U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention

September 2001

Animal and A Message From OJJDP Youth Violence Although legal definitions of animal abuse vary, it is a in every State, and many States have enacted Frank R. Ascione laws establishing certain forms of cru- elty to animals as offenses. The The past two decades have witnessed a emphasized throughout, and a list of na- forms of abuse to which animals may resurgence of interest in the relation tional organizations with programs relat- be subjected are similar to the forms between , or animal ed to the link between animal abuse and of abuse children experience, includ- abuse, and serious violent behavior, espe- other violent behavior is also provided. ing , serious , cially among youthful offenders. As an and even . This Bulletin does not suggest that attend- illustration, a recent study by Verlinden It has been said that violence begets ing to animal abuse is a panacea for deal- (2000) of 9 school shootings in the United violence, but what do we know about ing with the challenges of identifying and States (from Moses Lake, WA, in 1996 to the nature of the relationship between addressing youth violence. Violent behav- Conyers, GA, in 1999) reported that 5 (45 the abuse of animals and aggressive percent) of the 11 perpetrators had histo- ior is multidimensional and multideter- behavior towards beings? ries of alleged animal abuse. The most mined, and its developmental course is still the subject of concerted research This Bulletin describes psychiatric, well-documented example was the case of psychological, and criminal research Luke Woodham who, in the April before investigation (Moffitt, 1997). However, it is argued here that animal abuse has re- linking animal abuse to violence per- his October 1997 of his mother petrated by juveniles and adults. and two schoolmates, tortured and killed ceived insufficient attention—in fact, is his own dog (Ascione, 1999). sometimes explicitly excluded (e.g., Stone Particular attention is focused on the and Kelner, 2000)—as one of a number of prevalence of cruelty to animals by This Bulletin reports on the psychiatric, “red flags,” warning signs, or sentinel be- children and adolescents and to the psychological, and criminological research haviors that could help identify youth at role of animal abuse as a possible linking animal abuse to juvenile- and adult- risk for perpetrating interpersonal violence symptom of . In ad- perpetrated violence. It addresses the (a relation first noted in the psychiatric dition, the motivations and etiology challenge of defining animal abuse and literature by Pinel in 1809) and youth who underlying the maltreatment of ani- examines the difficulty of deriving accurate have themselves been victimized. mals are thoroughly reviewed. incidence and prevalence data for this The abuse of sentient creatures de- behavior. It also explores the relationships Defining Animal Abuse mands our attention. The Bulletin between animal abuse and conduct disor- includes recommendations to curb der (CD), analyzes the motives of child All 50 States have legislation relating to such cruelty, while providing contact and adolescent animal abusers, and con- animal abuse. Most States categorize it as information for additional resources siders the contexts that may lead to the a offense, and 30 States also concerned with violence perpetrated emergence of animal abuse as a symptom have instituted felony-level statutes for against animals and people. of psychological disorder. (Although a few certain forms of cruelty to animals. How- studies examine the neurobiological corre- ever, legal definitions of animal abuse, and It is our hope that the information that lates of cruelty to animals—see Lockwood even the types of animals that are covered this Bulletin offers will contribute to reducing both forms of violence. and Ascione, 1998—that topic is beyond by these statutes, differ from State to State the scope of this review.) The importance (Ascione and Lockwood, 2001; Frasch et of including information about animal al., 1999; Lacroix, 1998). The research lit- abuse in assessments of youth at risk of erature also fails to yield a consistent committing interpersonal violence is definition of animal abuse or cruelty to animals; however, the following definition had been screened for the absence of personal communication, July 17, 1992). In captures features common to most at- mental health referrals in the past year. their statistical analysis of individual ACQ tempts to define this behavior: “socially The referred children were drawn from items, Achenbach and colleagues noted unacceptable behavior that intentionally 18 mental health clinics across the United that cruelty to animals was significantly causes unnecessary pain, , or States. Most of the referred children were (p<0.01) higher for referred youth, boys, distress to and/or death of an animal” being evaluated for outpatient mental and younger children. (Ascione, 1993:228). health services. Potential candidates for inclusion in the nonreferred and referred The data in figure 1 illustrate the relatively This definition excludes practices that may groups were excluded if they were mental- low frequency of cruelty to animals in the cause harm to animals yet are socially con- ly retarded, had a serious physical illness, nonreferred sample (0–13 percent) in com- doned (e.g., legal , certain agricul- or had a handicap. parison with the referred sample (7–34 tural and veterinary practices). Because percent). Eighteen to twenty-five percent the status of a particular animal may vary One item on the ACQ asks the respondent of referred boys between the ages of 6 and from one culture to another, the definition whether their child or adolescent has been 16 were reported to have been cruel to takes into account the social contexts that “cruel to animals” in the past 2 months. animals, and the data suggest this item’s help determine what is considered animal Respondents can answer using the follow- incidence has greater stability through abuse. For the purposes of this review, the ing 4-point scale: 0 = never or not at all childhood and adolescence for boys than animals that are victims of abuse are most true (as far as you know), 1 = once in a for girls. often vertebrates because this is the cate- while or just a little, 2 = quite often or Data on the prevalence of cruelty to ani- gory of animals to which are attributed quite a lot, or 3 = very often or very much. mals are also provided in the manuals for the greatest capacity for experiencing and Figure 1 shows the percentage of care- the Child Behavior Checklist (CBC), per- displaying pain and distress. givers, for each age group, gender, and referral status, that reported the presence haps one of the most widely used check- The forms of abuse to which animals may of cruelty to animals (David Jacobowitz, lists for child behavior problems, which is be subjected are parallel to the forms of Statistician Programmer, Achenbach Sys- available in separate versions for 2- to 3- child maltreatment. Animals may be physi- tem for Empirical Behavioral Assessment, year-olds (Achenbach, 1992) and 4- to 18- cally or sexually abused, may be seriously College of Medicine, University of Vermont, year-olds (Achenbach, 1991). The cruelty neglected, and, some might argue, may be psychologically abused.

