INFORMATION LITERACY:

A PATHWAY TO SUCCESS FOR FLORIDA COLLEGE LEARNERS

by

Sherrie Blisko Sacharow

A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of

The College of Education

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

Florida Atlantic University

Boca Raton, FL

December 2019

Copyright 2019 by Sherrie Blisko Sacharow

ii

ACKNOWLEGEMENTS

Steven N. Gold, Ph.D. gave me the means to unlock my academic potential. He validated my strengths and guided me to accomplishing more than I ever dreamed possible.

There is a long list of extraordinary individuals who’ve helped me to navigate through the rocky shoals of this dissertation. My co-chairs, Dr. Sabrina Sembiante and

Dr. Michelle Vaughan have been strong, persistent, innovative, and ever so patient. Dr.

Sembiante took me through the process sentence by sentence until I grasped the format.

She shed light on the tasks ahead and guided my efforts with a dedication and commitment that was reassuring and helpful. Dr. Vaughan has offered so many hours, late and early ones, to the furtherance of my research and the eventual culmination in this study.

Dr. J. D. Morris has been the pillar of wisdom, insight, infinite patience, and creativity. His vision was instrumental to the crafting of a meaningful application of the data derived from performing the study. Dr. Mary Lieberman has been thoroughly invested in my success and she has made many fascinating and helpful observations that enriched my work. Dr. Morris and Dr. M. Lieberman took me under their wings and taught me to view with an analytical eye. Their readiness, kindness, and humor were major elements in the tools used to quantify and analyze the study results.

iv Dr. Susanne Lapp gave me my first lesson in applied literacy. She observed the

dire circumstances facing those on the Louisiana ground following Hurricane Katrina.

She described the result as a failure in delivering information effectively. Dr. Lapp has been a ready voice in the pursuit of excellence as a classroom educator. It is through wanting to teach like her that I became inspired to doctoral studies.

My dear and treasured colleagues, each of you have done extraordinary work and

I am truly honored to consider myself your comrade.

Theresa, Roxanne, Joe- you are each the essence of soul Light. You guide and propel me.

v ABSTRACT

Author: Sherrie Blisko Sacharow

Title: Information Literacy: A Pathway to Success for Florida College Learners

Institution: Florida Atlantic University

Dissertation Advisors: Dr. Sabrina Sembiante Dr. Michelle Vaughan

Degree: Doctor of Philosophy

Year: 2019

Information literacy is an extracurricular area that continues to grow in its impact on college learners in Florida today. Colleges with large English learner populations face additional challenges to equip their students with the tools and mindset needed to successfully complete college assignments. This quantitative study used responses to questionnaires to examine learner beliefs. Learner volunteers who were entry level college composition students participated by answering two questionnaires. Data were gathered from those responses and tested statistically to observe learner beliefs chosen on a Likert-type scale. Tests of symmetry and t-tests looking at pre and post information literacy instruction belief choices indicated small measures of learner anxiety. Further,

anxiety indicators were more pronounced for U.S. native learners than for non-natives.

This is likely due to U.S. native familiarity with libraries and information literary skills

vi and practices commonly used in their U.S. environment. Library anxiety reduction strategies recommended in the literature reviewed include collaboration between content instructors and faculty librarians along with layering or specializing library instruction sessions. Additionally, scaffolding devices such as readily available electronic resource use guides and relationships with faculty and faculty librarians are suggested. Overall, learners anticipate research tasks with a bit of anxiety but largely they expect to be successful. Noting the growth of skills needed to verify and vet information, it is a positive point to note measurable learner-voiced confidence.

vii INFORMATION LITERACY: A PATHWAY TO SUCCESS

FOR COLLEGE LEARNERS

TABLES ...... xii

FIGURES ...... xiii

I. INTRODUCTION ...... 1

Theoretical Framework ...... 10

Problem Statement ...... 16

Purpose ...... 17

Research Questions ...... 17

Significance of the Study ...... 18

Definition of Terms...... 19

Strengths and Limitations ...... 20

Summary ...... 20

II. LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 22

Information Literacy ...... 22

College Level English Language Learner Population ...... 36

Librarian Studies of ELLs ...... 40

Learners with emergent English language skills...... 42

Learners who come without or with having had limited access to technology

and Internet...... 42

viii Learners who are unaware of how to use information literacy accurately to

solve academic or professional problems...... 42

English Learner Theory ...... 43

Summary ...... 51

III. METHODOLOGY ...... 52

Research Questions ...... 54

Research Design...... 54

Study Context...... 56

Population ...... 56

Participants ...... 57

Age...... 58

Gender...... 58

Country of Origin...... 58

Instruments ...... 59

Validity and Reliability of the Instruments ...... 61

Questionnaire One...... 61

Questionnaire Two...... 62

Data Collection Process ...... 63

Session Attended ...... 64

Data Analysis ...... 66

Quantitative Analysis ...... 67

Summary ...... 68

IV. RESULTS ...... 70

ix Research Questions and Null Hypotheses ...... 74

Initial Belief States – Research Question One...... 75

Demographic/Background Differences - Research Question Two...... 77

Effect of the Intervention - Research Question Three...... 81

Summary ...... 83

V. DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS ...... 85

Research Questions and Hypotheses ...... 85

Research question one...... 86

Research question two...... 88

Research question three...... 90

Limitations of the Study...... 92

Implications of the Study ...... 94

Instructors...... 94

Librarians ...... 95

Recommendations for Research ...... 98

Conclusions ...... 99

APPENDICES ...... 101

Appendix A. Pretest Part 1, Questionnaire 1 ...... 102

Appendix B. Posttest Part 2, Questionnaire 2 ...... 108

Appendix C. Kim Permission Letter ...... 112

Appendix D. Recruiting Script ...... 113

Appendix E. Study Syllabus ...... 114

Appendix F. Question 17, Questionnaire 1 and Question 5, Questionnaire 2 .... 115

x REFERENCES ...... 117

xi TABLES

Table 1. Participant Characteristics ...... 58

Table 2. Descriptive Statistics from Learner Responses (Age and FTIC) ...... 71

Table 3. Descriptive Statistics from Learner Responses (Origin and Gender) ...... 72

Table 4. Descriptive Statistics of Respondents’ Belief States Overall and by

Subgroup ...... 73

Table 5. Descriptive Statistics of Respondents’ Belief States Overall and by Subgroup

(continued) ...... 74

Table 6. Tests of Symmetry for all Beliefs Before Information Literacy Session ...... 77

Table 7. Descriptive Statistics and t-tests from Learner Responses ...... 79

Table 8. Comparison of Belief States Before and After Intervention...... 82

xii FIGURES

Figure 1. Visual representation of additional deficit effect of lower information literacy

on ELLs in Florida Colleges ...... 43

xiii I. INTRODUCTION

Learners are pursuing their American dream and enrolling in colleges in Florida

hoping to elevate their financial and social status with a certificate, associate’s or

bachelor’s degree. In the college which served as the site for this study, certificates and

degrees are arranged in eight potential “Pathways” (Broward College President’s

Welcome, 2018). The model used states that learners who become engaged in courses

that reflect their main interest will be more likely to persist and attain goals such as a

certificate or a degree (Noy, Trimble, Jenkins, Barnett, & Wachen, 2016). Further,

learners will enter the employment marketplace more qualified in a shorter time.

Pathways for the site college do include an unstructured liberal arts pathway for those

who cannot identify their career field or who resist choosing. Choices are Arts,

Humanities, Communication, and Design (AHCD); Business; Education; Health Science;

Industry, Manufacturing, Construction, and Transportation; Public Safety; Science,

Technology, Engineering, and Math; and Social/Behavioral Sciences and Human

Services.

The college is committed to moving learners efficiently to a career or academic goal that is chosen upon admission. During their quest to complete the requirements for success in the diploma, certificate, or degree program of their choice, learners take courses that meet requirements outlined by the regional accrediting body, the Southern

1 Academy of Colleges and Schools-Commission on Colleges (SACS-COC, n.d.).

Learners are required to use the library and its resources to reflect appropriate use of information literacy practices in completing college course assignments. Learners often have skills with library and information literacy that are similar to those needed in colleges in South Florida. Occasionally learners are disadvantaged due to some individuals not having had similar academic training as is offered in the United States regarding library use and availability of Internet and related resources (Bondonaro,

2006).

The courses required at the Florida college where this study was conducted are comprised of a core of general education topics along with those within the specified major and major-related electives. Courses have required performances designed to demonstrate learning accomplishments. These performances may include tests, quizzes, presentations, or papers that include solving a problem, answering a question, or investigating a possibility. Learners must demonstrate competence in searching for, retrieving, and verifying information needed to competitively and successfully fulfill assignments offered within each of the college’s required subject area courses that are listed in the learner’s chosen major.

The Association of College Research Libraries (ACRL) defines information literacy as a set of abilities requiring individuals to “recognize when information is needed and have the ability to locate, evaluate, and use effectively the needed information” (ACRL, 2016). Many factors influence the achievement of adult students, but additional encumbrances of language barriers, cultural challenges, and economic experiences may hinder the acquisition of skills needed to use fundamental technological

2 tools required to complete assignments (Clark & Rossiter, 2006). Learners must acquire skills needed to search websites and databases; to do so they need to think critically (Paul

& Elder, 2007). Knowledge and ability in the search process are essential for the student to become information literate which is the foundation that supports academic achievement in the current environment.

This study explored learners’ beliefs associated with their use of information

literacy to solve academic problems while attending a Florida college. Many of these

learners are hard pressed to reach functional competence in English at a level that will

allow them to enter the local marketplace at a living wage. Differences in factors of daily

living including culture from learners’ environments cause a gap in learners’ perception

of skills needed to secure accurate and timely information (Bondonaro, 2006).

Ultimately, the goal of the study was to offer information that enables librarians

and faculty to craft strategies that reflect learner beliefs when they must employ

information literacy skills and practices. The initiative was to provide information

literacy instruction to a population that includes a large number of individuals who are

newly immersed in an English language environment and who self-report as natal users

of other languages. In the Florida college site for this study, faculty may request that

their learners attend a one-hour information literacy session taught by a faculty librarian

(Research Guides: Information Literacy: IL at Broward College, n.d.). These sessions

typically have limited input from the course instructor. This is the first, and often only,

opportunity for the student to learn basic college library webpage navigation. Librarians

voice feeling constrained by the limit of time and the massive amount of information that

must be disseminated even within the new Academy of College and Research Libraries

3 Framework (Gross, Latham, & Julien, 2018, p. 265). Following this instruction, students are left on their own to gain experience and competence in using college library services

(Gross et al., 2018, p. 266).

The target population for this study included a large proportion of self-described

ELLs who are living in South Florida and attending a college. These students have come to the United States from other nations, or they have lived in inclusive communities in

Florida where it is most common to use a different language. Some learners targeted for this study have lived in places where the existence and use of library resources differs from the US (Bondonaro, 2006).

Newly or recently arrived adult individuals who self-identify as ELLs have experiences including culture, heritage, and economic climate that have impacted them in ways neither familiar nor obvious without close examination (Conteh-Morgan, 2002).

Additionally, “mis-calibration” of learners’ actual information literacy task performance ability obscures learner perception (Gross & Latham, 2012). Gross and Latham (2012) tested first year college learners’ actual performances on tasks that required information literacy skills that learners reported themselves to be proficient in. College students were tested prior to and after information literacy instruction over a period of 2.5 years. The

James Madison University information literacy test (Madison Research Essentials Skills

Test [MREST], 2019) was used along with learner self-reports. Researchers found that participants overwhelmingly overestimated their success. Gross and Latham (2012) attributed the mis-calibration to what they called the “Kruger and Dunning (2009) effect.”

4 Kruger and Dunning’s (2009) work is broader than that described by Gross and

Latham (2012). As psychologists, their work was employed to illustrate the situation observed by the librarians and Gross and Latham as learner mis-calibration. The learner mis-calibration concept is applied herein to assert that the learner cannot know that which he or she has never experienced, has no context for, or has no way of evaluating. This means that the learner may have an inflated and/or deflated perception of his or her ability to utilize technological or analog resources to solve academic problems or explore issues (Gross & Latham, 2012).

There are various examinations of integrating library practices in academic and

English learning that are available for consideration, such as the work done by Conteh-

Morgan (2002) who explored empowering these learners through library instruction embedded in their regular coursework. Patterson (2011) studied the joining of two courses in a community college in a full semester collaborative learning community. His study had the advantage of a one credit library skills course that all learners were required to complete. The literature revealed there were few others who forged this crossover research endeavor bringing into union the discipline specialist and the instructional librarian (Baron & Strout-Dapaz, 2001; Conteh-Morgan, 2002).

For this study, learners attending a Florida college volunteered to indicate their beliefs via pre and post information literacy session questionnaires. Data derived are the basis of examination and exploration. The study adds to the literature informing college instructors and faculty librarians. Although teaching information literacy practices has often been ignored, it appears to have great effect for learners in supporting their successful development as users of recognized practices to sustain their search for

5 solutions to academic problems. Patterson (2011) examined the difficulties that ensue

when the faculty-librarian collaboration is not given the opportunity to develop but is

furtive and incidental. He stated that although brief or casual collaboration events are

enjoyable, their results are not durable or effective. For example, connection of an

instructor to a librarian for one specific assignment without serious preparation may

result in an enjoyable session with no lasting change in learners’ ability to use practices

associated with information literacy. These types of encounters occur but do not offer the

librarian insight into the course requirements or placement of the assignment in the

critical content of the curriculum.

There is a spectrum of collaborative efforts beginning with the learner

empowerment described by Conteh-Morgan (2002) and expanding to models such as that

described by Patterson (2011). These reported collaborations underscore the need for a

stable collaboration that develops and matures between faculty and librarian. Course

goals and learner characteristics can be joined in differentiated offerings that are

successively more precise and productive.

The sample learner group for this study included a large proportion of

immigrants and non-English speaking adults seeking associate and bachelor’s degrees

along with U.S. born, English speaking natives. These learners needed to use information literacy practices that would support their research and problem-solving

needs as college students. ELLs in Florida colleges learn spoken and written grammar,

syntax, speaking and writing customs, along with college and U.S. culture. In addition,

they need to acquire information literacy skills for completing academic tasks as they

pursue certificates or degrees.

6 In the United States, the mindset of critical thinking such as is suggested by Paul and Elder (2007) and Brookfield (2012) requires a paradigm shift for college learners.

Some of the population are local to the United States in general and Florida specifically.

The group also includes individuals from academically restrictive ports of origin where intellectual pursuits are limited because of censorship. For example, learners from China and Iran, which are restrictive environments, may have been socialized to absorb information without question (Goldstein, 2018). Issues of culture that affect these learners was explored in a qualitative study by Mu (2007). His work described the mindset of these learners as unfamiliar with having to question or inquire but expecting to be given information to observe, activities to imitate, and facts to memorize. Mu was specifically concerned with library anxiety that interfered with learners’ ability to complete academic assignments in an English language western cultural environment such as college (p. 3). Kim (2014) used Kuhlthau's (1989) information search process

(ISP) to determine learner’s affective states while performing their research. Her work was with a small sample, yet the conclusions demonstrate that learners are deeply emotional about the research process. There was much anxiety reported. Learner anxiety and the common practice of information searching done in a cursory manner create barriers to learner recognition of information literacy as an area that needs instruction.

An added aspect of consideration is that information literacy concepts common in

U.S. colleges may contradict cultural traditions or learned norms. Many nations teach that material given within class or a lecture activity is to be absorbed and memorized and not questioned (Coleman, 1996). Further, philosophical differences for these learners include the fact that authority is not to be questioned, and information imparted in a

7 classroom is unarguably true (Szpara & Ahmad, 2006). Therefore, the concept of information investigation must be developed through educational tasks that lead to validation of fact or extension of inquiry rather than scripted answers. To do this, the individual learner threshold must be ascertained, and the problem identified. Problem solving then becomes learner driven (Kozulin, 2003).

Technological advances have only begun to reach some nations in Central and

South America (Internet Usage Statistics, Population and Telecom Reports for the

Americas, n.d.). The Internet is available; however, searching for information is not integrally part of classroom instruction worldwide nor is Internet searching encouraged as an activity (Tatar, 2005). Conformity and uniformity are guiding maxims in many nations throughout the world (Mu 2007). All these factors affect learners who are focused on grammar, vocabulary, and sentence structure. Additionally, learners’ reaction to their specific situation, socially and emotionally, in being immersed in a new language has an impact on their ability to recognize the scope of other learning that must accompany their language acquisition (Krashen, 2013).

Bartolome and Leistyna (2006) illustrated the emotional effect and self- identification with political power or subjugation based on dominant language fluency in their article about the English only legacy enforced in education environments and workplaces across the United States. They chose to illustrate the plight of the learner through the dynamic described by Freire (1970). Bartolome and Leistyna’s (2006) article was designed to use the method of constructing, critically analyzing, and imagining solutions that fit a thoroughly explored reconstruction of the current positioning of

English as a superior language. This language hierarchy disadvantages the learner and

8 creates a “subordinated class” (Freire, 1970). This casts the teacher in the role of the subordinator. The understanding of this unique situation offers a critical perspective that allows the instructor to grasp the necessity for availing the learner of resources that are elementary to college or professional success.

Library systems are rare and differ greatly in nations throughout the world. Many nations’ library systems operate without allowing books or materials to be taken from the library building (Darling-Hammond, 2015). This limits the readers’ contact to the amount of time they may remain in the library reading room on any given day. It also reduces choice; commonly books and materials in these places must be requested by name. There are still card catalogs even in colleges and universities in many ports of call worldwide.

International learners come to the site college from over 150 nations (Broward

College Fast Facts, n.d.). Many of these nations have highly sophisticated technology available to learners, and those students come to study here. Spain, Germany,

Netherlands, Italy, France, Portugal, Antilles, Belgium, Poland, Japan, and Latvia have sent students whose language skills are excellent along with having advanced use of technology. Often, learners from wealthy or westernized nations have highly developed

English usage and information literacy skills reported little difficulty negotiating the system (Flierl, Howard, Zakharov, Zwicky, & Weiner, 2018).

