Information Behaviors and Information Literacy Skills of LIS Students: An International Perspective Laura Saunders School of Library and Information Science, Simmons College, Email: [email protected] Serap Kurbanoglu Department of Information Management, Hacettepe University, Email: [email protected] Joumana Boustany Department of Information Communication, Université Paris Descartes, Email: [email protected] Guleda Dogan Department of Information Management, Hacettepe University, Email: [email protected] Peter Becker The Hague University of Applied Sciences, the Netherlands, Email: [email protected] Eliane Blumer Department of Information Science, Haute Ecole de Gestion, Email: [email protected] Sudatta Chowdhury Department of Computer & Information Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Email: [email protected] Milena Dobreva Library Information and Archive Sciences Department, Malta University, Email: [email protected] Natalia Gendina Scientific and Research Institute of Information Technologies, Kemerovo State University of Culture and Arts Kemerrovo, Email: [email protected] Ivana Hebrang Grgic Department of Information and Communication Sciences, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Zagreb, Email: [email protected] Gaby Haddow Department of Information Studies, Curtin University, Email: [email protected] Tibor Koltay Department of Information and Library Studies, Szent István University, Email: [email protected] Terttu Kortelainen Department of Information Studies, Oulu University, Email: [email protected] Monika Krakowska Department of Management and Social Communication Institute of Library and Information Science, Jagiellonian University, Email: [email protected] Shaheen Majid Division of Information Studies, Wee Kim Wee School of Communication & Information, Nanyang Technological University, Email: [email protected]

J. of Education for Library and Information Science, Vol. 56, Supplement 1 S80 ISSN: 0748-5786 © 2015 Association for Library and Information Science Education doi:10.12783/issn.2328-2967/56/S1/9 Information Behaviors and Information Literacy Skills of LIS Students S81 Marina Mezhova Scientific and Research Institute of Information Technologies in Kemerovo State University of Culture and Arts Kemerrovo, Email: [email protected] Angela Repanovici Transilvania University of Brasov, Email: [email protected] Jurgita Rudžioniene Faculty of Communication Institute of Library and Information Science, Vilnius University, Email: [email protected] Rene Schneider Department of Information Science, Haute Ecole de Gestion, Email: [email protected] Ana Lucia Terra Information Science Department, Superior School of Industrial Studies and Management, Polytechnic Institute of Porto, Email: [email protected] Tania Y. Todorova State University of Library Studies and Information Technologies, Email: [email protected]

Librarians are expected to be expert searchers, and developing information literacy skills to navigate the vast world of information is a focus of most library and information science (LIS) programs. It is important to understand the information literacy and be- haviors of LIS students to see if they are employing the skills they will need to assist and educate their future patrons, yet there is relatively little research into the information literacy and behaviors of librarians and library students. Using a survey on information behaviors, this study addresses this gap in the literature by examining how LIS students in 18 countries search for, evaluate, and use information in various contexts, and on whom they rely for help. The results of this study demonstrate library science students’ information literacy skills within an international context. Faculty in LIS programs will be interested to see how their students approach information problems, and might use this understanding to develop or strengthen courses and inform curricular decisions.

