Cruelty to Animals: Changing Psychological, Social, and Legislative Perspectives

WellBeing International WBI Studies Repository

2001

Frank R. Ascione Utah State University

Randall Lockwood The Humane Society of the United States

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Part of the Animal Studies Commons, Criminology Commons, and the Other Anthropology Commons

Recommended Citation Ascione, F.R., & Lockwood, R. (2001). Cruelty to animals: Changing psychological, social, and legislative perspectives. In D.J. Salem & A.N. Rowan (Eds.), The state of the animals 2001 (pp. 39-53). Washington, DC: Humane Society Press.

This material is brought to you for free and open access by WellBeing International. It has been accepted for inclusion by an authorized administrator of the WBI Studies Repository. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Cruelty to Animals: Changing Psychological, Social, and 2CHAPTER Legislative Perspectives

Frank R. Ascione and Randall Lockwood

Introduction uring the last half of the twen- ment has allowed or encouraged. The (Greece, Egypt, Mesopotamia, Assyr- tieth century, many of soci- fact that the definition of cruelty to ia, India) looked upon killing of ani- Dety’s concerns were focused animals is so strongly influenced by mals in a nonsacrificial way as the on the quality of our physical environ- cultures and subcultures need not be moral equivalent of manslaughter. ment and the threats to the integrity a complication but rather an oppor- As the sacred elements of animal and health of that environment. As we tunity to unravel the many influ- use changed with the expansion of uti- enter the new millennium, it is becom- ences that can shape violent behavior. lization of domestic animals, so did ing clear that societal concerns about Closer analysis of the connections Western views of animal maltreat- the proliferation of violence will con- between cruelty to animals and other ment. Key to this transformation were stitute another environmental move- forms of violence offers new opportu- the reinterpretations of Biblical state- ment, one dealing with the problems nities for the study of violence and the ments on animals by Saint Augustine that Garbarino (1995) has termed “so- hope for new insights and solutions. (A.D. 354–430) and Thomas Aquinas cial toxicity.” Research, debate, and Concern about cruelty to animals (1225–1274). These denied that ani- discussion about the causes and cures has been part of the cultural, ethical, mals had the capacity for reason and of violence in American society are and religious traditions of most immortality and advanced the con- already part of the discourse of nearly societies (Regenstein 1991). Serpell cept that maltreatment of animals was every discipline, from philosophy to (1999) observes that many historical wrong only in the context of its con- criminology to evolutionary biology. accounts of the rise of the animal pro- nection to the development of violence Society is looking for new tools and tection movement link the growth of against people. In Summa Contra resources to employ in the efforts to this concern to other social reform Gentiles, Aquinas follows his defense combat violence, identify real or movements of the eighteenth and of the exploitation of animals with potential perpetrators at an early nineteenth centuries. These include this observation: stage, and define actions that might abolition of slavery, women’s suffrage, If any passages of Holy Writ seem predict or prevent violent behavior. and the protection of children, the to forbid us to be cruel to dumb Closer examination of cruelty to ani- disabled, and the severely mentally ill animals, for instance to kill a bird mals within the framework of family (see e.g., Turner 1980; Ritvo 1987; with its young, this is “to remove and societal violence offers an oppor- Ryder 1989). However, Serpell argues man’s thoughts from being cruel tunity to explore violence outside of that the exclusion of animals from to other men, and lest through the traditional nature–nurture debate moral consideration in pre–eighteenth- being cruel to other animals one over the origins of aggression. Cruel- century Europe was the exception, becomes cruel to human beings” ty to animals represents an objective- rather than the rule. Hunter-gatherer (Regan and Singer 1976, 59). ly definable behavior that occurs and early agrarian societies tended to Immanuel Kant echoed these same within a societal context. It also rep- view animals as fully rational, sentient sentiments five hundred years later in resents a good measure of the inter- beings with whom humans were to his essay “Metaphysical Principles of action between the behavior of which maintain correct and respectful rela- the Doctrine of Virtue”: an individual is intrinsically capable tionships. Even cultures that made use Cruelty to animals is contrary to and the behavior his or her environ- of domesticated animals for food man’s duty to himself, because it

39 deadens in him the feeling of sym- mal abuse and urged the field of crim- First, animal abuse may be present at pathy for their sufferings, and thus inology to pay greater attention to both an early and a later stage, a rela- a natural tendency that is very this phenomenon both as an object of tion we could call maintenance. Sec- useful to morality in relation to study in its own right and as a factor ond, animal abuse may be absent dur- other human beings is weakened. related to human violence and crime. ing an early stage but appear at a (Regan and Singer 1976, 125) This theme also runs through a later stage, a relation called emer- Ironically this view recognizes that recent South African article pub- gence. Third, animal abuse may be cruelty to animals can have serious lished by Schiff et al. (1999). In an present early but may cease to occur effects on the perpetrator, effects that earlier paper, Beirne (1997) high- later, a relation labeled desistence can shape how he or she interacts with lighted the sexual abuse of animals (though this can be supplanted by other people, but at the same time it (bestiality) as a topic virtually ig- escalation, discussed below). Finally, dismisses as immaterial the direct nored in the sociological and crimi- animal abuse may be absent at all impact of such maltreatment on the nological fields. Agnew (1998) has developmental stages. nonhuman victim. We at last seem to provided a thoughtful analysis of the In each of the first four relations, be moving toward recognition that need to integrate animal abuse into animal abuse is present in some form cruelty to animals can result in great criminological theories of crime and at some developmental period. These harm to the victim, the perpetrator, deviance. Robin (1999) and Flynn relations are further complicated, and society as a whole. As Serpell (2000a,b) have contributed valu- however, when we consider that ani- (1999) notes, we are arriving at the able conceptual papers encouraging mal abuse may be just one form of realization that the roots of cruelty do the fields of public health and fami- antisocial behavior displayed during not lie in some primitive nature that is ly relations, respectively, to broaden childhood and adolescence. to be transcended through enhanced their research domains to include In the case of maintenance, animal civility, as the Victorians believed, but animal maltreatment as a significant abuse may be accompanied by other in the complex consequences of perform of violence. Arluke and Lock- antisocial symptomatology (e.g., fire sonal experiences within the context wood (1997), Lockwood and As- setting, vandalism) at any develop- of cultures and subcultures. cione (1998), and Ascione et al. mental periods. In the case of emer- (2000) have also called for greater gence, other antisocial behavior (e.g., collaborative work among animal wel- bullying children) may precede ani- The Renewal fare, domestic violence, child welfare, mal abuse. And in the case of and child clinical fields both in terms desistence, although animal abuse of a Research of research efforts and program (pre- ceases, it may be supplanted by other ventive and treatment) development. antisocial behavior (e.g., the five-year- Emphasis These reviews have set the stage for old who sexually abuses animals Most of the attention given to the implementing a revitalized research becomes a fifteen-year-old who sexual- topic of cruelty to animals within sci- agenda on animal abuse issues for ly assaults humans). This last condi- entific and academic communities this new century. Rather than simply tion, in which animal abuse precedes during the last two hundred years documenting that animal abuse is a other forms of violence toward people, is contained within a relatively small significant problem in its own right has sometimes been referred to as the number of reports (Lockwood and and a problem related to human vic- graduation or escalation hypothesis. Ascione 1998). A sign of the growing timization, we can now begin to ask The escalation hypothesis suggests maturity of scholarly attention to the- the more difficult questions about that the presence of cruelty to ani- ory and research on animal abuse is factors related to the ontogeny, pre- mals at one developmental period the recent blossoming of conceptual vention, and treatment of animal mal- predicts interpersonal violence at a and review papers on this topic. In treatment and its relation to other later developmental period. Accord- developmental psychology Ascione mental health problems. ing to this hypothesis, the five-year- (1993) reviewed the literature on ani- old who abuses animals is on the way mal abuse from the perspective of to becoming an elementary-school developmental psychopathology. He Developmental bully, aggressive adolescent, and noted the early historical interest in adult violent offender. This type of animal abuse in the psychoanalytic Aspects of progression fails to consider the com- and child psychology literatures at plex associations between childhood the beginning of the twentieth centu- Animal Abuse and adolescent antisocial behavior and ry but also noted the failure of devel- The relationship between cruelty to adult violence and criminality. In the opmental psychologists to attend to animals and stages of human develop- following sections, we outline rele- the role of pets and other animals in ment can be characterized in at least vant material from the area of devel- the lives of children. Beirne (1999) five ways: maintenance, emergence, opmental psychopathology that sug- has examined the literature on ani- desistence, escalation, and absence. gests the escalation hypothesis may

