Indigenous Local Plants
Devil’s club (Oplopanax horridus) čɛtay / čɛt̓ay
Devil’s club is an understory shrub commonly found in moist, well- drained, forested eco-systems on the Pacific Northwest coast. Its stems and leaves are covered with a dense armor of thorns (up to 2 cm / ½ inch long), which cause severe skin irritation.
The stems of this shrub can grow more than 6 metres (20 feet) in height, and its broad leaves can measure upto 35 cm (14 inches) across.
The traditional medicinal, spiritual, and technological use of devil’s club is widely documented in historical records. Different parts of the plant have traditionally been used for a wide range of physical ailments. Phytochemical research has proven that this plant has antifungal, antiviral, antibacterial, and anti-mycobacterial properties. Devil’s club is closely related to a number of widely known medicinal plants, including Asian ginseng, American ginseng, Siberian ginseng and Sarsaparilla.
Among the traditional applications of devil’s club its most widespread use is for cleansing and purification and the treatment of external and internal infections. The effectiveness of many of these treatments is likely related to devil’s club’s significant antibacterial,1,2 anti-mycobacterial (active against bacteria in the genus Mycobacterium),3,4 antifungal,5,6 and antiviral properties.7,8
1 McCutcheon AR, Ellis SM, Hancock REW, Towers, GHN. Antibiotic screening of medicinal plants of the British Columbian native peoples. J Ethnopharmacol 1993; 37:213-23. 2 Kobaisy M, Abramowski Z, Lermer L, Saxena G, Hancock REW, Towers GHN. Antimycobacterial polyenes of devil’s club (Oplopanax horridus), a North American native medicinal plant. J Nat Prod 1997; 60:1210-13. 3 IBID 4 Kobaisy M, Abramowski Z, Lermer L, Saxena G, Hancock REW, Towers GHN. Antimycobacterial polyenes of devil’s club (Oplopanax horridus), a North American native medicinal plant. J Nat Prod 1997; 60:1210-13. 5 McCutcheon AR, Ellis SM, Hancock REW, Towers, GHN. Antifungal screening of medicinal plants of the British Columbian native peoples. J Ethnopharmacol 1994; 44:157-69. 6 Kobaisy M, Abramowski Z, Lermer L, Saxena G, Hancock REW, Towers GHN. Antimycobacterial polyenes of devil’s club (Oplopanax horridus), a North American native medicinal plant. J Nat Prod 1997; 60:1210-13. 7 McCutcheon AR, Roberts TE, Gibbons E, et al. Antiviral screening of British Columbian medicinal plants. J Ethnopharmacol1995;49:101-10. 8 Wigod R. A Plant that Heals. The Vancouver Sun 1998 March 2; Sect. B:10.
1 Indigenous peoples have used Devil’s club as an aid in childbirth, as an analgesic, as an emetic and purgative and also as a treatment for:
• Arthritis • Broken bones • Cancer • Dandruff • Fever • Headaches • Internal bleeding • Lice • Respiratory ailments • Rheumatism • Stomach and digestive tract ailments • Tuberculosis
It is also commonly reported that devil’s club has hypoglycemic properties and is used by Indigenous and non-Indigenous peoples alike to treat type II late onset diabetes. However, its efficacy as a treatment for this condition has not been clinically proven.
Multiple parts of the shrub, including inner bark, inner bark ash, whole stems, roots, berries, and leaves, are used in a variety of ways to effect these treatments. However, the most common type of preparation is as an infusionor decoction of the stem’s inner bark.9
In addition to ethnographic accounts of medicinal uses, there are also numerous sources that describe spiritual applications of devil’s club. Two of the most widespread spiritual uses are bathing with a devil’s club inner bark solution for personal protection and purification, and the use of plant’s spiny (or de-spined) stems as an amulet for protection against a variety of external influences.
External and internal cleansing through the use of devil’s club was - and is - of great importance to many of the cultural groups throughout devil’s club’s range. The inner stem bark of devil’s club has also often been used in solution to wash down fishing boats, fishnets, and to purify a house after an illness or death, and, in charcoal form, as a basis for protective or ceremonial face paint. Among some Indigenous peoples, devil’s club is considered sacred. Along with red ochre paint, devil’s club is regarded as a link between the ordinary and the spirit worlds.
9 See APPENDIX A for an overview of the traditional medicinal uses of Devil’s club by the Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest.
2 Devil’s club significance plant to many Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest, and its botanical relationship to other medicinal ginsengs has led to increasing interest from the herbal, nutraceutical and pharmaceutical sectors, who are harvesting and marketing it as a ginseng-like herbal medicine.
Unfortunately this commercialization of devil’s club has not been in keeping with the United Nations Convention on Biodiversity. To date, little or no consultation has been undertaken with the Indigenous peoples from whom knowledge of devil’s club’s properties has been derived, and no provisions have been made to compensate or share benefits with the original users of devil’s club, in acknowledgement of their intellectual and cultural property rights.
Rising market demand has the potential to increase the unregulated harvest of wild devil’s club. This is of grave concern because over-harvesting, especially of the plant roots, could lead to the plant’s disappearance from sites within its natural range.