ibrarians are expected to be expert derstand the information literacy and be- Lsearchers of all kinds of information haviors of LIS students as a group to see if in all formats. Developing the knowledge they are employing the skills they will need and skills to navigate the vast world of to assist and educate their future patrons. online and print information is typically On the other hand, it is not advisable a focus of most library and information to study LIS students as though they are science (LIS) programs. Understanding a homogenous group, thereby ignoring information literacy levels and how stu- possible differences of library and infor- dents approach information seeking tasks mation science curricula as well as culture can inform curricular decisions. As Chung on information behaviors. In a systematic and Neuman note, “because learning is review of the literature on information- the primary goal of students’ information seeking behaviors of graduate students, seeking and use, how students’ informa- Catalano (2013) noted some cultural dif- tion seeking and use contributes to learn- ferences in the information-seeking be- ing should be studied in various contexts haviors of international students studying . . . [and] with different learning tasks” in the United States. As the economy be- (2007, p. 1516). Thus it is important to un- comes increasingly globalized and as more S82 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION FOR LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SCIENCE librarians and library students choose to go ories of Information Behavior, edited by abroad to study or work, it will be useful Fisher, Erdelez, and McKechnie (2005), for librarians and LIS faculty to recognize offers over 70 chapters, each outlining a these differences. theory, model, or conceptual framework While there is a rich literature on infor- related to information-seeking and infor- mation literacy and behaviors in general, mation behaviors, such as Kuhlthau’s In- there is relatively little research into the in- formation Search Process (ISP) model of formation literacy and behaviors of librar- affective behaviors of information seek- ians and library students. Further, while ing, Dervin’s theory of Sense-Making, some studies have focused on specific geo- and Bates’ berrypicking model. The Pew graphic areas, including Uganda (Okello- Research Center’s Internet and American Obura & Ikoja-Odongo, 2010), Greece Life Project has issued a number of reports (Korobili, Malliari, & Zapounidou, 2011), that probe the online searching behaviors and Ireland (O’Farrell & Bates, 2009), of the American adult population, showing there are no studies that compare infor- that the vast majority of American adults mation literacy and behaviors of LIS stu- use the Internet to search for information, dents across different countries. Through and that they are generally confident in a survey of the information literacy skills their search skills and happy with the re- and information problem-solving habits of sults they get (see, e.g., Estabrook, Witt, & LIS students in 18 countries, the authors Rainie, 2007; Fox, 2010; Purcell, Brenner, of this study begin to address this gap in & Rainie, 2012). The OCLC Perceptions the literature. The study investigates how of Libraries, 2010: Context and Commu- LIS students search for, evaluate, and use nities (2010) similarly explored library information in various contexts, and on usage of adults and college students. The whom they rely for help. European Council on Information Liter- The results of this study demonstrate the acy (ECIL, http://www.ilconf.org/) runs current state of library science students’ an annual conference with contributed information literacy skills and informa- papers that examine information literacy tion problem-solving habits within an and information behaviors in a wide va- international context. Faculty in LIS pro- riety of contexts. The Project Informa- grams will be interested to see how their tion Literacy (PIL) has been conducting students approach information problems longitudinal studies of college students’ especially as they teach greater numbers information literacy and behaviors since of international students or consider col- 2008, and has compiled a clearinghouse laborating with international colleagues. of reports, videos, and other publications Librarians might be interested to see how on their findings (see e.g., http://projectin- current library students in various coun- folit.org; Head, 2007; Head & Eisenberg, tries approach information tasks, and how 2009). The Project on Information Lit- well they are being prepared to serve as in- eracy’s work has established college stu- termediaries and instructors in a complex dents’ frustration with context-gathering information environment. In addition, an and their preference for resources that are international understanding is important familiar and have given them good re- for students and professionals to compete sults in the past. Catalano (2013) offers a in a global job market. comprehensive review of the literature on graduate students’ information-seeking Literature Review behaviors. Other studies have established the importance of convenience in terms of The body of literature on information ease of access and use for online searchers literacy and behaviors is extensive and (Connaway, Lanclos, & Hood, 2013; Con- will not be reviewed at length here. The- naway, Dickey, & Radford, 2011). Information Behaviors and Information Literacy Skills of LIS Students S83