ELLs, who come from backgrounds that are sometimes beyond the digital divide or from minimalist environments without library or information literacy practices, may be disadvantaged when attending Florida colleges (Pete, 2015). There are few studies that examine the information literacy or library use instruction either in the application of

9 technology or the Internet (Patterson, 2011). These studies report that along with opportunities to gain familiarity and dexterity with information venues such as libraries and library databases or archives, learners require information literacy instruction to sustain empowerment (Catalano, 2016; Conteh-Morgan, 2002).

Although the difficulties faced by this population have been recognized and anecdotally examined, there are little data driven results to inform treatment of the problem. This study gathered data by using two questionnaires. The use of pre and post information literacy treatment in the form of a one-hour information literacy session taught by a college librarian was used to offer a description of learners’ beliefs when required to use information literacy tasks that are recognized as essential for college or professional success.

Theoretical Framework

This study was based on the understanding that providing practice in library and information literacy is necessary to ensure learners’ potential for successful completion of college assignments. Successful completion of assignments in college provides methods and procedures for life-long learning. Adult learning, andragogy, is different from a pedagogical approach. Knowles (1973) offered background and method for meeting adults where they are and recognizing their existing competencies and pressing needs. Such methods were largely ignored in the educational literature that is most commonly directed toward children as learners. Much adult learning is seen as vocational and subordinate to collegiate populations. Knowles put forth five principles: self-concept, past learning experience, readiness to learn, practical reasons to learn, and driven by internal motivation (1973).

10 Education was first provided for the wealthy in the US by colleges and universities that catered to those whose backgrounds lent them preparation. Provisions was first described by Addams (1892). Her belief in human equality led her to use her life as a dedicated force for peace (Addams, 1910). Before Addams’ era, immigrants came in waves but none like that of the late 19th Century (McGerr, 2010). The 1870’s financial depression led to the industrial expansion that fueled the largest, most continuous immigration peaking in 1907. This was precisely the time that Addams first traveled abroad and returned with an intention to improve the plight of men and women in poverty and those who immigrated. It was a platform for Addams’ intellectual pursuits, and she believed it to be her calling.

In her effort to solve social problems, Addams crafted papers and essays that were published as the textbook for Dewey’s first teachings at the University of Illinois at

Chicago in the early 1890s (McGerr, 2010). Already a major player in the advocacy for racial minorities, vulnerable persons, poor, and immigrant families, in the 1890s, Addams was often frustrated by published misinformation that maligned or otherized races, social classes, and gender roles (Kelley, 1895).

Addams (1910) recognized the need for cultural and artistic literacy along with pragmatic skills like speaking the dominant language of the marketplace, English.

Addams thought that even the most menial job was performed by a person who contributed a necessary ingredient in the equation of democracy. She espoused an inclusive social and industrial model that informed and appreciated the individual intrinsically. Addams had representatives from the public library, civic government,

11 museums, and the university come and make resources available to the less fortunate or immigrant or poor neighbor (1910).

At the same moment as Addams, Dewey entered the sociological and educational scholar core group (1910). Dewey was a professor to the University of Illinois at

Chicago. Addams and Dewey believed in progressive democracy and equal access to the goods and resources of society (Addams, 1902). Addams’ notion applied as theory guiding this study was that democracy requires everyone to be fully enfranchised.

During her lifetime that included the provision of museums, libraries, classical music, performances of every art and trade, and reading of scholarly papers (1910). This is manifest in today’s college environment where learners need access to resources housed in libraries and library databases.

Dewey is often looked to as the first major speaker in educational philosophy.

His short treatise “My Pedagogic Creed” (1897) was a very personally crafted discussion of how mankind learns and how that fits into the context of Dewey’s day. He also concerned himself with the fragility of creativity and innovation and cautioned educators to engage each learner and sustain their natural curiosity as the bounty of these interactions would lead to the fulfillment of needs not yet developed in society. Dewey described learning as the “funded capital of civilization” (Dewey, 1897, p. 1). He explained that learners will naturally try tasks that get a social response. The learner perception and embrace of the response to his or her activity would naturally shape interaction that develops in social interactions.

Dewey (1923) was concerned with education as a tool to support democracy. His vision of citizenship was very participatory and subject to the context of the social,

12 financial, and industrial means at the learner’s disposal. Dewey maintained that the psychological powers and the sociological interactions were the forces that drove education. To limit or neglect either sphere of learning would result in pigeon-holing the learner in a pre-chosen place in the social order. Information literacy is an area that might limit ELLs. Instructors must consider the background and understanding of the learner based on his or her former circumstances. Access to information is necessary for the learner to participate in the marketplace or any professional practice. Lack of information literacy instruction that is specifically structured to engage this learner would, following Dewey’s reasoning, place him or her in a lower level of the chosen field of effort.

Freire took the implications of education a step further in the “Pedagogy of the

Oppressed” (1970). He described a dynamic that encompassed learning as a form of oppression, performed by the oppressed. Freedom, as envisioned by Freire, required informed action (Freire, n.d.). Freedom could not exist in a passive state but had to be sought and obtained through education that modified choices resulting in greater access to the goods and services of society. To Freire, to be uninformed was to have lost or never gained freedom. Using a banking metaphor, Freire saw education as a deposit made by the instructor. This method of teaching was not going to yield an innovative, creative, independent, democratic society in Freire’s view.

Conscientization was Freire’s word for using a broader, more authentic approach to education. Information literacy instruction would most certainly be needed to help make the Freirian learner able to access the many repositories and types of information.

This learner, laboring in a second language and in a foreign culture, must be given tools

13 to search for, locate, identify, and validate information. Failure to provide this kind of support creates a limiting deficit. This deficit would render the ELLs an inferior field of resources.

Freire noted that the context or instant circumstances affecting the learner had to be factors in the relevance and durability of learning (1970). Learners’ miscalibration of their need for information literacy may be explained by their life context and mitigated by informed information literacy instruction (Bondonaro, 2006). Finally, Freire suggested social team building, finding coalescing factors, methodical efforts toward common goals, and a place at the table for all stakeholders. Freire’s suggestions were designed to take in the entire social continuum and shift the forces toward a one-world citizenry that would achieve a peaceful, intellectually satisfying, healthy society (Freire, 1970).

Following and yet devoted to Freire was Kincheloe (2008). His “critical pedagogy” employs ideas from critical theory and critical pedagogy. ELLs are described here as the human manifestation of international politics. Many of them are here in the

United States because life was untenable or there was a dearth of opportunity in their homeland. Critical pedagogy looks at the whole learner in the fully textured environment and acknowledges the pursuit of happiness. Kincheloe informed pedagogy encompasses texture and breadth (2008). This texture and breadth encompass a learner driven, interactive dynamic that is powered by the relevance to the learner. This learner is not being taught, per se, but guided and accompanied, indeed challenged and rewarded.

Critical pedagogy embraces a wide range of disciplines and applications. This should be an ever-widening attempt to allow the learner to keep pace with the production of new and necessary knowledge. The advent of information literacy as a needed competency

14 adds to the dynamic features of a critical pedagogy supporting the second language learner with an array of venues for linguistic practice and individualized professional development.

This study is informed by the work done by Sleeter (2005). She wrote “Un- standardizing the Curriculum” to meet the needs of a groundswell of standardized testing mandates which seemed to reduce teaching to rote memorization and parroting. Sleeter, like Addams, Dewey, Freire, and Kincheloe, sees the learner in his/her political realm as well as the classroom. Democracy is as much her concern as is accomplishing a fresh, interactive, synergistic manifestation of curricular requirements. Sleeter makes the prescribed minutia of over-standardization a potential structure for multi-cultural and differentiated application to serve the imagination and passion of the instructor and invite the engagement and predicted success of the learner. Her work offers a framework to use as a guideline for incorporating information literacy instruction as part of the delivery of required content for college coursework. These theories are instructive in guiding the effort to recognize the import of learners’ beliefs when required to complete assignments that require the use of information literacy skills and practices.

This study asked learners to voice their beliefs when asked to use skills and practices comprised in information literacy to complete college assignments. Addams insistence on inclusion and access set the ground for information literacy instruction for individuals marginalized by language, economics, or social status (1910). Addams’ observations guide informed instructors and librarians to modify curricula based on learner cultural, educational, ethnical, and linguistic characteristics. Dewey’s work discussed the learning experience in preparation for participation in the social structure of

15 his or her community (1897). Dewey stated that learners needed to see practical use and relevance; this is true of learners who attend the site college for this study. Dewey informed instructors and librarians may augment curricula for information literacy so that practical application allows the learner to use these practices to affect his/her life immediately. Such experience may help reduce any learner anxiety or uncertainty which are two of the learner belief findings of this study. Freire used the dynamic of oppression to show that provision of access to intellectual materials is an obligation of the informed in their effort to reduce or mitigate oppressive forces (1970). Learners receiving Freire informed information literacy instruction may attain skills and practices that enable them to advance in employment or education goals. Critical pedagogy described by Kincheloe guides librarians and faculty to observe the current concerns of learners and to craft fresh, effective curricula to meet learner questions with applicable tools (2008). Librarians’ and instructors’ collaborative efforts apply critical pedagogy to unpredictable circumstances.

College curricula must conform to certain standards. Standardization exists in the course outcomes for composition courses (SACS-COC, n.d.). Through the work done by

Sleeter, informed librarians and instructors are able to craft engaging, relevant collaborative curricula that fulfill course outcomes.

Problem Statement

Learners in Florida colleges that include a large proportion of ELLs lack proficiency with information literacy (Tran, & Aytac, 2018). Information literacy is commonly “mis-calibrated” by learners and educators as well and may even be beyond the learner’s reach (Gross & Latham, 2012). Offerings of information literacy instruction are rare, brief, and often unintelligible to ELLs (Conteh-Morgan, 2002).

16 Often, learners are unable to be successful when required to complete college

assignments that require library and/or information literacy skills (Gross & Latham,

2012). This study was performed in a college with a large proportion of ELLs whose

familiarity with U.S. library systems and resources is sorely limited. The need for

information literacy competence has grown in digital and analog formats because of the

advent of the Internet and the subsequent emergence of social media (Ma, 2019).

Measures of competence may be skewed negatively in this group of learners. Conteh-

Morgan (2002) stated that adult ELLs who attend community or state colleges in Florida

have difficulty attaining and demonstrating skills in information literacy.

Purpose

The purpose of this study was to describe English Language Learner beliefs when

required to use information literacy skills. The study was designed to contribute to the

literature from the perspective of the learner as to his/her perceived merit gained

following one hour of information literacy instruction. Information literacy is becoming

a basic set of skills, and this population is often deprived of the developmental process

that we are accustomed to in the US. It is important to understand how students build knowledge. This study was faced with two obstacles in that learners do not know what they do not know, and learners have often been instructed to learn or memorize unquestioningly. The style of inquiry required for fulfilling college assignments is a paradigm shift for these learners (Head & Eisenberg, 2009).

Research Questions

Three research questions guided this study:

17 1. Is there a significant difference between Florida college learners' beliefs about

their ability to perform tasks that demonstrate information literacy before

experiencing a one-hour session taught by a faculty librarian?

2. Do college learners’ beliefs about using information literacy activities vary

across age, U.S. native born or non-native (USAorNo), First Time In College

(FTIC), and gender?

3. Is there a difference indicated by belief descriptor choices made by the sample

as a group before and after experiencing a one-hour instruction session in

information literacy?

The hypotheses of the study derived from a thorough review of the literature.

Three null hypotheses emerged from that literature review and from the research questions:

H0: There is no significant difference between Florida college learners’ beliefs

about their ability to perform tasks that demonstrate information literacy.

H0: There is no difference in learner beliefs about using information literacy

activities when examined by age group, U.S. born or Foreign born, FTIC, or

Gender.

H0: There is no difference indicated by belief descriptor choices made by the

sample as a group before or after a one-hour session taught by a college

librarian.

Significance of the Study

There is a decline of international learners who form a very important segment of the U.S. college population (Redden, 2018). Failure to modify and adapt information

18 literacy instruction to accommodate learners puts some of them at a disadvantage.

Information literacy skill application will become more complex and inhibiting as media

and technology continue to grow toward ubiquity within professional and academic

practices (Kim, 2014).

Learners at the site college come from varied backgrounds; many come from

environments that do not have information literacy activities (Bifuh-Ambe, 2011). This

was true before the Internet but is especially significant now. In addition, some learners’

societies hold that instructive content is to be memorized and never questioned (Lin,

2015). This notion differs from the site college norm of seeking new information based on studies from diverse perspectives. Therefore, a study that examines college learners’ beliefs may serve as a source of descriptive information.

Definition of Terms

Andragogy. These are strategies and methods appropriate for teaching adult

learners (Knowles, 1973). Andragogy was first seen in the 1830’s in literature describing

education as understood by Plato.

Dominant language. For purposes of this study, the dominant language in the US

is English. The work by Gathercole and Thomas (2009) describes both the ascendance

and attained superiority of English as the dominant language.

ELLs. The term “ELLs” is listed in the ERIC thesaurus as terminology that

focuses on the acquisition of English language skills rather than the limits implied in the

lack of proficiency (Eric Thesaurus - ELLs, n.d.). These learners may be born in the US

or another nation. ELL is applied in this study to mean that English is not the learner’s

natal language.

19 Information literacy. Defined by the Association of College Research Librarians

(libguides.madisoncollege.edu, 2016), information literacy is a set of abilities requiring individuals to "recognize when information is needed and have the ability to locate, evaluate, and use effectively the needed information" (p. 1).

Non-native learner. These are learners who report as non-U.S. native or foreign born.

USAorNo. Learners were asked to choose an indicator of their identification as having been born in the United States or another nation. This (USAorNo) is the acronym used within this paper to identify this descriptive characteristic.

Strengths and Limitations

The study is strong in that learner beliefs as to their expectation of success when required to use information literacy skills and practices has gotten little attention in the literature. Nonetheless, results are not useful to generally describe the greater population of college learners. The sample was small, under 100 individual respondents. The pre- post t-test was performed between groups because, in the interest of anonymity, learners were not individually traceable through their performance in the study population. This might offer an opportunity to deepen the study in future research to determine learner beliefs following completion of assignments that require information literacy skills and practices.

Summary

This study was performed to add to the literature that depicts the beliefs held by college learners who are required to use information literacy to complete college assignments. A college in southeast Florida was the site for the study. Learners included

20 a very large proportion of ELLs. It may be that some learners mis-calibrate their belief in self-efficacy for information literacy because they have diverse educational backgrounds and often have had less contact with libraries.

21 II. LITERATURE REVIEW

This literature review is organized into sections representing the focus areas of

information literacy and the targeted learner. Information literacy has become an elementary and foundational set of skills that support professional or academic pursuit.

The targeted learner was an individual within those who attend the site college and were either U.S. native born or a non-native, non-English speakers who desire to become a paraprofessional or professional by completing coursework at a Florida college.

Information Literacy

Information literacy literature began with the advent of the computer age, and the origin of the term can be traced to work by Doyle in 1994. Defining the term, Doyle stated it depicts an individual with a list of abilities and required characteristics including skill to make decisions based on accuracy and completeness, need, probative questions, verified sources, search strategies, use of analog as well as digital sources, evaluation, organization and appropriateness for inclusion, synthesis, and critical thinking (Doyle,

1994, p. 3). Doyle, herself, is dually qualified because she is a librarian and an education scholar. This combination of disciplines contributes greatly to her ability to recognize and describe the burgeoning information availability and affective factors along with the needs, challenges, and goals of learners.

22 Information literacy has evolved most significantly within the last 20 years. The metamorphosis beginning with library instruction and emerging as today’s information literacy instruction has been done by Baron and Strout-Dapaz (2001). They offered a statistical analysis of survey responses to key questions. The age of this work speaks to its place in the foundation of studying information literacy in higher education. Baron and Strout-Dapaz performed a survey study of universities within the southeast United

States. Surveys were sent to library reference directors and international student department heads. Responses were statistically examined, and conclusions brought no new findings but validation of many previous studies. Five hypotheses were tested; the responses yielded a recommended model for international or second language library instruction. Baron and Strout-Dapaz’ hypotheses included: (a) the larger the school the greater the likelihood that there would be a formalized library instruction milieu; (b) the higher the percentage of international learners, the greater the likelihood of some formalized library instruction program being in place; (c) whether or not the international student office (or its campus equivalent) sends promotional materials regarding the library indicates the probability of a formalized international student instruction component being in place; and (d) the dominant challenges international learners face as they enter academe (as defined by international student services offices) tends to surface in the library.

Studies like the Baron and Strout-Dapaz (2001) study are extremely useful when looking at trends because many facilities are represented in the data. This literature review used 18 articles from worldwide institutions regarding treatment of international/second language learners. The overwhelming evidence showed that such

23 programs are absolutely necessary, and their major components appear to all be basically

the same. Learners encountered in descending order of unpleasantness:

language/communication issues, adjusting to a new education/library system, and general cultural adjustments. Many publications were used to corroborate the numbers from and the standing of the schools. This investigation validated and added to the veracity of the

findings. Baron and Strout-Dapaz (2001) concluded that

International learners are a vital constituent group of (learners within) colleges

and universities in the U.S.A. Many of the same challenges international learners

face in educational institutions are present in libraries. As a result, libraries must

start or continue special attention to the needs of international learners. (p. 321)

In 2004, Eisenberg, Lowe, Spitzer, and Breivik took information literacy as

defined by Doyle (1994) and developed it as a requisite skillset for college. This

development is quite recent beginning in the 1970s and firmly established well before the

1998 publication “Information Power: Building Partnerships for Learning.” This

publication was the first official librarian authored toolbox for integrating sources and

empowering learners within multiple knowledge bases and repositories.