Medicinal Uses of Devil’s Club by Cultural Linguistic Group
Cultural Linguistic Medicinal Uses of Devil’s Club Group Nlaka’pamux Appetite Stimulant Secwepemc Infusion of inner bark. Squamish Alutiiq Carrier Ditidaht Gitxsan Haida Halkomelem Hanaksiala Makah Arthritis / Rheumatism Oweekeno Infusion or decoction of inner bark, pounded leaves and sometimes roots, Nuu-chah-nulth inner bark used in bath/steam bath, inner bark chewed, crushed root used Stl’atl’imx as poultice, and whole stems used to beat rheumatic limbs as counter- Nuxalk irritant. Sahaptin Sechelt Sekani Squamish Stl’atl’imx Tlingit Tsimshian Métis Birth Control - Decoction of roots. Carrier Blood Purifier Nlaka’pamux Decoction of inner bark. Alutiiq Broken Bone Gitxsan Decoction of inner bark. Haida
3 Alutiiq Gitxsan Cancer Haida Infusion of inner bark. Tlingit Tsimshian Alutiiq Carrier Childbirth / Menstruation Hanaksiala Inner bark mashed and swallowed, or decoction of inner bark taken as Lushootseed purgative to expel afterbirth, to start post-partum menstrual flow, regulate Makah menstruation, and for cramps. Secwepemc Tlingit Cree Haida Halkomelem Heiltsuk Metis Nlaka’pamux Diabetes Nuxalk Infusion or decoction of inner bark and sometimes roots, both alone and in Sechelt mixtures. Secwepemc Squamish Stl’atl’imx Straits Salish Tsimshian (23) Diphtheria Sekani Infusion of roots applied externally. Alutiiq Carrier Eyak Gitxsan Haisla Emetic / Purgative Haida Decoction or infusion of inner bark prepared in water or seal oil, both alone Makah and in mixtures, roots chewed and the inner bark sometimes swallowed. Nuxalk Tlingit Tsetsaut Wet’suwet’en Tanaina Fever - Decoction of inner bark. Alutiiq Gitxsan Haida Flu Nlaka’pamux Infusion of inner bark, alone and in mixtures, and the inner stem bark Tanaina chewed. Tsimshian Tlingit Wet’suwet’en Haida Gall Stones Tlingit Infusion of inner bark. Haemorrhaging and Blood Disorders Comox Infusion of inner bark, alone and in mixture, and berries pounded into paste Hanaksiala taken internally. Alustiiq Heart Disease Hanaksiala Berries pounded into paste taken internally. Wet’suwet’en Haida Insanity Tsimshian Introduced into the system by beating skin with stems. Tlingit
4 Haida Tanaina Internal Infections Tsimshian Infusion of inner bark. Tlingit Gitxsan Haida Haisla Hanaksiala Heiltsuk Laxative Kwakwaka’wakw Infusion or decoction of inner bark prepared both alone and in mixtures. Nlaka’pamux Nuxalk Tanaina Tlingit Tsimshian Haida Lice and Dandruff Oweekeno Pounded berries rubbed on hair and scalp. Alutiiq Lymph Trouble (Dropsy) Ash of inner bark. Halkomelem Measles Tlingit Decoction of inner bark. Alutiiq Gitxsan Haida Pain Relief, Analgesic Kwakwaka’wakw Decoction of inner bark, inner stem bark mixed with oil and eaten, dried Nuxalk inner bark laid into tooth cavity, steam bath with inner bark. Oweekeno Tlingit Tsimshian Makah Perfume, Baby Talc Alutiiq Pneumonia Squamish Decoction or infusion of inner bark, and inner bark used in steam baths with Tlingit a variety of additional plants. Alutiiq Eyak Gitxsan Haida Halkomelem Hanaksiala Okanagan Oweekeno Respiratory Ailments, Coughs, Colds Nlaka’pamux Decoctions and infusions prepared from inner stem bark, whole stems and Okanagan sometimes roots, inner bark also chewed, used in sweat baths, and burned Sahaptin and dampened and worn around the neck. Secwepemc Squamish Tagish Tanaina Tlingit Tsimshian Wet’suwet’en Alutiiq Comox Skin Wash Gitxsan Infusion or decoction of roots used as a general wash for acne, skin disease, Sechelt dandruff, etc. Sekani Tlingit
5 Alutiiq Carrier Eyak Gitxsan Sores Haida (Swellings, Cuts, Boils, Burns, and External Infections) Hanaksiala Inner bark, or infusion of, used externally as a poultice or wound dressing or Kwakwaka’wakw rubbed over sore, dried inner bark pulverized with pitch or burnt to ash and Makah mixed with oil or grease (sometimes salmonberries and dog feces) and Nlaka’pamux applied externally, berries pounded into a paste and applied externally, Nuxalk decoction of root applied externally, and sliver of bark placed in wound to Sechelt prevent infection. Tanaina Tlingit Tsimshian Wet’suwet’en Gitxsan Haida Hanaksiala Kwakwaka’wakw Stomach Trouble / Pains, Ulcers Nlaka’pamux Infusion or decoction of inner bark or paste made from berries taken Nuxalk internally. Squamish Tanaina Tlingit Ditidaht Gitxsan Haida Halkomelem Nlaka’pamux Tonic Nisga’a Infusion or decoction of inner bark or sometimes roots; inner bark chewed; Nuu-chah-nulth bark ash infused. Oweekeno Tlingit Sechelt Wet’suwet’en Gitxsan Venereal Disease Haida Decoction prepared from inner bark and whole stems both alone and in Tlingit mixtures with a variety of other plants. Tsimshian Haida Vision / Blindness Hanaksiala Infusion of inner bark taken internally; inner bark applied externally with Tsimshian pitch; and decoction used as an eyewash to reverse the effects of cataracts. Tlingit Nlaka’pamux Weight Loss - Infusion of de-spined stems.