Librarian and Library Student they were already familiar, and favored Information Behavior those with online full-text access. Further, those students seemed to be unaware of A handful of studies have focused on in- many of the library services offered by formation-seeking or information literacy their program, and turned instead to local competencies among librarians in relation public libraries for resources. LIS students to their professional activities. Brown and tend to consult with reference librarians Ortega (2005) found that physical science only occasionally (Campello & Abreu, librarians rely most heavily on personal 2005; Tracy & Searing, 2014), with those communications and listservs in order in an undergraduate LIS program in Bra- to stay current in their field, followed by zil relying most heavily on professors and scholarly journals, web sites, conferences, classmates for advice (Campello & Abreu, and trade and professional magazines. Li- 2005). aison librarians need detailed knowledge Results of a research study on LIS stu- of subject resources, as well as excellent dents’ perceived self-efficacy for infor- skills in information discovery and litera- mation literacy in Turkey indicates that ture searching in order to support faculty students feel confident about perform- research (Brewerton, 2012). Tan, Gorman, ing information literacy related tasks and and Singh (2012) found that, although that their levels of self-efficacy increases most school librarians in Malaysia were slightly over time (Kurbanoglu, 2003). familiar with information literacy con- However, Conway (2011) found that both cepts, they were not comfortable with their undergraduate and post-graduate LIS stu- own information literacy abilities. Most dents in Australia have problems with self-reported their information literacy basic information literacy skills, with skills as being “average” to “poor.” It is students averaging a score of 73% on a important to note, however, that not all of survey test. Undergraduates in particular the respondents in their sample had formal scored poorly on questions related to de- training as librarians. fining and articulating an information need Studies of library science students re- and understanding the purpose, scope and veal a range of behaviors, some of which appropriateness of a variety of informa- are similar to those of the general popu- tion sources. Undergraduate LIS students lation. LIS students tend to favor online in Brazil similarly found the initial stages resources (Campello & Abreu, 2005; of research, such as choosing and limit- de Jong & Branch 2006; O’Farrell & ing a topic, to be difficult and expressed Bates, 2009; Tracy & Searing, 2014), and negative feelings at that stage (Campello they consult a wide range of resources & Abreu, 2005). The lack of information (Campello & Abrue, 2005; Tracy & Sear- literacy skills displayed by LIS students ing, 2014). While LIS students report high prompted Campello and Abreu to con- self-efficacy and competence with com- clude that “future librarians are not suf- puters, they are generally more comfort- ficiently prepared to perform the kind of able using the computer to communicate search tasks for which they will be expect- or to conduct research for personal rather ed to act as mediators for others in the pro- than academic purposes (Malliari, Korobi- cess of learning from information” (p. 49). li, & Togia, 2012), and some report a need for greater exposure to and training in the Methodology use of online resources (Okello-Obura & Ikoja-Odongo, 2010). The purpose of this study is to inves- De Jong and Branch (2006) found that tigate the information literacy skills and students in an online library teacher pro- behaviors of LIS students across different gram tended to rely on sources with which countries, both to explore those skills and S84 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION FOR LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SCIENCE behaviors generally, and to examine the behaviors related to everyday information extent of differences in those skills and be- needs, and one centered on information haviors. In particular, this study examines behaviors for course-related assignments. the following questions: Because this study is concerned with the preparation of LIS students for profes- What strategies and sources do LIS stu- sional roles, the researchers omitted the dents employ when gathering information section on everyday life information and for course-related information needs? chose to study only students’ behaviors re- lated to course assignments. Are there differences in the information Each researcher translated the original seeking behaviors of LIS students in dif- study into their own language, in order to ferent countries? allow survey participants to respond in their native language. Researchers made The project was initiated and organized every effort to keep the meaning and in- by two of the study authors, who recruited tent of the original survey. Changes to the LIS professionals and faculty from around original questions were kept to a minimum the world. Ultimately, 21 researchers from and made only when absolutely necessary. 18 countries participated. Because of the Data collection took place in the fall of scope of the project, it was determined to 2012 and spring of 2013. The researchers use a web survey for data collection. Due distributed the survey to the population of to its quantitative nature, and the ability to LIS students in their respective schools, administer it remotely and online, a sur- with most using some type of internal vey would allow for a larger sample and electronic communication. greater ease of analysis. A single survey could also be easily translated to different Limitations languages and hosted on one site to facili- tate the data collection. Like the PIL research on which it is One of the organizing authors gained based, this study relies on the perceptions permission from Alison Head to use the and self-reported behaviors of students. PIL survey (available at http://projectin- While the survey questions themselves folit.org/images/pdfs/pil_fall2010_sur- have been widely tested and used, any vey_fullreport1.pdf) as the data collection self-reported data raises questions of re- instrument. This survey was chosen for liability and validity. Either intentionally several reasons. As the core instrument for or unintentionally, students might not PIL, this survey has the benefit of having accurately reflect their information be- been widely used and tested through a se- haviors in their answers. Students might ries of PIL studies, and therefore is a valid not recall their behaviors clearly, or they instrument. With its focus on questions of might choose answers that they believe student information behaviors, including are the “correct” answers regardless of where they start their research, what sourc- whether those answers really describe es they consult, and how they evaluate their own actions. For instance, students their sources, the survey was well suited could under-report use of resources like to the research questions for this study. Fi- Google or Wikipedia because they be- nally, the data from the previous PIL stud- lieve they are not supposed to use them. ies conducted using this survey also offer Further research could supplement this a baseline of college undergraduate infor- study by using methods such as think- mation literacy and behaviors with which aloud protocol or diaries to better capture the results of this study could be com- students’ actual behavior. pared. The original PIL survey consists In addition, while this study is inter- of two parts, one focusing on information national in scope, the majority of the Information Behaviors and Information Literacy Skills of LIS Students S85 participating countries are concentrated Kingdom had the lowest number (n = 6). in Europe. Coordinators of the study re- Response rates varied from a low of about lied on personal knowledge and referrals 10% in Australia and the Netherlands to a to recruit colleagues to participate in the high of 92% in Lithuania. Table 1 shows research, which partly accounts for the the survey distribution method, degree lev- somewhat limited geographic scope. Fur- el of the students surveyed, total number of ther, participants had to commit to a pre- respondents, and response rate by country. determined timeline for completing data The United States used a different age collection. Some researchers were inter- scale from the rest of the participants, so the ested in participating but were unable to following age breakdown is for the eigh- meet the timeframe and therefore were teen countries, minus the United States. not included in the findings reported here. The majority of respondents were between Thus, it must be acknowledged that the re- the ages of 18 and 23 (63%). Only 10% of sults of the study might reflect particular respondents were over the age of 35, and similarities or differences of the participat- just seven respondents (0.6%) were under ing countries. the age of 18. Ages of participants in the United States skewed slightly older, with Findings 65% of respondents between the ages of 22 and 30. Further, 13% of United States The purpose of this study is to explore respondents were over the age of 40, while how LIS students from 18 countries ap- only 3% were under the age of 21. Women proach course-related information tasks. dominated the survey across countries, The survey asked students about the kinds with 80% of respondents indicating they of assignments they receive, the sources were female. that they consult, and their approaches to evaluating information. The survey also Starting Course-related included questions about research habits, Assignments and Searching for attitudes, and use of productivity tools. Resources The following sections detail the aggregate findings of this study and a cross-country Students were asked about the per- analysis, beginning with an overview of ceived level of difficulty for 13 tasks re- the data collection and response rates. lated to starting a course assignment and searching for resources for that assign- Demographics ment. According to the responses, LIS stu- dents generally find the pre-research work As noted above, data was collected to be more difficult than the tasks related in 18 different countries, and ultimately to finding and evaluating resources. For a total of 1249 responses were received. instance, 65% of respondents either dis- In some countries, the bachelor’s degree agreed or strongly disagreed that finding is the minimum needed to practice as a sources in the library is difficult. Likewise, professional librarian, while in others the 76% disagree or strongly disagree that master’s is the terminal degree. As such, finding resources on the Web is difficult, the survey respondents included a mix of and 52% disagreed or strongly disagreed students at both the bachelor’s and mas- that finding articles in library databases is ter’s levels, depending on the country. Re- difficult. Further 54% disagreed or strong- searchers distributed the survey to the total ly disagreed that coming up with search population of students at their respective terms is difficult. Just under half (46%) institutions, using a variety of distribution disagreed or strongly disagreed that deter- methods. Turkey had the largest number mining whether Web sites are credible is of respondents (n = 210), and the United difficult. On the other hand, students were S86 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION FOR LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SCIENCE

