc stlams of rldiriondism drsdy md ioncd. The Faditionalis6 of Essrem Eu.opc! who foughr againsr rhc new movemdB dncrging in the Jewish communiry, wcr. thc for€beits of the conrcmpomry lhrcdim.

Ja5Z b) f,ffect! of the Holocaust

During this time, th€ tlaiedi co|muniry wls eng!8ed in biit€r d€batcs wilh the encrgiog new philosophics, most norably rhose that deni€d rhc pre- cmincncc, or ev€n r€l€vmcc, ofreligion in J.wish lif..

Thc Holocaust broughr a paus€ to ihc infighrin& Until the ris€ of Nszi$rl G.mdv had bcch lhc major arcna fo. rhc Enlightenm€ poticics of acreptan€ and tol€mnc€. ltarcdi le.den warncd ltra!'ifrhc Jew! do no. ,@!Elsb'.', rnakc 'k!dds!b', the 8€nril€s will make Kiddush' refcrs !o rhe b€ginning cercrnony by whicb thc Shabbar day is sanctincd. 'Havdatah' refers b thc ending ccEmony, which mouns the dep.rring of rhe hoty Sabbath s3 thc new w€€k coftmmcca.

AlthouSh illcgd, md som€time, socially supprcssc4 e4i!&!qi!isq began to spr.ad in the 1930s in mlny c.u dcs ofEurope, portty in r6ponsc to thc Creat D€pression, aidd by a radily idemifiablc clhnic minoriry to blam€. Such anti-Semitism did not disringuish b€tw€€n Jews, rcg.rdtess of iheir rcligious afrilisrion or lack rher€of. At thb tirnc, faced with dcstrucrion,

Jew! werc ablc to overlook rhe differcncls bctween tbcm as rhey confronted

In th€ foUowins years, how€ver, the survivors were forc€d !o come to grips with the thcologicll implicatioru of the ca!.svophe thar had all but eradica&d their conmunitieg Whil€ they stniggled io rcbuild thems.lves, panicularly in the Unit€d Siarcs and in Pgl€lilE (lar€r lgleD, rhcy atso attemptcd !o undeEi0nd why God h.ad dlowcd such a disssr.r !o befau rhcm.

i-u? This wls coupled with the em€rgenc€ of socialist Jewish nationalhm,

or Zig!.E!q, as a widely accepted, s€cular J€wish philosophy. Untit that !im€, the Zionists were a smail but vocal minority among rhe Jewish populaiion of East€m Europe. Suddenly, they experienced a tremendous growlh! since

s€ttl€ment ofthe Lod of Israel seemed to offer a viable respons€ to the anri-

Semirism thal was still prevalent in Europ€. The HatFdi rradirionalists had long r€jecled zionism, pady b€cause it was a pr€dominan y anli-religious movern€nt. Now! sudderly, the s€culer Zionists w@ in rhe process of achieving their soal ofa Jewish homeland. Meanwhile, unable to rcium !o lheir old hones in Europe dd with quoras on J€wish imis.alion in the IJ!lledrs!3E!, a Jewish homeland had rccesssrily be@m only opiion for Hdedi J€ws. In effect, rhey were sudd€nly at the m€rcy of their most biu€r opponenis. However, th€y were not without rheir own leverage, including the sensitive f&t rhat th€ loogest-stedinA Jewish settlem€nts in Palesrine were, in facq Hedi.

Il would have been easy for the Hedi comrnuriry to explain the evenb ofthe 1930$1950s as th€ direct resulr ofmost Jews abmdoning their religious beliefs.In fact, some did;bur rhe vast majoriry chose a less divisive approa€h, believing that allowina lhe Holocau$ ro occur wd a Divine acl beyond human mderctlndins. This allowed thern to focus on rebuilding their commun iries. €der rhan !o obsess on rhe pasr.

Wirhin a genection, two vibrant new ceders of Hdedi life em€rg€d: onc in th€ UDited States, and fie orher in Isra€|, with smaller, somewhat less influc ial communities in BlilsiL eg&!b [8a99, Belqium- aDd Australia. As lhese conmNities becane viablc, ind€pendenr €ntities, some of fte otd

=228* animosities between them and mcmbcB of othcr Jcwish Iroups bcgrn to rcsurfa.t. Thb time, howcvcr, thcy w@ sh.'Ips|ed by lhc ch$se thl as pr€dicicd, thos€ groups aaiors .nd prcscriprioN h6v. ofren lcd ro assimilatio4 thcreby rhr€aiening the very idca of Jcwish continuity. tn the

post-Holocaust €r., ihat rhrcai is pclceiv.d as being morc Hl O|an evcr. c) Hrredim atrd Ziorism In Ilreal:

brsEl is hom€ to rhe largesr Harcdi population, ar t€ast 600,000, 800,000 (out of 5.4 nillion Isra.li Jews).E Thc number of Hnedi Jcws in lsra€l is rising st €ply. ln 1992, out of a iotal of 1,500,000 Onhodox Jews world wide, about 550,000 wcrc H!'edi (half of rhsn in Isra.t).@ Th€ vasr

majority of Hrrdi Jews arc Alhkenazi.The Hffedi commwity thcle has adoptcd a policy of cultud dissociation, but ai rhe ssme rimq it hls strugSled to renain polirically active, p€rcciviDg irsclf as the truc prot€cior ofihe country's J€wish nature.

Thc issucs date to rhe late nincte€nrh-esdy rwcnticth ccnrry, with the risc of Zigqir4. The v&rt majoriiy of Hsndi Jcws rejed.d Zionism fo! ! numbcr of rlrsoru. Chi€f alnory thes€ wa3 |hc claim that Jewish potitical ind€pendenc. cluld oniy be obrained rl'rough Divine int€rventio4 with rhe

c.ming of th€ Jewish Messiah. Any anehpt to force history was s€en as an op€n rcb€Uion agains. Judaism (for a hor€ clmptel€ .xposition of rhis idcolos/ see ThEc Oaths: Vavoel Moshe: N€turei Karra).

More inportant wss the dislike that rhe polirical and cutturat Zionism of lh€ time fch loward ,ny manif€sration of rgligig!. Spurcd on by socialism. lhcy taunted religion s5 an outdatd nlic, which should disspp€ar (or, according to some extrrme vicws, cvcn b€ eradicarcd) in th€ facc of

z22e= Jewish nationalism. Th€ Haredi Jews poinr out rhar ev€, such libeFts as Theodor Herzl. $€ founder of ftodem political Zionism, at one rim€ conGmplared $e mass conveBion ofthc Jcws !o Chdsrianity as a me3ns of eliminating snri-Scmiri$n. As with lhe ninct€€nth enrury Rcfom Judaism movem€nt in G!!!!tgty, the rcsult wa! lnutud rccdminarions, rcjecrion, ard h.rsh verbd anacks. To Zionists, Hrr€di J€rls wcle eirh€r 'primirivas' or "parasitcs'; to Hardi Jews, Zionists wclc rylnnizing hererics. ,Itis

Lrl\!@pl[still plag.tes lsraeli society loday, where animosity betwe€n rhe two grouF has evm pervaded borh lhcl cducational systcms.

Despilc th€ animosity, it y/as nec€ssary for th€ two gtlups to work out

s<,nt @blbwli in rhe f6{2' of a horc dangerous enemy, the NaZlS. Ihis was Echicv€d by a division ofpow€rs snd aurhority, ba!.d on the division that existcd during the British tt{.nd!r! in the country. Known as rhe ',st tus quo," it glnled political .uthoriry (!uch rs controt over public inltiturions, oc afmy, etc.) !o lhc ZionbB and Eligious authoriry (suci i3 control ovcr manisge, divo.c€, convcrsioru, ctc.) to th. Orthodox. A comproni!. work€d out by Labor Zionist leadc! Bcd Katarclson evcn bcfor€ starchood ensurcd thst public ifftitulions sccommodalc the Orthodox by obs€rving lhc Sabbrth and providing koshe. food.

Notwithstanding rhese compromiss, many Hqlcdi 8rcups mrinrained dreir prcvious apolirical srance. The c4mrnunity had split inro two p6nsl Aqudat Israel. which coopcnr€d wilh lh€ srat€! and lh. Erdah Hachseidis. which li€rcely opposed ir. Both Sroups stil cxist toda, with the ssm€ atirudcs. The Edah Hachrtlidis inctudcs numerous Hasidic groups, such as &!Icr Dlshinskv and Toldos Aharcn as well as several non-Hasidic groups of Litluanian and Hungarian background.