Further in examining the affective aspect of information literacy, Bondonaro

(2006) offered a librarian’s eye view in her paper performing a qualitative examination of

library users. Bondonaro asked learners to make value judgments or report their

activities in four areas of language learning: reading, writing, listening, and speaking. It

should be noted that Bondonaro is limited to the librarian’s view of those areas and she

did not ask questions that might be generated by instructors in any language teaching

areas. Her questions were centered on how the learners perceived the library as a benefit,

24 what services they used, and what area of their learning they thought was helped by their

library use. Learners reported overwhelmingly favorably, and the author stated the limits

of her work include the small pool of 20 learners total. She also stated that these were

largely competent learners within their target language. Bondonaro (2006) concluded that:

The ESL learners identified a number of ways in which they used the library in

ways guided by their own self-initiative: as a study hall for both individual and

group work, as a material repository for both academic and leisure material, as a

place to receive instructional assistance, and as a place to engage in both planned

and unplanned socializing. Connecting all of these uses of the library was the

participants’ desire to improve their English language skills. Engaging in these

various uses of the library allowed the participants to concretely work on

improving their language skills in speaking, listening, reading, and writing in this

setting. (p. 522)

Kuhlthau laid a foundation for Internet searching with her work now referred to as

Internet Search Protocol (ISP). Kuhlthau’s work underscored the affective quotient in the

process of learner use of information literacy practices in that she observed learners from

the schema outlined by Vygotsky (1978). Vygotsky wrote that learning was dependent

upon a learner interacting with a person who had greater knowledge. He stated that

learners first must bring to mind what they may have already experienced or knowledge

they have. This would then be the starting point from which, with guidance and support,

the learner would reach a new level of knowledge (Vygotsky, 1978). Kuhlthau saw that

learners had to first explore what they already knew, then with supportive

25 accompaniment of an instructor or a colleague with greater knowledge, the learner could go further into what Vygotsky called the “Zone of Proximal Development” (Kuhlthau,

2004; Vygotsky, 1978).

A study that examined learners who are similar to those who contributed to this study. Learners needed to complete research and were required to use information literacy skills as part of their coursework. The study applied measures that are currently used to describe library and information literacy partnerships with classroom learning.

The study was done by Kim (2014). Kim worked with a classroom teacher and a librarian, and the target population for her study was 48 English learners in high school.

During the year, learners, who were participants in the study, completed a biology research assignment. Kim performed content analysis along with using statistical means for understanding the data resulting from learners’ responses to a demographic questionnaire and three process surveys. Her study of learners’ beliefs of confidence or challenge utilized questionnaires she modified based on the foundational work done by

Kuhlthau in 1989 (Kim, 2014).

Kuhlthau’s model (1989) consisted of six information-gathering tasks and observation of their affective, cognitive, and behavioral aspects. This model is called

Kuhlthau’s ISP. This original study was extensive and was based on the observation of each of the six activities or tasks being examined from three perspectives: affective domain, cognitive domain, and behavioral domain. Although Kuhlthau’s work is the basis for many academic applications and is acknowledged as the impetus for the

American College and Research Library’s development of the first major comprehensive test, it is not commonly applied for English learners as a specified population.

26 Kim began with the work done by Kuhlthau and modified it to fit her circumstances and population. Kim’s work used high school students. Although Kim’s targeted learners are slightly younger, they were tasked with their first research project.

The college population who comprised the sample for this study, albeit older, were also tasked with their initial foray into the highly complicated matrix of tasks, activities, and concepts needed to complete research.

Kim completed her study using instruments and procedures she found in the

School Library Impact Measure (S.L.I.M) Toolkit (Todd, Kuhlthau, & Heinström, 2005).

This toolkit was derived from an effort to observe the impact of library skills instruction in mainstream K-12 classes. The kit was crafted to measure the growth of student learning through inquiry units (Todd et al., 2005). The study was a result of a grant funded through the Center for International Scholarship in School Libraries at Rutgers

University in New Jersey. This center remains the locus for many of the currently available studies that examine the intertwining of the classroom and the library. The study involved 10 librarian/teacher teams in 10 schools, grades 6-12, in the New Jersey

Public School System. The S.L.I.M toolkit (Todd et al., 2005) employed four components:

27 • The learning environment: Leading learning through guided inquiry;

• The characteristics of guided inquiry;

• The information search process; and

• Partnerships: School Librarian/Teacher Teams (Todd et al., 2005).

The S.L.I.M. Toolkit is in use today; its data have been found to support effective practices. It gave Kim a foundation to launch her semester-long study of high schoolers engaged in a school-year length research project. Because Kim’s study picked up on the foundation laid by the S.L.I.M. Toolkit, it was an appropriate source of instruments for this current study. The study described herein looked at college learners of whom a large proportion self-reported as ELLs in their beginning experience with the U.S. library system including digital databases.

Another study that formed the foundation for this current study was conducted by

Casper (2016) at the same Florida college where this study took place. Casper’s work studied teacher education students. These populations precede and follow the sample college of learners targeted for this study. Her population consisted of teacher education majors. Casper wanted to know the level of the learners’ readiness to teach information literacy skills and practices in their future classrooms. She was concerned not only with technological tasks but the ability of learners to discern validity and ethics in using published material. Her study used an information literacy test that she administered following a library information literacy instructional session. The instructional session lasted one hour and was the standard generic overview given to learners in the college at each instructor’s request. Casper also used a questionnaire to interview a small number

28 of her sample population. Her interviews used a qualitative technique to add dimension and detail to data she had analyzed (Casper, 2016).

Long considered the bastion of the highest standard of instructional delivery,

Harvard University’s English as a Second Language (ESL) program produced an examination of seven year’s work in trying to teach ESL to incoming international learners with the most quality, durability, and student satisfaction. This extensive work by Haynes (2001) offers a look inside these hallowed halls and under the ivy leaves. In

Haynes’ model, ESL courses must have five elements to be effective. Learners must read critically and analytically so they understand the authors’ purpose in the context of their experience. They need an awareness and dexterity with research methods. Learners are offered an understanding of history that is relative to the material and to their circumstance. These learners should be encouraged to synthesize sources and contribute their argument. Finally, learners are provided opportunities to gain an understanding and relate that to English conventions (Haynes, 2001).

Haynes (2001) used survey tools to examine the instructors’ response to utilizing such retooled curricula and student surveys to monitor their ‘recipient’ response. Overall, the teaching satisfaction, innovation, and creativity levels increased. The learners’ overall satisfaction was a very high 4.0 average on a 4.5-point scale. There are many details of the program that include pairing classes, listening skills, and learner fueled discussion. This improved listening and re-educated the educator to have, rather than a grammar text, a continuously evolving series of materials driven by each class population and unique membership (Haynes, 2001).

29 Interestingly, although the teachers were satisfied with their ability to vary and

augment instruction, they did not work well with their peers and often had difficulties

with that component. Nonetheless, the learners felt overall that their instruction

immediately allowed them to apply themselves on a college level with success. They

learned skills to augment their language knowledge with tools (Haynes, 2001). Haynes

ends her work with the following statement,

What I have been advocating is radically reformulating what the business

processes of ESL mean. And, rather than setting out a set of research items that

define the field for prospective and current practitioners presumably too ill-

equipped to undertake independent thought, or engaging in desperate business

practices attract staff and learners with no intellectual orientation, I call on applied

linguistics to set about reengineering every feature of the delivery of ESL

instruction in the true spirit of the academy. (2001, p. 26)

Haynes’ work is a call to attention for those charged with determining U.S. trends in curriculum for English language learners.

Library concerns began over two decades ago with multimedia becoming a constant challenge facing all forms of instruction. Kasper (2000) discussed the melding

of the variety of available media into the teaching of ESL. The study utilized the library

as a locus of media and media expertise. Discipline-based instruction uses several forms

of media to instruct learners such as traditional text, film, Internet sites, and databases.

The premise is that for learners to succeed in college they must be able to function in all

these environments and must be able to research information. Traditional past ESL

30 instructional content has not included research training, making this especially anxiety

provocative to ESL learners in college (Kasper, 2000).

Kasper’s (2000) efforts describe a method similar to one in use at the college

chosen for this current study. On site, it is referred to as a Guided Pathways model

(Starobin & Laanan, 2010). Kasper (2000) required the learner to choose a focus; it is

suggested that more than one student choose each focus suggested by the instructor.

Today the focus would be a career path. This shift forms a Focus Discipline Group

(Kasper, 2000). The interaction with another student deepens the relevance of the focus

and includes conversational skills as a bonus of sorts.

Learners use the library to locate various media that are written and formulated

for college level use. This is compelling and engaging to the ESL student who expected

to spend years before they would be able to have material relevant to their current daily

needs in the target language. Film or video may be used secondarily or in a supportive

relationship to written material or may exist as the solitary source. The ability of the

learner to repeatedly review the video/film makes it an especially effective tool providing

verbiage and visual.

The Internet provides a mixture of print and visuals that enhance learners’ ability

to understand complex content. The effort does, additionally, build the learners’

competence, enhances self-esteem, and makes their goal appear reachable. Kasper

(2000) stated,

31 Overall, learners exposed to a multi-media discipline based instructional format

do extremely well, as evidenced by a pass rate of 92% on departmental reading

writing examinations.... (Learners) express increased confidence and in their

ability to use English. They attribute this improvement to the multimedia model.

(p. 115)

Learners who had this library experience were more likely to succeed in reaching their overarching professional goals.

Projectinforlit.org (PIL) is an online repository for a series of studies conducted throughout the United States in over 250 colleges and universities. These studies were designed to capture college learner “needs, strategies, practices and workarounds” for use in information literacy practices (Projectinfolit.org, n.d.). Over the last six years the information has been compiled and is displayed graphically on the website and in an

Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL, 2016) report that offers a methodologically sound description of college learners as a generalized population and their characteristics (Head & Eisenberg, 2009). Information literacy descriptors for

English learners may be revealed when comparing them to large homogenous populations of college learners.

Projectinfolit.org looked at how learners understand or envision research activities and what the learners actually did in terms of activity to complete their searches.

Researchers in the project employed focus groups, used online surveys, and some interviews to cull their data. They saw or met with over 11,000 college learners throughout the course of the project from 2008-2012. There were 18 key findings through the six studies. They included learners’ reports of difficulty beginning research,

32 understanding the assignment, rarely venturing off beaten paths, doing the minimum, and

often limiting sources to those advertised or publicly mentioned. Each of these

characteristics called forth a need for informed information literacy instruction. The

attribute of concurrently learning English as a second language, as those targeted for this

study, and being in the United States as a second culture might even indicate other

literacies to attain.

Community colleges have taken on the task of teaching academic English. Kuo

(2000) looked at methods employed in these schools’ curriculum, content, and

assessment practices. The material delivery systems were examined for efficacy as well

as program approaches. Literature was reviewed which described various instructional modes and their outcomes. Roles of faculty, staff and tutors or ancillary staff were described, and their activities discussed. Assessment was thoroughly reviewed including placement processes and procedures. Issues were outlined for research and future resolution. Finally, conclusions allow the reader to observe the overall picture of the community college milieu for these learners (Kuo, 2000).

Conteh-Morgan (2002), a librarian, described her experience as having included a

regular discussion of strategies to meet the needs of this particular niche of learners. She

espoused the need for librarians to be informed by second language learning from two of

the accepted foundational teachings in the English second language teaching literature.

Additionally, Conteh-Morgan suggested a librarian-instructor collaboration employing a

model structure that encompasses both innatist and interactionist perspectives of second

language acquisition. She asserted the need for such effort; indeed, her founding premise

described the need for a reliable methodology that infused information literacy skills to

33 support international students who are new to universities. Conteh-Morgan’s (2002) work is indicated in this study because her sample contained a large quotient of ELLs, some of whom are international students.

In 2008, the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions issued a Manifesto (IFLA/UNESCO, 2008). This declaration acknowledges that access to information in this age of the Internet is a crucial factor in human equity. This document established four principles. These principles included service without discrimination, ability to offer materials in appropriate languages, materials and resources should be chosen to reflect the locale, and library staff or faculty should be reflective of local demographics.

Hoffmann and Wallace’s (2013) definition of the intentional informationist is a learner with “the contextual, reflective, and informational skills to identify information opportunities, tackle complex information problems and pitfalls, and provide solutions or considerations that do not...” (p. 2) merely meet the needs of the instant situation. In the genesis of developing information literacy, three areas of competency focus were derived from the ACRL. These competencies were: learners will “assess information effectively and efficiently, second is evaluating information and its sources critically, and third they will explain the economic, legal, social and ethical issues surrounding the use of information” (Hoffmann & Wallace, 2013, p. 1). Of these, the third area was the most concerning, due to this college having had a social justice discussion that was campus- wide and evolved over a decade.

“Intentional informationist” is the concept outlined by Hoffmann and Wallace

(2013). They described their determination that learners needed more than a step-by-step

34 guide or list of scripted activities to determine validity, accuracy, relevance, originality or other qualities of information. They found that, in order to foster a broad creative application, learners would need the tools to become informed citizens. They used a standardized test performance to gather data that offered a silhouette of their population as to the eight areas of skill recommended by the Association of College and Research

Libraries (ACRL, 2016). Following the administration of the information literacy, a critical thinking, and a writing instrument, the library and faculty were determined to move on from test administration. It gave descriptive data but no indicator of how to improve or guide future efforts toward improved performance.

This third area of concern (Hoffmann & Wallace, 2013) evolved from the embryonic emergence of information literacy. At the early stages of librarian focus, this third focus of competence seemed more far reaching than citing references for accuracy in research. This area covered major domains of measures of success in society. The librarians felt they were ill prepared to determine any reliable outcomes for such instruction. They pursued eclectic clusters of academic focus and broadened the dialog.

The librarians saw this as the socially just means to sharing access to information

(Hoffmann & Wallace, 2013). A need for an extension of the single library instruction session was seen for their undergraduate learners. Models offered differing structures; these librarians taught at least 12 differing types, and they showcased the three that were most effective. Their issue of credential reduction and the disappearance of school libraries and credentialed librarians were juxtaposed by the lack of skills they observed in their teacher education population. Recommendations centered on creative, collaborative efforts to develop new and customized literacies. The collaboration should be always

35 seeking additional partners and recalibrating needed information competencies. The

Hoffman & Wallace (2013) study supports the recommendation in this current study that college librarians and faculty should collaborate. The current study indicated that informed faculty and librarians may design curricula prepared to reduce learner uncertainty or anxiety.

College Level English Language Learner Population

The learners targeted in this study are adults; some have already experienced post- secondary, college, advanced studies, or they are determined to complete those studies here. There are also learners from places where there was no compulsory education after basic literacy, and these learners have the additional burden of learning scripting and/or computer skills. Scholars have long noted that adult learners are not simply large or older children; in order to be effective, methodology must suit adult circumstance, ability, and habits.

Andragogy is the term given to educational methodology tailored for those who have well passed their high school years (Knowles, 1973). Knowles work was limited to vocational or trade education. Nonetheless, it is regarded as informative by educators who teach adults. Adult learners require instruction they can comprehend. Tasks designed to support instruction must be recognized by the learner as attainable and applicable to their purpose. Adult learners are required to attend classes and produce performances or artifacts that are the evidence of educated performance (Merriam,

Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2012, p. 281).

Mauranen (2018) looked at the sociolinguistics of language employed in academic communities in Northern Europe. Mostly focused on spoken English, she

36 described the network of scholars and others who use English although it is not their heritage tongue. Mauranen discussed the spread of English as a global communication system and connected it to the advent and growth of the Internet. Further, her work looked at the specific social and linguistic norms one finds in classrooms where learners must complete certain tasks necessitating them to work together even though their heritage languages may differ greatly (Mauranen, 2018).

Mauranen’s study based on the existence of an international community using

English suggested testing that is “dialogic” rather than the standardized measures currently employed (2018, pp. 73, 235-43). Also, Mauranen noted that the English as a

Lingua Franca (ELF) has made university education more readily available for greater numbers of people once deprived by language exclusivity. Her work helps to illustrate the effects of English learning as a social tool in the academic ecology. Learners targeted by this study intend to be part of that global, inter-lingual academic and professional community.

Cummins (1994) described the situation of the learner and a separation into two basic types of language learning task. Cummins divided basic interpersonal communicative skills (BICS) and cognitive academic linguistic proficiency (CALP).

BICS and CALP are distinct areas of language competence. Adding Bondonaro’s (2006) learner choices appeared to have major significance in describing this group. These ideas are not usually associated with each other because they come from very different disciplines, Cummins from language learning and Bordonaro from librarianship. This illustrates the value and choice of methods to examine this intersection of neighboring disciplines as they impact this niche.

37 Any study of Florida’s second language community must give adequate coverage

to the origin and scope of the great number of languages spoken here. A chapter in the

Review of Research on Education Handbook reminds the reader that Spanish was spoken

on this swath of the continent before there was a United States. It chides the widely held

understanding that Spanish speakers are necessarily immigrants (Macias, 2014, p. 35).

Macias’ purpose is illustrated through straightforward recounting of the country’s origins

and the huge area long held by Spanish speakers being as much as two thirds of the land

(Macias, 2014). All of this background helps the instructor recognize, validate, and

accommodate learners as individuals. Within the handbook chapter, Macias uses an

eight-point argument to sustain a special and more equitable status for the Spanish

language within the United States government and education. Macias (2014) gives the

Spanish language native context and a timeline as it relates to the dominant English

language society.

There is a marked diversity among speakers of Spanish. Even among

linguistically similar “Spanishes,” history has been an important quotient in the formation

of identities for Latinos (Cobas, Duany, & Feagin, 2009, p. 47). In their book, they described Latinos as a pan-ethnic group who are identified by distinct and diverse customs and cultures; yet they are perceived as a singular community with specific, stereotypical traits and norms because of their use of similar language (p. 200).

People did not reflect that they felt adequately represented by the choices defining

race for the 2010 U.S. Census. This is postulated because a large number of Spanish

language individuals chose “some other race” (p.201). These choices were so troubling

to the sociological process of the census, that it has been removed as a choice for the

38 2010 census. Cobas, Duany, and Feagin (2009) helped define major Latino groups by

nationality and social group membership. Realizing and examining the plurality and

diversity with Spanish speakers is essential to understanding one of the learner groups

targeted for this current study. Each, albeit Spanish speaking, individual learner

background had a set of common and uncommon experiences. These experiences may

yield data describing learners’ use of and familiarity with library and information literacy

tools.