Table 1. Survey Distribution and Response Rate by Country. Students’ Total Number of Estimated Response Country Level Distributed via Respondents Rate department mailing list and 51 10% Australia BA e-learning platform Bulgaria BA e-mail 94 60% Croatia BA & MA e-learning platform 110 40% Finland BA & MA student listserv 17 18% France BA in the classroom 113 85% Hungary BA internal communication channel 35 78% Lithuania BA printed version 86 92% Malta BA email 9 82% Netherlands BA – 10 10% Poland BA & MA e-learning platform 176 85% Portugal BA e-learning platform 66 74% Romania BA & MA student listserv 13 50% Russia BA e-mail 29 50% Singapore MSc e-mail 75 45% Switzerland BA mailing list 53 17% Turkey BA internal communication channel 210 80% UK BA internal communication channel 6 20% USA MA student listserv 96 17%

less confident about the early phases of other words, LIS students rated the diffi- an assignment. For instance, 56% agreed culty of each task differently depending on or strongly agreed that getting started on their home country. For instance, defining an assignment is difficult. Similarly 46% a topic appears to be most difficult for stu- and 45% respectively agreed or strongly dents in Portugal, Turkey and Singapore agreed that defining a topic and narrowing (more than 50% in each country either down a topic for an assignment is difficult. “agree” or “strongly agree”). Students in Figure 1 shows the aggregate responses Turkey also appear to find determining the across all countries for the students’ per- credibility of a web site more difficult than ceived level of difficulty with each task. students from other countries did (58%). While these statistics describe the be- Having to sort through irrelevant results haviors of LIS students generally, a chi- to find what is needed is rated as difficult square test revealed correlations across more often in Turkey (71%) and Bul- countries for each of the 13 tasks (p = garia (65%). Narrowing down a topic is 0.000 for each of the 13 responses)1. In rated most difficult by students in France (61%), Turkey (56%), and Singapore (52%), while students in France (52%) 1Due to the variable response and participation rates, Finland, Hun- gary, Malta, the Netherlands, Romania, Russia, and the UK had to and Lithuania (49%) report that deciding be eliminated from the cross-country analysis. Thus, the results re- which database to use is difficult at higher ported for each chi-square test describe differences for students in Australia, Bulgaria, Croatia, France, Lithuania, Poland, Portugal, rates than students from other countries. It Singapore, Switzerland, Turkey, and the United States. is interesting to note that students in Swit- Information Behaviors and Information Literacy Skills of LIS Students S87 zerland and the United States rated almost response rates for students across all coun- all of the 13 tasks as less difficult than tries for this question. students from other countries. Appendix As with initiating an assignment and A shows the percentage of respondents searching for resources, chi-square tests either agreeing or strongly agreeing with showed a correlation (p = 0.000) across each statement by country. countries for all responses to this ques- tion, except for the response “evaluat- Preparing Course-related ing the sources I’ve found is difficult.” Assignments Students in France expressed relatively more difficulty with deciding whether Another question asked respondents “the work is done” or not (73% strongly to rate the difficulty of tasks related to agreed or agreed) and knowing whether the mechanics of compiling research and use of a source constitutes plagiarism completing assignments. Responses to this (over 57%). Similarly, students in Tur- question were more mixed. There were not key (46%) and Portugal (42%) were most any tasks in this list that stood out as be- likely to agree that knowing when to cite ing particularly difficult for all or most a source is difficult. Students in the Unit- students. Indeed, most students indicated ed States expressed the least difficulty that reading through the material, taking with knowing whether use of a source notes, integrating different sources, and constitutes plagiarism (13%), but were knowing when to cite a source is not dif- somewhat more likely than students in ficult. Overall, the most difficult aspects of Switzerland to agree that knowing when the assignments appear to be rephrasing to cite a source is difficult (12% and 9% something that is already well expressed, respectively). Students in Portugal found and knowing whether the student has done rephrasing what is already well expressed a good job, with 47% and 45% respective- in a source more difficult than students ly agreeing or strongly agreeing that these from other countries (65%). Students tasks are difficult. Appendix B shows the in the United States expressed the least

Figure 1. Perceived Difficulty with Course-Related Assignments, Aggregate Responses. S88 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION FOR LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SCIENCE