Figure 1: Percentage of Youth Reported by Caregivers To Have Been Prevalence of Cruelty Cruel to Animals, by Offender’s Age, Gender, and Referral to Animals by Children Status and Adolescents Because cruelty to animals is not moni- 35 tored systematically in national crime reporting systems (Howard Snyder, per- 30 sonal communication, January 22, 2001), 25 researchers must rely on data from studies in developmental psychology and psycho- 20 pathology to estimate the prevalence of this problem behavior in samples of youth. 15 A number of assessment instruments that Youth (%) Youth address child behavior problems include 10 a question about cruelty to animals. How- 5 ever, “cruelty” is not always explicitly de- fined for the respondent, so it is difficult 0 to determine the exact behaviors that are 4Ð5 6Ð7 8Ð9 10Ð11 12Ð13 14Ð15 16 being reported. Age (years) Using the Achenbach-Conners-Quay Behav- ior Checklist (ACQ), Achenbach and col- Boys referred to mental Girls referred to mental leagues (1991) collected parent or guardian health services health services reports of problem behaviors for 2,600 Boys not referred to Girls not referred to boys and girls ages 4 to 16 who had been mental health services mental health services referred to mental health clinics and a control group of 2,600 boys and girls of the same age. The nonreferred children Note: Data show caregivers’ responses to a question asking whether their child or adolescent constituted a representative sample of the had been cruel to animals in the past 2 months. U.S. population, based on ethnicity, socio- economic status, and place of residence Source: Achenbach, T.M., Howell, C.T., Quay, H.C., and Conners, C.K. 1991. National survey of problems and competencies among four- to sixteen-year-olds. Monographs of the Society (urban/suburban/rural and national region for Research in Child Development 56: Serial No. 255. [e.g., Northeast, West]). These children

