A Conceptual Analysis and Historical Overview of Information Literacy Shirley J. Behrens A conceptual analysis is undertaken of information literacy by investigating some leading definitions and delineations of the concept. These are analyzed with the intention of exploring chronological extensions in the meaning of the concept. The range of skills and knowledge required for information literacy has .expanded over the last two decades in order to accommodate the continually developing requirements for effective information handling, and the article notes how the library and information science (LIS) profession is responding to these requirements. The review concludes by identifying three main trends in information literacy which are evident from the literature of the early 1990s.

nformation literacy is an abstract the United States; however, for purposes concept. As a metaphor, it is of comparison, reference is made to a neatly packaged-and imagi­ some definitions discussed in the Nether­ H- nativ~escriptive phrase lands, since the Dutch meaning of infor­ that is not literally applicable or easily mation literacy was originally more interpretable, implying something more computer-oriented, but now appears to be qualitative and diffuse than is evident in moving closer to the meaning ascribed to the historical meanings of both literacy and the concept in the United States. information. Symbolically, information lit­ eracy appears to represent the ability to DEFINITIONS OF THE 1970s use information, or possibly the posses­ In a proposal submitted to the Na­ sion of a knowledge of information. tional Commission on Libraries and In­ In order to ascertain how the concept formation Science (NCLIS) in 1974, Paul has come to have its current meaning Zurkowski, the president of the Infor­ and to identify what skills and knowl­ mation Industry Association (IIA), sug­ edge are required of a person in order to gested the goal of achieving information be information literate, some definitions literacy in the country within the follow­ suggested since the 1970s will be ana­ ing decade. Zurkowski described the in­ lyzed. At the same time, the future sce­ formation service environment within nario for information literacy in the LIS which people who were searching for field will be outlined by identifying information operated in the United what the current trends appear to be States. He described several information from the latest literature. products and services provided by the Owing to the abundance of literature private sector (nongovernment, nonli­ on information literacy, only a few of the brary-based business firms), including major definitions can be analyzed for the information banks, information bank purposes of this article.1 The review con­ vendors, publishers, information by­ centrates on literature emanating from products, and information evaluation

Shirletj J. Behrens is a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Information Science at the UnhJeTsity of South Africa, Pretoria 0001, South Africa.

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310 College & Research Libraries July 1994

activities. The traditional relation be­ needed to be given the chance to make tween these information activities and their own decisions, within their own con­ libraries was then outlined. Zurkowski texts, of news events. Hamelink made sug­ considered how the traditional roles of gestions for alternative news channels or libraries and private sector information information networks that would be inde­ activities were in a state of transition. He pendent from political and economic in­ also suggested policy questions that terest: ''The most essential contribution to needed to be resolved so that this envi­ alternatives which could counteract the ronment could be maximized in order to dominant channels of public communica­ strive for an information-literate nation. tion would be learning an alternative use Zurkowski was the first to use the con­ of information."4 cept of information literacy: "People Hamelink saw this alternative use of trained in the application of information information as related to information lit­ resources to their work can be called eracy, defined as the ability to obtain a information literates. They have learned wholistic, individual, and independent techniques and skills for utilizing the perspective on news events. Although wide range of information tools as well Hamelink's approach, related to inter­ as primary sources in molding infor­ preting news events, was not folloWed mation-solutions to their problems."2 up in the later meanings of information In this definition Zurkowski suggested literacy, it does relate obliquely to an that: (1) information resources are ap­ American definition of information lit­ plied in a work situation; (2) techniques eracy, also provided in 1976. Major R. and skills are needed for using informa­ Owens, in contemplating the future of tion tools and primary sources; and (3) libraries and librarians, suggested a con­ information is used in problem solving. nection between active citizenship and The concept of information literacy information literacy: appeared again ·in 1976, in a paper pre­ Beyond information literacy for sented by Lee Burchinal at the Texas A& M greater work effectiveness and effi­ University library's symposium which ciency, information literacy is needed considered the future of organizing to guarantee the survival of democratic knowledge: ''To be information literate re­ institutions. All men are created equal quires a new set of skills. These include but voters with information resources how to locate and use information needed are in a position to make more intelli­ for problem-solving and decision-making gent decisions than citizens who are in­ efficiently and effectively."3 Burchinal's formation illiterates. The application of definition linked information literacy information resources to the process of with: (1) skills that include locating and decision-making to fulfill civic respon­ using information; (2) the use of informa­ sibilities is a vital necessity.5 tion for problem solving and decision In 1979 the IIA presented a definition making; and (3) efficient and effective . of information literacy that did not in­ information location and utilization. clude the confining specification of in­ In the same year Burchinal's definition formation being used in the workplace,. appeared, a different meaning of infor­ as was the case with Zurkowski:"The IIA mation literacy was offered from outside defines an 'information literate' as a per­ the librarianship field. Cees Hamelink, a son who knows the techniques and skills consultant for mass communication re­ for using information tools in molding search, used information literacy to refer solutions to problems. "6 The same year, to a need for the public to be Iibera ted in an article on the future of the librari­ from the oppressive effects of institu­ anship profession, Robert Taylor intro­ tionalized, public media whose struc­ duced the concept of information tures were characteristically controlled literacy, noting that and restrained and which provided an approximate definition of [infor­ "pre-digested explanations" on events mation literacy] would include the in the world. His point was that people following elements: Overview of Information Literacy 311