The 2010 U.S. Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2018) has often been consulted for

various sections of this study. Particularly in the focus on Spanish speakers, the census

and sub-reports provided a rich repository of both quantitative and qualitative data. The

numbers of Spanish speakers were analyzed giving a picture of the size and rate of

growth in the community. Between 1980 and 1990, the Spanish speaking population

doubled. In 2010, Florida was populated by the following groups in descending numbers: the largest U.S. group of Spanish speakers were Cuban, second largest were

Puerto Ricans and Guatemalans, the third largest group were Dominican, and the addition

of the aforementioned one million Hispanics who listed themselves in a neutral category.

These reports were essential to crafting an effective architecture of the makeup of college

learner diversity.

Issues that surround other specific language groups included the several

characteristics describing the Haitian learner. These college level individuals come from

a spectrum ranging from individuals with very basic literacy to some who have been

educated in two languages, Haitian French and Kreyol. Suárez-Orozco, Onaga, and

Lardemelle, (2010) studied social and contextual factors for this group. They noted that

39 learners do not know that what their U.S. instructors expect in the form of classroom

participation is very different from the ‘seen-and-not-heard’ orientation of schools these

learners commonly attended.

Asian learners are often disturbed by the mindset that information must be

questioned and validated. These learners commonly have lived in an environment where

questioning is rude and disrespectful (Mu, 2007). For these learners, the entire concept

of information literacy is a challenge. The idea that finding invalid information or

potentially conflicting sources is off putting and unrealistic to many in this learner group

(Chen, 2014).

Librarian Studies of ELLs

Within Zhang’s (2006) third question, he posited:

Two sources of support are critical in assuring the effectiveness of the information

literacy program to international learners- library administrative support and the

support from the teaching faculty. To get such support an information literacy

program for international learners must fit in with the overall university mission

and strategic plan of the library. (p. 13)

Buy in, therefore, must be generated through both venues in order to provide effective, durable language learning support that is culturally sensitive and welcoming to international learners.

Before buy in may be approached, a study of the obstacles should take place so that issues may be explored prior to implementing any program or curricular changes.

McBrien (2005) looked at barriers and needs and offered some insight to be considered.

This paper examined 25 years of literature regarding the educational plight of refugees in

40 the United States. The extensive literature review encompassed changing beliefs along

with successive political situations resulting in refugee groups with differing need factors.

Refugee, for the purposes herein studied, is defined as an involuntary immigrant who has

fled war or political persecution. These refugees do not include slaves or those who plan

calmly and intentionally to emigrate. These learners often come with a host of social and

emotional issues. Many of them suffer from having witnessed all the vagaries of war or

political unrest, including violence and death. Often these learners have experienced

severe privation including food, water, medical care, and certainly education (McBrien,

2005).

Three norms were referenced for groups of refugees. One was the prescient group

who, perceiving their vulnerability to a building political reality where they are, they flee,

and upon arrival in the U.S. begin to build toward their dreams. These consist of having

a peace-filled norm, a house, a car, and a reasonable living from work. Second, there

were those who entered into the arms of an established community of their prior arrived

brethren; systems absorbed and sheltered them and moved them into society with

determination and ultimate success. The final group was neither received well, nor was

anyone glad to welcome them. They were often shunned and delivered to awful pockets of profound urban poverty from whence they rarely emerge.

McBrien (2005) opined,

Education in the United States, particularly in relation to immigrant, migrant, and

refugee learners, too frequently becomes an issue of politics. Historically, a

major role of any society’s education system is to pass on the culture of the

society to its youth. But the tenets of American culture, given the country’s

41 unique history of immigration, continue to be debated. Will learners be taught to

be welcoming to newcomers by accepting the diversity of international cultures

that immigrants and travelers bring with them, or will we expect new Americans

to cast off their heritage and assimilate into a distinctively “American culture”?

(p. 41)

Learners with emergent English language skills. These are individuals from native locations with languages other than English with a high school diploma. They may even have college or university degrees and need to use professional or academic

English. ELLs without advanced information literacy backgrounds face increased difficulty (Bondonaro, 2016).

Learners who come without or with having had limited access to technology and Internet. These learners are at greater risk of not reaching success because they have not had information literacy practices or concepts. Additionally, they may mis- calibrate their effective use of information literacy to answer questions (Gross and

Latham, 2012).

Learners who are unaware of how to use information literacy accurately to solve academic or professional problems. This combines the first two groups of learners who are often faced with difficulty that may result in stop-out, drop-out, and/or failure to attain their goals as stated upon entry to the college. Background factors compound some learner’s initial lack of English skill, especially if that person’s background lacked information literacy and technology instruction. Figure 1 is designed to show that learning needs expand as they combine with information literacy needs and become more complex (Todd, Kuhlthau, & Heinström, 2005).

42

Figure 1: Visual representation of additional deficit effect of lower information literacy in Florida Colleges.

English Learner Theory

Language learning has writers who serve as the foundation of educational information for this population. Chomsky (1986), Crawford (2008), Cummins (1994), and Krashen and Terrell (1983) have outlined the historical development of the learner situation, likely developmental stages, and types of language learning necessary to meet the learners’ goals. Each of these writers has forged a pillar of understanding and have defined the field of teaching ELLs.

Crawford (2008) is not an English second language educator and yet his writings are the accepted historical background of the field. He came from a social advocacy background and set the tone by describing the political events and judicial decisions that have shaped the current situation of the targeted learner. Crawford makes a very strong case for bilingual education as a political contribution to a democratic society. Crawford acknowledged that measures mandating English as the language of commerce and social interaction creates urgency in adult populations.

43 Krashen described the mindset of the learner in his six hypotheses (2013). Long

considered a foundational theorist to those concerned with teaching English as a second

language, Krashen’s hypotheses offer a paradigmatic recognition of the learner’s

situation and a means for determining appropriate, effective learning strategies.

Krashen illustrated learners’ situation when speaking a second language in his

monitor hypothesis. He stated that the learner must already know the grammar rule, think

through the correction, and have the needed time to make the correction. In his

comprehension hypothesis, Krashen really picked up where Vygotsky left off. Krashen stated that with enough appropriate comprehensible input the learner can make the leap to that “i + 1” or to what Vygotsky called the “Zone of Proximal Development.” Krashen asserted there is no need to teach the underlying grammar; at this point, the learner will

correctly apply the new information because it fits.

Most salient for this study is his description of the affective filter. This filter is a

thought matrix that can easily be jammed by emotional affect that stymies and confounds

the learner. Krashen laid out techniques to restore the learner to optimum learning

conditions. The environment includes locale and circumstance; these dictate the

conditions learners endure.

Eslami and Kerr (2013) stated that the target of three-year completion for learning

enough English to totally mainstream a student is in direct opposition to the language

learning literature wherein fluency comes after seven or more years. Further, acclimating

the learner to the environment takes time for learner process. Individuals are often beset

with responsibilities that limit their ability to incorporate social and environmental

customs into their daily lives.

44 In college in Florida, there are potentially six levels of coursework that must be

taken. At the end of that series, students must write a research paper with citations in

English. Eslami and Kerr (2013) described the plight of this learner, subject to often-

misunderstood responses to their poorly expressed needs or expectations. These authors

described the cultural, ethnic, economic, and political differences that learners confront

along with the language demonstrate the complexities of immigration.

Eslami and Kerr (2013) depict the situation of finding freedom in a capitalist, entrepreneurial environment that seemed to invite the learner and that was expected to be less difficult to live in, once attained, calls for unexpected and burdensome responsibilities. Learner backgrounds, even if not deprived, are vastly different. College is, in and of itself, a separate subculture. The learner group is affected by the current rhetoric that casts the immigrant as unwanted and unwelcome (Eslami & Kerr, 2013 p.

7). Hegemony research includes policies and regulatory factors legitimizing an English dominance and repercussions felt by the learner group who are respondents in this study.

Kruger and Dunning (1999) in their study on the accuracy of learner calibration of

ability or assessment of learner performance maintained that one does not know what one

has never experienced or been told of. In order to scientifically support their assertion, a

study was designed and conducted. They tested individuals in three areas of knowledge:

humor, logical reasoning, and grammar. They meticulously designed the prompts used to

survey respondents. For example, in humor, they used a collection of jokes that they sent

out to a group of comedians to determine the level of funniness to be able to judge.

Over the years since the first Kruger and Dunning paper was published, the writers have reexamined their concept, broadened, and adapted it from psychology to

45 other disciplines (2009). In an updated piece reflecting on the phenomenon, it is

described as a twofold ignorance that is most profound. That mis-calibration of ability occurs because incorrect valuation is based on a poor or lack of knowledge of how to calibrate success. Understanding this concept is helpful when teaching information literacy to individuals whose background and experience simply exclude such concepts.

The Kruger and Dunning effect may shed some light on why learners who perform poorly on information literacy skills measures may evaluate themselves as having done well.

College faculties may bridge the gap between disciplines (library and classroom)

(Belanger, Bliquez, & Mondal, 2012). Librarians may feel hard pressed to provide

effective instruction that leads to durable, even expanding, information literacy that

successfully supports learners in their efforts to complete academic tasks, solve complex

problems, or present professional responses. Librarians are rarely in contact with learners

following the one-shot library instruction experience (Belanger et al., 2012). The result is

that critical areas of instruction are unmeasured and rarely discussed. Almon (2010) used

a design that addressed these issues and which is supportive of this study.

Almon (2010) sought to bring academic examination and treatment to

understanding persistence and engagement in college ELLs. The study made the case for

the community college environment being very different than that of universities. ELLs

in universities must be degree, diploma, or certificate seeking by design. Community

colleges pose engagement situations that are specific to the ELL population. By using a

quantitative investigation of ELL performance on indicators of student engagement and

then comparing to U.S. natives, some predictive learner profiles became apparent to

46 Almon (2010). Performance on semester transcripts and on the Community College

Survey of Student Engagement (CCSSE) was compared to similar English native speakers. Overall it appeared that high GPA and engagement characteristics were countered by a high lack of persistence.

That finding is helpful as a quantity and an identifying statistic; nonetheless, it does not point to potential reasons or solutions. Therefore, a qualitative component was included. Almon (2010) sought to give a textured body of information describing factors and their human manifestations. Three sets of data were gathered. In the two quantitative sets, one group was examined for factors identifying persistence. The second set included different ELLs in the same institution for factors of engagement. These were gleaned from the Consortium on Chicago School Research (CCSR) results of two groups-one native to English and one not.

The qualitative interviews were with individuals who met criteria to provide voiced experience reflected in quantitative indicators as well. Even though there was a high degree of reliability in that the quantitative test could be reproduced in another venue. The qualitative portion of the study put it into a clear context to be built on or reexamined by other scholars. This was useful to observe indicators that might inhibit engagement or retention (Almon, 2010).

Krashen and Terrell (1983) talked of the various stages in language acquisition.

Krashen divided reactions to second language acquisition into six hypotheses. Each produced recognizable diagnostic utterances, and he prescribed means to adapt instruction to circumvent the known developmental obstacle. Krashen noted that learners react to the environment. His first hypothesis divided acquiring language with learning

47 it. Acquiring means that language is being stored and is available for the learner to readily use to express his/herself accurately, and learning requires some analysis and evident application of grammar or pronunciation. In scripting strategy, the learner acquires recognition and reproduction that are nearly spontaneous, whereas learning takes analysis and modification.

Cummins (1994) made a profound division of language tasks, specifically Basic

Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS) and advanced professional language

(Cognitive Academic Learning Proficiency). Many of the respondents for this study are in pursuit of professional level parity in the language. Later, Cummins (1994) included the relationship between instructor and student in academic language learning. That was confirmed as a key issue in many of the studies used for this current work. (Kim, 2014).

ELLs come to the United States to immerse themselves in the language and culture, to study, to work, to immigrate, or to seek refuge (Clark, Hatton, & Williamson,

2002). Some come from U.S. Territories such as the Philippine Islands, American

Samoa, Puerto Rico, and others. Learners from countries whose language is not English arrive with only a cursory vocabulary that they must then use to function and transact with locals for their needs each day. Learners’ cultural origin greatly affects their ability and agility with information literacy. In a study that discussed the plight of the Asian

ELLs, the findings were that there were significant cultural differences in how information is presented in a U.S. academic environment (Mu, 2007). First, many foreign language native learners are not encouraged to question or challenge the content in materials. They observe the textbook as an instrument of authority and often memorize or deeply absorb the contents as presented. Second, the library is not a

48 familiar place, its customs are unknown, and jargon is inhibiting. In his work, Mu (2007)

offered a description of the learner and made recommendations to the reference librarian

and the instructor.

Macdonald (2008) took on the problem that ELLs often believe that all published

materials contain venerated information and therefore are adequate sources of factual information. She found that there is not much published research work examining these learners from an information literacy perspective in Australia (Macdonald, 2008). She reported having to borrow from literature that used higher education learners as they were the only group with some study directed at information literacy. Her forced source is on target for this study: ELLs in higher education and their situation in gaining skills supporting information literacy.

Macdonald (2008) spent effort in depicting the loss for ELLs who have been either cursorily or inadequately instructed in information literacy. She stated they are disadvantaged both in scope and content of their effort to become fluent at a professional or even workplace functional level. This deprivation of tailored information literacy instruction expands the digital divide. These learners are less able to produce well- researched responses to learning challenges. They are therefore relegated to lower levels of accomplishment. The result of Macdonald’s work was an adoption of an English second language information literacy program. Macdonald further cited two U.S.

programs that were all that offered such a resource in 2004 and 2005. Macdonald

asserted that those who most need the ability are least likely to have it (Macdonald,

2008).

49 Macdonald (2008) completed a study that looked deeply at models of information

literacy instruction. The study site was Shepparton Public Library and the Goulburn

Ovens Institute of TAFE in Victoria, Australia. They discovered early on that

information literacy instruction that consisted of a one-visit overview made no useful impact. They developed a series of types of information literacy instruction embedded in curricula that learners had to acquire. Macdonald (2008) further chronicled her study that

comprised an information literacy librarian with a Project Coordinator who is also an

ESL instructor. The final model they found to be useful included ten hours of instruction

covering every aspect of library use, significance, customs, norms, and applied

vocabulary. The curricular goals were met with hands-on activities that were available for the learner to review. A multi-modal approach included a printed guide, so students could refresh their memory or refer to it.

It became clear during Macdonald’s study that library jargon was unfamiliar to non-librarians. The identification of such barrier circumstances enhanced the delivery of useful instruction. Speaking and listening curricula embraced weekly sessions focused on library and information skill activities and issues (Macdonald, 2008). Conclusions of the study (Macdonald, 2008) contributed to this study of college learners that included a

large percentage of ELLs in South Florida. The issue of inter-disciplinary language and

terminology was explored, discussed, and the discussion informed this study. Having a

vocabulary list ready for learners may reduce learner anxiety and uncertainty as indicated

in the findings of this study.

50 Summary

This literature review examined the learner and the work done by faculty and librarians in light of the burgeoning issue of information literacy instruction for college learners within which a large portion are ELLs. There is ample and valid concern in studies presented by faculty and college librarians about the current state of information literacy instruction provided to these learners. There were few studies that produced descriptive data that measure information literacy practices of Florida’s college learners.

The studies reviewed here may guide needed instructional content to meet the needs of learners who are completing academic or professional problem solving.

Information literacy skills and practices are examined from several perspectives by studies included here. Beginning with the expansion of library resources into the digital age, information literacy scholars informed this study with its form and findings.

Kim’s (2014) offered a means to examine learner beliefs. Theoretical literature discussed here explored college learners including a focus on ELLs. Because the librarian is the information literacy instructor in the site college, some effort was spent to gather faculty librarian studies. English learner theory is examined deeply because nearly 90% of the respondent group self-reported non-native birth and/or foreign language nativity.

51 III. METHODOLOGY

The following study is offered in pursuit of an understanding of learner beliefs centered on information literacy that would inform instructional practice with college learners in composition courses in which the learner group includes a large proportion of

English Language Learners (ELLs). The purpose of the study was to describe Florida college learners’ beliefs about their ability to use information literacy skills required when completing college assignments.

Within the Florida college chosen for this study there were a large number of

ELLs. These learners may face difficulties because of a lack of familiarity with resources that support the growth of academic and professional knowledge. There is a high expectation when it comes to ELLs’ need to demonstrate spoken and written use of

English and seamlessly enter the employment or professional marketplace (Vedder,

Berry, Sabatier, & Sam, 2009). It is without question that college level ELLs are in a political climate that requires swift acquisition of information literacy skills and practices.

The college that served as the site for this study enrolls over 61,000 learners on average each semester (Broward College FastFacts, n.d.). Everyone who has not already completed the requirement must take English Composition 1 (ENC1101) if seeking a degree, either an Associate of Arts or Associate of Science. They must take English

Composition 2 (ENC1102) if their choice is the Associate of Arts. Although both courses are highly recommended, in the current environment of sparse financial aid, the

52 credits are considered unnecessary in the applied science sections, and therefore the learner must pay out-of-pocket over and above funds delivered through financial aid.

Florida college learners need to be able to perform on par as peers in a multi- faceted learning environment that assumes information literacy as an attribute of their abilities upon commencing degree-oriented studies (Ragains & Wood, 2016). In colleges with required curricula, best practices include careful planning for the content to target learners as accurately as possible for maximum effect of instruction. There is a paucity of literature that examines ELLs as a distinct subset of the college population as to their library and information literacy beliefs regarding potential success. This is especially significant because of the large proportion of ELLs who self-identified as being born in another nation and speaking a home language other than English who responded to this study.

For some of these learners, early education in their home nations did not include the U. S. norms for library and information literacy. Commonly, in Asia as well as

Central and South America, libraries may have closed stacks which means learners may not walk among bookshelves or personally browse available materials (Jackson, 2005).

This difference may create a significant dissonance between the learner and the common, comfortable use of library facilities including databases. Instructors and librarians who are informed of such concerns may introduce browsing in an effective manner avoiding any anxiety or uncertainty for learners.

Additionally, ELLs in Florida colleges have not been examined and depicted by highly reliable data as to their performances on information literacy tests (Conteh-

Morgan, 2002). Therefore, even though the data are not exclusively derived from ELLs,

53 some attention is given to their characteristics, so educators of college learners in colleges

which include a large number of student ELLs, may build informed curricula.