2 to animals item on the CBC (which uses a Limitations of Adult pages 4–5 for a more indepth discussion “past 2 months” timeframe for 2- to 3-year- of the link between CD and animal abuse.) olds and a “past 6 months” timeframe for Reports on Children’s Figure 3 compares parent/guardian re- 4- to 18-year-olds) is scored on a 3-point Cruelty to Animals ports of cruelty to animals with youth self- scale: 0 = not true (as far as you know), Both the ACQ and CBC rely on caretakers’ reports. These data suggest that parents 1 = somewhat or sometimes true, or 2 = reports, and comparable information from and guardians may seriously underesti- very true or often true. Referred and non- youth’s self-reports of cruelty to animals mate cruelty to animals, with boys self- referred boys and girls can be compared is not available. The reliance on caretak- reporting this behavior at 3.8 times the for each of three age groups. These data ers’ reports, however, could be problem- rate of parents/guardians and girls at 7.6 are presented in figure 2. In this figure, atic because animal abuse may be per- times the parent/guardian rate. Similar data on acts of vandalism committed by formed covertly (a characteristic shared underestimates appear for two other CD the two older age groups are included for with youth vandalism and firesetting) and symptoms, vandalism and firesetting, that comparison. Again, cruelty to animals is caretakers may be unaware of the pres- may often be covert and, therefore, un- more often reported for younger children ence of this behavior in their children. known to or undetected by parents or and boys, especially those referred for Offord, Boyle, and Racine (1991) surveyed guardians (see figure 4). mental health services. Figure 2 also sug- a nonclinical sample of 1,232 Canadian gests that reported rates of cruelty to ani- A recent study of a nonclinical sample parents/guardians and their 12- to 16- of youth (1,333 boys and 837 girls; mean mals (for youth ages 4 and older) are high- year-old boys and girls. They asked re- er than or similar to reported rates of age, 14.6 years) in Alexandria, Egypt spondents (both parents/guardians and (Youssef, Attia, and Kamel, 1999), also vandalism, a problem behavior about adolescents) to report on a number of CD which more systematic juvenile crime provides data on self-reported cruelty to symptoms, based on a 3-point scale iden- animals. Dividing their sample into two data are available.1 tical to the one used with the CBC. (See groups—one reporting that they had en- gaged in violent behavior (acts of “physi- cal force that tended to inflict harm or Figure 2: Comparison of Reports of Incidents of Cruelty to Animals cause bodily injury”) and the other re- and Incidents of Vandalism, by Offender’s Age, Gender, and porting that they had not—Youssef, Attia, Referral Status and Kamel (1999:284) asked youth whether they were often cruel to animals. Of the violent youth, 9.6 percent reported being cruel; of the nonviolent youth, 2.05 per- 2Ð3 cent reported being cruel. The cruelty-to- animals variable significantly (p<0.003) determined membership in the violent or nonviolent group. 4Ð11 It should be noted that instruments used to assess teacher reports of children’s problem behaviors rarely include an item Cruelty to animals* 12Ð18 on animal abuse (e.g., Reynolds and Kamp- haus, 1992). Although teachers are unlike- Age (years) ly to observe their pupils being cruel to

† 4Ð11 animals, teachers may hear about such acts or read about them in students’ writ- ten work. These indirect observations 12Ð18 should be taken seriously and serve as a Vandalism signal for further assessment (Dwyer, 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 Osher, and Warger, 1998).

Youth (%) Animal Abuse and Boys referred to mental Girls referred to mental Violent Offending health services health services Animal abuse and interpersonal violence Boys not referred to Girls not referred to toward share common character- mental health services mental health services istics: both types of victims are living creatures, have a capacity for experienc- * In the past 2 months for children ages 2Ð3; in the past 6 months for children ages 4Ð18. ing pain and distress, can display physical † The percentage for girls not referred to mental health services was zero for both age groups. signs of their pain and distress (with which Sources: Achenbach, T.M. 1992. Manual for the Child Behavior Checklist/2Ð3 and 1992 Profile. humans could empathize), and may die Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry. Achenbach, T.M. 1991. Manual as a result of inflicted injuries. Given these for the Child Behavior Checklist/4Ð18 and 1991 Profile. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, commonalities, it is not surprising that Department of Psychiatry. early research in this area, much of it using retrospective assessment, examined

3 percent of the former group reported cru- Figure 3: Comparison of Parental Reports and Self-Reports of Cruelty elty to animals compared with 0 percent to Animals Among 12- to 16-Year-Olds, by Offender’s Gender of the latter. Miller and Knutson (1997) examined self- reports of animal abuse by 299 inmates in- carcerated for various felony offenses and Parent Reports 308 introductory psychology class under- graduates.2 The percentages of inmates and undergraduates, respectively, report- ing the following types of animal abuse Self-Reports were as follows: “Hurt an animal?” 16.4 percent and 9.7 percent, “Killed a stray?” 32.8 percent and 14.3 percent, and “Killed 024681012 a pet?” 12 percent and 3.2 percent. Youth (%) More recently, Schiff, Louw, and Ascione (1999) surveyed 117 men incarcerated in a Boys Girls South African prison about their childhood animal abuse. Of the 58 men who had com- mitted of aggression, 63.3 percent Source: Offord, D.R., Boyle, M.H., and Racine, Y.A. 1991. The epidemiology of antisocial behav- admitted to cruelty to animals; of the 59 ior in childhood and adolescence. In The Development and Treatment of Childhood Aggression, nonaggressive inmates, the percentage edited by D.J. Pepler and K.H. Rubin. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, pp. 31Ð54. This figure was derived from table 2.3, p. 39. was 10.5 percent. In a study of 28 convicted, incarcerated sexual homicide perpetrators (all men), Ressler, Burgess, and Douglas (1988) as- sessed the men’s self-reports of cruelty to Figure 4: Comparison of Parental Reports and Self-Reports of animals in childhood and adolescence. Vandalism and Firesetting Among 12- to 16-Year-Olds, Childhood animal abuse was reported by by Offender’s Gender 36 percent of the perpetrators, and 46 per- cent admitted to abusing animals as ado- lescents. Thirty-six percent of these men said they had also abused animals in adult- Parent reports hood. In a study by Tingle et al. (1986) of 64 convicted male sex offenders, animal abuse in childhood or adolescence was