Figure 2. Perceived Level of Difficulty in Preparing Course-Related Assignments. difficulty with evaluating sources (9%), doing assignments. Research databases while students in Turkey (45%), Portugal fell to the middle, with 43% of students (44%), and Lithuania (41%) expressed “almost always” or “often” using them the most difficulty. Figure 4 shows the for assignments. Figure 5 depicts the fre- rate at which respondents either strongly quency with which students report using agreed or agreed with each statement by resources for assignments. Students rely country. mostly on classmates and instructors for support with assignments, with 70% turn- Consulting People and Resources ing to classmates “almost always” or “of- ten,” and 54% consulting with professors. Two questions asked students to rate Librarians are the last resource for most the frequency with which they consult dif- students with only 27% “almost always” ferent resources or people for assistance or “often” meeting with librarians, while when completing assignments, ranging 16% report never meeting with a librarian. from search engines and social network- Figure 6 shows the rate at which students ing sites to library databases, gray litera- consult with particular people about as- ture, instructors, classmates, and librar- signments. ians. Search engines are the most widely As with previous questions, the fre- consulted resources, with 86% of students quency with which LIS students consult indicating that they “almost always” or various resources for course-related as- “often” use them. Search engines are fol- signments showed some variance by coun- lowed by course readings (70%), library try. A chi-square test showed a correlation catalogs (56%), Wikipedia (54%), and li- for each of the fourteen resources by coun- brary shelves (51%). LIS students are less try (p < 0.05). Consulting library shelves likely to use social networking sites, slide is most common in Croatia (75% almost sharing sites, video sharing sites, blogs, always or often consult library shelves) online forums and gray literature when and Poland (69%), while students in the Information Behaviors and Information Literacy Skills of LIS Students S89

Figure 3. Frequency with which Students Report Consulting Resources, Aggregate Responses.

United States (34%) and France (35%) (21%). Students in Australia are most are least likely to consult library shelves. likely to use library catalogs (94%) and Students in Bulgaria (61%) and Poland online forums (35%), while students in the (59%) are more likely to use a personal United States (93%), Australia (90%) and collection. Wikipedia is used most often Singapore (85%) report the highest usage by LIS students in France (86% almost of research databases. Course readings are always or often use Wikipedia), followed heavily consulted by all students, but are by students in Poland (64%) and Bulgaria most consulted by students in the United (63%), and used least often by students States (90%) and least by students in Po- in Australia (14%) and the United States land (44%) and Turkey (51%). Likewise,

Figure 4. Frequency with which Students Report Consulting People, Aggregate Responses. S90 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION FOR LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SCIENCE the frequency with which LIS students important criterion seems to be whether consult people—instructors, classmates, the resource is written in the student’s librarians, and friends or family—is cor- native language, with 71% reporting that related by country (p < 0.05). All LIS stu- they “almost always” or “often” consider dents report consulting classmates first, that criterion. Students are also concerned except in the United States and Australia with how current the source is (67%), where instructors are consulted at higher and whether an instructor mentioned the rates. Students in Bulgaria (55%) and Cro- source (67%). The results concerning how atia (45%) are the most likely to consult students evaluate Web resources were with a librarian, while students in Singa- more mixed, with students considering a pore (12%) and Poland (14%) are the least wider range of criteria (such as domain likely to do so. French students consult name, site design, presence of a bibliog- friends/family at the highest rates (54%). raphy, and number of external links) more Figure 5 shows the percentage at which often. However, the criteria ranked most students often or almost always consult important were currency (69%), whether certain people by country. the site was written in the student’s native language (66%), and whether an instruc- Evaluating Resources tor had mentioned the site (65%). Students were least interested in whether a librarian Two questions focused on the criteria had recommended a Web site, with only students use to evaluate resources they’ve 33% claiming they “almost always” or found either through the library or on “often” consider this factor. the Web. With regard to sources discov- ered through the library, students are not Discussion concerned with who published the infor- mation, or whether a librarian ever rec- The results of this study show that there ommended the source to them. The most are some patterns of information literacy