A small minority of J€ws, who claim to hav€ b€en descended Aom communities who had lived peacetully th their Arab neighbors durine the l8th ed ealy 19lh cenuries, took a diff€rent stance. In 1935 they fomed a new groupiDs called the Neiure; Karta out of a coalition of several prEvious anti-Zionist Jewish sroups in the Holy Land, and align€d themselves politicatly with the Ambs out ofa dislike for Zionist policies.

As pan of the Status Ouo Affeemenr worked oul between prime minister David Ben Gurion ard fie religious parties, Haredi leader Rabbi

Altahaln Yeshavah Karelitz (known as the Craza, Al') was promised thar the govement would exenpr a group ofreligious scholaF (at lhar rilne, 400) from compulsory militad s€nice so drat they could plrsue then

Finally, rhe Agudat Is.ael palry repres€nting th€ Hdedi population was invited to pdticipat€ in the goveming coalirion. It agreed, bur did not appout dy ministers since that would have implied tull acc€ptanc€ ofthe legitinacy ofnon-religious actions raken by the gov€mm€nr.

Haredim prored ro be able poliricius. Sradually increEins 6eir leverage md influ€nce. In addition, the Harcdi popularlon grew exponentially, sivine them a lug€r power base. From a small sroup ofjust four membeG in lhe 1977 Knesset, ahey gradually increased the number of seats rbey hold to 22 (out of 120) in 1999. In effect, th€y contro ed the baldce ofpowe. between the countryis rwo major padies.

I zrr -3 ln rhe e3rly 1980s lhe S&A party of Sephardic tlaredim was ser up. By appealing to disempowercd Sephardim who felt IMSinaliad by lhe dominant Ashkenazi Zionisl esrabtishmenq ir gained 17 of the 22 Haredi seats in the &9$p!. Taking the anitucle lhat restoring Sephardic pride and restorins Sephardic relisious observanc€ e one and lhe sane, Sbs has created devot€d cadrcs of newly religious and semi-rcligious nen sd wonen wilh the zeal of neooh{es and an anirnosity toward the courry's secule Europeo politjcal esrsblishmenr. Funhermore, the movement has gained unwavering and determined ob€dience in its supporters to the teachinss ofit spiritual leader, Bsbbi Ovadiah Yoset

A chief dtagonist of the Haredin (ftom the Harcdi point of view) is the lsEeli Supreine Co!r! which does nol bas€ its rulings on halachic beliefs or policy. The Supreme Coun h33 limit.d the power of rhe Hdedi community by granting equal powers to competing bodies.@ A notable case ofthis t end is the "Who Is a Jew?', case, ;n which the Sup.eme Court ruled tlat the Minisry of the Inlerior (rhen clntrolted by S!e9 musr recogniz Reform and Consewarive convelrs to Judaism. More recently, even lhe Orthodox Zionist eslablishnent hss cone under atrack by the Court, siDce ir often alli€s itself wirh $e Haredin in matr€rs of conrrot of municipal and national religious councils. In many inst nces, the Haredim have responded to these and other rhreats angrily, verbally defendins againsr those who would challenge th€ir hegemony. At the sme rime, they recognize tbe anirnosity nany secular lsmelis feel toward them ,nd have embdked on various public relations campaigns and other inedia prcjecrs ro imFove their inase arnong the general public. In praclice, the Ismeti Haredim remain firmly edr€nch€d in seats of political power, with borh blocs doing eveD,rhing they car to gain rheir Euppon.

Following the 2003 elections, the Harcdi parties lost the place ;n the govemment to th€ ultra-secular antircligious ghilgi parry. In 2005 Shinui lefi lhe gov€.nmeni and Ariel Sharon broughi the Haredi Unir,ed To.ah Jslbiqq back into his ruling coalition. Shinui runs under the flae ofstoppins ext,? tunding lo nostly Harcdi schools and resist nce to Tal Law which gives legal status 10 their €xemption from military servic€. Nevenheless, in re.ent ye&s as many a! 1000 Haredi Jews have chosen to volunt€er to serv€ in the lDE, in a Haredi J€whh udt, the Netzah Yehuda Batralion, also knoM as Nahd Har€di. (The vast majority of Haredi nen, however, cortinue to receive defemmls ftom mililary seNicc.s)

The Har€dim are relatively !oor, conparcd ro orher Israetis, but represent an impo.tdl market secror.llll Sixty perc€nt of rh€ no do not have resula.jobs, pr€ferring religious study, which is heavily subsidized by the govement.u "More rhan 50 percent live below rhe poverty tine and ge. state allowances, clmpar€d wirh 15 p€rcenr of dl€ resr of the population-.. "uI Their families are also la4e., usuatly having six or sven childr€n. @

In recent yeds, lhere has been a process of r€concilianon and a merging of Hedi Jews with Ismeli society, for cxample in relatiotr to employment.@ While not compromising on religious ;ssues md rheir srrict code of life, Hdedi Jews tuve become more opcn to rhe secular llreel! sslQle. Haredi Jews, such as sairist Kehll[ieli, publichr Sehara Blau and poliricim hrael Eichler write rcgularly to leadinS Israeli n€wspapes.

{z:r3 Another imporb factor in the reconcilistion pooess has been rh€ acriviry ofz4&! - a voluntary !9rs!9 organization run by Haredim, which provides emerAency first response medical atrention ar suicid€ bombinq scenes and rescues hunm remains found th€re ro provide proper Uslisl. Anolher impon$t Hredi institution of gheli! is yd_!slg, established by Ui Luoolianski (mayor ofJerusalem since 2003) in 1977. yad Sara, th€ only I$&li insrirurion of irs kind, provid$ patients ud the handicapped with medical equipment (such s lhlglgbcid on loan at no cheae, and ;t h open to all IsFelis. Relieious Zionists, mainly ftom the Nltional Reliqious parrv

dd publicly-involved Haredi Jews a.e trying to bridge the saps berween secular J€w ed Haredi Jews.

Between Haredi Judaism srd Nationd Religious or Retieious Zionist Js!bi!!q 6ere is also a caregory of g4b9d9!-!q! known s 'Eddalim. who combine Religious Zionism with a stricr€r adhcrcnce !o Hat&ha_ d) United State$

Unit€d States is home !o the second largest t{eedi populadon. The Univesity of Mdchest€r cited an esrirnate of 468,000 as of 2006.il! While th€re ha been a Heedi presence in the U.S. since rhe $an of the 20th century, the vdious goups b€gan to em€rge as distinctive corrmunities oDly in the 1950s, with the ;nflux of retugees from lbgEglglss$ in Eastem Eu.ope, who quickly fill€d leadership positions. Before then, the disnncdons lbat are now commoDly made b€tw€en Haredi and Moden Orrhodox Jews w€.e nool at besq dividing lines between the two c@p though i! is impoltal ro recognize !ha! there is a substanrial overlaD between

:-.. 234 :: As the tides of Jewish immigrahb to the Unir€d Srabs in rhe laie nineteenth-early twentielh centuries becsme more setrled and afluenr, they looked b Europe to provide rabbis dd other spnitual l€ades ed teacheB for then €merging commLmi.ics. While some rabbis @ep&d th6 chalt€nge, a numb€r of then retuned to Euope soon afrer, fnjsu"red by what thcy found in the United Srates. Unlike Eesteh Euope, where Jews constit$ed a distinct minodty gtoup, rhe United Slates offered Jews & opportunity to blend into the .lonilml culru.e. Many olth€ new inmiglldts dropped fieir traditional custons ed l.ws, both out of choice (the U.S. offered rhem a chance to escape what they vi€wed as the constBints ofreligious identiry) or not (Jews letus;ng to work on $e Sabbath were almost always fired al rhe end of the week; rhe large majority of those who desisred ftom working on

Saturday had to face th€ fomidable chall€nse of finding new work each

The sroups that uived €n massc !&er th€ Holocaust foud a r€ligious dd social infisstnrcturE alrcady in place. While they als fe€r€d rhat lheir communi.ies mighl assimilate into the mainstream ofAmerican sooiety,lhoy were rlso able to create mor€ insula! communities, devoid ofalt bur the most necessary contacts with the surroundirg sociery. As the communilies become more affluent, they wqe able to assume more and tuore roles of ihe city and state for fienselves. Today, rherc exist ltmy auronomous cornmunities in places such as Boroush Pdlc Williamsbu.e. &d g!g!E

Hgigb!! in Brooklvn. as well a3 morc recenrly the yeshiva cen!€r€d comunity of Lakewood. New Je.s€v. wirh rheir own economi€s, educatiooal systems (yerriror) welfale institutions dd sc4sqh! gt@-to n tunds for ever),thiDg 6om money to househotd itetr ro rools, ctorhing, books dd senices), medical senices (such as the dq@lart mbulanc€ corpt, and secuity (the S/rou fia neighborhood patrol). Some snalier, more isolationisr Hasidic groups actually founded their own smatl towns, sqch as

New Souare. New York and Kirvas Joel. New York pattemed after the comDities they left in Europ€. Thc.e arc still oth€r. smalls, communiries throughour the United Srates which al first did not have all rhe esrabtished ;nstirutions ofthe donimnr comrnuriry h Ngllyglk. Evenrually, even they managed to put many of these institutions in place, thereby prcserving lheir

Wilh these in place, the comrnunities wer€ able ro grow ud flourish, both because of e extrem€ly high binhrale (eight or more children is normal), and due to oureach programs gearcd towed other Jews. Most nohbly the Chabad Lubavitch Uglidig mov€ment enbEced ourreach with a pasion, conducling nationwide crmpaigns to introduce Chabad Judaism to unaffilia&d Jg!!, as well as to Jews of oth€r afrliations. This helped ignite $e Teshuvah Movemenl $al now anracb droosands of new adherenrs lo Haredi Judaism yeirly.