6 Stinging nettle (Urtica dioica) sɛwšɛw
Stinging nettle grows most abundantly in areas with high annual rainfall and nitrogen-rich soil. It is commonly found in the understory of riparian areas, along the edges of meadows, in open, rich forests, and in soil where animal or human waste is present. Large patches can be found in the edges of clearings, old fields and roadsides.
Nettle, unlike many other plants, tends to produce only male or female flowers throughout each plant, thus giving it its name dioica, meaning “two houses.” The pollen-producing flowers, which bloom mid-summer, open suddenly, causing the anthers to spring open and release pollen, making the plant specifically adapted for wind fertilization.
Stinging nettle is generally best known for its sting, which is caused by the hollow stinging hairs (trichomes) that cover the stem as well as the undersides of nettle leaves. These trichomes break on contact with humans or animals, injecting combination of chemicals (histamine, acetylcholine, serotonin, and formic acid) under the skin that produce the plant’s famed stinging sensation. Interestingly, the juice of the nettle’s leaves will heal its sting.
Although its stem is extremely fibrous, and its sting is famous, nettle leaves and roots are edible and nutritious. The plant is best harvested in early spring - May or sooner. Care must be taken in harvesting to avoid being stung.
Stinging nettle is a good source of protein, tannins, and boron. It also has one of the highest chlorophyll contents of any plant and is high in vitamins A, B1, B2, C, and K, as well as copper, manganese and calcium. The roots and rhizomes can be cooked as a starchy vegetable. Young leaves and shoots can be eaten and prepared like spinach. The cooking water from boiling nettle leaves is high in iron and can be used as a tea or a soup base. Young nettles can be used to make a beer or wine. The plant was boiled with sugar to make jam.
Nettle is used globally to combat a wide range of afflictions. It is extremely helpful for respiratory ailments and may be consumed or inhaled as a decongestant, and to treat the symptoms of hay fever, asthma, and seasonal allergies. The high iron content in stinging nettle combats anemia and lethargy, and it can ease menstrual cramps and prevent heavy bleeding during menstruation.
7 The plant also has many benefits for expectant mothers. It guards against excessive bleeding, eases labor pains, and improves lactation. It is also a common prescription for kidney disorders, aids in the dissolving of kidney stones, encourages blood clotting, dilates the capillaries, and stimulates blood circulation. These clotting and circulation effects make it an excellent plant for treating bruises, cuts, and inflammation.
Nettle also helps to rebalance the body by acting as a tonic for the liver, blood and kidneys by balancing blood pH and safely flushing waste from the body (Krohn, 2007). It is also a common prescription for kidney disorders, aids in the dissolving of kidney stones, encourages blood clotting, dilates the capillaries, and stimulates blood circulation. These clotting and circulation effects make it an excellent plant for treating bruises, cuts, and inflammation
Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest have used the stinging nettle plant as a medicine with a wide range of applications:
LEAVES • Poultice of leaves and stalks used for paralyzed limbs • Poultice of soaked leaves applied to heat rash • Poultice of fresh, pounded leaves applied to skin inflammations • Poultice of leaves applied for headaches • Poultice of leaves applied for sores • Powdered leaves used as a snuff for nosebleeds • Poultice of steamed leaves used on swollen, sore, arthritic legs, ankles and joints • Hot poultice of mashed leaves applied for rheumatism • Compound decoction of roots taken as a blood tonic and for general debility • Used to rub down after the morning bath • Infusion of nettles taken by women to relax the muscles during childbirth • Plant tips chewed by women during labour • Young shoots chewed and swallowed as a tonic to prevent sickness
WHOLE PLANT • Rubbed on the bodies of hunters to keep them awake during the night • Decoction of peeled bark taken for nosebleeds • Nettles rubbed on stomach when sore • Plant rubbed on the skin for chest pains • Used for arthritis • Plant tops used for skin disease • Used to sting paralyzed limbs daily revive sensation • Infusion of stalks rubbed on the body for soreness or stiffness • Inner core of plant fiber used to cauterize the skin for various ailments • Stems put under splints to hasten the healing process • Plants whipped over body for arthritis and rheumatism
8 • Plant used to make a tea taken during sweat lodge • Infusion of stinging nettle used to wash the skin and hair. • Burning stem fibers used to cauterize sores and swellings • Decoction of plant taken for bladder trouble • Decoction of plant taken to keep blood flowing after childbirth • Nettles rubbed on body for aches, pains and backaches
ROOTS • Infusion of roots taken for stomach pains • Infusion of pounded roots taken for rheumatism • Infusion of root taken for dysentery • Decoction of roots used as a hair tonic for growing long, silky hair • Decoction of roots used as a soaking solution for bleeding haemorrhoids • Decoction of roots taken for hives and itches • Poultice of steamed roots used on swollen, sore, arthritic legs, ankles and joints
JUICE • Plant juice rubbed into the scalp to prevent hair from falling out • Plant juice taken by overdue, pregnant women
Dried nettles have been fed to livestock as a winter source of nutrition, or given as an infusion to treat livestock illnesses.