Figure 5. Frequency with which Students Report Consulting People by Country. Information Behaviors and Information Literacy Skills of LIS Students S91 levels and behavior common to LIS stu- searches than other populations. In the dents in general, but that there are also meantime, it is important for LIS educa- some significant differences in the ways in tors to consider the extent to which they which LIS students from different coun- are teaching and assessing good search be- tries find and use information for course- haviors in their courses. related assignments. Both the general pat- While literature reviews and other as- terns of behavior and the cross-country signments require searching, instructors differences have implications for LIS fac- typically only see the end result in the ulty as they prepare their students to take form of a bibliography. They can assess on professional roles. from the bibliography whether students are LIS students seem to be comfortable finding relevant and authoritative sources, with developing search strategies, choos- but they cannot necessarily judge whether ing search terms, and finding resources in the searches used to locate the materials libraries and on the Web. This finding is were efficient or effective. Bawden (2007) reassuring since search and location are underscores the importance of search for still core areas for many librarians as they LIS students, contending that they must be help patrons find resources and facilitate experts at retrieving information, knowing the development of their own search skills. how information is classified and indexed, Of course, this study relied solely on stu- understanding how retrieval systems are dents’ perceptions and self-reporting of structured, and using sophisticated search their abilities. While we might expect that strategies to make effective use of infor- LIS students, especially those who might mation sources and retrieval systems. He be further along in their program of study, further argues that information retrieval would be effective searchers, this study and information seeking should form cannot determine their actual abilities. In the core curriculum of LIS programs. To fact, other studies have demonstrated that that end, faculty members might consider the majority of online searchers enter only using exercises to practice search tech- one or two search terms per query, and niques, or asking students to outline their most either do not use Boolean logic at search process along with papers in order all, or use it incorrectly (Bernard & Spink, to determine whether students’ confidence 2006; Brusilovsky, Ahn, & Rasumussen, in searching is justified, and that they actu- 2010; Jansen & Pooch, 2001; Lau & Goh, ally are performing high impact searches. 2006; Yu & Young, 2004). Graduate stu- In fact, an analysis of the sources stu- dents often are uncomfortable using or are dents use suggests that they are not all us- unfamiliar with advanced search strategies ing resources that would require or even (Catalano, 2013), and most students find allow for sophisticated searching. For choosing keywords and refining searches instance, course readings are among the to be one of the most difficult aspects of in- most highly consulted resources. While formation-seeking (Hoffman, Antwi-Nsi- resources selected and vetted by instruc- ah, Feng, & Stanley, 2008). According to tors might be a good starting point for re- Vezzosi (2009) even doctoral students are search, Campello and Abreu (2005) note not necessarily adept at searching online that if instructors provide the bulk of the databases, and rarely take the time to learn material that students use in assignments, advanced search strategies, although when those students get less practice in the es- they do learn them they often acknowl- sential process of search and discov- edge them to be time-savers. A future ery. When students do go beyond course study might examine LIS student search readings, there is significant variance by behaviors directly to determine whether country with regard to resources used. All they use more sophisticated strategies and/ students report relying heavily on search or are more efficient and effective in their engines, but students in France, Bulgaria, S92 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION FOR LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SCIENCE Turkey, Portugal, and Poland report much struction in evaluating Web sites is often higher uses of Wikipedia, while students begun in elementary school, which might in the United States, Australia, and Singa- reflect the relative confidence in their abil- pore are much more likely to report using ities that American students in this study research databases and database provid- express. Nevertheless, this confidence is ers like LISA and EBSCO. Nearly a third self-reported and may not be completely or more of students in France, Lithuania, reliable. LIS faculty should ensure that all Turkey, and Bulgaria indicated that decid- library students build up the confidence ing which database to use and finding ar- and skills to quickly and accurately evalu- ticles in a database is difficult. ate Web resources. LIS faculty working It is possible that students in some pro- with students from countries that have ex- grams have not been exposed to, or per- pressed greater difficulty with such evalu- haps have not had access to, some of the ation must be careful not to make assump- research databases which LIS students in tions about students’ previous exposure to other countries use regularly. On the other source evaluation. Faculty might do pre- hand, it is possible that like most other tests, use clickers, or poll their classes to populations, LIS students are relying on get a sense of student abilities and under- Google and Wikipedia because they are standing of source evaluation, and provide familiar and convenient resources. Un- extra guidance as needed. Faculty mem- derstanding the structure of databases and bers might incorporate Web evaluation being able to search them effectively is a exercises into their courses. Reference, crucial expectation of professional librar- Information Sources and Services, and In- ians. If students do not go beyond search formation Literacy courses, are a natural engines or Wikipedia—the same resources fit for such topics as most of these courses the general public uses regularly—they devote substantial time to the evaluation will not be able to add value to their pa- of sources generally. Traditionally, how- trons’ searches. As such, LIS faculty in ever, these courses have often focused all programs must incorporate use of data- on examining sources by type: almanacs, bases into their courses and programs and encyclopedias, indexes, and so on. Given find ways to ensure that students are using the lack of confidence some students feel, them. At the same time, faculty members it might behoove faculty in these courses will need to be aware that some students to spend more time on Web sources as a might have less experience with research whole, with attention to concepts like au- databases and will need to offer additional thority which must be understood differ- support to those students. ently when evaluating online sources like There were several important areas Wikipedia or other social media. where students from certain countries ex- Plagiarism and source citation was pressed greater levels of difficulty. Spe- another area of concern for many survey cifically, more than one-third of students respondents. Understanding what con- in Turkey, Bulgaria, Croatia, Lithuania, stitutes plagiarism and when and how to Singapore, France, and Portugal express properly cite sources is crucial for librar- difficulty in evaluating Web sources. As ians and library students. These findings professional librarians, however, these confirm other studies that have demon- students will be expected to guide their strated cross-cultural differences in the un- patrons in the selection and evaluation of derstanding and application of plagiarism Web (and other) resources for research practices (Amsberry, 2010; Sutton, Tay- and decision-making. School and aca- ler, & Johnston, 2014). Library students demic librarians will also be expected to have an ethical obligation to abide by provide instruction on evaluation to stu- copyright and intellectual property laws. dents. Indeed, in the United States, in- Further, the need to understand plagiarism Information Behaviors and Information Literacy Skills of LIS Students S93 extends beyond the student to a librarian’s defining a topic to finding and evaluating role as a professional. Many librarians will resources, the students in this study still be called upon to assist patrons with ques- only turn to librarians for help as a last re- tions in these areas. Many professional sort. Like students in other studies (Catala- librarians become default copyright con- no, 2013; Head 2007; Head & Eisenberg, sultants, offering guidance to patrons on 2009) they tend instead to rely on their pro- proper use of sources, delivering instruc- fessors. However, students in this study do tion on copyright, managing copyright seem more likely overall to consult library requests, and sometimes even setting lo- catalogs and library shelves than other cal policy. As such, it is important that li- searchers. There may not be a real role for brary students are firmly grounded in how LIS faculty to play here, besides perhaps to avoid plagiarism, as well as in related encouraging students to consult with li- areas of copyright law and proper citation brarians or even directly pointing students of sources. But to what extent do LIS fac- to librarians when they come to their in- ulty explicitly teach these concepts, and structors with questions related to defining to what extent do they assume students a topic or locating and