On the other hand, despite all rheir effons at cultu€l sepamlion, fte Hsredi leadership could not ignore the appeal of Anerican life to their own youth. While certair few concessions !o American society wer€ made (for example, some groups allowed som€ oftheir child.en ro pursue some higher education under certain circumstanc€s), for lhe mosr part the response was to adopt an even more exteme approach to insularity. In eff€ct, an)rhing thal might b€ perceiv€d d a threat to the cultural homogereiay ofthe cotmuiry was dispange4 includins se4ular newspapers, radio, od television. lnstead,

l 216 -i a progam of to&l immersion in study was encouraged for the youAer

Some Haredi leaders realized thar the cormuniri€s coutd not be kept completely insulaf and established ways ro connecl to sociery withour

compfomisins on their inirinsic beliefs. In several instances, yestivos such as Torab vodes, chaim Berlin and lblfsqel srarted allowins the boys (or bolhuin) to pursue a secular education while remaining jn the yeshiva. This was h€lped largely by the establishment of Touro Collese by Dr. Bemard Loder, a college based in NeLyerk-liq gear€d rowards lraredi studeds seekingcollege deg.ecs. One of $e mosr noriceable lhings in Touro is lhe fact tlat the classes are sepante for m€n a.d women to keep in line with strict Haredi lif€sryles.

Another, p€rhaps areat€r threar, was seen in those Jewish groups that attempted to bridge the 8ap between lhe relig;ous and secutar worlds, sinc€ lhis w6 pe.c€ived d possibly rnore alluring ro rhc youths ofrhe communiry, including those who could nor conccive of r to6l br€ak fton their Jewish upbrinsing. Belb@, Conservstive, and even Mod€m Orrhodox Judsism were seen as threatenlng to the very conrinuiry ofrhe comuniry.

In the cas€ of Reform, this animosity could be traced 10 the eady nin€teefth cen1ury in Gemy, wherc Refom waged a batrt€ ro wresr control of lhe comunities from Tradilional Jews. At lhal rime, bolh Aroups attacked ach olher incessantly in the struggle for hegemony over the Jewish community. Until most rccently, the R€form movement felt secure dd was not leveling th€ sam€ attacks on rhe Onhodox. In many instances, they sought ways 10 cooperale on common issu€s. To the Haredin, however. they

":: a 231 a steppingslone ro assimilalion, lo be disparaged arld discou€ged within iheir oM communiti€s. The criticisms of two centuies edlier we.e also applied to the ConseRarive @m'nunity. Thei. beliefs and p.actices woe held.o be incompatbl. wirh aurhenric Judaism s4 a such,

The Hdedim maintain a delicale balanoin8 actr on an individual l€vel,

Conservative tud Reform Jews ar€ seen a3 "innocents led asray'(R Mqlhg Feinstein). As such Haredim have created extensive ourre&h programq conducted out of a deep tove and concem for rhe spirirual well-beins of other Jews; oo a philosophical level, the g.neration and beliefs of rhes€ movements are condenmed as sremning ftom the widespr€ad de gErion of religion of lhe l9rh century. It is lhis vi€wpoint that defDes rhe H&€di co|muity's relatiotrhip to the larger Jcwish community to this day.

However, the issue is more oomplicared when coNidering th€n position vis e vis the Modem Orrhodox cornEuiry. There is a Dutual dep€ndency betw€eD the wo cornhunirics: rhc Modem Onhodox generally resp€ct 8d adher€ 10 the rcligious rulirys ofthe Haredi leadership, whil€ the Haredi often depend on university traiftd Moden Onhodox professionals to p.ovide for needs thal m€mbers of their own comnuniry cmot. For €xample, sirce there are so few Harcdi doctors, rhe commun;ry will prefer to 8o to a Modem Orthodox dootor, since he or she will have a better understanding of ihe implicarions of th€ lreatmert in Jewish taw (hatdl.,ha\.@ F\ltthennore. Haredi rabbis will consulr with Modm orthodox doctore before issuing rulings on medical procedures (an exmple of this is on issues relaring ro the precise moment of death).@

iL zn2 Nevenhele$, the leade.ship is unwilling to &cept rhe tibqatism of rheil Modem Onhodox colleagues. ln lome cases, Modem Orthodoxy is perceived as balalcing precariously on a very narrow wire between rhc

Jcwish and secular wodds: a tcnrbte but, !o the Har€di, unncccssary posil'on. In other c€ses, Mod€m Onhodox t.sdds are consider€d to hav. palsed |he bound! of religious propri€ry and condenned for tiis in severe

tems, since those lqdels, unlik. Reform and CoNesarive Ebbis, are believed to have the requisite lesning md should know better.

No mattc. how sharp thc discolBc, it docs not havc the samc idcnsily as earlier arguments that led to or threatened r€al schisms mong rhe Jewish people. For instace, with rhe rise of Hsidism, Rabbi Eliiah of Vilna declared that his followers must nor marry llasidic Jem (the ruting was nevef put inlo pFctice).@ While there are lensioN betwe€n Heedi and oth€r Jews, th€ leadership ofall the facrions irvolved have taken carc ro prev€nr a complete break while r€specring rhe desire of the Haredi for aulonomy ed sepetism. Aid th€re is comnon ground tm, especjally in the field of leaming. Ir is not uncomnon for Haredi schotaB to rake adva age ofihe vasl library holdings, including rare manuscripts, in the libraries of Yeshiva Universiiy (Modern Orthodox), the Jewish rheologicar Seminary (Conservative), ud Hebrew Union college (Reform).

In 1988, it was €sdmated rhat there arc between 40,000 ard 57,000 Haredim in Williansburg. The Jewish popularion in Bom park (70,000 in 1983) was also mostly Haredi.u One musr keep in nind that th€ numb€rs provid€d ate inconclusive! however Siven rhe Femendou birrhale ofHaledi

Lztsk Jews in Wiliansbug and Boro Park, sone cstimaae th€ir popularion has doubled or tripled in the last2} yaat!.ttuLttuBM) e) United Kitrgdom

In the IlK, the largesi Har€di communiri€s arc located in London (Stnmford Hill. Colders crcen, !9!!19!, Edsware), Sal&L-d/q!ry (Brouehton Islk and PresMich) and Cateshcad. The majority of UK Haredim descend f.om Eastem-European iminigranis. Th€ Hnedi community in Lordon is ofganized into a group known as the Union of Onhodox Hebrew Condeqations (UOHC).

The UK Haredi community h vibrrnt dd growing mainlaining hmdreds of synasogu€s, although many are small€r scale q!!i9bgb. rr arso maintains nBerous schools, Iglhilsg tsglglr and !qi!qg!. The community ale suppons doans oflglbgr food shops, bakeri€s and to a l€ss€r exten!

The Hedi population in the UK w6s esrimated ar 27,000 in 1998, our of 200,000 uK obs€rvst Jews.@ However, a 2007 study pubtished by th€ Unive6ity of Manch€ster sss€rled that threc out of every four British Jewish births ar€ Hredi, who non &counr for 45,500 out of around 275,000 J€ws ;n the UK, or l7%.@ Within rhe next thre€ decades, rhe Hdedi comnunity is predicted (by the Board of Deputies) to b€ thc lars€s. Jewish group in rh€ tlK: in comparison with the nstional average of 2.4 children per fanity, Haredi famit'es have an av€rage of5.9 childr€n, and a! of2006mem5€rehip ofchdeidi synagogues had doublcd since 1990.u

::-- zao -": Wcstcrn Europc

About 25,000 Haredim live in France (nostty Sephardim of Nonh African descenl).@ Other imponanr comnunities, mostly Ashkenazi, tive in Swirzerldd ad in Antwem. f) Organizations

(i) Haredi Jcwish groups

Aqudath kmel, worldwide and local (such d Aqudath Ismel of ]@s)

I&Eidie Jewis} groups such as: Bs!4 Bebs!, B9!9!, Bg}!!' Br9!19! Chabad Lubavitch, Ger, Ks!I!, Murk&z lcppc, &!@r, dd YizhdE.