Vandalism Self-reports reported by 48 percent of the rapists and 30 percent of the child molesters. Taken together, these studies suggest that Parent reports animal abuse may be characteristic of the developmental histories of between one in four and nearly two in three violent adult offenders. Firesetting Self-reports Animal Abuse and 0246810 Conduct Disorder Youth (%) The fourth edition of the Diagnostic and Boys Girls Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM–IV) defines CD as “a repetitive and persistent pattern of behavior in which Source: Offord, D.R., Boyle, M.H., and Racine, Y.A. 1991. The epidemiology of antisocial behav- the basic rights of others or major age- ior in childhood and adolescence. In The Development and Treatment of Childhood Aggression, appropriate societal norms or rules are edited by D.J. Pepler and K.H. Rubin. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, pp. 31Ð54. violated” and requires that at least 3 of 15 separate symptoms be present in the past year for a diagnosis of CD (American Psy- the relation between childhood histories of childhood (25 percent) than a comparison chiatric Association, 1994:90). Among the animal abuse and later violent offending. group of nonincarcerated men (0 percent). symptoms listed are those categorized un- A similar difference emerged in a study of der “deceitfulness or ,” “destruction Kellert and Felthous (1985) found that vio- assaultive and nonassaultive women of- of ” (which encompasses fireset- lent, incarcerated men reported higher fenders (Felthous and Yudowitz, 1977): 36 ting and vandalism), and “aggression to rates of “substantial cruelty to animals” in