Research Questions

The following questions framed the search for factors that describe Florida

college learners’ beliefs about success prior to and following a brief, one-hour information literacy session:

1. Is there a significant difference between Florida college learners' beliefs about

their ability to perform tasks that demonstrate information literacy before

experiencing a one-hour session taught by a faculty librarian?

2. Do college learners’ beliefs about using information literacy activities vary

across age, U.S. born or Foreign born (USAorNo), First Time In College

(FTIC), and gender?

3. Is there a difference indicated by belief descriptor choices made by the sample

as a group before and after experiencing a one-hour instruction session in

information literacy?

Research Design

The guiding purpose for this study was to describe the beliefs of Florida college

learners regarding their expectation of success when required to use information literacy

for college assignments. Quantitative techniques were implemented to explore learners’

self-reported beliefs when faced with tasks that include activities associated with

information literacy. This study offers a view of learner beliefs as they attempt to build

and increase knowledge by learning (Chen, 2014).

54 The design used here emerged from examining and then modifying work

performed by Kim (2014). Kim’s learners were ELL high schoolers completing their

first research project. Relying on Kim’s study, this current examination looked at the

intersection of composition instruction and library and information literacy instruction by

using self-reported indicators of learner beliefs about success. The resulting quantitative

study describes Florida college learners’ beliefs about self-efficacy when required to use information literacy to complete assignments. The study gathered data in the form of learner responses to two questionnaires that were presented in a pre and post treatment design. The treatment was a one-hour session in information literacy taught by a college librarian. Learner participants were duly registered Florida college students attending classes in Spring 2018. Ninety-seven Florida college learners completed questionnaire one, attended an information literacy session, and 74 of those who attended the session completed questionnaire two. Analysis of the data resulting from questionnaires one

(Appendix A) and two (Appendix B) was accomplished by using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS), version 24 (IBM Corp., 2017). Demographics were depicted in tables and graphs to make clear meaning of the results. A group of t-tests were performed on data that were gathered between the pre and post indicators self- reported by learners’ answers to question 17 on questionnaire one, “Please choose one of the following words to describe how successful you believe you will be right now when using the college library and databases. After you choose the word, please choose a number to identify how strong the belief is for you right now” and question 5 on questionnaire two, “Please choose one of the following words that describe your belief

55 right now about your ability to use the college library and databases. After you choose

the word, please choose a number to identify how strong the belief is for you right now.”

Study Context

The learners examined in the study were registered for coursework at a Southeast

Florida college. Located in the southwest of the county it serves, the college offers

associate of arts, associate of science, and bachelor’s degrees as permitted under recent

changes to Florida Higher Education (Eckel & King, 2004). Starting in 2001, Florida

S.B. 1162 (Fl. Stat. Ann. §1007.33) opened a venue for community colleges to explore

workforce needs and gaps in the available degrees in the post-secondary education field.

This was followed by S.B. 1716 in 2008. In 2008, following a policy shift, Florida

legislators determined that the community college system could expand to offer

bachelor’s degrees (Fulton, 2015). The site for this study is one of 26 colleges in a 28-

college system that chose to make the expansion. The college consists of three major

brick and mortar campuses throughout the county and three main annex or satellite

locations. It is a commuter school; there are no dormitories or communal residences for

students.

Population

The college enrolled 2,518 ELLs in its English for Academic Purposes course

offerings for the 2017-2018 school year. Although that is a small percentage of the

53,870 students overall, it is 8.3% of the approximately 30,000 students who attended

face-to-face classes (Broward College Annual Report, 2017-2018). Florida college

learners who contributed to these data were taking courses that required information

literacy to fulfill composition assignments. Florida college learners who were registered

56 students attending the Southeast Florida college and assigned to particular class sections were invited to add their voices through participation in a pre and post examination of their beliefs before and after attending a one-hour instruction in information literacy.

English Composition 1 and 2 (ENC1101 and ENC1102) instructors volunteered to be a part of the study following an invitation from their Dean. Instructors for English

Composition for Academic Purposes levels one and two (EAP1540C and EAP1640C) were also invited to volunteer through a request from their Dean.

Participants

Learners were invited to participate as anonymous contributors to the results.

These participants were individuals from the population of learners attending English

Composition 1 (ENC1101) and English for Academic Purposes sections (EAP1540C and

EAP1640C) at the college. Participants self-reported their demographics in response to the first section of questionnaire one. A total of 100 students were invited to the study.

Learners were asked to identify gender, country of origin and age (Table 1).

57 Table 1

Participant Characteristics

Country of Gender n % n % Age n % Origin Female 64 67.37 Colombia 17 25.37 18-25 years 53 54.64 Dominican Male 31 32.63 Republic 5 7.46 26-35 years 26 26.80 None 2 -- Haiti 14 20.90 36-45 years 8 8.25 chosen Peru 5 7.46 46-55 years 8 8.25 Vietnam 6 8.96 56+ years 2 2.06 Venezuela 10 14.93 United States 10 14.93 Othera 27 -- aFive respondents came from Cuba with three from Ecuador, El Salvador, Brazil, Dominican Republic, and a smattering of one or two individuals each from Russia, China, Egypt, Pakistan, and more.

Age. Fifty-three of the learners were between 18 and 25. Following that 26 learners were at 26-35 years, and the other 18 covered the years from 36-60.

Gender. The proportionate dominance of women is a pointed factor in the learner sample who responded to this study. Over a 2:1 ratio, women were the larger number. Of the 97 individuals in the sample, two did not indicate gender, 64 indicated female, and 31 indicated male.

Country of Origin. Learners self-identified as to nation of birth, length of time living in the US, and natal language. These demographic data provide a representation of characteristics of the respondent sample. The sample included 10 individuals who stated they were born in the US and had used English as their first or native language. The remaining respondents were from Colombia, Venezuela, Haiti, China, Vietnam, Cuba

58 and many others. Colombians were the largest number of participants with 17

respondents self-identifying Colombia as their nation of origin. While U. S. natives seem like a small group, numbering 10, in proportion to other groups in the sample, they are

about 50% as large as the largest number. There were 14 Haitians, and 10 were from

Venezuela. Three respondents did not provide country of origin.

Instruments

Studies that guided the design were based on an earlier foundation set by (Todd et

al., 2005). These researchers are librarian scholars concerned with understanding how

learners construct knowledge. Kim (2014) was trained by Todd and Kuhlthau. Her study

sought to understand the learning experience of ninth through twelfth grade students as

they completed a research project. She sought to identify their knowledge about the

research topic, means for labeling knowledge, estimate of interest and knowledge, and

learning outcomes through content analysis and statistical techniques.

Kim (2014) performed a study in a school library which examined learners as to

their beliefs about their success. Kim coded categorical answers and used content

analysis for more open-ended responses. The data derived from the categorical responses

was tested with t-test, ANOVA, and Chi-square statistical techniques. The open-ended

answers were examined in a Content Analysis derived from the S.L.I.M. Toolkit. That

kit was developed by Todd et al., (2005). To validate Kim’s survey instruments, Todd

and Kuhlthau weighed in and critiqued drafts of questions until the final three survey

instruments were determined to be effective and were applied (2014). They discussed,

debated, and determined which data would be used. Kim sought to apply the structure in

Kuhlthau's Internet Search Protocol (ISP). This ISP had set the best practice for teaching

59 exploration and validation of information that is internet-based. Kim gathered demographics into a questionnaire and used three process surveys over the course of several weeks.

Permission was given by Kim (2014) to use and modify instruments applied in this study (Appendix C). Kim (2014) consented to modification of her instruments for application to this study. The questionnaires applied in this study open with a section that gathered demographic information and then a series of questions that elicited self-rated belief of success or challenge with information literacy tasks. These instruments were applied to examine learners at a Southeast Florida college. The questionnaires used for this study were presented to a group of instructors and librarians at the site college for review and suggestions. Four college instructors and two librarians looked over the questionnaires for overall readability and understanding. They reviewed the modifications made to the original instruments that had been taken from the work done by Kim (2014). Comments included adjustments to the language used.

Kim’s “Process Survey” instruments which had been modeled on Kuhlthau’s

S.L.I.M. Toolkit were modified for Kim’s purposes to observe a process of learner experience reflected in learner’s choices of feeling descriptors. For this study, these were modified to become questionnaires seeking discreet responses to beliefs regarding the immediate situation at hand in form of the expectation of having to complete college assignments using skills and practices of information literacy. Adjustments were made to the demographic section of questionnaire one to accommodate an adult population.

Questions were added to include age, work, and national origin. Excluded were questions specific to Kim’s learner group such as the name learners had assigned to their

60 upcoming paper and who the learner lived with. Question 5 was overhauled to offer a spectrum of potential beliefs that were equal, 4 positive terms and 4 negative terms.

These suggestions were incorporated into the final design that was then uploaded into

Survey Monkey, an online questionnaire vendor.

Validity and Reliability of the Instruments

The questionnaires (one and two) were modified instruments that had been first used in the study by Kim (2014). She derived them from the School Library Impact

Measure (S.L.I.M.) Toolkit that had been designed by Todd et al. (2005). The iteration used in this current study was modified based on parameters such as the timing of the giving of the research assignment, the experience of the one-hour information literacy session, and the process of the composition course timeline for learners in the sample.

The beliefs identified for the instrument used for this study were expanded in the instrument applied so that learners had an equal number of positive belief choices as they had beliefs that went in the opposite direction. The words “absolutely sure, optimistic, confident, and satisfied” were positive indications, and “confused, uncertain, frustrated, and anxious” were negative.

Questionnaire One. The first questionnaire asks a total of 21 questions. In part one, learners were asked to identify their age, gender, nation of birth, number of years in the United States, and natal language along with other descriptive information. These demographic responses provided the data that were analyzed and applied to answer research questions one and three. Questionnaire one is divided into two sections. The first twelve questions (Section I) solicit the demographic information followed by nine questions about learners’ beliefs associated with their expectation of success when

61 required to complete assignments requiring skills and practices associated with

information literacy (Section II). Beginning with question 13, learners were asked about

their beliefs as they pondered an upcoming research assignment that was the critical

assignment for completion in the composition course in which they were enrolled. These

questions offer a range of responses in a Likert-type design allowing potentially any of

four choices. The choices were 1 = not at all, 2 = a little, 3 = some, and 4 = a lot.

Question 17 stated, “Please choose one of the following words to describe how successful

you believe you will be right now when using the college library and databases. After

you choose the word, please choose a number to identify how strong the belief is for you

right now.” This question format offered an opportunity to examine beliefs about success

or expected challenges. Eight potential beliefs are offered, each with a Likert-type

response. These responses were framed in a series that is mirrored in questionnaire two,

question five. Extensive discussion of the results can be found in Chapter 4.

Questionnaire Two. Questionnaire two consisted of seven questions that follow up Section II of questionnaire one. These questions asked learners about the expectation of success or challenge following the one-hour session in information literacy taught by a college librarian. Each of the questions asks about elements of required activity in anticipation of completing an upcoming assignment that required research. Question 5 is the follow-up near duplicate of question 17 in questionnaire one. The content in question

5, questionnaire two is: “Please choose one of the following words that describe your belief right now about your ability to use the college library and databases. After you

choose the word, please choose a number to identify how strong the belief is for you right

now.” Therefore, the resulting data were useful in providing learner self-reported belief

62 descriptors that could be compared to those offered by the same learners before they attended the session with the college librarian.

Data Collection Process

Learner demographic data were gathered in questionnaire one. Learners self- reported their status as native English speaker or English learner. Self-reported ELLs and those who identified themselves as U.S. born learners volunteered to participate in the study that measured their reported expectation of success with information literacy tasks before and after a one-hour information literacy instruction session. The study used two questionnaires. The opening section of questionnaire one gathered demographic information. The demographic section was followed in the first questionnaire by pre- experience questions. Questionnaire two asked questions to follow up the pre-experience section of questionnaire one.

An IRB approved script was recited by the researcher during each of four class sessions (Appendix D). Following the reading of the approved script, learners were offered informed consent forms. These forms were signed by the participants and collected by the researcher. Learners were given assurance that their personal information would be gathered, coded, and published with their identity protected by anonymity. Following the introductory script reading and responses to learner questions, the link for the first pre-experience beliefs questionnaire was provided to participants.

Two weeks after completing the first questionnaire, respondents were required to attend a one-hour information literacy session. These sessions were taught by college librarians, and the researcher attended these sessions. The subject matter instructors had each given their learners an assignment that required use of information literacy skills and practices.

63 To support data gathering for this study, the researcher was present for the one- hour information literacy session along with the course instructor and the reference librarian. At the end of the one-hour information literacy session, students were reminded that if they wanted to continue to participate in the study to follow the link to questionnaire two that had been published in their Learning Management Software Portal

(D2L) for their course. Learners were encouraged to continue sitting in the library instruction site and complete the questionnaire immediately. Learners who chose to participate completed the brief questionnaire at that moment. A total of 97 individuals signed informed consent and entered some response to questionnaire one. Of the 97 only

76 responded to questionnaire two.

Session Attended

The intention of this study was to depict the beliefs of Florida college learners before and after attending a one-hour information literacy session taught by a college librarian. The curriculum for the hour included how to search for books or analog materials to be found in the building or retrieved through interlibrary loan, searching

Google, Bing, or other commercial search engines, searching vetted databases and journal archives, validating information, and determining the validity and other qualities of information that was included in search returns for the students’ consideration. Choosing search terms, using tools to limit the search, and recognizing devices that might signal concerns about veracity or timeliness of information was also covered.

An activity was used to demonstrate the resources in the bank of databases held by the college and citation practices for the specified course (University/College Library.

(n.d.). Learners questioned or responded to prompts given verbally by either the

64 librarian, the instructor, or a combination of both. Each aspect of basic information

literacy in a handout describing the activity was used to guide the session facilitated by

the librarian. Each of five main qualities or characteristics of the material retrieved was

used as an invitation for learner interaction. Learners were also invited to set up a one-

on-one consultation with a reference librarian for any needed or desired follow up.

Learners were given bookmarks with critical library phone numbers, web URLs, hours of

operation, basic layout of books and materials, and a pen.

Curriculum for the information literacy session consisted of two main

components. First is CRAAP (Blakeslee, 2004) which stands for Currency, Relevance,

Accuracy, Authority, Purpose. The acronym describes an overview of information

literacy perspective qualities that must be discovered and verified in order to be useful in

assignments or research. The acronym is delivered as a document with each letter

explained for learner reference following the session.

Learners were led by the librarian through a series of activities as they completed

a sample search. Learners were put into groups with a computer that had access to the

Internet. URLs were provided to each group with a case description. A typical prompt was a URL that connects to a website that provides an overview of college nursing programs. Learners had to determine each aspect of the above general categories that explore timeliness, revision history, associated sites, or parent site legitimacy.

Learners’ next task was to establish relevance. The information offered on the

site appeared to directly inform an answer to the question about nursing programs. The

learner had to determine if there was an advertisement or other distraction on the page.

The learner had to also find out if the presenter of the material had a valid credential of

65 authority. The learner was asked to decide if the site was a primarily commercial piece

that hosts products that bring the owner of the site profit. The learner was also asked if

the site was prepared by individuals, groups, or entities that provided clear contact

information and credentials. Learners had to ascertain accuracy by checking the

author(s)’ verifiable qualification to offer the captioned information. If there was missing

or vague information, there was doubt as to usefulness. Purpose relates to the ability of the learner to identify obvious clues that the agency, author, or institution may profit financially or receive some other compensation for disseminating skewed content.

Following the actions needed for the group to ascertain the qualities of the URL

they had been given, each group presented findings. The hands-on hunt for veracity was then discussed in general, across groups, and with guided questions offered by the faculty

librarian teaching the lesson. At this point in the hour, about 40 minutes had elapsed, and

20 minutes remained within which the librarian took the now experienced learners

through the information and visual logic of the college library and information resources

webpage. Because of the limits of time, and for efficiency, the librarian used one of the

URL search prompts that had been used for the CRAAP activity. Using a syllabus

(Appendix E), the librarian went over the icons and their functions as well as the physical

layout of the building, the college-wide related libraries, and the databases or Internet-

based resources.

Data Analysis

The data obtained from study participants were examined in an effort to fulfill the

purpose of the study by identifying the significant difference in the information literacy

beliefs voiced by Florida college learners who attended a one-hour information literacy

66 session taught by a faculty librarian. Quantitative methods were applied in an effort to give full examination to the import and meaning of self-reported beliefs before and after the instruction activity. Quantitative analysis examined data derived from questionnaires one and two.

Quantitative Analysis

The purpose of this study was to examine learner beliefs when required to use information literacy to accomplish academic tasks. Quantitative analysis was employed to explore data which were derived from learner responses to three sequenced questionnaires. Questionnaire one started with a demographic section. There were 12 demographic questions followed by eight questions requiring learners to identify their belief on a Likert-type scale in advance of having to use information literacy to complete an academic assignment. This questionnaire provided data from 97 Florida college learners attending classes at the study site and who comprised the sample. These data were gathered as responses from learners who were taking composition courses and who had been informed by their instructors that they must complete a research assignment.

These data were collected both before and after an information literacy session. Group one was comprised of respondents to questionnaire one, group two learners had attended the information literacy session and completed questionnaire two.

Tests of symmetry were used to determine significance that would answer research question one; data are displayed in Table 6 and the results are thoroughly described in Chapter 4. Independent variables used to inform an answer to research question two were Place of birth—U. S. born or Foreign born (USAorNo), First Time In

67 College (FTIC), Age (18-25/26-45), and Gender (Male or Female). The question asked if any demographic group or set of groups identified a significant belief.

The independent variable used to answer research question three was learner experience of a treatment in the form of a one-hour session taught by a faculty librarian.

The dependent variables were the eight beliefs identified by the learner groups’ responses to questionnaire one before the session and to questionnaire two following the session.

Research question three was answered based on data derived in responses to questionnaires one and two which was derived from one question from each questionnaire (question 17 on questionnaire one and question 5 on questionnaire two.).

Those questions mirror each other, and answers were provided on a 4-point Likert-type scale. Resulting data from both questionnaires were converted from text terms to numerical equivalents, loaded into SPSS (IBM Corp., 2017), and tested to support a search for measurable significance. The results of the data from the two questionnaires will be discussed further in Chapter 4.