40 The State of the Animals: 2001 be more the exception than the rule. However, a few caveats accompany nonclinic twelve- to fourteen-year- A more general form of the escala- this expectation. First, cruelty to ani- olds and their parents. The preva- tion hypothesis is actually codified in mals has been listed as a CD symptom lence of cruelty to animals based on the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual only since the 1987 version of the parental reports was 1.2 percent for of Mental Disorders, fourth edition DSM. Clinical research and practice girls, and 2.7 percent for boys, but (DSM-IV) (American Psychiatric Asso- prior to 1987 may not include ques- the rates based on children’s self ciation [APA] 1994). The adult per- tions about animal abuse. A thirty- reports were 9.1 percent and 10.2 sonality disorder most closely related year-old with APD who was abusive to percent, respectively. It is also to violent behavior is antisocial per- animals as a fourteen-year-old might unclear from Frick et al. (1) how long sonality disorder (APD) (code 301.7) not show up as a positive instance of hurting animals persists over child- and its diagnosis has, as a prerequi- the escalation hypothesis. hood and adolescence, (2) whether site, the presence of conduct disorder Second, covert cruelty to animals hurting animals is displaced by other (CD) (code 312.8) prior to age fifteen may not come to the attention of par- forms of destructiveness and antiso- years. The first area of concern listed ents, who are usually the respondents cial behavior, and (3) how often cru- under the APD diagnostic criteria is to symptom checklists/questionnaires elty to animals, given that opportuni- “failure to conform to social norms about their children’s current behav- ties for its commission are available, with respect to lawful behaviors as ior and history. Teachers, who may is absent in both CD and APD. indicated by repeatedly performing also be asked to complete such check- acts that are grounds for arrest” (APA lists and questionnaires, may be 1994, 649). Although aggressiveness unaware of a child’s abuse of animals, The Prevalence is also listed as a symptom of APD, since this behavior is unlikely to occur there is no specific mention of animal in school environments. In addition, of Cruelty abuse. This contrasts with the diagnos- since cruelty to animals has until very tic symptoms for CD, which include recently been classified as a “minor” to Animals cases where a child or adolescent “has crime in most jurisdictions, even The occurence of cruelty to animals been physically cruel to animals” when discovered it has often been dis- in children referred to mental health (APA 1994, 90). Physical cruelty to missed as trivial or irrelevant. Behav- services and in nonreferred children animals, however, is only one of fif- iors that are more overt, such as has been estimated in two studies by teen distinct symptoms listed under vandalism, theft, fire setting, and tru- Achenbach and Edelbrock (1981) and the CD classification. To receive a ancy, may be more likely to come to Achenbach et al. (1991). Although diagnosis of CD, the child or adoles- the attention of parents and authori- these were cross-sectional, not longi- cent must display at least three of the ties and to be reported. tudinal, studies, both suggest that fifteen symptoms within the previous Third, there is some evidence that cruelty to animals is most prevalent twelve months. Therefore, cruelty to cruelty to animals is one of the earli- among preschoolers and then decreas- animals, alone, is neither necessary est CD symptoms to emerge, but its es over childhood to mid-adolescence nor sufficient for a diagnosis of CD. significance may not be noted until (age sixteen). This could represent Unfortunately, we are not aware of additional symptoms (e.g., fire set- a real developmental decrease but any research that ties the presence of ting, vandalism) begin to accumulate. could also be due to overt cruelty cruelty to animals as a CD symptom to Frick et al. (1993, 330) noted that becoming covert and, thus, less likely the probability of APD in adults. parental reports on the emergence to be captured in parental reports. If a strong form of the escalation of CD symptoms mark 6.5 years as These studies do suggest that cruelty hypothesis were viable (i.e., early cru- the median age of onset for “hurting to animals is more common for boys elty to animals always leads to later animals.” Other potentially criminal than for girls and for referred than for interpersonal violence) and we locat- behaviors emerge later (e.g., stealing, nonreferred children (cruelty to ani- ed a sufficient sample of APD clients, 7.5 years; setting fires, 8.0 years). mals ranges from 10–30 percent for we would expect many of the clients to Note that these data are based on referred children in contrast to 0–5 have displayed cruelty to animals as retrospective parental reports. Frick percent for nonreferred children). part of their CD symptomatology. et al. recommend soliciting informa- Larzelere et al. (1989) found that Furthermore, a prospective study tion, both retrospective and contem- cruelty to animals in a nonclinic could determine whether children porary, directly from children (that is, sample of children from infants identified as conduct disordered who self-reports), especially for covert be- to toddlers, according to parental display cruelty toward animals as part haviors. We may discover that chil- reports, appeared to increase over this of their symptomatology are more dren’s self-reports regarding the age developmental period. Cruelty to ani- likely to display interpersonally violent of onset of cruelty to animals may be mals was “sometimes” or “frequent- behavior in adulthood and are more earlier than parental reports indi- ly” present for 4 percent of one-year- likely to be classified as APD than are cate. Offord et al. (1991) inter- olds and 8 percent of four-year-olds. It children who do not abuse animals. viewed a large sample (N=1,232) of is unclear what anchor, or definition