Indigenous peoples have enjoyed a strong relationship with the stinging nettle plant since time immemorial. By drying and pounding the stalks of nettle, it is possible to extract fibres that can be twisted or woven. Many First Nations, including the Coastal Salish, have used nettle fibres for making twine, rope, nets and snares. The fibre could be spun with bird down to make blankets or woven into cloth that was used for undershirts, robes, cloaks, and ponchos. Nettle roots can also be used to make a yellow or red dye.
Fireweed Chamerion angustifolium (L.) Holub
Fireweed is a perennial that blooms in late June and July in coastal BC, blanketing areas such as roadsides and logging slashes. It is usually one of the first plants to grow and bloom on land devastated by a forest fire. A member of the Evening Primrose family, fireweed sends up a flowering stalk each year that can grow to more than 9 feet in height. Fireweed’s slender pointed leaves are capped by dark pink flowers.
9 First Nations used fireweed externally for burns and other skin conditions, and drank it as a tea for gastro-intestinal and bronchial problems. In addition to its medicinal uses, fireweed shoots can be eaten as a vegetable, while the young leaves can be added to salads. Other uses included:
LEAVES/ SHOOTS/FLOWERS • Young shoots mixed with other greens and eaten • Young leaves boiled to make a refreshing tea • Poultice of leaves applied to bruises • Compound decoction of leaves taken for stomach-ache and intestinal discomfort • Infusion of dried, pulverized leaves taken for bowel haemorrhage • Flowers rubbed on rawhide thongs and mittens for waterproofing
ROOTS • Roots boiled and used as a drink • Root used to make a wash for swellings • Roots used for coughs • Infusion of roots taken for sore throats • Poultice of roasted, mashed roots applied to boils, abscesses or wounds to draw out infection • Compound infusion of roots taken for kidneys or for male urination problems. • Compound decoction of roots taken for consumption
STEMS • Young stems peeled and eaten raw like celery, or boiled or steamed • Stem used to draw the pus out of a boil or cut. • Powdered inner cortex of stem rubbed on the hands and face to protect them from the cold during the winter • Infusion of inner cortex and roots given to babies as an enema for constipation
Fireweed has been shown to be a good source of vitamins C and A, and to contain several chemical compounds with anti- inflammatory and antibacterial properties. One, Oenothein-B, has been patented by a Canadian company and is now being marketed as an anti-irritant and anti- inflammatory ingredient for skin care products. Fireweed is widely used as an effective external acne treatment. Fireweed is also being researched as a treatment for prostatitis (inflammation of the prostate), as related species have been shown to be effective for this purpose.
10 West Coast Reishi mushroom (Ganoderma species)
Reishi mushrooms are typically seen growing alone or in groups on decaying logs and stumps, or from the wounds of injured trees and producing a white or straw coloured rot of sapwood and heartwood. They are found on most species of hardwoods and on many conifers. Reishi mushrooms are also known as "Artist's Conk," since their pore surface bruises brown and retains the bruising for years if the mushroom is picked and brought inside.
Distinguishing features include an unvarnished, furrowed, lumpy, brown-crusted cap surface, a white pore surface (which bruises brown), and brownish or cinnamon flesh. Reishi mushrooms are perennial, and a specimen can develop for dozens of years.
Reishi mushrooms are highly ranked in Oriental traditional medicine as a nourishing health promoter. Although these mushrooms are still primarily consumed in Asia, reishi products are increasingly in demand in North America as the species’ antiviral, anti- tumour, antibacterial, and anti-parasitic properties are proven in clinical trials.
The reishi mushrooms that are native to BC have been shown to contain the same polysaccharides as their Asian cousins. Preparations of these polysaccharides have been proven to stimulate the immune system, promote elimination of free radicals and improve anti-oxidant capacity in human cells and blood.
The processed residue of the mushroom cap has been tested as a skin substitute and wound dressing: it was shown to have strong antibacterial and antiviral properties, and wound healing was found to be faster than with an existing commercial skin substitute. Clinical extractions and decoctions of the mushroom show potential applications for asthma, allergies, lung inflammations and suppression of cancer cell growth.
Salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis) t̓ɛnɛk̓ʷ (fruit / berry), paʔajɛ (shoots)
Shrubs are 1 to 4 metres tall with erect or arching stems that are often densely prickly on the upper portions of new growth. In winter the twigs have a distinctive golden- brown to rust- red color.
11 Salmonberry grows in moist places and wetlands, and is especially abundant along streams and rivers. It can form dense thickets or grow individually. Salmonberry flowers are large (about 1.5 inches across) and bloom in early spring with beautiful deep pink rose-like flowers – the plant is a member of the rose (Rosaceae) family. The fruits (‘berries”) are raspberry-like, round, yellow to orange to deep red in colour, and ripen from spring to late summer.