evaluating sources. already know them? This study suggests The finding does raise some questions, that faculty might need to put more em- though, as to why even LIS students do not phasis on plagiarism and citation. ask librarians for help. Do they feel like It is interesting to note that in some cas- it is “cheating” to ask for help on library es LIS students engage in behaviors and school assignments? Are instructors dis- attitudes very similar to other populations, couraging students from consulting with including the undergraduates that served librarians, so that the instructor can better as the base for the original PIL study. For assess the students’ skills? Are students instance, the LIS students in this study embarrassed to ask for assistance, and feel generally find getting started on course as- they should be able to accomplish these signments, and particularly defining and tasks on their own? Perhaps the reason has narrowing a topic, to be difficult. These more to do with the preference for conve- are the same areas that Head (2007) and nience highlighted by Connaway, Dick- Head and Eisenberg (2009) found to be ey, and Radford (2011) and Connaway, most difficult for undergraduates. This Lanclos, and Bell (2013). Perhaps even finding is especially noteworthy because students who presumably understand the academic and school librarians often assist value that librarians can bring to an infor- students in the processes of gathering con- mation search find it too time-consuming text and narrowing and defining a topic, so or inconvenient to have meet with a librar- one might assume that LIS students would ian, and thus prefer to rely on what they have learned (or be learning) techniques can find on their own. However, the types that could apply to their own coursework. of resources students report difficulty us- Perhaps LIS faculty assume that students ing; the difficulties some students express already understand how to engage in these at finding context; the troubles with defin- processes. These findings suggest that, ing and narrowing a topic, and evaluating given students’ levels of frustration, more Web sources; suggests that they would time and explicit instruction need to be benefit from the support of a librarian. In spent on context-gathering, both to sup- fact, this finding might have more implica- port their own research and to help patrons tions for academic librarians than for LIS in future professional practice. faculty. Perhaps they need to do more to Similarly, it is interesting that although reach out to students or find ways to make LIS students would, presumably, have a their services more accessible, whether better understanding of the ways in which that means more remote services, self-help librarians could help them with tasks from resources, or a greater presence in student S94 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION FOR LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SCIENCE spaces. Perhaps LIS faculty and academ- countries, but they should also serve as ic librarians need to work together more a reminder to any LIS faculty who work closely to ensure that referrals are being with students from abroad that those stu- made when appropriate. dents come to the program with different backgrounds and experiences. Faculty Conclusion members need to be aware of and attuned to those differences, and be prepared to This study shows that LIS students dis- offer support to those students whose in- play at least some of the same information- formation literacy skills and behaviors or seeking behaviors and attitudes as other background knowledge may not conform populations. They are confident in their to local expectations. overall searching abilities, but they have a hard time getting started on research References assignments, including defining and nar- rowing down topics. They rely heavily on Amsberry, D. (2010). Deconstructing plagiarism: search engines, and express some concern International students and textual borrowing practices. The Reference Librarian, 51(1), 31–44. about their ability to evaluate Web sources. doi: 10.1080/02763870903362183 They also report concern with determining Bawden, D. (2007). Information seeking and infor- what constitutes plagiarism and knowing mation retrieval: The core of the information cur- when to cite sources. While these behav- riculum? Journal of Education for Library and iors and attitudes are understandable, they Information Science, 48(2), 125–138 raise some concerns as to whether LIS Bernard, J. J., & Spink, A. (2006). How are we students are moving beyond the general searching the World Wide Web? A comparison of nine search engine transaction logs. Informa- population in their location, search, evalu- tion Processing & Management, 42(1), 248–63. ation, and use of resources and building up Brewerton, A. (2012). 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ple go for information, what they use, and why. havior: The case of Greek graduate students. EDUCAUSE Review Online. Retrieved from The Journal of Academic Librarianship, 37(2), http://www.educause.edu/ero/article/i-always- 155–165 stick-first-thing-comes-google-where-people-go- Kurbanoglu, S. (2003). Self-efficacy: A -con information-what-they-use-and-why cept closely linked to information literacy Connaway, L. S., Dickey, T. J., & Radford, M. L. and lifelong learning. Journal of Docu- (2011). “If it is too inconvenient I’m not going mentation, 59(6), 635–646. http://dx.doi. after it:” Convenience as a critical factor in infor- org/10.1108/00220410310506295 mation-seeking behaviors. Library and Informa- Lau, E. P., & Goh, D. H. (2006). In search of query tion Science Research, 33(3), 179–190. patterns: A case study of a university OPAC. Conway, K. (2011). How prepared are students Information Processing & Management, 42(5), for post-graduate study? A comparison of the 1316–1329. information literacy skills of commencing un- Malliari, A., Korobili, S., & Togia, A. (2012). IT dergraduate and post-graduate information stud- self-efficacy and computer competence of LIS ies students at Curtin University. Australian students. Electronic Library, 30(5), 608–622. Academic & Research Libraries, 42(2), 121–135. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/02640471211275675 doi: 10.1080/00048623.2011.10722218 O’Farrell, M. & Bates, J. (2009). Student informa- de Jong, C., & Branch, J. L. (2006). How are teach- tion behaviours during group projects: A study er-librarians finding resources for coursework? of LIS students in University College Dublin, Distance learners and the role of university li- Ireland. Aslib Proceedings, 61(3), 302–315. doi: brary services. Journal of Library & Informa- 10.1108/00012530910959835 tion Services for Distance Learning, 2(3), 63–74. Okello-Obura, C., & Ikoja-Odongo, J. R. (2010). doi:10.1300/J192v02n03_06 Electronic information seeking among LIS post- Estabrook, L., Witt, E., & Rainie, L. (2007). In- graduate students at Makerere University, Ugan- formation Searches that Solve Problems. Wash- da. Library Philosophy and Practice. ington D.C.: Pew Research Center’s Internet & Purcell, K., Brenner, J., & Rainie, L. (2012). Search American Life Project. Retrieved from http:// engine use 2012. Washington D.C.: Pew Re- www.pewinternet.org/files/old-media//Files/Re- search Center’s Internet & American Life Proj- ports/2007/Pew_UI_LibrariesReport.pdf.pdf ect. Fisher, K. E., Erdelez, S., & McKechnie, L. (Eds.). Purcell K., Rainie L., Heaps A., Buchanan J., Fried- (2005). Theories of Information Behavior. Med- rich L., Jacklin A., . . . Zickuhr K. (2012). How ford, NJ: Information Today. teens do research in the digital world. Wash- Fox, S. (2010). Health sites: Some are more equal ington D.C.: Pew Research Center’s Internet & than others. Pew Research Center’s Internet & American Life Project. American Life Project. Retrieved from http:// Sutton, A., Taylor, D., & Johnston, C. (2014). www.pewinternet.org/2010/01/21/health-sites- A model for exploring student understand- some-are-more-equal-than-others/ ings of plagiarism. The Journal of Further Gauder, B. (Ed). (2010). Perceptions of libraries, and Higher Education, 38(1), 129–146. doi: 2010: Context and communities. Ohio: OCLC. 10.1080/0309877X.2012.706807 Head, A. J. (2007). Beyond Google: How do stu- Tan, S., Gorman, G., & Singh, D. (2012). Informa- dents conduct academic research? First Monday, tion literacy competencies among school librar- 12(8). ians in Malaysia. LIBRI: International Journal Head, A. J., & Eisenberg, M. B. (2009). Lessons of Libraries and Information Services, 62(1), learned: How college students seek information 98–107. doi: 10.1515/libri-2012-0007 in the digital Age. Washington: The University Tracy, D. G., & Searing, S. E. (2014). LIS gradu- of Washington. ate students as library users: A survey study. The Hoffman, K., Antwi-Nsiah, F., Feng, V., & Stan- Journal of Academic Librarianship, 40(3-4), ley, M. (2008). Library research skills: A needs 367–378. doi: 10.1016/j.acalib.2014.05.004 assessment for graduate student workshops. Is- Vezzosi, M. (2009). Doctoral students’ in- sues in Science & Technology Librarianship, 53, formation behavior: An exploratory study 1–13. at the University of Parma (Italy). New Li- Jansen, B. J., & Pooch, U. (2001). A review of web brary World, 110(1/2), 65–80. http://dx.doi. searching studies and a framework for future re- org/10.1108/03074800910928595 search. Journal of the American Society for Infor- Yu, H., & Young, M. (2004). The impact of web mation Science & Technology, 52(3), 235–246. search engines on subject searching in OPAC. Korobili, S., Malliari, A., & Zapounidou, S. (2011). Information Technology & Libraries, 23(4), Factors that influence information-seeking be- 168–180. S96 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION FOR LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SCIENCE