Cruelty to Animals: Changing Psychological, Social, and Legislative Perspectives 41 of “cruelty to animals,” is being used percentage of this 25 percent persists also computed base rates for each CD by respondents reporting on these in displaying cruelty to animals into symptom, allowing comparison of very young children. What these stud- adolescence and adulthood. symptom prevalence in their sample ies also cannot tell us is whether a A recent paper published in Aus- (for example, the following symptoms five-year-old who is cruel to animals tralia and New Zealand suggests that and the percentage of subjects dis- will display this behavior at later ages. this analysis may not be far off the playing them were cruel to animals, mark. Luk et al. (1999) reanalyzed 12 percent; setting fires, 3 percent; case data from a sample of children cruel to people, 5 percent; stealing, Comparing (N=141) referred to mental health 34 percent; fighting, 27 percent; services with “symptoms suggestive of lying, 31 percent). The PPP for cruel- Cruelty to oppositional defiant/conduct disor- ty to animals was .82, indicating that der” (p. 30) and a sample of commu- 82 percent of the children displaying Animals nity children (N=37). The clinic- cruelty to animals received a CD diag- referred group was subdivided into two nosis (the comparable PPPs were 1.0 with Other groups. Children in the “no–cruelty–to for setting fires, .83 for cruelty to animals” (“no CTA”) group (N=101) people, .65 for stealing, .64 for fight- Symptoms were not reported to have been cruel ing, and .54 for lying). The NPP for of CD to animals on the Child Behavior cruelty to animals was .22, indicating Since cruelty to animals is only one of Checklist (CBCL). In contrast, chil- that 22 percent of the children not the fifteen symptoms of CD, it is dren in the cruelty–to–animals (CTA) displaying the symptom did not appropriate to ask how it compares group (N=40) were reported to be receive a CD diagnosis. As the authors with the other symptoms on its diag- sometimes or often cruel to animals. note, “although the presence of the nostic value. Spitzer, Davies, and Thus, 40 of 141, or 28.4 percent, of symptom was highly indicative of the Barkley (1990), as part of a larger the clinic-referred children displayed disorder, the disorder was often present study, examined the diagnostic utility the symptom of animal abuse. without the symptom” (ibid., 533). of individual CD symptoms using data Luk et al. also demonstrated that Usually CD is diagnosed only if gathered from psychological and psy- differentiating the clinic-referred sub- symptoms have been present within chiatric facilities at ten different geo- groups on the basis of presence of the previous twelve months. One graphic sites. One of the measures of reported animal abuse was related child may have had one severe symptom utility they computed was to another measure of childhood episode of animal abuse within the an odds ratio. The odds ratio is calcu- problem behaviors which, unlike the previous twelve months but no previ- lated by taking the probability of a CBCL, does not include an item ous episodes. Another child may have symptom in children diagnosed with assessing cruelty to animals. Using been severely abusive toward animals CD and dividing it by the probability the Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory, in the five years prior to and including of the same symptom in children they found that the mean problem the year he or she was evaluated. Cur- without CD. For physical cruelty to and problem severity scores of chil- rent diagnostic criteria would not be animals, Spitzer et al. found an odds dren in the CTA clinical group signif- sensitive to the quantitative, as well ratio of 5.07. That is, if we take 5 per- icantly (p<.001) exceeded the means as qualitative, differences likely to cent as the prevalence of cruelty in a for the “No CTA” clinical group and exist between these two children’s sample of non-CD children, the preva- the community control group. behavioral history. This is a critical lence in a sample of CD-diagnosed The issue of CD symptom utility issue, since Loeber et al. (1993), for children would be 25 percent (5.07 was also addressed in a study by Frick example, found that cruelty to ani- et al. (1994). Using data gathered [odds ratio]=.25/.05). (The odds mals only differentiated a sample of from 440 clinic-referred children and ratio for two other symptoms, for children with oppositional defiant dis- adolescents, they examined the utility comparison, are 11.34 for stealing order from CD children when infor- of proposed DSM-IV CD symptoms in without confrontation of a victim and mation about cruelty to animals was predicting the presence or absence of 3.14 for physical cruelty to people.) aggregated over a three-year period. This odds ratio was sufficiently high the disorder. They computed the positive predictive power (PPP) and the Assessing whether animal abuse is for Spitzer et al. to recommend that a chronic or acute problem thus the symptom be retained in future negative predictive power (NPP) of each symptom. PPP can be expressed appears essential in making predic- revisions of the DSM. However, if the tions about future behavior. estimates above are correct, the odds as the proportion of children who dis- ratio suggests that only one in four play the symptom and who are also (25 percent) CD-diagnosed children diagnosed with the disorder. NPP is might engage in animal abuse. The the proportion of children who do not critical question that remains is what display the symptom and are not diagnosed with the disorder. Frick et al.