. Shas. Mizrahi Sefedr Harcdi

. United Tomh Judaism - Alhks4sziHaredi politi@l gluping in lsEl

. Edah Hachareidis - mbbin;cal council of anli-Zionisr Hsedi in md around J€rusalem, including Sslqsr, pushinskv, ]!ld9! 4!e!9!, Toldos Avrohom Yirchok, Mishkenos Horoim Spinka, Brisk and a secrion of orher tilxilh }t&edin.

. Toldos YeshuM - Organizlion ofHaredi Russian Jews

i zrr :: REFERENCES CHAPTER FoUR

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32.1The beginning ofthe US Reform mov€ment is usu.lly darcd ro 1824 whd' a group of r€formeB in Chadcs.on, Soutb Calolina brokc away from B€th Elohim and s€t up an indep€ndenr congrcSation .am€d lh. Reforncd Society of lsracllrB. (ct l''(|..I., Response to Modernity, 228t29\,

33.1 Thc bcSinning of Europcrn rcform is less clesl cur. Whilc many called out for refoms in rhc lde eightecdh century snd esdy nineleeolh ccntury, atalrnptd chan8€s in syn.goSu€ woNhip and

educalion were shon lived until the H.mbug tefiplc wEs founded in l8f 8 (cf. Mcycr, R$ponr€ to Modenity,6t\ Therc is linte evidcnce of intcEcrion b€rween thc US and E|lIoFan movcrDcnts until lh€

)- u+7 Gennan immigation in th€ 1840,s. (cf. Meyer, X€rpor','e ro Modenitt, 235-236).

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J!!!c!! f'orn 7re Jslr':r, lR eligion: A Conpanion,OxfordrJ versiW Press, l99s. ISBN 019826463 I

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Jer)ish Tribune,

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60.4 Diaspora harednn dominate Ismeli Intem€t forum I Jerusalem Posr

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l ut =1 68.1 Rulh Sin6i, "Quiet r€volution under way in Har€di secror" , Haaretz, 28 Dcc 2005 I 69.^ ' ''Maiorib of Jews will bc tlta-Ortbodox bv 2050". Universitv of Mamhaeci (!s!21 @O. Arcbivd fion rhe diqin|l on 200E ReEievcd on 2g0g-0!22.

70.1 "Is this th. last qeneratior of British J€ws?',. the Teleenph (2!06 -ut5). .> t ) r t t u,, t.{, G v L o 1 lk f {, 4, 4-

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- r',) v'1, tl rrt ; *.,y'J!- ",,t* -.:.- & lti L f t, :. t)b b-lz-t i w -l fuiw, Ct, o:; z_-,a,JA)t

e,t )t t -7' tfz- fL J,r:,5,a'- 1t f v -rt 4,lg,fJ tt { L )--, t --,1.f4,t !L,.LIL,Jzt;."".(-,rF-,< izsl? ABSTRACT

This thesis is conprises ofthe following five chapl€rsl Chapter 1:

"ORlGlN OF JUDAISM' in this ch.pter Research of the word Jews, a short history of Judaism with r€fer€nce to the Holy Qum'u, old testament and demoa.aphi€l sweys have been defin€d. Chapter 2:

The Rise and fall of Jews" in thh chaprer a historical beck sround of rise and fall ofJews has been defined to thc in this chspr€r. Ch.pter 3;

In this chapter, early migration of the Jews and early Jewish movement have been disc'.Esed. Chapter4:

Jewish Revival movements in l8'" Century and ils imFcl on the Muslim world' has been analytical iaken in this chapter. Chapter 5i

"Jewish Revival Movemenl in l9'i century and its impaci on lhe MBlim world' is the focus point ofmy research. Conclusiotr:

conclusion is th€ ourput of this thesis. Zalman Schacbter-Shslo'ni- a H4idic-trained Ebd ordaiDed in the Lsbsyitsh movement, brokc with Onhodox Judaism beginning in tbe 1960s, and fouded his oM organization, The B'mi Of Relisious Fellowship, which he described in u aniclc entitled "Towdd an Ords ofB'nai Or." The name "B'nai Or!'means "sons" or "childr€n" oflight, md was taken from the Ds!LS!4:Sq9!b mterial, where the "sons of lishl" battle the "sons of da*n€ss." Schachtd-Shalomi envisiorcd B'nai Or as a semi-mondtic g!bE!q-t)"e community, based upon the various conmunal nodels prcvalent in thc 1960s and 70s. This comrnunity n€ver naterializ€d as he envisionen ;! but B'nai Or did prcduce a number of important le.ders in the Renewal movement. I1 also produced fte Stai O. errlette\ q\anerly ^ magazine that presented articl€s on Jewish rnysticism, Hasidic sio.ies and Schachter-Shalomi's philosophy. The dalthead of this publication readl

"B'nai Or is a Jewish Fellowship esrablished for the service of G-d [sic] thmugh pBye., ToFh, celebntioA mation, Fadidon, and mysricism. We serye s a centcr to f&ilitatc p€ople in th€ pusuit ofJud.ism as a spiritual way oflif€."

Sch&ht€r-Shaloni was stlorsly innuenc€d by SslEla (Sufi Islm) and Bsldbir4, even translaling some of tbe prayers into Hebrew. He ako focused more on urbd s$lcilahlqlrias thd rual cullue, and suggested for instance int€rconnected balen€nts of houses in urbd neighborhoods that would create collective space (especially for holidays), while providing th€ level of privacy secule life had encouraged. Some of these idea have infl uenced urban €conomic!.

:;r 256 :l In 1985, afte. lhe first national Kard, (conf€rence) galhering in R.dnor, PeMsylvdia, $e lde was chaneed fiom ,/ei Ot ro P'rui Or ("Fac€s of Light") to rcflect the morc cgdirarian peEpective of rhe rising ibminist movem€nt. Togcther with such colleagues 6 Arthur Waskow. Schachter-Shalomi broadened the focus of his orSeiztion. ln l99l ir nerged with The Shalom C€nt€r, fosded by Rabbi Wakow, ro become AIEPH: Alliance for Jewish Renewal, which served as a loose umbrella for like-minded havuot. However, some ofthe more Onhodox nemb€rs ofthe old B'nai Or were not happy with dEs€ radicat cheges, and left rhe Ren€wal movement at this rime. This .esulled in major leadeship changes, wilh Waskow taking d increasingly imponet role.

In l9?9, Waskow had founded a magazin€ called Meturah, wh;ch explored and encoumged many creative ritual and social issues from a J€wish perspecdve. It was in lhis publicalion thal Walkow coined the rem

"J€wish Renewal." ln | 986 , Me@ah nergeA \|it\ The Rrai Or NNslefter to be.ome NN Menoruh, now available online through ALEPH. The new version ofthe publicalion addressed Jewish f€minism, the nuclear arms rac€, n€w folms of prayer, social justice, €lc. Several of lhc early NN Menoruh issues explorcd gsyjgbE, and becme sn important catalyst for opening lhis discussion in more mainstream synagogues.

The great€r cohesion and focus creat€d by B'nai Or/ALEPH and ils nagazine led gradually to the spread ofJewish Renewal thmughout much of the United States d4 by th€ close ofthe century, to the establishm€nt of cotunuities in Canad!, Ladn Americ4 Europe ad Israel. By this time, the begimings of institutionaliarion *ere in place, in the form of the adminbtative ALEPH: AlliaDca for Jewish Rencwal, the rabbinical sociarion OHakH, and sn incr€a5in8ly formaliz€d mbbiric ordination progam that today is aooepted by the Narional Council of Seminari€s which includes the heads of all major non-Onhodox Nonh Anerican Rabbinical and Cantorid Tmining progmDs.

Samaritans, from a phoro c. 1900 by the !q!9$i!qErglg!s!i9qlsd.

The Satnaitd relision is baled on sone of the sue books us.d 6 the basis of rnainstleam Judaism, but diff€r fiom lhe latter. Samariirn scriptures includ€ the S94gd&4-!eEi94 ol ihe 19rcb, the Memar Markah, lhe Samaritn lilu!S/, ,nd Salnalita law codes and biblical commen aris. Suditas appea! to hsve texts oflhc Torah a! old as th€ Masoretic Text and the Sgpusg,ill!; scholars have various theories conc€min8 th€ actual relationships betwem these th€e t xts.