Appendix A: Perceived Level of Difficulty with Assignments by Country Information Behaviors and Information Literacy Skills of LIS Students S97

Category labels from top:

Getting started on the assignment is difficult Defining a topic for the assignment is difficult Narrowing down a topic is difficult Coming up with search terms is difficult Building up the search strategy is difficult Deciding which database to use is difficult Finding articles in the library’s databases is difficult Finding sources to use “out on the web” is difficult Determining whether a Web site is credible or not is difficult Figuring out where to find sources in the library is difficult Finding up-to-date materials is difficult Finding “gray literature” (e.g. thesis, reports, unpublished papers, etc.) is difficult Having to sort through all the irrelevant results that I get to find what I need is difficult S98 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION FOR LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SCIENCE

Appendix B: Perceived Level of Difficulty in Preparing Assignments by Country Information Behaviors and Information Literacy Skills of LIS Students S99

Category labels from top:

Evaluating the sources I’ve found is difficult Reading through the material is difficult Taking notes is difficult Integrating different sources from my research into my assignment is difficult The writing part is difficult Re-phrasing what is already well-expressed in a source is difficult Knowing when I should cite a source is difficult Knowing how to cite a source in the right format is difficult Knowing whether my use of a source, in certain circumstances, constitutes plagiarism or not is difficult Deciding whether “I’m done” or not is difficult Knowing whether I’ve done a good job on the assignment or not is difficult