The berries and young stem shoots of the Salmonberry are traditional delicacies for many Indigenous peoples in the coastal areas of the Pacific Northwest, and the astringent bark, leaves and roots also had significant medical uses within some coastal First Nations.
BERRIES The berries are among the first wild fruits to ripen, and are a beautiful salmon color that stand out in the generally rainy weather of spring. The berries can be harvested as early as May in some areas. The berries are: • Moderately sweet and highly perishable • Juicy with a very good flavor • Generally eaten fresh • Can be frozen, canned, or made into jams and jellies.
Some Pacific Northwest Indigenous groups traditionally boiled, mashed, and dried the berries in cedar wood frames for winter use. The resulting cakes were rolled up and stored in wooden boxes. A purple / blue dye can be obtained from crushing the berries.
FLOWERS Salmonberry flowers can be added to salads.
12 SHOOTS • Salmonberry shoots were traditionally gathered in the early spring, and were usually the first fresh food of the season. • They should be snapped off with the fingers before they become woody, then peeled and eaten raw for a juicy snack. • Shoots were sometimes steamed or boiled, or tied in bundles and pit cooked. They were often eaten with salmon, and generally served with oil or fat to ease their digestion.
LEAVES • Boiled with fish as a culinary flavouring • Used to make a tea to aid relaxation and sleep • Chewed to make a disinfectant poultice and dressing for burns, wounds, sprains and infections • Boiled on their own or with salmonberry bark or root to create • Remedies for stomach problems • Topical disinfectants for wounds • A topical painkiller/ anti-spasmodic for pain of childbirth BARK • A decoction of Salmonberry bark used to lessen the pains of labour • A poultice of the chewed bark used to relive pain / disinfect burns and wounds • For sores and burns, the bark was hammered with a stone, and the resulting powder was sprinkled directly on wounds /lesions
NUTRITIONAL PROFILE 100 grams of raw salmonberries contains: Vitamin A: 10% recommended daily intake (RDI) Vitamin C: 15% RDI Vitamin E: 8% RDI Vitamin K: 18% Manganese: 55% RDI 1 to 4% RDI for the following trace minerals: Calcium, Iron, Magnesium, Phosphorous, Potassium, Sodium, Zinc, And Copper.
PHYTOCHEMICALS Phytochemicals are the active compounds found in plants. Two flavanols - epicatechin and procyanidin dimer B-416 - are present in combination in salmonberry. These same micronutrients occur in green tea and dark chocolate, and offer a wide range of physiological benefits: • Enhance muscle growth and strength naturally
13 • Increase nitric oxide production for improved blood flow and endurance • Improve insulin sensitivity and regulate blood sugar levels • Stimulate muscle protein synthesis • Lower cholesterol levels due to its natural antioxidant properties • Improve overall brain and heart health
ECOLOGICAL ROLE The flowers blossom from March to June, and are an important nectar source for bees, butterflies and hummingbirds. Songbirds, bears, and small mammals relish the berries. Deer, elk, bears and rabbits graze the leaves, twigs, and stems. Dense salmonberry thickets provide excellent escape habitats for birds and small mammals, and nesting sites for songbirds.
Thimbleberry (Rubus parviflorus) paʔajɛ = thimbleberry shoots
Thimbleberry is a shrub of the rose (Rosaceae) family that grows from 0.5 to 3m tall. It has erect stems with a grey, shedding bark that is free of prickles. The leaves are large, soft and maple leaf-shaped with fine, soft fuzz on both sides. Thimbleberry produces large white flowers (up to 4 cm) with crinkled petals, in clusters of 3 to 11 flowers. The berry is a small, red, hairy droplet. Thimbleberries have a hollow core, like raspberries, making the berries easy to fit on the tip of a finger like a thimble.
The plant occurs in dense patches as well as scattered individuals. Dense patches are generally found in open and disturbed sites such as clearings, avalanche tracks, logged sites, riversides and road edges as well as open forest (especially red alder dominated). Thimbleberry thrives in cool moist sites therefore it is a very common in the understory of the humid forests of the Pacific Northwest. Depending on local conditions, Thimbleberries may bud as early as March, be in full leaf and flower from May to August, with berries showing from June to the beginning of September.
Like many of the other berries native to the region, Thimbleberry was used both as food and medicine by many Indigenous peoples in the Pacific Northwest.
BERRIES The berries are edible. Thimbleberries are low in fat and calories and a good source of vitamins A and C, Potassium, Calcium, Iron and fibre. First Nations of the Pacific Northwest traditionally consume and prepare thimbleberries in a variety of ways:
14 • Eating them fresh from picking • Drying the berries for winter • Smoking the berries • Cooking the berries • Making jams and jellies • Mixing them with other foods • The berries are also used to treat stomach upset and wounds, and reduce scarring and swelling.