{useE Sml.ritao! p(ry b€for! tL I{oty Rock ql l,tounr caidn Appendix - Chapter, V Important figures

. Bndl€v Shavit Artson - Dean of the Zeqlcr School of Rabbinic Sqdig! at the American Jewish Universitv(formerly the Unive6ity of Judaism), author, theoloSian, and public speaker ' Ben Zion Bokser - Rabbi, halaldic expen, scholar, and community

. Elliot N. Dortr - Professor of philosphy at the Aserien Jewish Universitv(fom€rly the University of Judaism) professor, lheologian, mernber ofthe Comminee on Jry;sh Law and Standards

. AqqLLEi$a - chanccllo. oflhe &sisLlledgdlslsgaiaqy . Shva Finestone - Shaare Zion Congregation Religious Affairs Comittee (Canada)

. Louis Finkels.€in - Talmud scholar

. Z€chdia Fra.kel - foundd ofpositivehistorical Judaism. . Ne;l Cillman - Theologis, Philosophy Prcfessor ar &!d!h Theoloqical Seminarv of America (JTS) ' laqiqlcjlzb9rs - Talmud $hold and hatathic expert, ellrly membe. ofthe Conmitt€e on Jefish Law and Slandards ' Bgbe4.lcgs!! - Rabbi, Theoloaian, Educator ' Sinon Greenberq Rabbi md Institution Builder ' JsdilLtlslplqqr - JTs Talmud scholar

Izoo3 . Jules Harlow - PriEary litulgist ofthe Cons€native movement

. Abraham Joshua Heschcl - Theologim md social activist

. Louis Jacobs - Rabbi, founder of Masoni Judaisn in the Uoi&d Kinqdom

. Is&c Klein - Rabbi, experi in Jewish law, edty m€mber of the Connittee on Jewish Law od Standards

. Sheldor Levin ' Former President ofthe CA, also fomer nenber of the Committee on Jewish Law and Stdddds

. David LiebeF President Emeritus of the American Jewish lJsiyg$ig(fomerly the University ofJudaism), patl President ofthe Rabbinical Assembly, or of the Etz llayim Humash

. Saul Lieberman - Talmud schold at JTS

, Amn L. Macuer - kbb', Professor of Th@losy aI Duquesne University, member of lhe Comninee on Jewish Law and Standards

, Ddiel S. Nevins - Dean of the JTS Rabbinical School, Halakhic Schold.

. Maver E. Rabinowitz " JTS Talmud scholar, former m€mb€. of the Comift.c on Jewish Law and Slandards ' JgelBglh - JTS T.lmud scholar, fomer member ofthe 9944i!e9-s! Jewish Law snd Standards

. Solomon Schechtg - R6.@hq, early lerder of JTS, crestor of tbe United Svnaeoque of Conservalive Judaisn

l- 261 j: . Mathilde Roth Schechter of the !&asa!tsgss-!.f ConscNativc Judaisrn rnd ofEcd$$h

. lsJM Schorsch - Former charcellor of the Jewish lheolosical Seminary ofAmerica

. Harold Schulweis - Rabbi in Los Angeles, theologian, founder ofthe Havunh movement and $e Jewish World watcl'

. cordon Tucker - Former Dean of Jewish Th€ological Seninary rabbinical school, part-tnne f&ulty m€mber at JTS ud member of Conrnitlee on Jewish tiv and Standdds. Senior Rabbi of Temple lsraelCenter in White Pla;ns,New York . David Wolp€ ' Rabbi, autbor, public spc5ker in Los Ang€les, Califomia.

. Sarnuel Schantr - Rabbi, historiu, Presid€nt of EsbIs!-.C9!!s99. Bosroni Supc.intendent of the EgerslslbsisLEd!@i9!, chicaeoi ge4sBslq4h €ducational dir€clor

!!94b!ei-yerE34 Rabbi of T€mple Irel of @sLN!s& on Lelg bb!r!. Responsible for opening dialogue beMeen Arnerican Jews and The Vatican under Pope John Paul II in !9Ef as chaiflnm of the Inlemational Jewish Comi$ee on IntereliAious Consultations

Conmitl,ee on Jewish Law dd Standafds

Keshet Rabbis

Rabbinical Assemblv

Role of women in Judaism

:; 262 : CoNwative Iialakrha

Criticism of Conservative Judaism

5x:ls Rabbinicsl le8dcrs

The &aLslgalgy ( I 8lh century foundd of H6idiu)

The Vilna Gaon (of Lirhuania)

Rabbi Chaih of Volozhin (l9th century founder of the Lithuanian yeshivoth)

Rabb; Moses Sofer (l8th-lgth century lead€r of Eastern European ultra-Onhodox)

. Rabbi Yisrael Meir H.cohen Kaqd. th€ Chafetz Chaim

Rabbi Avrohom Mord€chai Alter drivina force behind Agudas

Rabbi Moshe Feinstein, one of th€ h'ghest halachic autlorities for

much of Lhe twenlieth cenrury

. Rabhjalla!!!of!!ba}!!!{ale!lz o€ader of Haredim in Is@l)

Rabbi Aharon Kotler (found€r ofthe Lakewood yeshivas in America)

Rabbi Ovadva Yosef (leader of Isr&li Sephardi Haredim)

Rabbi Yosef Shalom Elvashiv (present-day l€ad€r of lsracl's non- Hasidic Ashken zi Haredin)

(iii) R bbinical o.ganizrtions 8nd dynasties

. Rabbis ofrhe B!sLE4llsI9,i!!! rabbinical counoil ofJerusalem

. Rebb€s of ilt€ S@sLHe*bq (originally Hungary, now New YorD

. R€bbes ofthe GgaglEelidllq (originally Poland, now lsrael)

a 264 3 GENERALAPPENDIX

Historical Jewish Population Comparisons

Fron Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: naviqaton, lglqb Jewish populatioD centeB t6ve shified tremendously over time, due to the constant $reams ofJewish retuqees created by expulsions, persecution, and offi.iaUy sanclioned killing ofJews in variou places ar vdious limes. The 20th centuN sw a large shifr in Jewish populations, due mostly to pds6ution in Eatem Europ€ followed by lbqEqlplslEl migBlior ro the United Staics and the crcation of lssgl and subsequent expulsions of Sephardic and Mizahi Jews ftom the A.rab world. tlidel I Ancient and medievaltines 2 The modern wofld 3 Population in I 900 4 1900 conpared ro 2005 4.1 Bv countrv 4.2 Bv reqion 4.3 Rankins 5 Referen@s 6 See also lslij Ancicnt and nedieval ti'nes The Torah contains a number ofstarem€nts a to the number ofJews that lefl

EgJp! rhe descendat, ofrhe s€venty sons and grandsons of&gqu who took up their residerce in tbat coutry. Altosether, including Lsy!!g!, the number givcn is 611,730. For non-Levites, this repr€sents men fit for military serice, i.e betlv€en itlventy ahd sixty ye3rs of sge; among the kvites the relevant number is those obligsted in tenple s€rvice (mal€s bei*€€n twenty and fifty yeals of age). This would imply a population of about 3,000,000.

T}re Ceosus of DsyiC is said to havc Ecordcd I ,300,000 malcs ovcr twenty yeirs of ggc, which *ould imply a poputation of ovcr 5,000,000. Tl'c numbcr of exiles who r€tum.d ftom Babyba is sivcn at 42,360. Tjciq! d€clares tht J94!s!9I! at its fall co ained 600,000 p€rsons; !gsepb!!,lhal therc w€r€ as nany as I,100,000, of whon 97,000 werc sold as slaves. It is ftom ft€ lattd that most Euror'.3n Je*s arc .lcsend.d. Th.$ app@ (miid Jacobs) lo b€ all the figur€s accesiblc for nncient timcs, and their

tmstu/orthiness is a matt€r ofdbpute. The difiicullies of comissarial in th€ Sj!4i desed for such a number as 3,000,000 have been pointld ou. by lqb Willim Colcnso. ln dle Hs4ilaig war 580,000 Jcws wcre slain, acrordins b eesriqDie (lxix. l4). According to I!99d9L!!9Era!9e in rhc first ccn ury C.E. lhere werc no less lhan 1,000,000 Jews in Es/pt, in a total of 8,000,ttt/0 inhabhantsi of th€se 200,000 livcd in AlqggLig whos€ total population was 500,000. AdslllCgtrslk (Au' beituns de' ChrbtentuDa, tJipzia, t9o2, r.ckons thai thcrc wcre 1,000,0t'0 J.ws in SjEh at th€ time of IEIS and 700,000 in Pq!9!!i!9, and he allows for an additional 1,500,000 in olher places, thu! estimating tbat there were in the fi6t c€ntury 4,200,000 Jcws in th€ wodd. Jacobs rcma*s rhar this estimarc is probably exceieive. As ressds th€ numb€r of Jews in the Midd&_Aspr, Betblqi!_et|jlrhls, about Mq €nunerates altoaether 1,049,565; but of thesc 100,000 arc atuibured to lsis and bCig 100,000 to A4bie, ud 300,000 to e