• that solutions to many (not all) profession and information literacy and problems can be aided by the acqui­ also possibly a change in direction of sition of appropriate facts and infor­ attitudes toward information provision. mation; The definitions of the 1970s highlighted • that knowledge of the variety of in­ a number of requirements for informa­ formation resources available (who tion literacy, but did not reach the point and where) is a requisite of this lit­ where they identified the actual skills eracy; and knowledge required for information • that the informing process, which is handling at that time. continual, is as important as the spot information process, which is DEFINITIONS OF THE 1980s occasional; and By the start of the 1980s, new informa­ • that there are strategies (when and tion technologies had begun to permeate how) of information acquisition.7 society. In 1982 the IIA produced a four­ Taylor linked the library profession volume survey of the information infra­ with information literacy, and noted that structure of the United States.8 The new the concept suggested that many (but technologies of the decade had come to not all) problems could be solved be recognized as an important feature through the use of information, that a of information literacy; the survey re­ knowledge of information resources ferred to information literacy as a "gap (both people and organizations) is nec­ which ... divides the information so­ essary, and that there are strategies for phisticate who knows how and when to the acquisition of information. use the technology and does so easily and efficiently from the information na­ ive who cannot use the technologies and The definitions of the 1970s highlighted hence has limited access to knowledge a number of requirements for r~urces." 9 information literacy, but did not reach In the same year, Time magazine chose the point where they identified the the computer as Machine of the Year, actual skills and knowledge required and, inspired by the feature, Forest Hor­ for information handling at that time. ton considered the potential role that computers had as a resource in an infor­ mation age. He referred to Time's con­ In analyzing the definitions proposed sciousness-raising of the computer's during the 1970s, one can infer that in­ problem-solving capabilities as computer formation was seen as essential to soci­ literacy: "Computer literacy has to do ety, and that information handling was with increasing our understanding of becoming more complicated, owing to what the machine can and cannot do. the perceived exponential growth in the There are two major components of com­ amount of information available. Bur­ puter literacy: hardware and soft­ china! believed that a new set of skills ware."10 He went on to explain, however, was required, and that the location and that information literacy extended be­ utilization of information had to be effi­ yond computer literacy. In spite of Hor­ cient and effective. Most definitions ton's simplistic explanation of computer stress the use or application of the infor­ literacy, his ensuing definition of infor­ mation once it has been located, as well mation literacy is worth noting. The as its use for problem solving. The use definition signals the transition to the not only of information but also of the 1980s, bringing us into the realm of com­ information tools that provide access is puter-aided information manipulation: mentioned by Zurkowski and the IIA. "Information literacy, then, as opposed Many of the definitions arose in situ­ to computer literacy, means raising the ations where the future role of libraries level of awareness of individuals and en­ and librarians was under deliberation, terprises to the knowledge explosion, and indicating a connection between the LIS how machine-aided handling systems ------·------

312 College & Research Libraries July1994

can help to identify, access, and obtain data, sitions to date. The definition can also be documents and literature needed for prob­ seen as an important milestone in the in­ lem-solving and decision-making." 11 formation literacy movement, since it The computer-aided tools and re­ marks the point at which information liter­ sources that Horton lists provide an in­ acy and library user education appear to dication of how the application of meld,_and information literacy becomes a computers to the manipulation of infor­ dominant issue in librarianship. mation was gaining ground by the be­ The definition lauded by Demo was ginning of the 1980s: online databases, created in 1985 for the Auraria Library at telecommunications services, electronic the Denver campus of the University of mail, abstracting and indexing services, Colorado, which also serves the Com­ custom searches, government and for­ munity College of Denver and the Met­ eign information resources, alerting ropolitan State College. The library was services, data analysis services, and li­ investigating how its user education brary networks. William Demo fol­ program could evolve to ensure the in­ lowed a similar line of thought in 1986 formation literacy of its 30,000 students by considering the technological inno­ who ranged from eighteen-year-olds to vations that were available to process, older adults: store, retrieve and transmit vast General definition: Information lit­ amounts of information. He listed ex­ eracy is the ability to effectively access amples of new technologies such as and evaluate information for a given microcomputers, cable TV, electronic need. (Developed by Martin Tessmer, publishing, fibre optics, satellite commu­ 1985.) nications, videotext, online database Characteristics of information literacy: searching, high-density CD-ROM stor­ • an integrated set of skills and knowl­ age, and robotics.12 His point was that in edge order to master these technologies a new -skills (research strategy, evaluation) intellectual skill was needed. This new -knowledge of tools and resources skill he regarded as information literacy. • developed through acquisition of atti­ Although Demo did not suggest a work­ tudes ing definition of information literacy, he -persistence pointed out that only people who pos­ -attention to detail sessed the necessary skills would be able -caution in accepting printed word to benefit fully from the information age. and single sources It is apparent that by the middle of the • time and labor intensive 1980s the advancing information technol­ • need-driven (a problem-solving activ­ ogy