SHOOTS Thimbleberry shoots were harvested in spring (usually April); the berries ripen in the early summer. Women would gather shoots when the spring salmon and steelhead appeared up the river in the spring; they would be served together. The shoots were roasted until soft and served with the salmon. The young shoots, a good source of Vitamin C, were consumed in a variety of ways:
• Eaten raw • Prepared as a cooked vegetable • Prepared as teas and decoctions • Served with other spring foods, such as salmon
15 LEAVES FRESH YOUNG LEAVES • Broad and very soft • Used as utensil (plate, wrap, liner, storage) • Used as flavouring • Used as a personal care product and cosmetic • Used as a medical treatment • Prepared as teas and decoctions • Teas and decoctions were internally as a tonic to treat vomiting, diarrhea and pain, to tone and strengthen the stomach and improve appetite.Young leaves were also crushed and applied externally as a poultice to treat acne, blackheads, pimples, inflammation, wounds, burns, scarring and swelling.
DRIED LEAVES • Prepared as powders, teas, decoctions • Taken internally • Dried, powdered leaves eaten for internal disorders. • Decoction of leaves was taken for anaemia, and to strengthen the blood when a woman's period was unduly long. • Applied Externally • Poultice of dried, powdered leaves applied to wounds and burns to speed healing and minimize scarring and swelling • Used in facial steams • Used as products for herbal baths and hair rinses.
ROOTS • The roots are used as tonic and appetizer • Infusion of roots taken by thin people as an appetizer or tonic • A decoction of the roots is taken to treat acne • Some First Nations use the roots as sugar due to their sweetness • A tea is made of the roots as a treatment for stomach ache, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, dysentery,
BARK • Barks is used in facial steams (astringent) • Also used for herbal baths and hair rinses • The boiled bark is used to make soap
16 ECOLOGY Thimbleberry brambles are an important summer food source for wildlife, especially birds - grouse, pigeons, quail, grosbeaks, jays, robins, thrushes, towhees, waxwings, sparrows, among others. The berries are also popular with raccoons, squirrels, chipmunks, marmots, beaver and bear. Deer and rabbit eat the leaves and stems.
Nodding Onion (Allium cernuum) Sasxʷɛlnəč
Found throughout BC with the exception of Haida Gwaii. Nodding onion commonly grows in rocky crevices and in open woods and exposed areas, and blooms in mid summer.
Soft, grass-like leaves and a leafless flowering stalk rise from a central bulb. The flowers range from white to shades of purple in color and mature plants can reach up to 18" in height. The stem bends so that the pink flowers, borne in a cluster at the top, nod toward the ground. All parts of the plant have a mild, oniony scent. Nodding onion grows in full or partial sun, and moist to medium conditions. It spreads by seed and bulb offshoots.
TRADITIONAL USES Traditionally, nodding onions were eaten raw with leaves and also cooked and preserved. The usual cooking method was to steam the onions in pits lined with cedar, alder and lichens. When fully cooked, the onions would be eaten immediately or preserved for later use by being dried in strings, on mats, or pressed into cakes, and would be reconstituted by boiling or soaking in water. The strong taste and smell of the wild onion also made it useful in flavoring other foods such as salmon and meat.
WHOLE PLANT The whole plant has medicinal qualities that are similar to wild garlic. Nodding onion: • Is said to repel insects and moles • Has mild medicinal activity similar to the action of garlic. • A poultice of the plant is applied externally to: • Infections such as sore throats, sores, swellings, chest and pleurisy pains • The chest for the treatment of respiratory ailments • Feet to calm fever
LEAVES and FLOWERS • Leaves are gathered from spring to fall. • Flowers are collected during the summer.
17 • Both leaves and flowers have a strong onion flavour are eaten raw and cooked • Both are used to flavor soup, salad and for pickling. Nodding onion bulbs BULBS are very similar in • Bulbs are gathered when they are large enough to use appearance to the harmful Death Camas. like cultivated onions. They can be • Bulbs can be used like cultivated onions: raw, boiled, distinguished from that pickled plant by their • The bulbs can also be dried for use as seasoning. characteristic smell of • Poultice of soaked bulbs can be applied to sores and wild onions. swellings.
COOKING THE BULBS Cooked bulbs were considered a delicacy. The bulbs were cleaned and twined together in mats before they were cooked. They were tied together by their leaves in big bunches, about fifteen centimeters across. They were dipped in water, but not soaked, then laid in the cooking pit interspersed with layers of beardtongue and alder leaves.The bulbs were steam cooked overnight and after being cooked, they became extremely sweet. The cooked bulbs were eaten after eating meat. Sometimes, the bulbs were cooked with black tree lichen.10
JUICE The juice of the nodding onion has been used • In the treatment of kidney stones (the juice of Nodding Onion was taken following a dose of Horsemint tea) • To ease colds, croup, colic, fevers and sore throats • For hives • For liver complaints • To repel biting insects by applying to exposed skin • As a moth repellent
Red Elderberry11 (Sambucus racemosa) tᶿɛwqʷ
Red elderberry is a tall shrub that grows best in forest openings. Its seeds can remain dormant for many years until a gap opens and stimulates germination, sometimes on "nurse logs." It can also stump-sprout from the root crown following cutting or fire. The plant is multi-stemmed with dark green foliage, white flowers and red berries.