I 266 I undeciphenble "Tharain", obviously mere guess€s with reg{d to lh€ Eastem Jews, with whom h€ did not come in oonlact. There were at that lime p.obably not muy more the 500,000 in the countries h. visited, and probably not more than 750,000 ahogether. The only real data for the Middle Ages arc with regard to specisl Jewish comunitics. The Ja^, Encrclopedio pto\ides at^ble ofdtis dal. [1]. Th€ Middle Ages w€re mainly a per;od ofexpulsions. In 1290, 16,000 J€ws were expelled ftom E!s,bsi; in .ll!6, 100,000 fton [r4!ee; and in !!92, about 200,000 ftom lpelq. Snall€r but more fiequent expulsions occuned in @EqlqL so thst at the c.mencement of the .ll!!h_99!!9ry orly fou great Jewish connnunities remained: Elq4bfull 2,000; woms, 1,a00; E!3sce, 10,000; dd yj9q4, 3,000 aHeitrich Grntz, Geschichte det Juden x- 29)- It ha! been estimared thal during the five centuries ftom 1000 to 1500,380,000 Jews were killed during the persecutions, reducing the total number in the world.o about 1.000.000. In rhe l6rh and l7dt cinturies lhe m.in c€nters of Jewish population were in !9!9!s! and the Medit€rmn€an countris, Spaitr

Icditl Tlc nodcrn world

Iocre$e in Eu.ope J€wbh populations befor€ 1900 iD!t.

jNe.herhnds v;,, 46,408

I ztl '', 1849 58,626

1859 63,790

68,003 t819 81,693

Eurg.ry

1720 12,656

75,089 l?86 77,U7

1804 la,tza

127,816

1829 202328 tw2 241,632

1850 352,400

1857 413,1l8

1869 516,658

1880 6U,737

125,222

Szot? l6th c€niury 200,000

t 00,000

tts,298

212,000

341,t25

368,773 i1828

764,947 ir8?5 |,045,000 t229,m

1,333,000

W0rtleDb.rg

1832 10,670

18,46 t2,356

1858 l1,088

1864 ,6t 0

lzocE l87l t2,245

13,3t I

t2,639

1900 I I ,916 _,_l S ovce I The JN i s h Ency c I ope d i a (r9O l - 190 6).

Again following Jacobs, Jaclues Basnsqe at tbe begnhing of the .l!!h !g!!!ry estimated rhe iobl nub€r of Europ€d Jews at 1,360,000, but accofding to a census at th€ First Partition ofPoland in !lZ, the Jews ofthe Polish-Lithuanid Commonw€alth numbered 308,500. As these fomed th€ larger pan ofthe Europ€rn Jews, it is doubtful whether th€ total number was more than 400,000 a he middte ofthe l8th c€ntury; and, counting those in the lands ofbbE the entire number in the world at lhat time could not have been nuch mo.e than | .000.000. Assuming that those numb€rs are realonable, the incr€as€ in the next f€w centuries was remarkably rapid. It wa3 checked in Cermany by lh€ laws limiting the numb€r of J€ws in speoial l,owns, and perhaps slill more by overcrowding; J&obs gives citations for therc being 7,95 I Jews ar Prague in

]]!6 and 5,6a6 in ]&lf , and 2.2 I 4 at Fmnkfun in I 8-I1. glsLilsky reports that in 11U0 the J€ws of southcn Rslsig were accustomed lo dw€U lhirl€en in a house, whereas anonA rhe Aen€ral population the avenae was o y four to five (GlabuJ, 1880, P. 340). The rapid incrcase w6 undoubtedly due ro lhe early age of mdias€ and the small number of deaths of infsts in the stable communities. The chief

'i zto 'i derails known for any lengLh of rime arc for rhe Nelherlands, Hlleery, Poland, and Y!d!g!abs; s€e chart at tight. Jacobs in the JNish Ercyclopedia prc$nts some evidence rhal Jewish ;ncrease in this period may have ercecded fiar ofrhe geneml populal;on. bur remarks also lhal such figurcs ofincrease arc often very deceptive, as rhey may indicate not the natural increase by su.plus ofbirths over deaths, but accession by immigration. This applies especially to Germany during the early pan of$e l9$ centurv, when J€ws from Gsliqis od Poled seized ev€ry opponsity of moving wesrwed. Anhur Ruppin. wririnS in the lare l9th century, when forcible measures werc taken 10 prevent Russian Jews from settling in Gemtuy, showed that tle gro*th of ihe Jewish population in Geflnany had almost enrirely ceased, owing !o a falling Uilh_lalg and, possibly, lo emigration. Similady, during this period, England and the llqijgllslstg! showed rotable Jewish imigFtion. This groMh in actual nurnbeG was sonewhar offset by conversion away from J!!hi!4. Whil€ Halakha (Jewish law) says that a Jew who converrs is still a Jew, in the climate ofpersecution thai prevailed in nuch of Europe in this period, conversion tended to be accompanied by a r€pudiarion ofJewish idenlily, and convens to Christianiry genefally ceased 10 be considered parr ofthe Jewish community. The Jdish Encyclopedia glves some statislics on conversion of Jews to Protesranlism. Roman Carholicism, Gr99k Catholicism and Orthodox Christianiw. I?l The upshor is that $me 2,000 Eu.opean Jews converted to Christianiry cvery yed during the l9lh cenrury, but that in the 1890s the nMbe. was running closer to 3,000 per year, 1,000 in Austria-Hunqarv, 1,000 in Russia, 500 in cermany, md the rcmainder in lhe Anglo-Sdon world. Panly balancine this wc.c about 500 converts to Judaism €ach yed, nainly fornerly Chdstian women who Jewish Ds. For Rlssia, Galicia, and conversions werc ''tried Bplocqis, dwdfed by emigralion: in lhe last quarte. of the l9th century, probably 1,000,000 Jews ftom this area of Europe emigmted, primarily to thc United States, bul hey also to lh€ United Kincdom. Toward rhc end ofthe l9th cmtury, $timates of the number ofJews in lhe world ranged from about 6,200,000 (Encvclooedk Britannica, l88l) ro t0,932,77'7 Unerican JNish Year-Book. 1904-1905). This can be conecsted with estimates of about halfthaa number ! mere 60 yeirs earlier. E} 'ttE J*ish E"cyclopedia ,dricle on which this discussion is ia.g€ly basd estinates only 314,000 S€phaldic Jews at the end oflhe l9th cotury. More recent scholarship rends !o suggest that this estinat€ is low. Th gives two wildly different €srimste for the Falarra, lhe Ethiopian Jews. veiously estimating lhem at 50p00 and 200,000; the former would be compdable ro their present-day popul.tion. lsull Populrtion in 1900 The followinS table is bascd on a tablc in th€ Jdili, t cyelopedia ot l9ol- 1906, which als places th€s€ nubers in context ofthe distribution ofworld poPulation at dtar time.l4l

I1,206,84S 100.0

1549,62r l.].8 t,t22,t00 ll.5 26,t21

Egrgllr Tod 8!t66,781 80.0 Brsj! (1897) 3,4n,625 34.6 lgbrc rR@irtr{t8yr) 1,316,116 ! t.7 Ar{!i! icirhirbadr. iocludd Grlgii) | 224,499 10.0 KinsdomofHun.rd 85t,378 586,948 7.5 T!4!!'tld BsEc!4 282217 2.5 apEld! (t 900) 269,015 2.4 !]!iE4.Ei!!!&g 250,000 2.t Odtrr Eurcp. 3 t2,861 2.7

4d9 roul 300,943 2,6 Olhcr Anbi. ud Arh Mioor 95,000 0.8 Prl6titr€ ?8, 0.6 e4s!c! 58,4?l 0.05 erir! 15,000 0.3 C!!EdE J4,411 0.3 5tj94 0.4

AA!5 rohl 372,6s9 !e4!' !22,619 2_8 50,000

gs!!!i!' 0.0r 'Asian rcsio6 oflrlks included in EuIope. Tukey at this iim€ includes MelepqElqi4 where ftcre were 35,000 Jews in Bsah.der!; &Lbleple hld 17.000. b Minor disdepmcics due to rounding. 'US and Q!!l!!c. ' lncluding est. 50,000 for Ethiopia ' Excludcs Me$potMb, which is count€d with European Turkey and