42 The State of the Animals: 2001 The Interview for Antisocial Behav- man 1992). Animal abuse may desen- Checklist ior (IAB) developed by Kazdin and sitize a perpetrator. It may represent Esveldt-Dawson (1986) assesses pri- a form of rehearsal for the abuse of Assessments of marily externalizing problems and humans and, if undetected, embolden also includes “being cruel to animals” the perpetrator to believe he can Animal Abuse among a total of thirty items reflec- escape both the authorities and the While the rather lengthy and time- tive of antisocial behavior, a number consequences of his acts. Most, if not consuming psychiatric assessments of of which are reflective of current CD all, serial killers very likely were child psychopathology based on the symptomatology. The IAB can be conduct-disordered as children and DSM-IV are useful (e.g., the Diagnos- administered as a parental report or adolescents, but thankfully, only a tic Interview Scale for Children, the as a self-report. The response format minuscule proportion of conduct dis- Diagnostic Interview Scale for Adoles- includes ratings of the severity of ordered children are likely to develop cents), questionnaires and checklists each problem (1=none at all, 5=very into such offenders. As noted by a col- are more often used to assess child- much) as well as its duration or league who works with juvenile fire hood behavior and psychological prob- chronicity (1=present six months or setters (Marcel Chappuis, personal lems. One of the most common is the less, 3=always present). The IAB thus communication, March 23, 1998), previously cited CBCL, developed by provides more detail about cruelty to every adult arsonist he has encoun- Achenbach et al. (1991). Cruelty to animals but respondents’ interpreta- tered has had a childhood history of animals is assessed through parental tions of “cruel” may still vary. It fire setting, yet very few fire setting responses to one item (out of 112 should be noted that Kazdin and children progress to adult arson. items related to behaviors ranging Esveldt-Dawson found that the “cruel We know of only one recent study from “acts too young for his/her age” to animals” item correlated .46 that has attempted to address directly to “worries”). Using a time frame of (p<.001) with the total IAB score and the relationships among a history of the previous six months, the respon- differentiated a sample of CD and non- animal abuse, physical punitiveness by dent rates his or her child as “cruel to CD children F(1,256)=8.44, (p<.01). parents, and adult criminality, differ- animals” using the following choices: This excursion into the symptoma- entiating violent and nonviolent “not true (as far as you know),” tology of CD reinforces the point that offending. Miller and Knutson (1997) “somewhat or sometimes true,” or cruelty to animals is but one piece of referred to research by Widom (1989), “very true or often true.” For the spe- the puzzle relating childhood antiso- based on archival data, showing posi- cific study of animal abuse, this instru- cial behavior to adult violence and tive associations between experiences ment leaves much to be desired. First, criminality. Since this piece has not of child maltreatment and adult crim- “cruel to animals” is undefined, and received extensive research attention, inality and violent offending. But different parents may use different it is understandable that animal wel- Miller and Knutson raised concerns definitions of cruelty when rating fare organizations have emphasized about the failure of archival records to their children. Second, the response high-profile cases where animal abuse capture actual histories of abuse (due format suggests that parents may use appears related to interpersonal vio- to under-reporting and the fact that either frequency of cruelty, severity of lence. For example, in interviews with only a minority of incidents may come cruelty, or both in rating their child. executed serial killer Arthur Gary to the attention of authorities). Using Third, the “not true” choice acknowl- Bishop, Mike Carter (personal com- self-reports, Miller and Knutson edges that parents may not be aware munication, March 23, 1998) discov- reportedly failed to find a substantial of such cruelty and suggests that ered that Bishop was so distressed by association between past experiences obtaining children’s self-reports may the abduction, torture, and murder of of animal abuse and physical punitive- be critical for potentially covert behav- his first child victim that he was pur- ness (r=.13, p<.05) and noted that iors like animal abuse (the youth self- suing ways of “de-escalating.” Bish- past experiences of animal abuse did report form of the CBCL, unfortu- op’s “solution” was to acquire nearly not differentiate among the four nately, does not include an item on fifty puppies from animal shelters and groups of offenders they had classified cruelty to animals). Fourth, the time pet shops, take them home, and tor- (homicide, violent, sex, and other period of six months precludes assess- ture and kill them. Instead of reduc- offense). They did find that the violent ing cruelty to animals that may have ing his need for violence, Bishop offender group scored higher on the occurred prior to this time. In defense found that he so enjoyed the tortured physical punitiveness measure than of the CBCL, it must be stated that a cries of the animals, that the animal did the other three groups. focus on assessing animal abuse was abuse helped motivate him to abduct, Miller and Knutson’s incarcerated never one of the purposes for which it torture, and kill more children. Cases sample (N=314) was predominantly was designed. The CBCL’s value lies in such as these, where animal abuse male (84 percent). After 15 partici- its economical assessment of a broad seems directly tied to interpersonal pants were dropped due to incom- range of internalizing and externaliz- violence, abound in the literature on plete data, 71 percent of the remaining problems. serial homicide (Ressler and Schact- ing 299 participants reported some

Cruelty to Animals: Changing Psychological, Social, and Legislative Perspectives 43 experience with cruelty to animals. from respondents’ own cruelty toward symptoms; both may show develop- However, “cruelty to animals” needs animals. Such a separation would mental changes and display the rela- to be elaborated upon. Miller and have been useful in the Miller and tions of maintenance, emergence, and Knutson used an adaptation of Boat’s Knutson research. desistence; both may share etiological (1999) Animal-related Trauma Inven- Although Miller and Knutson con- factors; both are often performed tory to assess experiences with cruel- clude that their data were “not consis- covertly; and both may be early sen- ty to animals. Seven types of cruelty tent with the hypothesis that exposure tinels for later psychological problems. to animals listed in this qualitative to cruelty to animals is importantly The U.S. Department of Justice inventory were used to create a com- related to antisocial behavior or child funded the production of the Salt posite measure yielding a quantita- maltreatment” (1997, 59), they them- Lake Area Juvenile Firesetter/Arson tive summary score. A major problem selves urge caution about interpreta- Control and Prevention Program with this composite measure is that tion of their findings. First, they note (1992). The program is based on a some of the items may reflect a that base rates of some exposure to typology of juvenile fire setters that respondent’s antagonism toward ani- cruelty to animals were quite high in may be relevant to developing a typol- mals while others may be neutral or this incarcerated sample (i.e., 71 per- ogy of children who abuse animals suggest a strong affectional attach- cent reported some exposure). This (Marcel Chappuis, personal commu- ment to animals. According to the was also the case in a second study nication, March 23, 1998). The typol- seven types of cruelty to animals, the they conducted with 308 undergradu- ogy of juvenile fire setters is as follows: respondent (1) saw an animal killed, ates in which 68.9 percent of males Normal curiosity fire setters: These (2) killed a pet, (3) killed a stray, (4) and 33 percent of females reported children have a mean age of five years was forced to hurt an animal, (5) hurt some exposure to cruelty to animals (range three to seven years) and often an animal, (6) saw others hurt an ani- (this gender difference was statistical- share the characteristics of poor mal, or (7) was controlled by a threat ly significant). Second, Miller and parental supervision, a lack of fire to hurt or kill an animal. Knutson note that the distribution of education, and no fear of fire. Composite scores could range from scores on the composite measure of “Plea-for-help” fire setters: These 0 to 46, but it is apparent that this exposure to cruelty to animals was children have a mean age of nine quantitative rating masks the com- positively skewed (i.e., most respon- years (range seven to thirteen years); plexity of “exposure to animal abuse.” dents scored in the low range) and their fire setting is often symptomatic The methodology makes no clear dis- leptokurtic (i.e., more sharply peaked of more deep-seated psychological tinction between the perpetration of than bell shaped). Since these charac- disturbance. These individuals usually cruelty to animals and exposure to teristics indicate a restricted range have had adequate fire education. such acts performed by others, either of scores, correlational analyses were Delinquent fire setters: These individ- incidentally or as a specific threat to less likely to yield significant results. uals have a mean age of fourteen years coerce the subject. For example, an Although there are methodological (range thirteen years to adulthood); individual could receive a high score difficulties with the Miller and Knut- their fire setting may be one of a host for responding positively only to son study, the study does suggest the of adolescent-onset antisocial behav- items 1, 4, 6, and 7, which involve value of using more than a single- iors, including gang-related activities. either witnessing others’ cruelty to item assessment of experience with The Salt Lake program has devel- animals, being forced to abuse ani- animal abuse. It would be valuable to oped a series of assessment scales that mals, or being coerced by threatened have an assessment instrument that are geared to each age group of fire animal abuse. Another individual was both efficient (e.g., checklist or setters and that can be administered might receive a similarly high score structured questionnaire) and target- to the child’s parent/guardian and by responding positively only to items ed at both performing acts of animal to the child. In addition to questions 2, 3, and 5, which involve participant abuse and witnessing such acts per- about fire education and the fire set- animal abuse or killing. Assessing the formed by others. Although Ascione ting incident(s), questions about gen- internal consistency of this compos- et al. (1997) assessed both perform- eral behavior problems (similar to ite scale would have been useful. Low ing and witnessing animal abuse, the those on the CBCL) are included. It is internal consistency might suggest instrument they developed is a noteworthy that among these ques- that single items or groups of items lengthy interview protocol that may tions is an item about cruelty to ani- may be measuring different con- diminish its attractiveness in nonre- mals (there is also a direct question structs. High internal consistency search applications. about whether the fire setting incident would substantiate that witnessing One model that could be used to involved the burning of an animal). and perpetrating animal abuse form a develop an animal abuse assessment Responses to these assessments are single construct. In other qualitative instrument is the approach that has then used to direct the selection of an research, Ascione et al. (1997) been taken to assess juvenile fire intervention strategy. Children who specifically separated observation setting. Fire setting shares many fea- fall into the normal curiosity group are of animal abuse performed by others tures with animal abuse: both are CD often enrolled in a fire education pro-