• The library is not the only source of started as they reassessed their goals: information. " . . . information literacy instead of • Information literacy requires particu­ library literacy."18 By the end of the dec­ lar attitudes, such as the awareness of ade, instruction in library skills was con­ a need for information and the accu­ sidered to be "too small a concept for the rate application of the information. needs of education in an information so­ Coming as they do from the user edu- ciety'' and many user education pro­ cation field, where the general accent grams were being replaced by those was traditionally only on locating infor­ aiming to achieve information liter­ 19 mation in a library, the points indicate acy. .2° At this stage of the 1980s, libraries the broader perspective that user educa­ in the United States were paying par­ tion would take in the future. The defi­ ticular attention to their role in the learn­ nition suggests the wide parameters of ing process, as a result of several reports possible information resources, and im­ on the necessity for educational reform plies that information seeking is not con­ in the country, such as A Nation at Risk fined to locating information in libraries. and College. 21 The adoption of the infor­ During the 1980s, attention was also mation literacy goal was the library pro­ paid to the place of information literacy fession's response to having its role within the literacy spectrum of an infor­ essentially ignored or overlooked in the mation society. For example, in 1987 educational reform process. Librarians Carol Kuhlthau asked the question: now began paying attention to the con­ What does it mean to be literate in nection between user education, infor­ an information society? Information mation literacy, and lifelong learning. literacy is closely tied to functional literacy. It involves the ability to read and use information essential for eve­ The adoption of the information ryday life. It also involves recognizing literacy goal was the library an information need and seeking in­ profession's response to having its formation to make informed deci­ role essentially ignored or overlooked sions. Information literacy requires in the educational reform process. the abilities to manage complex masses of information generated by computers and mass media, and to In 1987 a national symposium on "Li­ learn throughout life as technical and braries and the Search for Academic Ex­ social changes demand new skills and cellence" was organized jointly by knowledge. 15 Columbia University and the University Jan Olsen and Bill Coons also consid­ of Colorado, to consider the role of aca­ ered information literacy within the demic libraries in educational reform. wider literacy spectrum: Those attending ·included university We define information literacy as lecturers and administrators, library understanding the role and power of educators, and representatives from information, having the ability to lo­ government, business, and educational cate it, retrieve it, and use it in decision associations. In reporting on the sympo­ making, and having the ability to gen­ sium, Patricia Breivik gives an indication erate and manipulate it using elec­ of the issues of the time and the direction tronic processes. In short, information in which academic libraries were heading. literacy is a necessary expansion of the She notes that there was consensus at the traditional notion of literacy, a re­ symposium that, in order to improve un­ sponse to the revolution in which we dergraduate education, it would become are living.16 vital for libraries to integrate fully with By the second half of the decade, aca­ the learning process. 22 This was an aspect demic librarians were reviewing their which the College report had highlighted, user education programs with a view complementing several of the educa­ to the future. 17 A paradigm shift had tional reform reports such as A Nation 314 College & Research Libraries July 1994 at Risk which had suggested that stu­ structure successful approaches to solv­ dents should be prepared for lifelong ing .information needs."24 learning. Breivik explains: Not all approaches to information lit­ To accomplish this [lifelong learn­ eracy were library-oriented in the 1980s. ing], students need to become "infor­ In the Netherlands, the Advisory Com­ mation literate," whereby they: mittee for Education and Information • Understand processes for acquiring Technology (ACEIT), formed in 1981, information, including systems for recommended in its first report in 1982 information identification and de­ that a new subject ("Learning about in­ livery. formation technology") be introduced • Can evaluate the effectiveness of into general secondary education. The various information channels, in­ National Institute for Curriculum De­ cluding libraries, for different kinds velopment started a national project in of needs. 1983, aimed at introducing all students • Master basic skills in acquiring and in lower secondary education (age storing their own information, e.g., group twelve to sixteen years) to IT; the database skills, spreadsheet and goal of the project was to integrate this word processing skills, and book, into the general curricula.25 In its second journal, and report literature. report, in 1984, the ACElT called this pro­ • Are articulate, responsible citizens posed new subject "Information literacy in considering public policy issues and computer literacy (ICL)" defining it as relating to information, e.g., copy­ "the knowledge and skills concerning the right, privacy, privatization of gov­ use of computers for getting information ernment information, and issues yet to solve a given problem or to know more to emerge.23 about a certain subject, as well as for the Further thoughts at this 1987 confer­ control of processes." 26 ence were that, for students to become The concept of ICL differed from in­ information literate, information han­ formation literacy as understood in the dling skills (incorporating new technol­ USA, as, in the Dutch sense, "informa­ ogy applications) should be mastered at tion and computer literacy" was "not the undergraduate level, and taught aimed at computer literacy in the mean­ within existing academic courses rather ing of learning programming skills and than in separate user education programs. how to operate a computer, but an intro­ Thus, as the awareness of the impor­ .duction to 'information and computer tance of information literacy grew in science' conceived of as that part of com­ momentum in the late 1980s, there was puter science and information science the conviction that the necessary infor­ that every citizen should know."27 mation skills should be taught by inte­ The provisional ICL curriculum dis­ grating them into existing curricula. tinguished four main aspects: applica­ Information literacy had become a gen­ tions of IT; information and data eral educational issue, with librarians as processing; data-processing systems; library skills teachers playing a leading and the social significance of IT. 28 It thus role. By the end of the decade, the role of appears that ICL as envisaged in the library skills in teaching critical thinking Netherlands in the 1980s had more to do was being explored, and user education with IT (essentially computers) than programs were expanding to encompass with information handling in general. the wider implications of teaching infor­ The 1980s closed with the publication mation literacy, as W. B. Lukenbill ex­ of two important documents in the plained: "When applied to library use, United States, both emphasizing the role information literacy involves going well of the library in information literacy beyond location skills and correct an­ teaching: a book by Patricia Breivik and swer responses, into educating users in E. Gordon Gee (that developed from the abilities which build insight and promote aforementioned 1987 conference) which the development of strategies which help focused on the role of libraries in attain- Overview of Information Literacy 315 ing improvements in higher education, ever, this was found to be inadequate and a report from the American Library preparation for information literacy. Association.29 Both documents placed The university's librarians were tak­ information literacy firmly at the fore­ ing a leading role in the information front as a combined library and educa­ literacy movement, and the univer­ tional issue. The Breivik and Gee book sity's administrators were convinced was published under the auspices of that the library had an important role the American Council on Education, to play in the educational reform un­ thereby indicating that the importance der way. The partnership formed be­ of information literacy was being ac­ tween the library and the university knowledged at the national level in the administration paved the way for the educational sector.30 introduction of resource-based learning At the time of their book's publication, across the curriculum at the University Breivik and Gee were the librarian and of Colorado. the president respectively of the Univer­ Breivik and Gee emphasize the impor­ sity of Colorado. Their common belief is tance of partnerships in striving for infor­ that quality education should help stu­ mation literate graduates: partnership dents to become lifelong learners, the between the university administration requirement being that students need and the library; partnership between the to become "effective information con­ classroom and the library; and partner­ sumers who are able to locate perti­ ship between the business community nent information for any need in their and the library.33 Information literacy personal or professional lives" -that teaching is thus seen as the joint respon­ is, students need to become informa­ sibility of the library, the whole univer­ tion literate. 31 Breivik and Gee's philoso­ sity, and the community for which it phy is that in an information society, the provides human resources. ultimate measurement of the quality of The second major document that ap­ undergraduate education is whether peared in 1989 was the report of the ALA students are self-directed, independent Presidential Committee on Information learners. They believe that the library Literacy. The report emphasized the im­ has a pivotal role in education: portance of achieving information liter­ Libraries are where the knowledge acy and stressed that it could be of all disciplines is related within a achieved only by means of a new model meaningful framework. Libraries pro­ of resource-based learning. The report was vide a model for the information envi­ widely publicized and gained significant ronment in which graduates will need attention worldwide. As a result, the to work and live. Libraries are a natu­ ALA's definition of information literacy ral environment for problem-solving is the most frequently used today: within the unlimited universe of in­ To be information literate, a person formation. Libraries provide the must be able to recognize when infor­ framework for synthesizing special­ mation is needed and have the ability ized knowledge into broader societal to locate, evaluate, and use effectively contexts. And finally, libraries and li­ the needed information.... Ulti­ brarians can help students master mately, information literate people critical information-literacy skills.32 are those who have learned how to The University of Colorado's ap- learn. They know how to learn be­ proach to introducing information liter­ cause they know how knowledge is acy into the curriculum provided the organized, how to find information, framework for the issues discussed in and how to use information in such the book. In common with many other a way that others can learn from American universities in the late them. They are people prepared for 1970s, undergraduates at the Univer­ lifelong learning, because they canal­ sity of Colorado had been required to ways find the information needed for take courses in computer literacy. How- any task or decision at hand.34 316 -college & Research Libraries July 1994