I9d!!l 1900 conp.r.d to 20{s The lslilh population of each country in I90q bken from Jclaish Elg}glgpsdia of l90l - l906[:L is comparcd to 2005 J€wish population (se€ Jewish gopulalion). The naines of sorne of the countdes were changed (Abyssinia was changed to Ethiopia, Palestine to Is.ael, British lsles to United Kingdom, P€rsia to lran, Servia to Serbia and Montenegro). lf the countri€s names do not match exactly, only "da" appean in lhe 2005 column below. Some oth€r entries ue also problematic: for €xample, "cermany" today is not exactly the same territory as "Gennany" h 1900; the figur€ given for "Ausrria, Husary, Poland' in 1900 conesponds !o A$tslq llg4g!ry at that time, and would not include all of loday's Poland; conv€rs€ly, it would include the prcsent-day Czech Republic, Slovakia,

Note: The total at the end showr the entie estiMted population ofthe world at that tihe (1900). totjrst the liste.l .ouktfies Igliil By coro.ry Historicrl comD.rison by country lFffilf % lt P.p lt--% -l Eil a !llhh-s" E I er.l E 1rrool-6;;rroo5lf *r.r I 1k2005) f 5@t Lorfrffif@i "b,.s"jnr44lfffi .'jq''qt-l%-lf f -@lf oitill t-?rl-o.5d-l Asia Minor4d 65,000 0.5re" nql Sv!i I 'va ll "31 ffiL,*;l@f;4@@A!!@!c f -lAFi.,e;]=.@lE%-l-tffi @ !-r"!oolf o@|-@l- oi";-lf- r".grlT-nt-l B$!ie-sd I 8,211 0.58% i r,00611 00r5eoll -?.ro1Ll::-'] 95,125 0.0J t% 9t,t25

274 ';_ = .lf;riodtI,661 2,100 0.0.I% -lt,163 f e4!!lc l t5oalt 0.4[-lfrorr6dfl2q;]ftrJalfnrs-lo.4r'" I J9\,660 ffiE?,,"]-@f'V, ]t--!*---t leqqdAEld!!ltTor5lt0rrtl-r4Jrtlt0J3t"7l-ro.Zt lelrl4lelre;d tlls!r-@sdt---to0dFn0o4"tf ll -00l-i0o4"tf ,"o0rl-dr00r,;ll-ltlo0o:,iorl dro0r,;l-l l l clrrs -----G4% "q. tt--"f---At l q@!E md "" 'r" _ltE@Et4E14 l-- D!!lo!* toodt or%--lf ?r6rlfo-i-rr%l-rJ6dl {o? I

--l-r0,odFrr%-l--mFE@trl@t4Fl t---EaE! ooor%lf .rotslt or- Elied! 50.0001 lo" 20.00011 0.02?% ll -30,0001i -0.o71 f --rrs!r!--lf --8".8851ort-lf j0":oll-re"-lt5rr6d-o.t 'l t- a!-4!r -lf 5sqpldTr-04";lT t0?J6dfo.r-% lE?r,i8sl t crr!!! 1l $solf0.-r4v"lt 5:tlfo-ioi% lt +ord Eu!4!!, Vercaela ed geblqug E@E@[4 |rfGrr*.r".d"ll ro-rc881f 2% ]f------;tf "i"-lf u r8talt 0-06% lf r,4oilrco00-%lt rr3zf-o-o. I -r"di!-ltf lra! lt [email protected]"ottlf-.r4lptf-lf -o 16I fi'lqEl_]t-?8!oolf ri-fi -lt-loJdtoi5r%i,ofi odno-%-lf d%rrodf ;---] f- tldy lt r4653lfar% l[-4440] t L*..bcrss lt---T-dt o t% lf osill o-xt lf r4ia4-r6 I f i4qi!! --lf r,o0olto0os%lf- sr.rofrco-5% lf rJoFno4- f -Me!rs!rl!-".illfr-r-r";lf 5jr;ltoot6""lf -'04.4?6lf ,r-oo4l fNlylcrEli lt r.6mToi% l--r4ttr-ns% lf r.rlafo-oo5] NoMv Dd F@ffi@E@ f &qsst lf aro0ll-o-or%lf 73tl@o-?% lf-- 46rlftrr3-l f Br 4lb f ,6rprl 4e% ll---7r;d'lo.onnl l.rluiri,f 'lsat]. t-- R""\iilt1?r.6rilf] r.alt ?r?Joilao3% lF 55.5zl BrEsi.dssel 12,129 Asle

izrs? 5,102 1,712 0.0t6% -3,170 T--s,!en4--l!"-.4??lf oi";-lf ----A-,v;lT---iT;;l t sr!rM6; n--io.o0oll 4t%T 8s68df!-l% lf rs6d8l -l t s!d! -lflf r!001t aor% l-4&4o4fojtz% lt 4t404-or i s!d!e!La t,ttl rr?% 1f----rodFn46% lf -eilf-r-q2tl t-sr4!/e!b!i lt rrj5ll ola% lf- t.rrrlt ot;lf ,Jr?T{ r8-l I I$E&j! lt lo?Lo o?eo ll lL 44 1 t-- r'tlrli --lf-8.6s0f, rr.;-lf----lt-;lf---if-,r""/41 "/! "/"ll -l f6,i4ila4r 6%ll- lT {ozrl 'Jrilfo"or8% Tllksh and [,'""]@flEEE] I!4!r md F;r@fl[4[lt4 t ,ro.ooolfot% lt 3or2o7fo.5% lt- tiotlt -o'ot l I l.5oo.oool r.o?% Il 5,er4.6s2ll 2e, lla.ara.6s2lf a-ot l triJJJ-?6ltfi rr.AF.,sr60r?ll0rr%]3Jrr,r!it-0.156-l Iqlill By r€gioo Thesc lables @ bs.d on 1900 date. For compeison with lhe new rables, see &g!-by !!!aq. The fNt perc€ntag€, 4th colw, is the p€rcenta8€ of population that is Jewish in a r€gion (Jews in the resioD * 100/total populalion of lhe region). The l6t collmn shows thc Jewish perccnlagc compared to the total Jcwish population ofthe world (Jews in the rcgion * 1oo/total Jewish oDulation oflheworld i.4&l!g 1900

16,280,556 30,80t,074 2t,163,1t6 2_4t9% t6,708,557 49,526534 l!5,0825r

: 216 -:.' _ltr"'"rpq'"r"'i--lfil-lt'/..r*i,hJewr in A!h. 1900 t R"ct"il -ll-lf.u-rr"". r*rl t e!-IAng lf-tntt__-ltsr.or fojsr% orr5% l t E^ra!i! lt 458Jrr6? fr-ooolt oo0o4,;l!-rs%.- l @ffi-@Fffi-;-_lFr:r-lt l- splualig lf r46Jrrio? -lfi%o"oo?rlf _-lt or6t;__l Tsrlulosl-aii! lfltr4&etlT o - ov. -l fr.t"r lt r40"s5r,5zg__lF00Jr0lt 0.064% lf 5325%__-l lg!! h E!I!!g l9oo

EdI3!! 10,358.9t7 CentElEu6m 30,099"/o 121,3!4,659',tt7,8|l 34,65q/. 214,603,981 12,tal/, 411,655,408 n,4tav"

J.$ il Tbe AE..is* l9ol,

Caibbern lfr3f11 0% eq@la!arn!3 t3,143,968 0.0J6% l&4!-A4eie! 91,098,180 l).515v, !9!!b-44q&e 44)42.509 0.7329'.r 156J48501 1,551,656 13,1429'"

lgli R nking Countries rbked b) lolal Jcw'sh population. 1900 on the lened2005 on $e right.