10 Native American Ethnobotany Database (naeb.brit.or 11 aka Scarlet Elderberry, Red Elder, Red-berried Elder
18 BERRIES Red elderberry berries should always be eaten cooked, as they are potentially poisonous when raw. Berries have traditionally been prepared, preserved and stored in a variety of ways: • Boiled into a thick sauce, dried into cakes, stored, reconstituted and eaten • Pit steamed, dried over fire into cakes • Mixed with sugar, steamed and eaten • Placed in alder bark cones and submerged in cold creeks for storage • Canned for winter use • Preserved as wine, jelly and jam • Jelly and jam
BARK • Infusion of bark used as steam bath to relax body of woman after childbirth • Compound infusion of bark used as a footbath for aching legs and feet • Decoction of peeled twigs, a drastic purgative, taken for severe constipation • Decoction of scraped inner bark used as a quick emetic in cases of poisoning • Decoction of inner bark and rind taken as a powerful emetic • Bark soaked in water and taken as an emetic / laxative / purge • Bark used by athletes to 'draw out all the slime in the system,' for better wind and endurance
ROOTS • Raw roots chewed as an emetic and a laxative • Raw roots rubbed on the skin for aching, tired muscles • Infusion of root bark used as an emetic and purgative for stomach pain • Decoction of root taken as a purgative • Root extract taken to induce vomiting
ECOLOGY Birds and mammals (bears, raccoons, squirrels and mice) favor the juicy fruits and disperse them widely. Porcupines, mice and hares nibble the bark in winter. Deer and elk will eat the foliage, bark and buds, but Red elderberry is not a preferred browse. Its palatability increases after frost and probably varies with relative cyanide content of individual plants. Many birds eat the berries including thrushes, robins, grouse, and pigeons. Bees, flies, and wind pollinate red elderberry flowers. Fruit-eating birds and mammals disperse the seeds.
19 Cascara tree (Frangula purshiana) hamoʔay The Cascara is a small tree or shrub with greyish- black bark that grows to 10 metres tall, with greenish flowers, clustered near ends of branches. It yields berries that are red when young and ripen to purple or black. Each fruit contains three seeds. The bark is thin, dark greyish-brown; smooth when young, becomes scaly with age. A cut in the bark reveals a bright yellow inner bark that turns dark brown on exposure to air and light. It is found on the southern part of the coast and Vancouver Island and in scattered locations in the Columbia Valley in the Interior. Cascara grows in clearings, riparian areas and under conifers on rich, well-drained soils with plentiful summer moisture.
First Nations in the Pacific Northwest used cascara bark for its laxative properties, stripping the bark and allowing it to cure for up to 3 years before being pulverized and boiled (Note: Fresh bark can cause severe nausea). Tla’amin Elder Elsie Paul remembers her grandfather making and using it. Cascara bark is taken internally to: • Increase the secretion of bile from the gall bladder (extracts of cascara sagrada bark are used commercially to prevent or break up gallstones) • Treat liver problems and jaundice • Sooth upset stomachs • Improve the flow of secretions from the pancreas, stomach, and liver • Promote digestion and aid in elimination • Act as a natural antibiotic in the intestines • Help eliminate gastrointestinal parasites such as worms • Relieve pressure / pain associated with hemorrhoids and fissures • Treat diabetes • Treat heart pain and internal strains
Pacific Northwest First Nations introduced the herb to Spanish conquerors, who named it “Cascara Sagrada” (Sacred Bark) in recognition of its powerful healing properties. Cascara bark has had a place of honour in the U.S. Pharmacopoeia since 1890, and is the most popular herbal medicine in the world. It is included in many over-the-counter laxatives and is prescribed more than 2.5 million times a year. In 1999, the herb made up more than 20% of the national laxative market in the U.S., with an estimated value of $400 million. In recent times, it has been used as an ingredient in sunscreen products, as well as a flavoring agent in candy, frozen dairy products and baked goods.
20 OTHER USES • Coffee: One gallon of the fresh seeds can be piled outdoors and left until the flesh rots away. Then they are washed, dried over medium heat, ground, and roasted till a "deep brown" is achieved. They can be used as drip coffee. The result has been described as "...identical to the taste, look, and smell of fresh coffee.
PHYTOCHEMISTRY The fresh bark of cascara sagrada contains • Anthrones, which stimulate the motion of the colon and reduce water reabsorption • Aloe - emodin which is being researched as a possible treatment for cancer tumours and leukemia
ECOLOGY Deer or other mammals may browse Cascara occasionally. The berries are attractive to birds, small mammals and raccoons.