The ALA report discusses the impor­ fact that information literacy reqwred a tance of information literacy to indi­ new set of skills for the efficient and viduals, business, and citizenship, effective utilization of information and stressing the importance of information its access tools, and that the use or appli­ for problem solving and decision mak­ cation of the located information was ing. Recommendations for improving intended for problem solving. the standard of information literacy con­ Definitions during the 1980s added the centrate on reducing the gap between following scope to information literacy: the classroom and the library by intro­ . • New informatiol) technologies have to ducing a new model.of learning: be taken into consideration with re­ What is called for is not a new infor­ gard to the manner in which they can mation studies curriculum but, rather, assist information handling, and the a restructuring of the learning process. skills which are required for their use. Textbooks, workbooks, and lectures • Particular attitudes, such as the aware­ must yield to a learning process based ness of a need for information, a will­ on the information resources available ingness to locate and use information, for learning and problem solving the appreciation of the value of infor­ throughout people's lifetimes-to mation, and the accurate application learning experiences that build a life­ of the information, are required. long habit of library use. Such a learn­ • Higher order critical thinking skills ing process would actively involve s~ch as understanding and evaluating students in the process of information are necessary; mere loca­ • knowing when they have a need for tion of information is insufficient. information • Although libraries are regarded as • identifying information needed to major repositories of information address a given problem or issue sources, they should not be seen as the • finding needed information only resources. • evaluating the information • Library skills are not sufficient for • organizing the information complete information literacy; neither • using the information effectively to are computer skills. address the problem or issue at hand. • User education programs require a Such a restructuring of the learning paradigm shift in order to accommo­ process will not only enhance the critical date the full range of skills required thinking skills of students but will also for information literacy. empower them for lifelong learning and • In an information society, information the effective performance of profes­ literacy could be seen as an extension sional and civic responsibilities.35 of the literacy realm. The report incorporates all the fore­ • Information literacy is a prerequisite most issues that appeared in definitions for active, responsible citizenship. of information literacy throughout the • The goal of information literacy is the 1980s and, most importantly, identifies attainment of lifelong skills which en­ the actual information handling skills re­ able the person to be an independent quired for information literacy. As a learner in all spheres of life. result of this report, the National Fo­ • Information literacy teaching can en­ rum on Information Literacy was es­ hance the attempts at educational tablished to continue promoting the reform which aim at producing in­ concept of information literacy in the dependent learners. United States.36 • The teaching of information literacy is As interest in information literacy in­ a combined librarianship C\nd educa­ creased during the late 1980s, the litera­ tional issue that requires a partnership ture shows a considerable augmentation between the two disciplines. . in the meaning of the concept compared • In order for information literacy with that of the previous decade. The teaching to be effective in the educa­ 1970's definitions had emphasized the tional sphere, the skills should be Overview of Information Literacy 317