Summary

This study adds to the literature by examining Florida college learners’ beliefs regarding individual potential for success when using information literacy to solve problems. Learners volunteered to participate by responding to a questionnaire before and after a one-hour information literacy instruction session. The data were collected from responses to these questionnaires which established the participants’ self-reported beliefs before and after an information literacy session in this session that was taught by a college librarian. Before attending the session, participants provided responses to questionnaire one which consisted of 12 questions related to demographics and nine

68 questions about learners’ beliefs associated with their expectation of success when required to complete assignments requiring skills and practices associated with information literacy. Participants then attended the information literacy session.

Learners were required to attend the session as a normal activity within a composition course they were taking. The information literacy session is commonly required as preparation for a first research assignment. After the information literacy part of the activity, the second questionnaire was offered by online link to the Survey Monkey host.

This investigation of learners’ reported estimation of belief and expectation of success may help instructors and librarians in their effort to craft instruction that supports the acquisition and successful learner use of practices and concepts (Lozano, 2006). This quantitative analysis of self-reported learner beliefs used descriptive material to depict

Florida college learners’ information literacy characteristics.

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IV. RESULTS

This study examined the stated beliefs of learner reported readiness and

competence in their use of information literacy to complete college assignments. The

data that are examined here were derived by offering learners two questionnaires.

Questionnaire one consisted of 21 questions that were arranged in two parts. Part one

contained 12 demographic questions. Learners provided their age, gender, nation of

birth, status as to First Time in College (FTIC), natal language, and more. Part two of

questionnaire one asked learners how intensely they did or did not identify with beliefs

about the research task and their ability to utilize skills and practices associated with

information literacy. Questionnaire one data were used to answer research questions one

and two. Questionnaire two contained eight questions. These questions were directed to

learner characterization of their beliefs after having had the experience of taking the one-

hour instruction in information literacy taught by a college librarian. All demographic data were gathered by questionnaire one (Tables 2 and 3).

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Table 2

Descriptive Statistics from Learner Responses (Age and FTIC)

Age

18-25 26-45 Belief n M SD n M SD df t p Absolutely sure 46 2.61 0.88 37 2.78 1.03 71.10 -0.83 0.46

Optimistic 47 3.11 0.81 37 3.14 0.89 74.07 0.15 0.52 Confident 43 2.91 0.97 34 3.00 0.92 72.50 0.43 0.21

Satisfied 45 2.87 1.04 35 2.86 1.00 73.55 0.04 0.94 Confused 45 2.31 0.90 35 2.00 0.84 75.38 1.58 0.17 Uncertain 44 2.09 0.91 33 1.79 1.79 73.59 1.54 0.65 71 Frustrated 43 1.79 0.94 33 1.73 1.73 72.25 0.31 0.35

Anxiety 43 1.93 1.00 34 1.94 0.85 74.67 -0.05 0.11 FTIC

FTIC yes FTIC No

Belief n M SD n M SD df t p Absolutely sure 28 2.54 1.00 54 2.74 0.92 50.69 -0.93 0.36 Optimistic 28 2.93 0.81 55 3.20 0.85 56.49 -1.40 0.13 Confident 26 2.73 0.92 50 3.06 0.96 52.58 -1.44 0.68

Satisfied 26 2.73 0.96 53 2.92 1.04 53.23 -0.80 0.48 Confused 28 2.18 0.91 51 2.20 0.87 53.98 -0.10 0.94 Uncertain 27 2.00 0.88 49 1.96 0.87 53.08 0.20 0.82 Frustrated 27 1.85 0.91 48 1.67 0.83 50.28 0.89 1.00 Anxiety 27 1.93 0.87 49 1.90 0.94 57.19 0.13 0.73

Table 3

Descriptive Statistics from Learner Responses (Origin and Gender)

USA or No

Yes No Belief n M SD n M SD df t p Absolutely sure 9 2.67 1.00 74 2.69 0.95 9.84 -0.67 0.90 Optimistic 9 3.00 1.00 75 3.13 0.83 9.36 -0.45 0.21 Confident 9 2.44 1.13 68 3.01 0.91 9.41 -1.72 0.23 Satisfied 10 2.20 1.23 70 2.96 0.94 10.55 -2.29 0.11 Confused 10 2.50 1.08 70 2.13 0.85 10.65 1.25 0.17 Uncertain 10 1.90 1.10 67 1.97 0.83 10.60 -0.24 0.11 72 Frustrated 9 2.11 1.27 67 1.72 0.83 8.95 1.25 0.04

Anxiety 9 2.33 1.41 68 1.88 0.86 8.79 1.37 0.00 Gender Male Female n M SD n M SD df t p Absolutely sure 28 2.71 1.01 55 2.67 0.92 50.21 0.19 0.51 Optimistic 28 3.18 0.77 56 3.09 0.88 60.82 0.46 0.31 Confident 26 3.08 0.85 51 2.88 0.99 58.18 0.85 0.18 Satisfied 25 2.88 1.01 55 2.85 1.01 46.28 0.11 0.94 Confused 27 2.11 0.89 53 2.21 0.89 52.09 -0.46 0.86 Uncertain 26 1.88 0.77 51 2.00 0.92 59.10 -0.55 0.39 Frustrated 26 1.62 0.80 50 1.84 0.93 57.86 -1.04 0.55 Anxiety 26 1.73 0.83 51 2.04 0.98 58.52 -1.38 0.52

Respondents provided data in the form of answers to pre and post questionnaires that were presented before and after a one-hour information literacy instruction session.

Descriptive statistics by subgroup are presented in Tables 4 and 5.

Table 4

Belief States Overall and by Subgroup

Demographic Characteristics

Age Gender Overall 18-25 26-45 Male Female Belief n M SD n M SD n M SD n M SD n M SD

Absolutely 83 2.68 0.95 46 2.61 0.88 37 2.78 1.03 28 2.71 1.01 55 2.67 0.92 Sure Optimistic 84 3.12 0.85 47 3.11 0.81 37 3.14 0.89 28 3.18 0.77 56 3.09 0.88 Confident 77 2.95 0.95 43 2.91 0.97 34 3.00 0.92 26 3.08 0.85 51 2.88 0.99 Satisfied 80 2.86 1.01 45 2.87 1.04 35 2.86 1.00 25 2.88 1.01 55 2.85 1.01 Confused 80 2.18 0.89 45 2.31 0.90 35 2.00 0.84 27 2.11 0.89 53 2.21 0.89 Uncertain 77 1.96 0.87 44 2.09 0.91 33 1.79 1.79 26 1.88 0.77 51 2.00 0.92 Frustrated 76 1.76 0.89 43 1.79 0.94 33 1.73 1.73 26 1.62 0.80 50 1.84 0.93 Anxious 77 1.94 0.93 43 1.93 1.00 34 1.94 0.85 26 1.73 0.83 51 2.04 0.98

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Table 5

Descriptive Statistics of Respondents’ Belief States Overall and by Subgroup (continued)

Background Information First Time in College (FTIC) Country of Origin Overall Yes No U. S. A. Non-U. S. A. Belief n M SD n M SD n M SD n M SD n M SD Absolutely Sure 83 2.68 0.95 28 2.54 1.00 54 2.74 0.92 9 2.67 1.00 74 2.69 0.95 Optimistic 84 3.12 0.85 28 2.93 0.81 55 3.20 0.85 9 3.00 1.00 75 3.13 0.83 Confident 77 2.95 0.95 26 2.73 0.92 50 3.06 0.96 9 2.44 1.13 68 3.01 0.91 Satisfied 80 2.86 1.01 26 2.73 0.96 53 2.92 1.04 10 2.20 1.23 70 2.96 0.94 Confused 80 2.18 0.89 28 2.18 0.91 51 2.20 0.87 10 2.50 1.08 70 2.13 0.85 Uncertain 77 1.96 0.87 27 2.00 0.88 49 1.96 0.87 10 1.90 1.10 67 1.97 0.83 Frustrated 76 1.76 0.89 27 1.85 0.91 48 1.67 0.83 9 2.11 1.27 67 1.72 0.83 Anxious 77 1.94 0.93 27 1.93 0.87 49 1.90 0.94 9 2.33 1.41 68 1.88 0.86

Research Questions and Null Hypotheses

The following three questions guided this study:

1. Is there a significant difference between Florida college learners' beliefs about

their ability to perform tasks that demonstrate information literacy before

experiencing a one-hour session taught by a faculty librarian?

2. Do college learners’ beliefs about using information literacy activities vary

across age, U. S. born or Foreign born (USAorNo), First Time In College

(FTIC), and gender?

3. Is there a difference indicated by belief descriptor choices made by the sample

as a group before and after experiencing a one-hour instruction session in

information literacy?

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The hypotheses of the study derived from a thorough review of the literature.

Three null hypotheses emerged from that literature review.

Ho: There is no significant difference between Florida college learners’ beliefs

about their ability to perform tasks that demonstrate information literacy.

Ho: There is no difference in learner beliefs about using information literacy

activities when examined by age group, U. S. born or Foreign born

(USAorNo), FTIC, or Gender.

Ho: There is no difference indicated by belief descriptor choices made by the

sample as a group before or after a one-hour session taught by a college

librarian.

Quantitative methods were used to establish reliable answers to these three

questions. The quantitative data includes self-reported demographics as well as belief indicators that were gathered and analyzed statistically. Statistical data are reported in tables for clear examination of factors that may inform instructors who are building courses imbued with extra-curricular necessaries such as the skills and practices comprised in information literacy. Learner samples were gathered from a population

attending composition coursework at a Florida college.

Initial Belief States – Research Question One. Research question one asked

whether there was variation in the belief state ratings provided by the various respondents

before the intervention. The questionnaire asked respondents to rate on a four-point

Likert-type scale the level of certainty that their information literacy fell into in one of eight distinct belief states. To determine whether or not there was true response variation, the dispersion in the responses (i.e. variance) was compared with what would

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be expected had the respondents chosen among the four responses completely at random.

Symmetry, or “lean,” toward the “Not a Lot” or “A lot” direction of the scale was tested using methods and an Excel spreadsheet developed by Morris and Lieberman (2018).

The null hypothesis tested was that there was no preference across scale steps, resulting in equally probable responses. Therein, extensions to tests by Cooper (1976) and Whitney

(1978), and an effect size estimate developed by Morris and Lieberman were used.

The question of whether there were significant differences between Florida college learners' beliefs about their ability to perform tasks that demonstrate information literacy before experiencing a one-hour session taught by a faculty librarian was resolved by conducting tests for symmetry of the responses. The question being answered, question 17 on questionnaire one, “Please choose one of the following words to describe how successful you believe you will be right now when using the college library and databases. After you choose the word, please choose a number to identify how strong the belief is for you right now” offered a 4-point Likert-type scale for answers: (1 = Not at all, 2 = A little, 3 = Some, 4 = A lot). These are worded so that “Not at all” and “A lot” are poles and they have an opposite meaning in the lower four belief choices (Confused,

Uncertain, Frustrated, Anxious).

Based on the results of these analyses, the null hypothesis that learners would have a totally symmetrical pattern of indicators could not be rejected for Absolutely sure.

This indicated that learners who responded had no change that warranted changing the belief that he or she had reported before experiencing a one-hour session on information literacy taught by a faculty librarian. No learner became measurably more or less sure of his or her expectation of success. This implies that certainty was not affected by the

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treatment. The information literacy instruction session did not influence learners’ belief

that they would be affected by having such instruction. The result would seem to support

that more instruction or deeper and extensive instruction might have moved learners to

claim greater certainty. Noting that there was no affect registered by learners as to being

Absolutely sure offers an opportunity for instructional design that includes content which

might invite an increase in learner expectation of success. All seven other beliefs showed

a significant effect toward self-efficacy by learner respondents via both Cooper (1976)

and Whitney’s (1978) tests

Table 6

Tests of Symmetry for all Beliefs Before Information Literacy Session

Cooper Whitney

Belief M SD n z p t df p ES

Absolutely Sure 2.36 0.95 83 1.47 .141 1.79 82 .077 .20

Optimistic 3.12 0.85 84 5.03 <.001 6.74 83 <.001 .74

Confident 2.95 0.95 77 3.47 <.001 4.16 76 <.001 .47

Satisfied 2.86 1.01 80 2.85 .004 3.23 79 .002 .36

Confused 2.18 0.89 80 -2.55 .011 -3.29 79 .001 .62

Uncertain 1.96 0.87 77 -4.18 <.001 -5.47 76 <.001 .62

Frustrated 1.76 0.89 76 -5.69 <.001 -7.20 75 <.001 .83

Anxious 1.94 0.93 77 -4.38 <.001 -5.29 76 <.001 .60

Demographic/Background Differences - Research Question Two. Research question two sought to determine whether respondents’ belief states were significantly

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influenced by certain demographic and background variables solicited from within the

questionnaire. The data gathered to answer this question two were demographic

information provided by learners (i.e., age, gender, home or native language, and whether

the individual was the first in their family to attend college). Self-reported identification as U. S. native/non-U. S. native was another independent categorical variable. Within the sample, individual respondents were grouped by a combination of their stated nation of origin and stated home language. If the respondent chose the US as his or her place of birth and English as home-language, he or she was placed in the U. S. native group. A respondent was also classified as a Non-U. S. native based on their stated birthplace and home language. This individual chose US as birthplace but Spanish as natal language.

The individual was not included in the U.S. native group. Examining these identifying characteristics responds to research question two and may yield an understanding of factors that contribute to designing effective instruction for Florida college learners who are required to use information literacy to complete college assignments. Research question two was addressed by conducting a series of independent sample t-tests, in which independent variables were age (18-25 vs. 26-45), gender, nation of birth (U. S. native vs. Non-U. S. native), and First Time in College (FTIC, yes vs. no). The dependent variables were the belief states identified by each respondent. Data were gathered as responses from learners who were taking composition courses and who had been informed by their instructors that they must complete a research assignment. Group one was comprised of respondents to questionnaire one as a group. Group two learners were individuals from questionnaire one respondents who attended the information literacy session and completed questionnaire two. Dependent variables were the beliefs

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identified by the learner groups’ responses to questionnaire one. A set of t-tests was conducted to examine differences in the belief states on each of the independent variables recoded into two categories, group one or group two (Table 7).

Table 7

Descriptive Statistics and t-tests from Learner Responses

Age

18-25 26-45 Belief n M SD n M SD df t p Absolutely sure 46 2.61 0.88 37 2.78 1.03 71.10 -0.83 0.46 Optimistic 47 3.11 0.81 37 3.14 0.89 74.07 0.15 0.52

Confident 43 2.91 0.97 34 3.00 0.92 72.50 0.43 0.21 Satisfied 45 2.87 1.04 35 2.86 1.00 73.55 0.04 0.94

Confused 45 2.31 0.90 35 2.00 0.84 75.38 1.58 0.17 Uncertain 44 2.09 0.91 33 1.79 1.79 73.59 1.54 0.65 Frustrated 43 1.79 0.94 33 1.73 1.73 72.25 0.31 0.35 Anxiety 43 1.93 1.00 34 1.94 0.85 74.67 -0.05 0.11

FTIC

FTIC yes FTIC No

Belief n M SD n M SD df t p Absolutely sure 28 2.54 1.00 54 2.74 0.92 50.69 -0.93 0.36 Optimistic 28 2.93 0.81 55 3.20 0.85 56.49 -1.40 0.13 Confident 26 2.73 0.92 50 3.06 0.96 52.58 -1.44 0.68 Satisfied 26 2.73 0.96 53 2.92 1.04 53.23 -0.80 0.48

Confused 28 2.18 0.91 51 2.20 0.87 53.98 -0.10 0.94 Uncertain 27 2.00 0.88 49 1.96 0.87 53.08 0.20 0.82 Frustrated 27 1.85 0.91 48 1.67 0.83 50.28 0.89 1.00 Anxiety 27 1.93 0.87 49 1.90 0.94 57.19 0.13 0.73 (Table 7 continues)

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(Table 7 continued) USA or No

Yes No Belief n M SD n M SD df t p Absolutely sure 9 2.67 1.00 74 2.69 0.95 9.84 -0.67 0.90 Optimistic 9 3.00 1.00 75 3.13 0.83 9.36 -0.45 0.21 Confident 9 2.44 1.13 68 3.01 0.91 9.41 -1.72 0.23 Satisfied 10 2.20 1.23 70 2.96 0.94 10.55 -2.29 0.11 Confused 10 2.50 1.08 70 2.13 0.85 10.65 1.25 0.17 Uncertain 10 1.90 1.10 67 1.97 0.83 10.60 -0.24 0.11 Frustrated 9 2.11 1.27 67 1.72 0.83 8.95 1.25 0.04 Anxiety 9 2.33 1.41 68 1.88 0.86 8.79 1.37 0.00

Gender Male Female n M SD n M SD df t p Absolutely sure 28 2.71 1.01 55 2.67 0.92 50.21 0.19 0.51 Optimistic 28 3.18 0.77 56 3.09 0.88 60.82 0.46 0.31 Confident 26 3.08 0.85 51 2.88 0.99 58.18 0.85 0.18 Satisfied 25 2.88 1.01 55 2.85 1.01 46.28 0.11 0.94 Confused 27 2.11 0.89 53 2.21 0.89 52.09 -0.46 0.86 Uncertain 26 1.88 0.77 51 2.00 0.92 59.10 -0.55 0.39 Frustrated 26 1.62 0.80 50 1.84 0.93 57.86 -1.04 0.55 Anxiety 26 1.73 0.83 51 2.04 0.98 58.52 -1.38 0.52

Table 7 shows significant differences with respect to Country of Origin, U. S. born or Foreign born (USAorNo) on two of the eight belief states (Frustrated, p = .044) for which a pooled SD was used to calculate Cohen’s d (1988) which was .36 and

Anxiety, (p = .002) for which a pooled SD was used to calculate Cohen’s d (1988) which was .45 and no significant differences on the other six belief states. This was quite different from expectations in that the greater population showed no significance, overall,

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and the USAorNo group were surprising and unexpected. U. S. native respondents were

significantly more certain that they were Uncertain and/or Anxious than Non-Native

U. S. respondents. The per-hypothesis alpha was adjusted from .05 via Bonferroni's

inequality (.05/8). That alpha (.006) was used as the benchmark for significance for all

eight tests. Uncertainty and Anxiety were found to be significant at <.001. No other

significant differences in the belief states were found on any of the other independent

variables.