44 The State of the Animals: 2001 gram, and attempts may also be made and exposure to domestic violence. logical, developmental, and social to educate parents about fire safety Delinquent animal abuse: Youth in forces to influence the potential for and the need for supervising young this category are most likely to be antisocial and/or violent juvenile and children. Children who fall into the adolescents whose animal abuse may adult behaviors. Athens (1992) pro- other two groups are referred to men- be but one of a number of antisocial vides one holistic approach to under- tal health services, since fire depart- activities. In some cases, the animal standing this process that may help ments are not prepared to deal with abuse may be a component of gang/ clarify some of the dynamics in the psychological problems these cult-related activities (e.g., initiation extreme cases. He divides the process young people may present. rites) or less formal group violence and of development of violent dangerous It might be possible to develop a destructiveness. The associated use of criminal behavior into several stages. similar typology for children who pre- alcohol and other substances may be The first of these, which Athens terms sent with the problem of animal implicated with these youth. “brutalization,” is the result of a com- abuse. Although there is not a great A study by Arluke et al. (1999) bination of experiences, including deal of empirical information to rely makes clear the connection between being the victim of physical or sexual on, the study by Ascione et al. (1997) animal abuse and a variety of criminal abuse, being a witness to extreme vio- suggests the varied motivations that activities that affect human welfare. lence against others, and “violent may underlie child and adolescent Using records from the MSPCA, they coaching” (i.e., being encouraged to animal abuse. Together with the located 153 individuals who had been respond violently to real or perceived extensive experience of animal con- prosecuted for cruelty to animals threats). This process then engenders trol and animal welfare profession- (abusers) and a comparison group of the later stages, which are character- als, one could develop a typology 153 individuals, residing in the same ized by the routine use of violence mirroring that for juvenile fire set- neighborhoods, with no record of and acceptance of one’s violent noto- ters. A sketch of such a typology animal abuse (nonabusers). They riety. Although Athens does not might approximate the following: then checked the state’s criminal specifically focus on cruelty to ani- Exploratory/curiousity-based ani- records for all of these individuals, mals as part of this process, it is often mal abuse: Children in this category noting four categories of criminal a potential feature of the process at would likely be of preschool or early offense. Abusers were more likely to several stages, especially in the initial elementary school age, poorly super- have been arrested for violent (37 “brutalization” stage. vised, and lacking training on the percent), property-related (44 per- physical care and humane treatment cent), drug-related (37 percent), and of a variety of animals, especially fam- public disorder (37 percent) offenses Research with ily pets and/or stray animals and than were nonabusers (7 percent, 11 wildlife in the neighborhood. Humane percent, 11 percent, and 12 percent, Nonclinical, education interventions are likely to respectively). The difference between be sufficient to produce desistence of abusers’ and nonabusers’ percent- Noncriminal animal abuse in these children. It ages was significant (p<.0001) for all should be noted that age alone should four types of offenses. Samples not be the determining factor in Information in a recent U.S. Research on the relation between ani- including children in this category. Department of Justice report (Office mal abuse and forms of human vic- For example, CD symptoms may have of Justice Programs 1998) ties animal timization in nonclinical samples is an early developmental onset and, as abuse to other criminal activity. Sam- also beginning to emerge. Flynn noted earlier, cruelty to animals is pling 625 women and 168 men who (1999a) surveyed 267 university stu- one of the earliest CD symptoms to were victims of stalking, the results of dents (68.4 percent were women) be noted by caretakers. the survey noted that 9 percent of the about their personal history of abus- women and 6 percent of the men Pathognomonic animal abuse: Chil- ing animals and then asked them if reported that stalkers had killed or they endorsed the use of corporal pun- dren in this category are more likely threatened to kill family pets (ibid., to be older (though, as noted above, ishment in child rearing and if they 13). These estimates of pet abuse condoned a husband slapping his wife. not necessarily) than children in the should be viewed as lower limits since exploratory/curious group. Rather Of the men, 34.5 percent admitted to it can be assumed that not all partic- at least one incident of animal abuse than a lack of education about the ipants were pet owners. This provides perpetrated during childhood; for the humane treatment of animals, psy- another example of animals endan- chological malfunction varying in gered by human interpersonal threats women that figure was 9.3 percent. severity may be the root of these chil- and violence. Flynn found that participants who had dren’s animal abuse. For example, Clearly, more detailed research is abused animals had more favorable childhood animal abuse may be abuse- needed to understand how exposure attitudes toward the use of corporal reactive behavior tied to childhood his- to or perpetration of cruelty to ani- punishment in child rearing. Those tories of physical abuse, sexual abuse, mals may interact with other physio- abusing animals were more likely to