Bracken Fern (Pteridium) tagəkʷayɩn
FOOD • Fiddleheads peeled, boiled, steamed or canned for winter use • Young shoots and stems eaten raw • Rhizome (part of stem below surface of ground) toasted and eaten in summer • Rhizomes roasted, pounded into flour and used to make bread • Rhizomes roasted, peeled and the starchy centers eaten • Rhizomes eaten fresh in late fall or winter. • Long, mashed rhizomes eaten boiled or steamed • Roots roasted in ashes, peeled and eaten
MEDICINE • Root used as a tonic • Root used as an antiseptic • Infusion of rhizomes taken for vomiting blood from internal injuries • Decoction of root used as hair rinse or roots rubbed on scalp for hair growth • Decoction of rhizome (stem below surface of ground) taken for colds • Decoction of rhizome taken for lack of appetite
21 • Poultice of heated roots applied to burns • Decoction of leaves used as a bath for broken bones • Poultice of leaves used to bind broken bones • Fiddleheads placed on each side of the gums adjacent to the affected tooth for toothaches • Young, curled frond juice used as a body deodorant • Poultice of pounded fronds and leaves applied to sores of any type. Fronds, pounded with a rock, mixed with leaves and melted pine pitch, strained and applied to sores from one to several days. • Young shoots eaten as medicine for 'troubles with one's insides,' such as cancer of the womb • Leaves used in a steam bath for arthritis. The leaves were placed over red hot rocks in a steaming pit, a little water was added and the person laid on top of the fronds • Decoction taken for diarrhea • Compound used for rheumatism • Cold, compound decoction of roots taken for weak blood • Compound decoction taken for prolapsus of uterus • Decoction taken when suffering after birth • Decoction used to make 'good blood' after menses, taken after baby's birth • Compound decoction taken during the early stages of consumption • Infusion of root taken by women to allay cramps • Smoke from dried leaves on coals used for headaches
Salal Berry (Gaultheria shallon) taq̓ ay̓
FOOD • Berry-like fruits used for food • Berries eaten fresh • Berries dried in cakes and used as a winter food • Berries used to make pies • Berries used to make jellies and jams • Dried, caked berries rehydrated and eaten with oil
MEDICINE • Poultice of chewed leaves applied to burns • Infusion of leaves used as a stomach tonic • Leaves chewed to alleviate hunger • Poultice of chewed leaves applied to sores • Decoction of leaves taken for diarrhea • Leaves chewed for heartburn and colic • Infusion of leaves taken for coughs
22 • Infusion of leaves taken for tuberculosis • Infusion of leaves taken as a convalescent tonic • Poultice of toasted, pulverized leaves applied to cuts
Skunk Cabbage (Lysichiton americanus) taqa,̓ taq̓ ə
ROOT MEDICINE • Poultice of roots used for sores • Decoction of root taken for stomach trouble • Compound containing root used for rheumatism • Compound containing root used as plaster on the chest for lung hemorrhages • Smoke of burning root inhaled for influenza, rheumatism and bad dreams • Simple or compound poultice of mashed root applied for blood poisoning and boils • Compound containing root used as plaster on the chest for lung hemorrhages • Poultice of pounded root paste applied to burns • Poultice of baked roots applied to carbuncles • Poultice of steamed, mashed roots applied to swellings • Raw root chewed by women to effect an abortion • Decoction of roots taken as a blood purifier • Decoction of pounded root taken to bring about easy delivery • Decoction of roots taken to clean out the bladder • Roots used in a steam for stroke • Infusion of roots used as a wash for invalids • Powdered, charred rhizome mixed with bear grease, used as an ointment for animal bites & infections • Leaves placed under pillows during sleep to induce power dreams
LEAF & FLOWER MEDICINE • Poultice of heated blossoms applied to the body for rheumatism • Poultice applied or leaves sat on or lain on in sweatbath for rheumatism • Poultice of cold and fresh leaves applied for burns • Heated leaves used to draw out thorns and splinters • Leaves used in a sweatbath for general weakness or undefined sickness • Poultice of warmed leaves applied for chest pain • Poultice of leaves applied for pain in the knees • Poultice of leaves applied to sores • Leaves used for headaches • Poultice of leaves applied to cuts and swellings • Leaves used for fevers
23 OTHER LOCAL FOREST PLANTS / PLANT PRODUCTS
Bog cranberry xaʔay
Blue huckleberry yaxəni
Cottonwood qʷaqʷalay, qʷaqʷaley
Crabapples (Small wild) kʷaqʷnɛx
Cow's parsnip / Indian rhubarb xakʷum
Huckleberry to̓ ʔxʷəm
Soapberry xʷosəm (Shepherdia canadensis)
Waxberry šɛsuʔay
Jack pine pitch qʷawɛɬs qaqyənay
Balsam pitch qʷawɛɬs tuxʷay
Spruce pitch qʷawɛɬs tᶿačɩɬpay
LOCAL SEAWEEDS
Kelp (Nereocystis luetkean) kʷumt • Leaves used for burns. • Leaves dried, pulverized and rubbed into children's heads to make hair grow long • Leaves used for scabs and non-pigmented spots. • Leaves used for swollen feet.
Red Laver Seaweed (Porphyra) ƛəqstən FOOD • Gathered and dried for winter use • Dried, crushed and sprinkled on various foods as a condiment • Plant pressed into boxes to form compressed cakes, dried and stored for future use • Leaves sun dried, chopped, dried and stored in closed containers • Leaves used in fish stews and soups
24 • Fresh seaweed baked and eaten • Mixed with water, beaten until frothy and white and eaten as a dessert
MEDICINE • Decoction of plant taken or poultice applied for any kind of sickness in the stomach or body. • Poultice of plant applied to broken collarbones. • Decoction of plant taken or poultice applied for any kind of sickness in the stomach or body
Sea wrack, bladderwrack, or rockweed q’áqiqwuh
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