taught across the curriculum in a re­ roots in previous user education pro­ source-based learning approach. grams offered by academic libraries. • Various information skills are re­ In the Netherlands, by the start of the quired for infonna tion literacy: 1990s, the information and computer lit­ -knowing when there is a need for eracy (ICL) course introduced in 1983 information was being taught at nearly all secondary - identifying the information needed schools. Ongoing curriculum develop­ in order to address a problem ment in the Netherlands has provided -finding the needed information more clarity on the Information Science -evaluating the located information element of ICL: -organizing the information ICL will involve the knowledge and -using the information effectively to skills needed for data collection, or­ address the problem. ganizing, processing and retrieving. By the end of the 1980s, information These specific skills are likely to be literacy was no longer an embryonic addressed implicitly in computer ap­ concept. It had been defined with clar­ plications in the more traditional sub­ ity, and its realm comprehensively de­ ject matter areas. This focus relates to lineated by the identification of the a class of skills for which the computer actual skills and knowledge that are re­ is an important, versatile aid. The gen­ quired for information handling in an eral idea behind emphasizing infor­ information-permeated, technologically mation-handling skills is that data and advanced society. information are different concepts.39 ICL covers both manual and comput- TRENDS IN THE EARLY 1990s erized data collection and processing, By the start of the 1990s, the meaning and emphasis is placed on differentiat­ of information literacy as proposed by ing between knowledge and informa­ the ALA was generally accepted. Infor­ tion. Particular elements of Information mation literacy had become a major is­ Science, as incorporated in ICL, are iden­ sue in librarianship, since the profession tified as general databases that are used saw in it a way that its members could ''by virtually everybody" (for example make a contribution toward a society of encyclopedias, pus timetables, videotext lifelong learners. Three main trends are systems), and the need for the organiza­ apparent in the 1990's literature to date: tion of databases so that data are acces­ educating for information literacy is en­ sible and usable.40 Although ICL in the joying attention; information literacy is Netherlands appears to remain slanted to­ being considered as part of the wider ward computer applications, the course literacy continuum; and librarians are now shows a shift toward general infor­ evaluating their role in the information mation handling knowledge and skills, literacy movement. ' with an accent on problem solving in the sense of finding relevant information by Educating for Information Literacy using appropriate IT.41 Thus it appears that Although the introduction of informa­ the Dutch meaning of information literacy tion literacy courses or programs was could be moving closer to the meaning evident in the second half of the 1980s, common in the United States. the latest literature indicates that the What the future worldwide scenario trend is continuing world wide, spurred will be can only be surmised. It would on to a large extent by the ALA report. appear that the development and intro­ Several information literacy courses or duction of curricula that promote infor­ programs that have been introduced at mation literacy will remain topical universities are discussed in the litera­ internationally during the 1990s. Whether ture.37 Attention is also being paid to educating for information literacy will be models and theories for curricula for in­ undertaken by means of separate courses formation literacy.38 Most models origi­ or programs, or whether it will be accom­ nate from the LIS field, many showing plished by_ wider-ranging educational ~------~~----