Effect of the Intervention - Research Question Three. Research question three

sought to ascertain whether or not respondents’ belief states significantly changed in

response to treatment where treatment took the form of a one-hour information literacy session that was required for all participants as part of their class curriculum. This part of the study was done to examine if there was a measurable difference in self-reported learner beliefs prior to and following the one-hour session.

Data used in the t-tests were derived from responses to question 17 from questionnaire one (Please choose one of the following words to describe how successful you believe you will be right now when using the college library and databases. After you choose the word, please choose a number to identify how strong the belief is for you right now. Type the feeling in Box A and the number in Box B.) and question 5 from

questionnaire two (Please choose one of the following words that describe your belief

right now about your ability to use the college library and databases. After you choose

the word, please choose a number to identify how strong the belief is for you right now.

Write the word describing your belief in Box A and the number that describes your level

for that belief right now in Box B) were used to attempt to answer this research question

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(Appendix F). A significant result would indicate that the null hypothesis of no change could be rejected.

The question of whether there were significant differences in learner belief states both before and after the intervention (i.e., a one-hour instruction session in information literacy) was resolved by conducting a series of independent sample t-tests. A statistically significant result would be considered evidence of between group differences. However, because of the significant differences in the belief states of U. S. native and non-U. S. natives, separate before and after analyses were conducted for each group. Eight independent sample t-tests were conducted to assess the magnitude and statistical significance of the change in each belief state from questionnaire one to questionnaire two (Table 8).

Table 8

Comparison of Belief States Before and After Intervention

Questionnaire One Questionnaire Two (before) (after)

Belief State n M SD n M SD t df p Absolutely Sure 83 2.67 .938 30 2.73 .980 -0.290 111 .772

Optimistic 84 3.11 .836 25 3.24 .970 -0.672 107 .503

Confident 77 2.94 .937 23 3.13 .920 -0.881 98 .380

Satisfied 80 2.85 .995 23 3.17 .778 -1.438 101 .153

Confused 80 2.18 .883 19 2.53 1.020 -1.153 97 .134

Uncertain 77 1.96 .865 7 2.71 .756 -2.225 82 .029

Frustrated 76 1.76 .892 12 1.67 .985 0.343 86 .732

Anxious 77 1.94 .937 14 2.07 .917 -0.503 89 .616

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While the average strength assigned to each of the seven remaining belief states saw an increase from questionnaire one to questionnaire two, only the difference assigned to uncertainty was statistically significant, t (82) = 2.23, p = .03, a pooled SD was used to calculate Cohen’s d (1988) which was .91. The null hypothesis stated that there would be no significant change in levels of belief following the treatment. Therefore, Absolutely sure, Optimistic, Confident, Satisfied, Confused, Frustrated, and Anxious were not able to reject the null hypothesis.

In sum, the eight t-tests helped depict the learner belief profile when he/she was tasked with assignments that required skills and practices associated with information literacy. The measures indicate that the session in information literacy did reduce a measurable quotient of Uncertainty. Looking at the inability to reject the null hypothesis for the other seven indicators, there was not a great deal of disruptive or interfering beliefs at the onset of the project, and apparently, from the data it can be deduced that none arose. The information literacy instructional session apparently did not reduce learner Uncertainty.

Summary

Results from quantitative analysis provide instructors and librarians information to guide the design of information literacy instruction. Learner demographics were examined to determine if any group showed significant characteristics that set it apart from the rest of the sample. Tests of symmetry were applied and showed that other than

Absolutely sure, wherein the null hypothesis could not be rejected, each of the seven other identified beliefs showed some significant affect.

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Research question two yielded indications that U. S. native born learners had a significant change in their level of Anxiety and Uncertainty when faced with a college assignment that would require the use of information literacy skills and practices. These belief choices were made before the information literacy session taught by a college librarian.

Research question three used t-tests to determine if learners changed their expectation of success in the form of belief descriptor by looking at choices both before and after learners had an information literacy session taught by a faculty librarian.

Significant change was a reduction in Uncertainty noted following the instruction. This supports the assumption that greater availability of provision of information literacy instruction that involves a collaborative approach with faculty and a librarian and making resources for review available will improve learner certainty and expectation of success.

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V. DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

The purpose of this study was to describe Florida college learners’ beliefs as to

self-efficacy when required to complete assignments that require information literacy.

Florida college learners’ beliefs were self-reported on a four-point Likert-type scale

indicating expectations of success when they had to complete assignments that require

activities and practices associated with information literacy. The respondents were

Florida college learners who were taking basic English composition and had been given a

research assignment. The data gathered were from learner-reported responses to two questionnaires. Analyses of these data allowed an exploration of the magnitude of each of eight belief concepts.

Research Questions and Hypotheses

To obtain an answer to how to establish the threshold of learner beliefs to inform instructional design, the following three questions were explored:

1. Is there a significant difference between Florida college learners' beliefs about

their ability to perform tasks that demonstrate information literacy before

experiencing a one-hour session taught by a faculty librarian?

2. Do college learners’ beliefs about using information literacy activities vary

across age, U. S. born or Foreign born (USAorNo), First Time In College

(FTIC), and gender?

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3. Is there a difference indicated by belief descriptor choices made by the sample

as a group before and after experiencing a one-hour instruction session in

information literacy?

Three null hypotheses emerged from a review of the literature prior to beginning

the study:

Ho: There is no significant difference between Florida college learners’ beliefs

about their ability to perform tasks that demonstrate information literacy.

Ho: There is no difference in learner beliefs about using information literacy

activities when examined by age group, U.S. born or Foreign born

(USAorNo), FTIC, or Gender.

Ho: There is no difference indicated by belief descriptor choices made by the

sample as a group before or after a one-hour session taught by a college

librarian.

Findings indicated that of the Florida college learners who were respondents for

this study, almost 90% self-identified as English language learners. Just as in the study

that was performed by Kim (2014), her learners became aware of the magnitude of their

task and sought assistance based on their anxiety and uncertainty. This awareness is

reassuring to instructors who utilize assignments that require information literacy.

Learners who indicated they are native to the United States chose designators that reveal

significance in measures of Anxiety.

Research question one. This question was explored to ascertain whether there

were differences between respondents’ choices among the eight belief descriptors provided in questionnaires one and two. Tests of symmetry were used to explore these

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data and significance appeared throughout the beliefs with the exception of Absolutely sure. This indicator failed to reject the null hypothesis. The failure to reject the null hypothesis finding may reveal learners in this sample remained unmoved in their perceived level of belief in self-efficacy. There were entries by 83 respondents whose overall perception of Absolutely sure as an indicator of belief before the information literacy instruction may be explained by cognitive bias suggested by Kruger-Dunning

(2009). Perhaps learners do not know the scope or meaning of having to complete problem solving using information literacy; their beliefs about being Absolutely sure remain unmoved by introduction of the task. This result of no significance for Absolutely sure may depict an opportunity for instructors to introduce a critically pedagogical experience designed to make the learner feel comfortable and confident in the information literacy environment of the library both physically and virtually.

The seven other belief indicators were similarly significant. The three positive learning belief descriptors (Optimistic, Confident, and Satisfied) garnered consistently positive results. Optimism appears to have most clearly demonstrated that learners approach the research task with marked expectations of success. Instructors who are informed of the learner’s belief may be careful not to overwhelm the learner or to overburden the learner and thus reduce optimism. The lower four (Confused, Uncertain,

Frustrated, and Anxious) revealed choices by learner respondents that were clearly negative. Flipping these indicators to represent them more accurately, there was no significance but an extremely low prediction of difficulty. Learners were homogenously likely to choose low or negative expectation for these. The reflection of the potential for obstacles in the form of confusion, uncertainty, frustration, and anxiety when faced with

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tasks that require information literacy underscores the necessity to prepare scaffolding resources to shore up novice learners. Hoffman and Wallace (2013) described a strategy in their “informed informationist” theory wherein providing a structured, multimodal supportive learning environment, learners who are new to material would be able to reach out for the resources rather than become stymied. This supports a finding that learners may benefit from faculty and librarians collaborating on information literacy instruction that is accompanied by the provision of resources that support the instruction for as needed learner review.

Research question two. This question revealed factors in a detailed exploration of the demographics represented in the study sample. More than two-thirds female and aged primarily between 18 and 45, these college learners work and go to school. There were between 26 and 28 individuals who claimed FTIC status. The data shows that 87 learners self-reported being born outside the United States; 86 claimed a language other than English to be their natal tongue. There were 10 learners who identified as U.S. natives who indicated that they spoke English as their primary language.

The only grouping that provided a significant showing was in reported expectations of Anxiety indicated by U.S. natives. The p = .002 was a clear indication that the intensity of belief was not chosen randomly, and U.S. native learners may need support or intervention to reduce anxiety and therefore facilitate effective information literacy instruction. Based on learner familiarity within the environment, U.S. native learners would be most likely to be aware of information literacy skills and practices needed to complete a research or problem-solving task. Therefore, it may be that U.S. natives are anxious when required to use information literacy skills and practices to

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complete college assignments. Addams (1910) indicated the immigrants’ gradual

realization of the factors in the environment that natives were aware of set up a gap in the

relationships that are the structure of workplaces or professions. Addams described means to have individuals identify their incoming level of understanding of any practice by examining the spectrum of methods ranging from the single craftsperson to the activities, mechanisms, and practices that comprised industrial factories. Similarly, librarian-instructor teams might offset U.S. native learner anxiety by offering resources in

the form of available informed instructors in both disciplines who are able to guide and

support learner efforts.

It is likely that the finding of Anxiety, here, for U.S. native learners underscores a

Kruger-Dunning (1999) effect in the remaining individuals in the sample. Library

anxiety is a factor that has been explored by Jiao and Onwuegbuzie (2000). It is probable, based on these indications, that a quotient of anxiety may disrupt learning.

Therefore, this finding is extremely useful for instructors and faculty librarians who are tasked with instructional design that includes assignments that require the use of information literacy skills and practices. While results from this study are not generalizable to the whole college student population, these ideas can be transferred and applied to a myriad of institutions in an attempt to address similar issues

Nonetheless, the measure of significant Anxiety may be mitigated by having prepared strategies that reinforce instruction as needed. Instructors and faculty librarians may design collaborative instruction that brings in the partnership with the librarian and offers a virtual scaffold with information literacy “how to’s.” Conteh-Morgan (2002)

described content faculty and library faculty relationships that are built over time as

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producing an assignment process that offers learners an effective series of instructional experiences which result in lasting understanding of research concepts. Bondanaro’s

(2006) learner choices concept informs the librarian to assess and validate the current learner group to provide for culture and background so that factors of anxiety are not inadvertently exacerbated, nor learner creativity diminished.

Research question three. This question compared each of eight learner beliefs before and after having a one-hour session with a college librarian in information literacy.

Beliefs were selected from four choices of Likert-type indicators to describe the strength or weakness with which the learner identified. These t-tests collectively suggest a trend of increased strength in choices of intensity of belief descriptors that is evident but not statistically significant. There were significant findings in an increase in the indication of

Uncertainty in group two.

This is a positive finding because learners, who had no trepidation about finding valid materials, appear to have an awareness of tasks and practices and are understandably concerned with their ability to perform effectively. These findings appear to indicate that the information literacy instruction caused or stimulated learner beliefs to shift. These results cannot be generically applied to the greater population of college learners and are specific to this sample in this setting. Kincheloe’s (2008) critical pedagogy informed instructors and librarians to recognize the need to particularize instruction that reflects the learner group at hand as accurately as possible.

Kim’s (2014) learners also raised Uncertainty indicators after the project was introduced and at the midpoint in the project. She attributed this to the learners’ dawning recognition of the complexity and magnitude of the task and worry as to the learners’

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ability to use the recently learned practices to complete the research project successfully.

This was confirmed for Kim by reduced Uncertainty indicated in the final responses which were tendered at the end of the study process.

The specific direction of the shift appears to indicate that learners needed or wanted more information or greater practice in attaining valid materials to support arguments or inform their explorations. In an examination of learners’ library anxiety adding the milieu of applied technology, a factor appears that is not studied specifically, but that this finding may shed light on. Learners have varying backgrounds in their use and attitude toward computers according to Jiao, Onwuegbuzie, and Bostick (2004). The finding of increased Uncertainty may have been affected by the ubiquitous usage of library computer systems in the United States and the sample having almost 90% non-

U.S. native learners.

Following the single incident of a one-hour session offered during this study, a trust-based relationship could not be evaluated. Yet, throughout the literature (Addams,

1910; Bondanaro, 2006; Conteh-Morgan, 2002; Jiao & Onwuegbuzie, 2000; Kincheloe,

2008; Sleeter, 2005; Vygotsky, 1978), the relationship with the instructor and/or the faculty librarian is an elementary factor. It is clear that in these and many other studies, the greater the scope and incidence of learning interaction, trust imbued in the relationship in the learning team facilitates the accomplishment of the learner. This finding of Uncertainty allows the instructor and librarian to consider preparing learners in advance with methods that build trust that gives rise to greater learner certainty.

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Limitations of the Study

According to Gay (1996, p. 125), since N = 30,000 learners, cluster sampling was

used to determine the members of the sample. Ninety-seven learners from four

composition course sections were the respondents for this study. Sub-groups included

divisions by gender, age, whether or not the respondent was the first member of his/her

family to attend college (FTIC), and nation of origin. The only identified group that

showed significance for any of the indicators was USAorNo.

There were only ten individuals in the native speaker USAorNo group, total. That

small number of respondents greatly reduces the impact of noted significance. There was

no examination to determine if the lack of significance may have been attributed to

learner interpretation of the belief state nomenclature. There was no introduction of the

terms used to describe the belief states and it was assumed that the entire respondent

group had an equal level of understanding of vocabulary used. The group that

demonstrated a small amount of significant response to terms that showed an increase in

uncertainty, frustration, and anxiety that may not have been perceived by the larger group

of English language learners.

The study did not produce material that could be generally applied with accuracy

to describe the larger population of college learners. Further, although the initial plan and

design of the study sought to balance the number of U.S. English native speakers and

English language learners, the actual demographic was surprisingly weighted and shows

that 89% of the 97 learners self-identified as English language learners. This made any comparison of characteristics obscure and therefore not useful. That is why independent samples t-tests were used to explore the data that was reported by respondents. Even

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though there was very slight significance and that this small quotient was discovered only within the U.S. native English speaker group, the study demonstrates that 97 learners were interested in exploring their feelings once, and 83 of those individuals persisted through the second questionnaire. That interest and willingness to be measured and studied is, in itself, useful information. Learners want to know about their information seeking beliefs.

Learners were not provided any identification so that individuals could not be tracked from questionnaire one to questionnaire two. This meant the comparison from pre to post had to be explored for the group. The study would have been more useful if individual learners could have been compared in their responses beginning with questionnaire one, experiencing the treatment in the form of the information literacy session, and then reflecting on their resulting beliefs in questionnaire two. Looking at the group data is admittedly less clear, has little power, and cannot be used as descriptive of the Florida college learner population in general. It is an indicator of the likelihood that

U.S. native speakers discerned some response that caused the whole group to contribute changed levels of “Anxiety” and “Uncertainty.” That contribution established two ideas.

First, that techniques to reduce anxiety and uncertainty might facilitate greater success for the U.S. native speaker, and it may be deduced that these would be useful for English language learners as well. Second, that even though the language fluency level of first year college learners was assumed for all learners, some factor differed in the understanding of English learners that was meaningful to U.S. natives.

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Implications of the Study

Instructors. College instructors from many disciplines assign papers or projects

that require their learners to use skills and practices that are collectively called

information literacy. The sample respondents were composition learners in a Florida

college with a very large proportion of ELLs. That significance was observed in the

results of the t-test in the belief of Uncertainty which may indicate that learners will

benefit from reassurance in the form of scaffolding or through a shared instructional

relationship established with a faculty librarian as well as the content instructor. Learners

also may benefit from collaborative instruction in information literacy that is fitted to the

content area of instruction. Currently, there is a trend in Florida state and community

colleges to use a model to guide the learners’ process to their place in the workforce.

Learning is being “contextualized.” Instructors are tasked to individualize assignments

and encourage field specific jargon, vocabulary, and writing forms. The instructor who is

informed by this study will be able to craft data driven measures to meet potential anxiety and uncertainty with instructional design which is based on a composition

instructor/faculty librarian collaboration.

Preparing for learners whose diverse backgrounds do not include integral

questioning may reduce anxiety. International learners come into college having been

taught to absorb and repeat information (Mu, 2007, p. 572). In college, questioning is an

essential tool to guide inquiry and acquire new knowledge. Jiao and Onwuegbuzie

(2000) examined the feelings and beliefs associated with library anxiety. This current

study utilized a survey to examine learners who described themselves as experiencing

library anxiety. Through this study a criterion became established to identify library

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anxiety. Learners were asked to identify age, gender, a significant inclusion of ELLs,

employment status, and other characteristics gathered in this current study. Uncertain

Anxiety had the greatest significance in this current study and in the Jiao and

Onwuegbuzie study. Further, they postulated that mitigation of these factors would

remove barriers for learners adding greater opportunities for learner success. In fact, they

recommended greater interaction between faculty and librarians as well as assessment of

library anxiety. They included that there should be scaffolding and cultural attention

crafted to accommodate ELLs (Jiao & Onwuegbuzie, 2000).

Jiao and Onwuegbuzie have continued their study through the years, and in their

most recent work (Jiao & Onwuegbuzie, 2017), they investigated the correlated difficulty reported by learners as computer anxiety. They sought to learn if the computer environment was accompanied by computer anxiety as an added factor. They wanted to determine if identification as having computer anxiety co-occurred with library anxiety.

They found that library anxiety does actually associate in higher frequency in learners who identify as also having computer anxiety. Being prepared with materials and practices including library/faculty collaboration are recommended. These researchers concluded that anxiety, once relieved, was no longer a factor reported by learners (Jiao &

Onwuegbuzie, 2000).