Cruelty to Animals: Changing Psychological, Social, and Legislative Perspectives 45 approve of a husband slapping his wife the first empirical study appeared abused (33.3 percent) than women (15.6 percent) than were those who whose specific aim was to assess the whose pets had not been abused did not report abusing animals in prevalence and forms of animal (15.8 percent). childhood (5.4 percent). abuse in the context of human do- Flynn also found that 40 percent of In a parallel study, Flynn (1999b) mestic violence. women whose pets had been abused examined the relation between perpe- Ascione (1998) enlisted the aid of a had delayed seeking shelter out of trating animal abuse and being a vic- domestic violence shelter to interview concern for their pets’ welfare and tim of parental corporal punishment. thirty-eight women who had recently safety. In five of these eight cases, the Participants were those studied in entered the shelter to escape vio- delays exceeded two months. These Flynn (1999a). He found that the fre- lence. The women were asked about findings support those of Ascione quency of being spanked by fathers pet ownership, whether their pets had (1998) and confirm that worrying was positively related to the partici- been threatened or harmed by the about their pets is a significant obsta- pants’ perpetrating animal abuse, but batterer, and the possible effects of cle for women who are trying to leave this relation only held for men in the pet abuse on women’s decision mak- batterers. It is encouraging that pro- sample. As noted by Flynn, “Nearly 60 ing about leaving batterers. Twenty- grams designed to remove this obsta- percent of male respondents who two of the 38 women had children, cle, by sheltering pets for women who were physically punished as teens and the women were asked if their are battered, are becoming more by their fathers perpetrated animal children had abused animals. common (Ascione et al. 2000). These abuse, compared with 23 percent who Parallel to national data on pet programs represent an innovative were not hit as teens by their fathers” ownership in American families with form of collaboration among domes- (977). children, 74 percent of the women tic violence, animal welfare, and vet- These two studies by Flynn clearly interviewed by Ascione reported own- erinary medical professionals, as well bring the issue of animal abuse into ing a pet or having owned one in the as members of the lay community, to the sociological research realm of fam- past twelve months. Threats or actual address a human and animal safety ily violence. The studies also illustrate harm to pets was reported by 71 per- and health problem. that animal abuse–family violence cent of these women, and 57 percent Assessing animal abuse in the con- associations are not limited to clinical reported that their pets had been text of domestic violence is likely to samples or samples of adjudicated ani- hurt or killed by their adult partner. become more systematic as other mal abuse–family violence offenders. Thirty-two percent of women with forms of overlap (e.g., that between children reported that one of their child abuse and domestic violence) children had hurt or killed pets. are more carefully examined. Flynn’s Animal Abuse One of the other disturbing find- study (2000a) hints that the time is ings of this study was that 18 percent ripe for a larger-scale study examining and Domestic of women reported that they had the confluence of animal abuse, child delayed entering the shelter out of maltreatment, and domestic violence. Violence concern for their pets’ welfare. The The last three decades of the twenti- level of animal abuse in these homes eth century also witnessed a dramatic was unexpected, as was the discovery Cruelty to refocusing of attention on the problem that pet welfare was a significant of domestic violence. The publication issue for some women in their deci- Animals and of books, monographs, articles, and sion to leave batterers. government studies provided needed That these findings were not idio- Elder Abuse depth to our understanding of inti- syncratic to the particular sample of mate violence in families. Once again women studied was confirmed in a and Neglect companion animals did not escape replication conducted by Flynn In the last decade, reports of cruelty the terror present in some homes. (2000b). He interviewed forty-three to animals within the context of elder Most of the information available women, all of whom owned pets, who abuse and neglect have also begun to about pet abuse in families experienc- had entered a shelter in South Caroli- emerge (Rosen 1995; National Com- ing domestic violence took the form na for battered women. Flynn found mittee for Prevention of Elder Abuse of anecdotal reports, often used to that 46.5 percent of these women 1997; Cooke-Daniels 1999). Such illustrate the callous violence perpe- reported that their pets had been connections can parallel those seen trated by some batterers. In addition, threatened or harmed. Although only in domestic violence. They can also Ascione et al. (1997) found that the two women reported that their chil- take the form of economic exploita- majority of domestic violence shelters dren had also abused pets, women tion of the elderly through threats of may not ask women about their whose pets had been abused were harm to or denial of care for pets of experiences with pet abuse. How- more than twice as likely to report the elderly. All forms of elder abuse ever, it was not until 1998 that that their children had also been tend to be under-reported, and very

46 The State of the Animals: 2001 little empirical data have been gath- the United States (HSUS) found that killing of a dog by four teenagers ered on cruelty to animals in this con- 42 percent of respondents believed served as the centerpiece of an hour- text, but professionals in both adult cruelty to animals to be moderately long British Broadcast Corporation/ protective services and animal protec- to extremely serious as a problem in Arts and Entertainment Network doc- tion have begun to address this con- this country, compared with 61 per- umentary, The Cruelty Connection, nection through training and com- cent responding in this way to envi- which aired in the United Kingdom, munity collaboration. Growing atten- ronmental issues and 78 percent to the United States, and Australia. tion also is being given to the suffer- child abuse. Of those surveyed, 71 per- ing of animals and people that can cent supported making animal abuse result from the hoarding of large a felony, and 81 percent felt that the Legislative numbers of animals by individuals, enforcement of cruelty-to-animals often older women (Lockwood 1994; laws should be strengthened. Respon- and Law Patronek 1999). This form of cruelty dents were equally divided about the to animals has received little atten- primary reason for their concern. Enforcement tion in the psychiatric literature but About one-third said the main reason is increasingly being recognized as a to take cruelty to animals seriously Responses serious concern for both human and was that intentional harm to animals animal welfare agencies (Frost 2000). was simply wrong, while an equal to Cruelty number said that their main concern to Animals was that such cruelty was predictive Society’s response to cruelty to ani- Societal or indicative of other forms of vio- mals is also reflected in the laws that lence against people. are enacted to respond to the prob- Concerns and Another measure of the widespread lem and in the level of enforcement of interest in and concern about cruelty those laws. As of July 2000, thirty-one Responses to animals is the growing media atten- states had enacted felony–level provi- to Cruelty tion devoted to high-profile cases. sions within their cruelty to animals The March 2000 killing of a woman’s codes, a dramatic rise from less than dog by an individual who pulled the a decade ago (see Figure 1). This is in to Animals dog, Leo, from the woman’s car and In addition to an increase in attention addition to the forty-three states that threw him into traffic attracted inter- to cruelty to animals from the scien- treat dogfighting as a felony offense national coverage and offers of rewards tific community in the last decade, the and thirteen in which cockfighting is that exceeded $110,000 (Kalfrin general public has expressed growing a felony. Such provisions reflect both 2000). The story of the killing of more concern about the issue, both for its societal pressure to respond to cruel- than a dozen cats in an Iowa animal effects on animals and its implica- ty to animals and legislative willing- shelter by three teenagers drew more tions for human safety. A December ness to accommodate this demand. mail to People magazine that any 1996 survey of 1,008 American While animal neglect continues to be other story except the death of the households conducted by Penn and a misdemeanor crime, most of these Princess of Wales (Jewel and Sandler Schoen for The Humane Society of laws recognize extreme forms of mali- 1997). Similarly, the 1998 torture/ cious animal abuse or torture as crimes that transcend the simple destruction of property and fall in the ranks of violent crimes whose perpetrators need special attention. Severe, intentional animal abuse has increasingly been viewed as symptomatic of mental disorder. State laws have reflected this viewpoint in requir- ing or recommending psychological assessment and treatment for those convicted under these laws. Since 1998 California has required such assessment in all cruelty-to-animals convictions. Colorado law requires assessment and recommends treatment; New Mexico mandates counseling in cases of animal abuse by juve-