318 College & Research Libraries July 1994

approaches or reforms, and the extent to Today, literacy is viewed as an evolv­ which IT becomes the central issue, still ing concept, its meaning dependent on remains to be seen. the social and individual requirements Patricia Breivik suggests that it is not of a specific society. Since literacy has to a new information studies curriculum be considered in its cultural, social, eco­ that is called for, but rather a complete nomic, and political contexts, its defini­ restructuring of the learning process to tion should take into consideration the incorporate resource-based learning. expanding information needs of society. Through this approach, she believes the An Australian view comes from Bever­ development of critical thinking skills ley Campbell, who gives an indication of would become integral to the learning what would be regarded as literacy for process, thus preparing students for life­ an adult in an information society: long learning.42 Lawrence McCrank dis­ Literacy involves the integration of cusses academic programs for information listening, speaking, reading, writing literacy, and notes that any program that is and critical thinking; it incorporates hosted by the library must use the library numeracy. It includes the cultural as a gateway to other information services knowledge which enables a speaker, and organizations (such as other libraries, writer or reader to recognize and use archives, museums, galleries, publishing language appropriate to different so­ houses, clearing houses, media centers, cial situations. For an advanced tech­ databases and telecommunications serv­ nological society ... the goal is an active ices), since the academic library does not literacy which allows people to use lan­ have the monopoly on information re­ guage to enhance their capacity to think sources. He also suggests that the con­ create and question, in order to partici­ cept of information literacy is so wide pate effectively in society.46 that it can only be effectively accommo­ dated by means of a "full-scale, formal program across the curriculum, perhaps It would appear that the development in imitation of 'Writing across the Cur­ and introduction of curricula that riculum' developments."43 promote information literacy will remain topical internationally during Exploring the Literacy Continuum the 1990s. The 1990s began with the spotlight on the universal illiteracy problem. The United Nations General Assembly pro­ The focus on literacy /illiteracy at the claimed 1990 as "International Uteracy start of the 1990s dovetailed with the Year" to mark the start of a ten-year effort established information literacy move­ to reduce illiteracy. As a result of the focus ment. Information literacy is now being on illiteracy, the current meaning of liter­ explored in more depth within the con­ acy was explored: Was the ability to read text of the literacy spectrum.47 It appears and write--as manifest in the traditional that dependence on information in to­ meaning of literacy-sufficient for func­ day's society-whether a highly devel­ tioning in present society? oped information society or a developing Researchers in the 1980s had already community of illiterates or neoliter­ introduced the notion of information lit­ ates-could influence and expand the eracy being part of the literacy spectrum.44 contemporary meaning of literacy to in­ Experts on literacy had earlier established clude information literacy. that the dichotomous framework of liter­ ate or illiterate was no longer feasible. Any Role of Librarians contemporary definition of literacy would The literature from the beginning of the need to recognize that the concept implied 1990s indicates that librarians throughout a continuum which represented different the world, both in practice and as educa-· degrees of development at which indi­ tors in LIS departments, are intent on viduals were functional.45 firmly establishing a role for their profes- Overview of Information Literacy 319 sion in the information literacy movement. public libraries is discussed by several Current literature indicates that librarians authors, and Helena Zobec suggests co­ plan to keep information literacy in the operation between public libraries and headlines, and that attention is also being schools in the sense that public libraries paid to information literacy teaching in provide access to community resources public libraries. The partnership that is necessary for information literacy.54.55 necessary between librarians and educa­ Partnership with Teaching Staff and tors is enjoying particular attention. Policy Makers. Advocates of informa­ Keeping Information Literacy at the tion literacy believe that, unless librari­ Forefront. The National Forum on Infor­ ans create partnerships with teaching mation Literacy was formed as a result staff and policy makers, the LIS profes­ of a recommendation of the ALA report sion will not have much success in tak­ on information literacy that a coalition ing a leading role in information literacy 6 be formed to coordinate national organi­ teaching. 5 Breivik, however, warns that zations promoting information literacy.48 by becoming partners with teaching This forum plans to target particular staff, librarians must be careful that they groups that can benefit from informa­ are not doing themselves out of their tion literacy issues, and intends keeping previous teaching responsibilities, con­ 7 information literacy an active issue centrated in user education.5 among academics: higher education is Lawrence McCrank expresses reser­ one such targeted group!9 The forum vations about whether librarians are also intends promoting information lit­ overreaching their goals in their quest eracy as an integral part of the literacy for information literacy, and whether in­ continuum. 50 formation literacy is perhaps merely Information literacy was one of the souped-up terminology for user educa­ issues focused on at the Second White tion. He is critical of a number of issues House Conference on Libraries and In­ relating to librarians and information lit­ formation Services (WHCLIS) in 1991, eracy; for example, he asks whether li­ where national attention was drawn to brarians are recognized by other experts the contribution made by libraries and and by the public as having the compe­ information services to a literate, produc­ tence and expertise to provide such bold tive and democratic society.51 One of the initiatives as are proposed in informa­ recommendations of the second WHCLIS tion literacy programs. He asks whether calls for the U.S. government to establish librarians have the credentials, training, a National Coalition for Information Lit­ and postdegree accomplishments to 8 eracy (including schools, libraries, labor teach information literacy. 5 and industry, government, parents and However, increasing attention is be­ the general public), with the intention of ing paid to the issue of partnership be­ developing a strategic plan for the gen­ tween librarians and teachers. 59 In a paper eral development of skills required for written at the request of the WHCLIS staff, information literacy. 52 Breivik notes that teachers, as the peda­ Information Literacy and Public Li­ gogical and subject specialists, require braries. A suggestion in the ALA report complementary assistance from those on information literacy was that public whose expertise is in information if the libraries are potentially the strongest objectives of a course are to be achieved and most far-reaching community re­ through resource-based learning.60 source for encouraging lifelong learn­ ing.53 Whereas public libraries had not CONCLUSION been involved in user education pre­ This review of the literature has viously (but had been involved in liter­ shown how the meaning of the concept acy issues), information literacy's place information literacy has expanded over in the literacy continuum provides these the last twenty years in order to accom­ libraries with a new challenge. The need modate the growing requirements for to provide user education to clients of the effective handling of information, 320 College & Research Libraries July 1994 and how the LIS profession has re­ will spread beyond librarianship-nota­ sponded to the information literacy bly into the general education field-will movement. The review indicates that in­ depend on how successful librarians are in formation literacy is most likely to re­ promoting both the importance of the is­ main topical in the field of librarianship sues and the significance of their role in during the rest of the decade. accomplishing them. However, although Whether the information literacy it has become apparent that information movement (as it relates to teaching skills literacy is regarded as a combined librari­ in utilizing information successfully, anship and educational issue, at present and the preparing of a learning society the literature remains essentially confined through the teaching of lifelong skills) within the LIS discipline.