Librarians. Knowledge of learner beliefs and demographics offer guidance for crafting instructional content. This learner sample included a large proportion of ELLs.

They have been examined in this study along with U.S. born English speaking natives.

Collaboration with subject instructors should include English learner strategies for faculty librarians in colleges with a large proportion of English learners such as the site for this

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study. Librarians may use this study to anticipate resource choices and methods for

instruction to be comprehensive but also to recognize that there is a potential for learner

anxiety and uncertainty. Therefore, it may be useful to present information literacy practices and resources that learners may revisit in person, electronically, or some combination of both.

There is a statistical significance in learner responses that indicate that for U.S.

English speaking natives, Anxiety and Frustration are identified as concerning. To be clear, there were only ten in a sample of 97 learners whose responses were found to assert some uptick or emphasis of these two indicators. These findings support earlier work by

Gross and Latham. Their two-and-a-half-year study examined first year learners at two community colleges. As librarians, their primary goal was to understand how students calibrate their capacity to seek, find, synthesize, and apply information. Their work was informed by an earlier study done by Kruger and Dunning (1999). Kruger and Dunning’s study was done from the perspective of psychology and determined that learners who do not have contextual experience and knowledge will estimate their abilities high and perform low on targeted measures. Perhaps the findings of this study, wherein only ten members of the larger group (n = 97) gave significant responses are due to the same phenomenon.

U.S. born English native speakers and English Language Learners self-scored belief levels on a Likert-type scale before and after a session in information literacy taught by a college librarian. Only English native speakers in the USAorNo group identified some increase in potential Anxiety and Uncertain belief states. This result may indicate that U.S. native English speaker learners who do not know about information

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literacy may anticipate the task with belief indicators of Anxiety or Uncertainty, and those who do not perceive the information task as challenging identify little to no affect from a one-hour session of instruction. This would appear to support the Kruger and

Dunning (1999) effect described by Gross and Latham (2012) wherein learners mis- calibrate their capability. If learners were to have had some significant response, it would indicate they tried to estimate the potential for success or difficulty. Since the learners chose to respond and participate and yet their responses were insignificant, it may be evidence of the result that Gross and Latham (2012) described.

Kim’s (2014) study, upon which this study was inspired, concluded that long term

committed collaborative work between faculty librarians and content area instructors may

mitigate anxiety. Additionally, Kim’s work suggested learner personalized, relevant research topics to enhance learners’ connection to the task. Structural interventions such as may be made available online, customized for each class or course section, add to the expectation of success in research assignments that require information literacy skills and practices. Kim’s work used ELLs in three class sections over an entire school year.

Casper’s (2016) study subjects were learners in the same Florida college used for

this study. Her population was like learners observed in this investigation. Her learners were a bit more advanced at two years into college. She chose to examine Teacher

Education majors who would be teaching their own learners to use the library to support research activities. She sought to observe learners’ perception of readiness to teach these skills and practices. In her findings over two-thirds of her learners did not attain minimum competencies even though they had a session of information literacy instruction that was one hour and like that offered to the learners in the study reported

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herein. She found that there was definite improvement from pre to post instruction.

Casper suggested that computer literacy skills be addressed as well as other possible

knowledge needed to fulfill college research assignments. Her focus was the role of the

librarian, not in tandem with the content instructor, and she concentrated her suggestions

in ACRL developmental materials expected to transform and update ideas currently

accepted in teaching information literacy in higher education. Casper’s work may

indicate that a collaboration with faculty is necessary to offset limits set by not having the

whole instructional purview. This underscores a necessity to have a balanced

instructional design to address learners’ needs effectively.

Recommendations for Research

College learners need to become proficient in using skills and practices that are

associated with information literacy. In Florida colleges, learners include a large portion

of ELLs. Librarians and composition instructors who teach both learner groups may

collaborate and research practices that support learner acquisition of these necessary

skills with less reported anxiety and uncertainty. Future studies may examine learner

process through the completion of the research assignment. This study was a beginning exploration of learner beliefs before receiving instruction and immediately following instruction without giving participants time to reflect.

Qualitative examination of content area instruction combined with information literacy instruction that follows an assigned project to completion would extend this research and suggest informed practices for classroom instructors and faculty librarians.

Having the data from this study provides a beginning for more contemplative and texturally rich examinations as with qualitative methods including case study. This study

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has established some evidence of anxiety, uncertainty, and a lack of positive expression of absolute certainty when predicting success. Having the thought that these beliefs are to be prepared for and expected may guide future researchers as they plan study activities to include the spectrum of learner experiences from the announcement of an initial research assignment to its completion and presentation in populations of beginning composition learners. The sample learners for this study were college students in their first year of classes. Kim’s (2014) study looked at a younger group and found similar findings. Casper’s (2016) learners were more mature but equally apprehensive. Because the first composition course assignments set the tone for college success, it is important to have knowledge of learners’ beliefs as to their expectation of success.

Other quantitative examinations could look more closely at pre-post information literacy beliefs by adding identification so that individual learners could be tracked. This could be tested statistically and might yield more textured information as to learner change or the effect of information literacy on learner beliefs. A larger sample could greatly increase the possibility of obtaining useful effect size data. This study was an entrance into the meeting of college level information literacy and composition learners.

Conclusions

This quantitative study examined beliefs self-reported by learners who were recently tasked to complete a college research assignment by using skills and practices introduced via a one-hour session with a faculty librarian. Several types of statistical testing were analyzed. Indicators for Anxiety and Uncertainty were revealed as potentially significant factors. Information literacy instruction that is crafted via collaboration with composition faculty and a faculty librarian may result in an informed

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instructional design. The design may include face-to-face and virtual scaffolding resources that are designed to mitigate any learner apprehension. This study enables instructors and faculty librarians to craft instructional content based on data driven measures to meet potential learner anxiety and uncertainty.

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APPENDICES

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Appendix A. Pretest Part 1, Questionnaire 1

PRETEST PART I Questionnaire 1

Section I (Two sections in Part 1) There are three Parts to the whole questionnaire.

Please complete Sections 1 and 2 of Part 1 now. Part 2 will be sent as a link to your email. Please complete it after you have an information literacy class.

Questionnaire 1 https://www.surveymonkey.com/r/YKTB6MR

Section I

Demographic

1) Please choose one age group (a, b, c, d, e) : (a) 18-25 (b) 26-35 (c)36-45, (d) 46-

55, (e) 56-+ Answer Box [_]

2) Please choose one: (Male) (Female) Answer Box [_]

3) Where were you born? [Name of country] (Write your answer in the inbox below)

4) What is the primary language spoken at your home? (Write your answer in the

box below) Answer Box [__]

5) Are you the first person in your family to attend college: (yes) (no)

6) Is this your first semester at Broward College? (yes) (no)

7) If this is not your first semester, how many semesters have you attended Broward

College? (Write your answer in the box below) Answer Box [__]

8) How many years have you lived in the United States? (Write a number in the box

below) Answer Box [__]

9) Is English your native language? (yes) (no)

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10) Are you fluent in any other language? (yes) (no)

11) Do you have a professional certificate or degree from outside the United States:

[yes] [no]

12) Are you employed? (yes) (no) If yes, how many hours do you work each week?

(Write a number in the box below) Answer Box [__]

Section II

Please try to answer all of the following questions regarding your upcoming research project.

13) Do you feel you know how to find the information you are looking for in the college library and its databases? (yes) (no)

14) Do you have an idea of how to complete activities associated with research?

Please choose one of the following: (yes) (no)

15) How interested are you in doing research? Choose one that best matches your interest.

[1] Not at all [2] a little [3] some [4] a lot Answer Box [__]

16) How much do you know about ______(research topic you have chosen)? Choose one that best matches how much you know.

[1] Not at all [2] a little [3] some [4] a lot Answer Box [__]

17) Please choose one of the following words to describe how successful you believe you will be right now when using the college library and databases. After you choose the 103

word, please choose a number to identify how strong the belief is for you right now.

Type the feeling in box (a) and the number in box (B) below.

Box (a) Belief [______]

Box (b) Number (1-4) [____]

Belief Not at all A little Some A lot

Absolutely sure 1 2 3 4

Optimistic 1 2 3 4

Confident 1 2 3 4

Satisfied 1 2 3 4

Confused 1 2 3 4

Uncertain 1 2 3 4

Frustrated 1 2 3 4

Anxious 1 2 3 4

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18)What concerns, if any, do you have with reading for the project?

[a] Overall comprehension of academic articles [b] time [c] locating important

information [d] all of the above (Write the letter for your choice in the box below)

Answer Box [__]

19) What concerns, if any, do you have with writing for the project? (Write the letter

for your choice in the box below).

[1] Grammar [2] Paragraph structure [3] Essay structure [4] All of the above

Answer Box [__]

20) What concerns, if any, do you have with listening to lectures, podcasts, or other

audio materials for the project? (Write the letter for your choice in the box below)

[1] Overall comprehension [2] Time required to listen or repeat for comprehension

[3] Locating important and valid information to listen to [4] All of the above.

(Write the letter for your choice in the box below) Answer Box [__]

21). For each of the activities below (a-k) please choose a level of how easy you believe it will be for you to complete each of the activities listed below. .

a) Choose from 1-4 for each activity listed below ([1] very easy, [2] easy, [3] a bit

difficult, [4]very difficult. Answer Box [_]

b) Choosing a topic: Learning how to choose and appropriately narrow a topic. [1]

very easy, [2] easy, [3] a bit difficult, [4] very difficult. Answer Box [_]

c) Choosing a research focus: Determining what perspective or aspect of the topic 105

to focus on. [1] very easy, [2] easy, [3] a bit difficult, [4]very difficult. ]Answer

Box [_]

d) Forming a research question. (Doable, measureable) [1] very easy, [2] easy, [3] a

bit difficult, [4]very difficult. Answer Box [_]

e) Searching for literature.

[1] very easy, [2] easy, [3] a bit difficult, [4]very difficult. Answer Box [_]

f) Searching databases,

[1] very easy, [2] easy, [3] a bit difficult, [4]very difficult. Answer Box [_]

g) Choosing relevant literature [1] very easy, [2] easy, [3] a bit difficult, [4]very difficult. Answer Box [_]

h) Reading literature. [1] very easy, [2] easy, [3] a bit difficult, [4]very difficult.

Answer Box [_]

h) Validating literature choices. ([1] very easy, [2] easy, [3] a bit difficult, [4]very difficult. Answer Box [_] i) Creating an outline. ([1] very easy, [2] easy, [3] a bit difficult, [4]very difficult.

Answer Box [_] j) Presenting research to class. ([1] very easy, [2] easy, [3] a bit difficult,

[4]very difficult. Answer Box [_].

Thank you for completing Part 1 of a 3 part survey. You will receive an email requesting your answers in Part II after you have had a class in information literacy. For

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most students, that is the end of participation. A small group of students will receive a 3rd questionnaire invitation. These students will be chosen randomly. The Part 3 questionnaire answers will be given anonymously online as well. There are only a few questions. The answers offer you the ability to give some detail to describe your beliefs.

If you have any questions or concerns please contact me, Sherrie Sacharow, M.S.Ed. [email protected]

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Appendix B. Posttest Part 2, Questionnaire 2

Please respond to this questionnaire with answers describing your beliefs after you have experienced information literacy instruction.

POSTTEST PART 2 Questionnaire 2

There are three Parts to the whole Questionnaire. Please complete Part 2 after you have had a class in information literacy. Part 3 will be sent as a link to your email

IF the random process chooses you.

1) What topic have you chosen for your research? [______] Please type your answer in the box below) Answer: [______]

2) How interested are you in your topic? Choose one that best matches your interest.

[1] Not at all [2] a little [3] some [4] a lot Answer Box [_]

3) How difficult is it to complete tasks that require you to use the library?

[1] Not at all [2] a little [3] some [4] a lot Answer Box [_]

4) How difficult is it for you to use databases located on the college library webpage?

[1] Not at all [2] a little [3] some [4] a lot Answer Box [_]

5) Please choose one of the following words that describe your belief right now about your ability to use the college library and databases. After you choose the word, please choose a number to identify how strong the belief is for you right now.

Write the word describing your belief in box (a) and the number that describes your level for that belief right now in box (b) below.

Box (a) Belief [______]

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Box (b) Number (1-4) [____]

Belief Not at all A little Some A lot

Absolutely sure 1 2 3 4

Optimistic 1 2 3 4

Confident 1 2 3 4

Satisfied 1 2 3 4

Confused 1 2 3 4

Uncertain 1 2 3 4

Frustrated 1 2 3 4

Anxious 1 2 3 4

6) Are you worried about your ability to use academic language that is suitable for this research?

[1] Not at all [2] a little [3] some [4] a lot Answer Box [_]

7) What concerns, if any, did you have with writing research?

[1] Grammar [2] Paragraph structure [3] Essay structure [4] All of the above

Answer Box [_]

8) At this phase of research, what did you find easy to do? Please choose a word that best describes your belief in your level of success in using the task or knowledge required for each of the terms listed below.

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Choose 1-4 and place the number in the box below each term.

Information literacy terminology or task:

a) Library terminology

[1] very easy, [2] easy, [3] a bit difficult, [4]very difficult Answer Box [_]

b) Search protocol

[1] very easy, [2] easy, [3] a bit difficult, [4]very difficult Answer Box [_]

c) How to choose a topic

[1] very easy, [2] easy, [3] a bit difficult, [4]very difficult Answer Box [_]

d) How to narrow the topic

[1] very easy, [2] easy, [3] a bit difficult, [4]very difficult Answer Box [_]

e) How to choose and search for a key word

[1] very easy, [2] easy, [3] a bit difficult, [4]very difficult Answer Box [_]

f) How to find an academic article

[1] very easy, [2] easy, [3] a bit difficult, [4]very difficult Answer Box [_]

g) How to use library databases

[1] very easy, [2] easy, [3] a bit difficult, [4]very difficult Answer Box [_]

h) How to locate books or analog material

[1] very easy, [2] easy, [3] a bit difficult, [4]very difficult Answer Box [_]

i) How to use digital media

[1] very easy, [2] easy, [3] a bit difficult, [4]very difficult Answer Box [_]

j) How to prepare an outline for a research project

[1] very easy, [2] easy, [3] a bit difficult, [4]very difficult Answer Box [_]

k) How to cite references

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[1] very easy, [2] easy, [3] a bit difficult, [4]very difficult Answer Box [_]

Thank you for completing Parts 1 and 2 of a 3-part questionnaire. For most of you, this is the end of the participation needed. You will receive an email requesting your answers in Part III if the random number process chooses you. The Part 3 questionnaire answers will be given anonymously online as well. There are only a few questions. The answers offer you the ability to give some detail to describe your beliefs.

If you have any questions or concerns please contact: Sherrie Sacharow, M.S.Ed. [email protected]

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Appendix C. Kim Permission Letter

Sung Un Kim

Reply all| Sun 7/30, 6:31 AM Sherrie Sacharow; +1 more Inbox

Action Items Dear Ms. Sacharow,

Thank you for contacting me. It is completely fine for you to use or adapt my survey instruments, but as I mentioned in the previous email, I modified the SLIM toolkit for my study. Therefore, I think you should cite the SLIM toolkit (instead of mine) OR cite both of SLIM toolkit and mine together. I might overlook your intention. Could you share with me any reason why you want to use my survey instead of the original survey questions? I would appreciate your explanation. I would be happy to provide any support for your research.

Best, Sung Un

------Sung Un Kim, Ph.D. Associate Professor Department of Library and Information Science School of Arts and Sciences The Catholic University of America Washington, D.C. 20064 Phone: 202-319-6040 E-mail: [email protected]

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Appendix D. Recruiting Script

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Appendix E. Study Syllabus

Evaluating Information – CRAAP Test (Yes, that’s the name of this useful tool we will be using to determine if the source you found is reliable and valid.)

CURRENCY – timeliness of information When was the information published? Is the information current and up-to-date? Has it been revised or updated? When? Should it have been updated? If online: are the links functional? RELEVANCE – uniqueness of information and importance to research needs Does the information relate to your topic? Who is the intended audience? Is the information at an appropriate level (i.e. too elementary or too advanced)? Can you find the same or better information in another source? AUTHORITY – source of information Who is the author/publisher/source/sponsor? What are the author’s credentials? Any organizational affiliations? Is this author qualified to write on the topic? If online: examine the domain (.gov, .edu, or .com). Can you find the author’s contact information? ACCURACY – reliability and correctness of information Is the information supported by evidence? Can you verify it from another source? Has the information been peer reviewed or refereed? Does the language seem biased? Is the tone free of emotion? Are there any typos, spelling, or grammatical errors? PURPOSE – presence of bias, reason the information exists What is the purpose of the information: to inform, teach, sell, entertain, etc.? Is the information fact, opinion, or propaganda? Is the point-of-view objective and impartial? Do the authors make their intentions or purpose clear?

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Appendix F. Question 17, Questionnaire 1 and Question 5, Questionnaire 2

Questionnaire 1, Question 17:

17) Please choose one of the following words to describe how successful you believe you will be right now when using the college library and databases. After you choose the word, please choose a number to identify how strong the belief is for you right now.

Type the feeling in box (a) and the number in box (B) below.

Box (a) Belief [______]

Box (b) Number (1-4) [____]

Belief Not at all A little Some A lot

Absolutely sure 1 2 3 4

Optimistic 1 2 3 4

Confident 1 2 3 4

Satisfied 1 2 3 4

Confused 1 2 3 4

Uncertain 1 2 3 4

Frustrated 1 2 3 4

Anxious 1 2 3 4

Questionnaire 2, Question 5

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5) Please choose one of the following words that describe your belief right now about your ability to use the college library and databases. After you choose the word, please choose a number to identify how strong the belief is for you right now.

Write the word describing your belief in box (a) and the number that describes your level for that belief right now in box (b) below.

Box (a) Belief [______]

Box (b) Number (1-4) [____]

Belief Not at all A little Some A lot

Absolutely sure 1 2 3 4

Optimistic 1 2 3 4

Confident 1 2 3 4

Satisfied 1 2 3 4

Confused 1 2 3 4

Uncertain 1 2 3 4

Frustrated 1 2 3 4

Anxious 1 2 3 4

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