Cruelty to Animals: Changing Psychological, Social, and Legislative Perspectives 47 niles and recommends it for adult texts (Davidson 1998; LaCroix 1998; offenders. In the last decade, more Lockwood 1999; Frasch et al. 2000). Cruelty than a dozen other states have added It has also been reviewed in material counseling and treatment as a sen- provided to all chiefs of police (Lock- to Animals tencing option within their cruelty-to- wood 1989) as well as material used animals codes. in the training of newly appointed and Human Although the need for assessment juvenile prosecutors (American Prose- Violence: and treatment for cruelty-to-animals cutors Research Institute 1999). offenders is increasingly recognized, Recent trends in the juvenile jus- Future Needs the small number of such referrals in tice system resonate well with grow- the past has prevented the developing recognition of cruelty to animals and Directions ment and evaluation of appropriate as an early warning sign of the poten- There are many unanswered and assessment and treatment protocols. tial for criminal or antisocial behav- unasked questions in the study of cru- Several assessment tools and treat- ior. The model increasingly applied in elty to animals and other violence, as ment approaches have been suggest- the case of young or first-time offend- well as obstacles that need to be over- ed (Boat 1999; Jory and Randour ers is that of “balanced and restora- come in the search for answers. We 1999; Lewchanin and Zimmerman tive justice,” or BARJ (Office of hope that the coming years will see 2000; Zimmerman and Lewchanin Juvenile Justice and Delinquency increased attention in the following 2000). Existing mandated treatment Prevention 1998). The BARJ model five areas. protocols for juvenile or adult sex attempts to steer away from conven- offenders or batterers may be appro- tional interventions that are purely 1. The Ecology of priate for only a small segment of ani- punitive. Programs based on this Violence against Animals mal abusers and are clearly not appro- model seek simultaneously to address Because cruelty to animals has tradi- priate for convicted offenders in cases the needs of the victim, hold perpe- tionally been seen as a minor crime, involving extreme neglect or hoarding. trators accountable for their actions, basic quantitative information as to In states where assessment and/ and address the gaps in the compe- the nature and extent of serious cruel- or treatment of cruelty-to-animals tencies of the perpetrator that may ty to animals has been limited. Good offenders is mandated, particularly have contributed to the offense. The criminological analysis can begin with California, judges and prosecutors model also emphasizes making use of a solid “victimology,” or reporting of have begun to seek out mental- a variety of community resources to exactly what has been done to ani- health-care providers who have knowl- respond to each of these require- mals and by whom. Vermeulen and edge of the dynamics of cruelty to ani- ments. This approach is consistent Odendaal (1993) and Arluke et al. mals. To meet this need, in 1999 the with the growing use of animal- (1999) have provided important first Mental Research Institute (MRI) and oriented programs targeting youthful steps in remedying this gap. Further The HSUS began providing training in offenders or those at risk of becoming progress will depend on standardized this area for such professionals and violent perpetrators. Structured expe- reporting and tracking of cruelty-to- made lists of professionals with an riences with animals, such as learning animals cases around the country. interest in taking on such cases avail- humane dog-training techniques, are Many key questions remain. able to the appropriate court author- being incorporated into a variety of What is the true incidence and ities (Loar 2000). programs designed to enhance empa- prevalence of various forms of animal As laws dealing with animal abuse thy and build nonviolent competen- abuse and neglect? have been strengthened over the last cies (Duel 2000). Such programs have How does this victimology vary for decade, law enforcement officials not, as yet, been evaluated for their different kinds of animals (e.g., by have given greater attention to such long-term effectiveness compared with species, as well as other factors, such cases. There is, as yet, no established other traditional approaches (e.g., as owned versus stray, wild versus national system for tracking the inci- “boot camp”), but they provide unique tame versus domestic)? dence of and law enforcement opportunities to incorporate humane What are the demographic attri- response to crimes against animals, values into broader programs for vio- butes of the offenders and the frequen- so we can offer no quantitative assess- lence prevention. cy and severity of their acts? ment of the number of cruelty-to-ani- How do these demographics (age, mals cases being charged. However, sex, culture, residence, family size and there are several indicators of grow- structure, and criminal history) inter- ing interest in the connections act with victimology? For example, between cruelty to animals and its how closely do the actions of female association with other forms of vio- offenders resemble those of the far lence. This link has been addressed in more prevalent male offenders? several recent law review articles and How does the victimology and

48 The State of the Animals: 2001 offender profile of intentional abuse the killer’s own dog, a parent’s or of or desensitization to such violence? differ from that of neglect or passive sibling’s dog, a stray dog, a newborn How does the real or symbolic sexu- abuse or abandonment or hoarding? puppy, or an aggressive animal that al role of animals influence the form of Are these differences relevant in pre- has bitten the perpetrator. The inci- abuse that might be perpetrated? How dicting the likelihood of future dent may have different significance if prevalent is the direct sexual abuse of involvement in violence? the offender is alone or in a group; is animals among violent offenders? What are the trends in cruelty-to- a six-year-old, a twelve-year-old, or an animals cases (frequency, severity, adult; or if it is the first, third, or 3. Animal Abuse and chronicity, offender demographics) twentieth such incident. Domestic Violence within specific reporting areas? Are What critical incidents may be relat- such cases becoming more frequent, Animal abuse that takes place in the ed to the earliest expressions of vio- context of domestic violence presents more severe, or more likely to involve lence? What is the influence of the younger perpetrators? several compelling opportunities for response of parents, peers, and sib- research. One would evaluate the ani- What is the extent of overlap with lings to these events? records of other known violent offens- mal sheltering programs being devel- What is the trajectory of the developed for women who have left their es, particularly interpersonal violence, opment of interpersonal violence that including child abuse, domestic vio- homes to seek shelter. Another would incorporates cruelty to animals? How replicate research on battered lence and elder abuse? often is animal abuse truly predictive What is the outcome of animal-abuse women’s experiences with animal of escalation? If violence has already abuse but would include assessment and -neglect cases that are reported progressed to serious or lethal levels, and enter the criminal justice system? of the batterers’ reports. A third how often do offenders “regress” to would assess the animal-abuse experi- What proportion are dealt with violence against animals? through education, diversion, or ences of women who are battered but How important are frequency, who have not decided or been able to other alternative mechanisms? Are severity, and persistence of cruelty to cases handled differently by the juve- leave their batterer. animals as indicators of cruelty that Programs are proliferating to shelter nile court system and by the adult represent a true potential for progres- courts? Does the inaccessibility of the pets of battered women who have sion rather than a stage of experimen- juvenile court records prevent the left home to seek safety elsewhere. In tation with power and control? effective assessment of the predictive the limited experience with such pro- What factors are present when cru- value of tracking cruelty to animals? grams, little attention seems to be elty to animals stops altogether or given to collecting data on their imple- 2. The Developmental does not escalate to other forms of vio- mentation, use, and evaluation. A stan- lence? If we recognize that many indi- Dynamics of Cruelty dard protocol would not only be useful viduals might engage in some acts for the programs already established to Animals and of intentional animal abuse without but could also assist in the planning Human Violence progressing to other antisocial acts, and development of new programs. it becomes essential to identify the Such a protocol should include If we are to use the connections sources of stability and resilience between cruelty to animals and other basic questions: (internal, familial, or societal) that What types and numbers of animals forms of violence in a meaningful way have prevented such a progression. to predict and/or intervene in the are being boarded? These sources include parental What is the condition of animals progression of violence, we need a response to early cruelty; interven- much clearer picture of the place of brought to the shelter? Was the ani- tion by school, social service, or law mal directly threatened? Was the ani- animal abuse in the patterns and pro- enforcement authorities; and mental- gression of violence. Most of our mal actually abused? If so, how and health interventions. by whom? understanding of this connection has What physiological, neuropsycholog- come from retrospective analysis of Was the purpose of boarding the ani- ical correlates of cruelty to animals mal explained to the children (if individuals or families in which seri- might exist that relate to other possible ous human violence has already taken applicable)? Did the woman leave correlates of antisocial behavior (such home in order to live with others place. Far more attention is needed to as thrill-seeking or low responsive- identify normal versus pathological (friends, relatives), was she entering a ness to stressful situations)? shelter for battered women, or was pathways involving participation in or What is the role of external influ- witnessing the mistreatment of ani- she remaining at home but obtaining ences (drugs, alcohol) in the initiation a protective order against her partner? mals. Future study may address a of violent incidents against animals range of questions. What was the length of time the ani- and others? mal was boarded? What was the dis- What are the underlying dynamics What is the role of exposure to media of the victimology? The killing of a dog position of the case? and video-game violence against ani- Did the batterer make contact with may have different significance if it is mals and others in promoting imitation