REFERENCES AND NOTES 1. For almost two decades Reference Services Review has published annual reviews of the literature on library orientation and instruction (encompassing information literacy). The reviews for 1988 to 1991 give an indication of the extent of the literature: for 1988 there were 149 references; 1989 had 158 references; 1990 had 132; and in 1991 there were 195 references, an increase of 48 percent over the previous year. For Hannelore B. Rader's reviews for these particular four years see Reference Services Review 17 (Winter 1989): 73-86; 18 (Winter 1990): 35-47; 19 (Winter 1991): 71-84; and 20 (Winter 1992): 69-84, 36. 2. Paul G. Zurkowski, The Information Service Environment Relationships and Priorities (Wash­ ington, D.C.: National Commission on Libraries and Information Science, 1974), 6. 3. Lee G. Burchinal, "The Communications Revolution: America's Third Century Challenge," in The Future of Organizing Knowledge: Papers Presented at the Texas A & M University Library's Centennial Academic Assembly, Sept. 24, 1976 (College Station, Tex.: Texas A & M University Library, 1976), 11. 4. Cees Hamelink, "An Alternative to News," Journal of Communication 26 (Autumn 1976): 122. 5. Major R. Owens, "State Government and Libraries," Library Journal101 (Jan. 1, 1976): 27. 6. Eugene Garfield, "2001: An Information Society?" Journal of Information Science 1 (1979): 210. 7. RobertS. Taylor, "Reminiscing about the Future," Library Journal104 (Sept. 15, 1979): 1875. 8. Forest W. Horton, ed., Understanding U.S.Information Policy: The Infostructure Handbook, vols. 1-4 (Washington, D.C.: Information Industry Association, 1982). 9. As cited in William Demo, The Idea of "Information Literacy" in the Age of High-Tech (New York: Tompkins Cortland Community College, 1986), 6. 10. Forest W. Horton, "Information Literacy vs. Computer Literacy," Bulletin of the American Society for Information Science 9 (1983): 14. 11. Ibid., 16. 12. Demo, The Idea of "Information Literacy." 13. Ibid., 13. 14. Patricia S. Breivik, "Putting Libraries Back in the Information Society," American Libraries 16(Nov. 1985):723. 15. Carol C. Kuhlthau, Information Skills for an Information Society: A Review of Research (Syracuse, N.Y.: ERIC Clearinghouse on Information Resources, 1987), 2. (Reprinted in Information Reports and Bibliographies 19 [1990]: 14-26.) 16. Jan K. Olsen and Bill Coons, "Cornell University's Information Literacy Program," in Coping with Information Illiteracy: Bibliographic Instruction for the Information Age; Papers Pre­ sented at the Seventeenth National LOEX Library Instruction Conference Held in Ann Arbor, Michigan, 4 and 5 May 1989, ed. Glenn E. Mensching and Teresa B. Mensching (Ann Arbor, Mich.: Pierian, 1989), 8. 17. See, for example, the various contributions in Bibliographic Instruction: The Second Genera­ tion, ed. Constance A. Mellon (Englewood, Colo.: Libraries Unlimited, 1987). 18. Joanne R. Euster, ''Technology and Instruction," in Bibliographic Instruction, 57. 19. Patricia S. Breivik, "Information Literacy: Revolution in Education, in Coping with Informa­ tion Illiteracy, 1. Overview of Information Literacy 321