=zll: By populctiotr tr lgnc !!4se4, Pekrd il -l ti----lE"tr.d sr,B [-too-oodf rr-lrv"lFffi -l]f 8oq0@l_A5% [] ffil fsrdr4ilt r Lr4% lflElce ll ooo.5oril r-" qlq dd &sqq il ----- @@@EE il lR; ;i" I N r,oail| 4.e 16;"d"---lf 3er;A 250,00q il ---'t @m-r@E U fi* ) t09,1t21t.rr%-l@--ll-t4rz14l B% ) U N.tt'.1""d;------t ror'rssl| 2% lcemsv t ro?J6dt olr% I E t 86ss5l| 0??y! fi@I )f ,5,trl[o r%l E t ?toodFizN-]ffi,,di"--lf ,o,l6To--4s"z I 0.5s% south Afiha 88,68811 0.2% tr swi 1lf;;l I 6rJ45l| 4.16% lBelN l 0.?v, E fD4!!!!------l- i L A2-lolll l E* -----lt 5&4?it or?% 1[l*e,a-lt-olo4rlf 06% I [=-]trr"..r.------l 51.0441| 1,0?% Mqico 0.05% '.l0rll trl I 50,000 ffiffi ft,rriltlF;-.l E E | 5O,0O0l r=E@----lt-l8,4o,lt o.tr%-l ---t t-lrr," lN.rtr*r"'d. I 3zrl4l- titlli*-- t=@ -llM"rd;;--ll- o2v'-l Em----rt 34f51f-l% t xrs?T!-lt l dffi @ 0.6% luruluav |@t@ 6i--l B!l 0 9./o llltalv Il- loil3l on52%l 6t-l f 30,6?rlT-rr%-llt.*,""r"-l| 2'nj ------.] Dt_llA-bi.-lE*d" t-]0@| 0.42% llPolard Il- uB t4 - I| 22,5qf!-rl%l@----lt- ,o,rod 0.t31% E-lA.* lf*20pool t roJoSf o"oi% I E9 lL!r!pg!! L !!!801I 231! ttrq@ lt roloolt oor?-/" I r8,415 r8,001

i ttt =1 t7,453 ti---l ffiffiffiffi l3l l I trJ5llfo i-s% lF*-l-ro,ofit or3%-.'l t rt@| 0.r8% l[4Ej! n 9,092'1 0.391% |0.34% lh!$!! ll 8.184L0]! l Eglde-ald -sJ5d H ET;;tFJt-,;;;l@@rE@ ttrI tf- I I tk--l fua! f--s,ooolao.orv"lG;*k --.lt ?Jdlfo'tl% I 0.07:/r jp9ll 0.021Yr 4 t--o@ lRqolAj! ll I E I o z* lErY ll s.lli 0.135Y. ptl t 4$tf or r% lm-----lt--t4orl@-5% I t;I Bla!!!lada ;;tE* tt-;l;;t II eelosu! E I rt-j Ll E t--toooltoooo4y"lffi*--lt tl6l a.0t6/c E- t--Zoool 0.010/. lKd"kbsid I 4,1001 0.02nl. I E t t,6t tl 0.2% lliLhui! ll 3,59611 0.1% | E t--r@| 0.02% Ieeleabis 3,43q 0.008% | LIE_-l E E@ l,l2l f r,o4 ifo-ioi6% I M!d!s t,00! ----61 EllCpr Bolirig 1,000 2Atq !q! eli&,Uer-laY ftele 724 to.o:r% I g4la ald lt!!a lJ0 t= trlslfo.l16% I I,8I ] 0_018% Thb a,ticte iacorporata text frod the 1901-1906 Je!i!!h-Ea9!9hps1!is prbli.ation @ in the pab!E-!!a!sjL. Iq!!l Referenc.!

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-tUti ib',r. oti,4 r;v, d Vtt,ib tt,,,V c./.,tbc./. g*, t/ H,i, At ,,lzaa

. r 1 T nr Ovf , {). & J( ta } r &' i&l zag (, .t1 6 te J. 6 iq' hd. i* d dv t, Ll y, lov 27 o j. , 11. ( ty t,' 1 qt.t ) t,'. 27 1 " rfu 6b.i dtf JV ,n z ulf ,, n * y, o v', z " 7 2a!1 /O /-zt j-zt ,B^ n *.'6,,'t t), N t),., 6 4 oj) t b,2,2'Z i A, s .tlo (v l',Vubh 4t tc t u,a /, FS,izt t ^, / ,s 6 | y'lr-t 4 27 s tf d /, 6 -!, -. / 6, i1 \ta

, t. i, t), i.f , 1/i411'4 a c.o,6,' de 4 Z, 11 11,r 11 fi -zt

,nt., t t, t ] r, d, t- ;7 4ft $,,,n $ t 1 6 &, ! tp i ctQ, *r, -zt t ,r..,, 1, {.n't.r :4y {t i. i6 t!tuZ,*. -zz e ,?e. Al Haj A.D. Ajiola, "Th€ Hijackins of Christianity" (New Delhil Adatn Publishe.s snd DislributoB, 2001). 2s0. Bemf€ld, Slmon. Todot ha-rcfomatsiton ha..datit be-Yiiftel (Hebrcw) Yg!3!: Ahiasaf, 5660, I 900. ,er. David B. Ruderman and Teachins Company. Jewish intellec$al history. Th€ gr€at muses. Chantilly, VA: Teaching Co.,2002.

2t2. D.Tocqvaville, Reco ecrtoru (ncw tr. 1970); studies by D. C. McKay (1933, repr. 1965) and C. Duv€au (1965, lr. 1968).

,!1. Edward Capp€nGr, "Pagan and Chdslian Crc€ds: Their Origin and Merning' (Ncw York: Harcoun, Brace and company, 1920) 23a. lnt rnational Bible Soci€ty, 'Bible-New ldemational V€Fion" (USA: Zrndclan,l9E4)

2si. J. M. Thompson, The French Revolution (1945); N. Hanpson, A Socia.l History ofihc French Revolution (1963); W. Doyle, Origins of the F.eoch Revolution (t988) rnd Thc Oxford Hislory ofthe Frcnch Revolunon (1989)i S. Scbamq Citizcrl! (1989); R. Cobb, The Frcnch

and Their Revolution (1999); D. AndEss, Th€ Tenor (2006).

,s6. Jack Weiheimer,'Jews and Jewish Binh R-at€" (USA: Codnenbry l'4agazine, 5.10.2005) z0 . @tuL Ecsence of Juddbn ,rr. Michacl L. Rodki$on, "Babylonisn Tllmud - Book on., App€ndix of tract conc€ming regulatiods conceming man who is oven k€n by

dusk on th€ ev€ of sabaath whil€ tavcling srd conceming feeding of cattlc, (USA, Sacr€d t xt nohiv., 2004) Michael. L. Rodkiffon, "tubylonian Talnu - Book 2, Volum€ I I I , TEct Erubin, (USA Sacred Text Archiv€, 2004).

2eo. On lhe hbloriography ofthe Frcnch Revolution, see P, Farmer, France Reviews lts Revolutionary Origins (1944, repr. 1963); D. Sutherland,

Fmca, 1789-1815: Revolution and Couderevolulion ( 1986); and F. Furet and M. Ouzlut A Critical Dictionary ofthe French Revolution (tr. A. Goldhmer 1989). 2er. Philip K. Hitti, "Islam and the West" (Canadai Van Nostmnd

Company, I 962) ,er. Prot Abu. LAIad Damd, "Muhumad in the Bible" (Sinsapor€, Angkato Nahdhatul-Islam Bersatu, 1978) ,e3. Rabbi Hayim Halela Donid, "To raise a Jewish child, A Guide to Pa.rents' (USA: Basic Books, l9?7) 2ea. Rev. L B. Pranairis Tha Tslmud Umaped (Karachi: National Acadmy oflslamic Re$a!ch), 2005.

2e5. Solreiber, Emanuel (1852-1932, Refotned Jdaisn a its pioneers: a contributlot to i8 history Spoke€, Washington: Spokde Printing Co., 1892. Note: One of th. lirst Enslish hisroies of the rcforn norenent in Judaisn, th* book coyerc t4oses Mendelssohn, @!4 hiedlaqder kruel Jacobsohn, Amn Choin. Gotthotd Salonon, Abfthan Kohn, Sahuel Eoldheid. Leopold Loev and lblehe4 egigrz. 216. Suzlnne l&n.cf, "Wl.t Evcryonc Should Knot{ About Islm ud Mullirn" (USA Libraly oflslam, 1985) 2e. The Columbh Electonic Encyclop.dia, 6lh €d. Copyright @ 2007, Colunbia UniveNity Prcss.

2,3. The oldcr works by @i?9! Jules !licb!,b Alexb dc leeqleyille, Louis El!!s Edear @i!4 and H. -d lailg; ihc glat modem ltudies by Alplblr. Allcgl Alben lrrrhiez and G€org€r Lfcbre: tho diploD.tic hhtory by Albcn lgEL the sialist in&rpr.tation ofJean Jg!Eti!; P. Gaxot&, Itr Frerrn ,Rsro/zrro, ( 1928), B royalisr accounr.

2ee. W. Gunthci Plaut. ?7,€ Rise of R.forn Judabn: A Soulcebook of its Euopeaa Origiw.r:tew York Wortd Utrion for Proglssiv€ Judaisn\ 1963.

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