Cruelty to Animals: Changing Psychological, Social, and Legislative Perspectives 49 the animal shelter while the animal Were these pets the woman’s, the part- with frequency of filing by other man- was boarded? If so, what was the ner’s, mainly the children’s, or truly dated reporters? nature of the contact? Did the bat- family pets? If few reports are being made by terer try to retrieve the animal while What factors have influenced the well-trained reporters, what are the it was at the shelter? If so, how was woman’s decision to stay or leave obstacles to such reporting? this handled? (e.g., personal welfare, children’s wel- Did the woman ask to visit the ani- fare, economic issues, religious rea- 5. Prevention and mal while it was being sheltered? If so, sons, animal welfare)? Intervention/Treatment how was this arranged? How often did Has the woman ever told her part- The core assumption of many of the it occur? ner she was thinking of leaving? His efforts against violence is that earlier Research on domestic violence has reaction? Has she ever made an detection of predispositions for vio- begun to focus on characteristics of attempt to leave that was aborted? lence will give the best opportunity batterers, especially as a method for Why? Has she ever called a women’s for meaningful intervention. Howev- developing typologies of batterers. shelter or domestic violence (DV) cri- er, the lack of any standardized pro- These efforts are often directed at sis line? Why? grams for assessment and interven- matching “types” of batterers with Has she, the children, or others ever tion has left this concept untested. “types” of interventions. Most of our called police to report a DV incident? What types of cruelty-to-animals information about animal abuse in What was the outcome? offenses constitute the most significant domestic violence situations has been Have the children ever tried to pro- warnings that intervention is needed? derived from victims’ (women’s) tect her? A sibling? A pet? Is it more cost-effective or produc- reports. It is important to assess the If she did leave (but did not enter a tive to target at-risk groups at a young batterers’ perceptions of animal shelter) what factor(s) prompted this? age rather than active offenders? abuse as well. One approach would What is her knowledge of the part- Which interventions are most effec- replicate two studies of women who ner’s history (as child, adolescent, tive in deterring violent behavior (e.g., are battered (Ascione 1998 and Flynn and adult prior to this relationship) of pairing offenders or high-risk individu- 2000b) with the addition of inter- animal abuse? als with nonviolent or humane men- views with the batterers. Another Have other adults (e.g., partner’s tors, formal instruction in nonviolent study would interview both partners friends) ever been involved in her skills or humane attitudes)? to assess, for example, the concor- abuse? How important are opportunities dance (or lack thereof) of their reports for undoing harm or being confronted on incidents (frequency, severity) of 4. Social-Service by victims in structuring effective animal abuse. Questions about moti- Responses to Cruelty interventions? vations for and judgments of serious- How important is it for animals to ness of animal abuse could be includ- to Animals be involved in prevention and intervention programs? Can nurturing and ed. If the animal abuse occurred in Humane organizations have made sig- other prosocial skills be taught in the presence of children, the batterer nificant inroads in alerting social-ser- other ways (such as gardening pro- could be asked about his perception vice agencies to regard cruelty to animals as a form of family violence that jects) (Rathmann 1999)? of the effects of such witnessing on When is the use of animals in thera- his children’s welfare. can be both indicative and predictive of other violence. Although only Cali- py inadvisable? Are there patterns Most of the research on domestic of violent history that should not be violence has studied women in shel- fornia formally includes animal control officers and state humane officers addressed through animal-assisted ters for battered women. Less is therapy or animal-assisted activities? known, however, about women who among mandated reporters of child abuse, many other communities are What are the best short- and long- remain with their batterer and term attitudinal and behavioral mea- women who are in the process of providing for the cross-training of animal-abuse and child-abuse investiga- sures of successful intervention in deal- deciding whether to stay or leave. ing with animal-abusing populations? This latter group would be a logical tors or are including humane society audience for information campaigns representatives in local coalitions about animal sheltering options and against violence. To maximize the information about the significance effectiveness of these bridges between Looking Out of animal abuse as an indicator of animal- and human-welfare advocates, we need more information about for Our Future danger (and as a potential symptom Answers to these questions will require of children’s psychological distur- these cooperative efforts. How frequently are child-, elder-, or the cooperation of individuals and bance). The following issues need to agencies from many different disci- be assessed: domestic-abuse reports filed by humane officers? What proportion are plines. They will also require a truly How many and what types of pets prospective approach, identifying indi- are involved currently and in the past? validated, and how does this compare

50 The State of the Animals: 2001 viduals who are involved in cruelty to American Prosecutors Research Insti- Ascione, F.R., C.V. Weber, and D.S. animals at the earliest possible age or tute (APRI). 1999. Jumpstart: Wood. 1997. The abuse of animals stage and tracking the influences that Resource Manual for Newly and domestic violence: A national prevent or promote the escalation to Assigned Juvenile Prosecutors. survey of shelters for women who other forms of violent behavior. Cruel- Alexandria, Va.: APRI. are battered. Society and Animals ty to animals must be taken seriously American Psychiatric Association 5: 205–18. as a problem in its own right, indepen- (APA). 1994. Diagnostic and Statis- Athens, L. 1992. The creation of dan- dent of what it may tell us about the tical Manual of Mental Disorders gerous violent criminals. Urbana, potential for human harm. (fourth ed.). Washington, D.C.: APA. Ill.: University of Illinois Press. Violence makes victims of us all. 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