20. Various chapters in Coping with Information Illiteracy illustrate this transformation. 21. The major report in this regard is that of the National Commission on Excellence in Education, A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform. A Report to the Nation and the Secretary of Education (Washington, D.C.: The Commission, 1983), which ignored the role of libraries. An enormous body of literature appeared in response to this document. A bibliography compiled five years after the publication of the report lists over 200 items, including research reports, essays, federal and state reform proposals, summaries, reviews of original reform reports, and reports on programs that had been introduced (see Bonnie G. Gratch, "Five Years after A Nation at Risk: An Annotated Bibliography," Reference Services Review 17 (Winter 1989): 29-48. It was not until Ernest L. Boyer's College: The Undergraduate Experience in America (New York: Harper & Row, 1987) that librarians found substantial support from outside their profession for their role in educational reform. 22. Patricia S. Breivik, "Making the Most of Libraries in the Search for Academic Excellence," Change 19(July I Aug. 1987):46. 23. Ibid., 46-47. 24. W. B. Lukenbill, "Information Literacy: Using the Process Approach in Bibliographic Instruc­ tion," International Review of Children's Literature and Librarianshfp 4(1989):168. 25. Ard P. Hartsuijker, "Curriculum Development of Computer and Information Literacy in the Netherlands," Education and Computing 2 (1986): 89-9oland Bram Van Weering and Tjeerd Plomp, "Information Literacy in Secondary EducatiOI/ in the Netherlands: The New Cur­ riculum," Computers and Education 16(1991):17. 26. Cited in Van Weering and Plomp, "Information Literacy in Secondary Education," 17. 27. Tjeerd Plomp and Gerrit Carleer, "Towards a Strategy for the Introduction of Information and Computer Literacy (ICL) Courses," Comp~ters and Education 11(1987):53. 28. Hartsuijker, "Curriculum Development," 90-91. 29. Patricia S. Breivik and E. Gordon Gee, Information Liter~cy: Revolution in the Library (New York: Macmillan, 1989); and the American Library Association Presidential Committee on Information Literacy: Final Report (Chicago: ALA, 1989). 30. Patricia S. Breivik, "Information Literacy," Bulletin of the Medical Libran; Association 79(Apr. 1991):227. 31. Breivik and Gee, Information Literacy, x. 32. Ibid., 28. 33. Ibid., 153. 34. American Library Association Presidential Committee, 1. 35. Ibid., 7. 36. Patricia S. Breivik, ''National Forum on Information Literacy," in ALA Yearbook of Library and Information Services (Chicago: ALA, 1990), 209; and Breivik, "Information Literacy," 227. 37. For some examples, see Alexandra Dimitroff, Francis X. Blouin, Carolyn 0. Frost, Barbara MacAdam, and Carla J. Stoffle, "Alliance for Information: Michigan Librarians and Library Faculty Join Forces for the Future," Research Strategies 8 (Spring 1990): 52-58; Barbara MacAdam, "Information Literacy: Models for the Curriculum," College & Research Libraries News 51 (Nov. 1990): 948-51; and Hannelore B. Rader, "Bringing Information Literacy into the Academic Curriculum," College & Research Libraries News 51 (Oct. 1990): 879-80. 38. Susan N. Bj0mer, "The Information Literacy Curriculum-A Working Model," Iatul Quar­ terly 5 (1991): 150-60; Marilyn Naito, "An Information Literacy Curriculum: A Proposal," College & Research Libraries News 52 (May 1991): 293-96; and Lawrence J. McCrank, "Academic Programs for Information Literacy: Theory and Structure," RQ 31 (Summer 1992): 485-97. 39. Van Weering and Plomp, "Information Literacy in Secondary Education," 19. 40. Ibid., 19. 41 . Ibid., 21. 42. Patricia S. Breivik, "Literacy in an Information Society," Information Reports and Bibliog­ raphies 20(1991):13. 43. McCrank, "Academic Programs," 493. 44. See, for example, Kuhlthau, Information Skills for an Information Society; and Olsen and Coons, "Cornell University's Information Literacy Program." 322 College & Research Libraries July1994

45. For two oft-quoted examples, see Robert L. Hillerich, "Toward an Assessable Definition of Literacy," English Journal 65(Feb. 1976):53; and Geraldine J. Clifford, "Such und Lesen: Historical Perspectives on Literacy and Schooling," Review of Educational Research 54(1984):479. 46. Beverley Campbell, "What Is Literacy? Acquiring and Using Literacy Skills," Australasian Public Libraries and Information Services 3: 149. 47. Some examples include Lori Arp, "Information Literacy or Bibliographic Instruction: Se­ mantics or Philosophy?" RQ 30 (Fall 1990): 46-49; Shirley J. Behrens, "Literacy and the Evolution towards Information Literacy: An Exploratory Study," South African Journal of Library and Information Science 58 (Dec. 1990): 353-58; and Breivik, "Literacy in an Infor­ mation Society." 48. American Library Association Presidential Committee, 11. 49. Breivik, "Information Literacy," 227. 50. Breivik, "Literacy in an Information Society," 10-11. 51. Ibid., 10-14. 52. Barbara J. Ford, "Message from the President [Association of College and Research Libraries 1990-91 Annual Report]," College & Research Libraries News 52 (Nov. 1991): 659-60. 53. American Library Association Presidential Committee, 6. 54. For example, Charles Curran, "lnformption Literacy and the Public Librarian," Public Libraries 29 (Nov./Dec. 1990): 349-53/ Sheila S. Intner, ''The Public and Bibliographic Instruction: Missed Opportun~es in Creating a Positive Information Environment," Refer­ ence Librarian 31 (1990): 15-39{and Susan Diehl and Terry L. Weech, "Library Use Instruction Research and the Public Library," Public Libraries 30 (Jan./Feb. 1991): 33-42. 55. Helena Zobec, "Cooperation between School and Public Libraries," Australasian Public Libraries and Information Services 3 (Dec. 1990): 245-48. 56. Trish Ridgeway, "Information Literacy: An Introductory Reading List," College & Research Libraries News 51 (July I Aug. 1990): 646. 57. Breivik, "Information Literacy," 227. 58. Lawrence J. McCrank, "Information Literacy: A Bogus Bandwagon?" Library Journa/116 (May 1, 1991): 38-42. 59. Some examples include ~emma Devinney, ''The BI FIG: Cultivating Teaching Success," RQ 30 (Winter 1990): 189-92[ ~ader, "Bringing Information Literacy into the Academic Curricu­ lum,", Emily L. Werrell and Threasa L. Wesley, "Promoting Information Literacy through a Faculty Workshop," Research Strategies S(Fall 1990): 172-80/'Bryn Davies and Anne Mur­ doch, ''Tutor Librarians: Creating a Climate for Change," Education Libraries Journal 34 (1991 ): 9-14;/Sonia Bodi, "Collaborating with Faculty in Teachipg Critical Thinking: The Role of Librariarls," Research Strategies 10 (Spring 1992): 69-76; and Eugene A. Engeldinger, "Frustration Management in a Course-Integrated Bibliographic Instruction Program," RQ 31 (Fall1992): 20-24. 60. Breivik, "Literacy in an Information Society," 13.