4 people and animals” (which includes cru- Because of the interest in early identifica- physical cruelty to animals (not passive elty to people or to animals, stealing with tion of children at risk for later violent forms of cruelty such as neglect). A com- confrontation of the victim, and forced offending, it should be noted that cruelty parison group of 153 individuals (matched sexual activity). There is a great deal of to animals may be one of the first CD for age, gender, and socioeconomic sta- overlap between the symptoms of CD and symptoms to appear in young children. tus, but with no record of any cruelty-to- behaviors used to characterize serious Parents’ reports on the emergence of CD animal complaints) was selected from the violent juvenile offenders (see Loeber, symptoms in their children mark 6.5 years same neighborhoods in which those who Farrington, and Waschbusch, 1998:14–15). as the median age for onset of “hurting had been prosecuted resided. The State’s Cruelty to animals has only recently been animals”—earlier than , cruelty to criminal records were reviewed for each included in the symptom list for CD, ap- people, vandalism, or setting fires (Frick individual in both groups. Any adult ar- pearing for the first time in the revised et al., 1993). That study reinforces the rests for violent, property, drug, or public third edition of the Manual (DSM–III–R; importance of considering animal abuse a order offenses were noted. As shown in American Psychiatric Association, 1987). significant early warning sign for identify- figure 5, individuals prosecuted for animal Cruelty to animals, however, does not ing youth with potential for receiving a CD abuse were more likely to have an adult specifically appear in any of the categories diagnosis.4 The diagnostic value of this arrest in each of the four crime categor- (i.e., person, property, drug, and public symptom is also supported in a report by ies than the comparison group members. order) under which juvenile offenders are Spitzer, Davies, and Barkley (1990), which The differences between percentages for classified in national crime reporting sys- was based on national field trials for abusers and nonabusers were highly sig- tems (see Snyder and Sickmund, 1999) de- developing DSM–III–R. nificant (p<0.0001) for all four types of spite law enforcement’s acknowledgment offenses. These results make it clear that Recently, Luk et al. (1999:30) reported a of the link between animal abuse and hu- animal abusers are not only dangerous to reanalysis of case data for a sample of man violence (Lockwood and Church, their animal victims but also may jeopard- children (n=141) referred to mental health 1996; Ponder and Lockwood, 2000; Schleu- ize human welfare. services for “symptoms suggestive of op- ter, 1999; Turner, 2000). positional defiant/conduct disorder” and Animal abuse may vary in frequency, se- control data for a sample of community Motivations That May verity, and chronicity and range from the children (n=37). The clinic-referred chil- developmentally immature of ani- dren were subdivided into two groups Underlie Animal Abuse mals (e.g., a toddler pulling a kitten along based on CBC assessments: cruelty to ani- by Children and by the tail) to serious animal (e.g., mals present (n=40) and absent (n=101). Adolescents stealing neighborhood and setting Therefore, 28.4 percent of the clinic- Whenever high-profile cases of animal them on fire). Unfortunately, most assess- referred children displayed animal abuse. abuse are reported in the media, a com- ments of cruelty to animals lack a scaling The community children were selected mon public reaction is to ask: “Why would of these important differences. One excep- only if cruelty to animals was absent in someone do that?” Burying puppies alive, tion is the Interview for Antisocial Behavior their CBC assessments. Luk et al. dem- shooting wild mustangs, setting a dog on (IAB) developed by Kazdin and Esveldt- onstrated that differentiating the clinic- fire, beating a petting donkey—these Dawson (1986). Although it was created referred subgroups on the basis of cruelty and countless other examples offend the before the 1987 revision of the DSM, this to animals was related to scores on a public by their seemingly senseless cruel- instrument assesses 30 forms of antisocial measure of childhood behavior problems ty. In an effort to better understand this behavior, several of which reflect the cur- that, unlike the CBC, does not assess phenomenon, Kellert and Felthous (1985: rent CD symptom listings (established in cruelty to animals—the Eyberg Child 1122–1124) interviewed abusers and dis- 1994). The IAB has a number of positive Behavior Inventory (Eyberg and Ross, covered a number of motivations that may features, including both parent- and self- 1978). The authors found that clinic- characterize adult cruelty to animals, some report forms and ratings of problem referred children assessed as being cruel of which may also be applicable to animal severity and chronicity.3 to animals had significantly (p<0.001) abuse perpetrated by juveniles: higher mean problem and problem-severi- As illustrated in a study of psychiatric out- ty scores on the Eyberg Inventory than To control an animal (i.e., animal abuse patient referrals by Loeber et al. (1993), either clinic children who were not cruel as discipline or “training”). patterns of chronic behavior may be more to animals or community children. significant than isolated incidents. Three To retaliate against an animal. yearly assessments that included a ques- Thus, there is substantial evidence for the To satisfy a against a species tion about cruelty to animals were comple- value of assessing cruelty to animals as a or breed (e.g., hatred of cats). ted with 177 boys ages 7–12 years, some specific symptom of CD and as a correlate of whom (40.1 percent) were diagnosed of other forms of antisocial behavior in To express aggression through an ani- with oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) both childhood and adulthood. One addi- mal (i.e., training an animal to attack, and others (38.4 percent) with CD. Single- tional study will be described to illustrate using inflicted pain to create a “mean” year assessment of cruelty to animals this conclusion. dog). did not differentiate boys with ODD from To enhance one’s own aggressiveness those with CD, but a significant difference Arluke and colleagues (1999) reviewed the (e.g., using an animal victim for target emerged when scores on this item were files of the Society for the practice). Prevention of Cruelty to Animals and locat- aggregated over a 3-year period: cruelty To shock people for amusement. to animals was present for 13.3 percent of ed the records of 153 individuals (146 males boys with ODD and 29.4 percent of boys and 7 females, age range 11–76 years) To retaliate against other people (by with CD (p<0.05). who had been prosecuted for intentional hurting their pets or abusing animals in their presence).

5 CD assessments are not usually designed Figure 5: Percentage of Types of Other Offenses Committed by to discover the underlying reasons for a Individuals Prosecuted for Animal Abuse and a Control child’s or adolescent’s cruelty to animals, but as with juvenile firesetting (discussed Group Who Did Not Abuse Animals below), understanding motivations may be critical for designing effective interven- tion strategies. A recent review by Agnew Violent (1998) provides a more extensive treat- ment of the social-psychological causes of animal abuse. Property As noted by Ascione and Lockwood (2001), one model that could be used to develop an animal abuse assessment instrument is the approach that has been taken to Drug assess juvenile firesetting. Firesetting shares many features with animal abuse:

Type of Other Offense Type both are CD symptoms, may reflect devel- Disorder opmental changes, may share etiological factors, may often be performed covertly, and may be early sentinels for later psy- 0 1020304050 chological problems. Percentage Some children may manifest both problem behaviors. Wooden and Berkey (1984) Animal abusers Nonabusers of animals noted the co-occurrence of cruelty to ani- mals in a sample of 69 firesetters ages 4–17: cruelty to animals was reported for Note: Age range of sample: 11Ð76 years. All chi-square comparisons between abusers and nonabusers significant at p<0.0001. 46 percent of 4- to 8-year-olds, 9 percent of 9- to 12-year-olds, and 12 percent of Source: Arluke, A., Levin, J., Luke, C., and Ascione, F. 1999. The relationship of animal abuse to 13- to 17-year-olds. The authors caution violence and other forms of antisocial behavior. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 14:963Ð975. that the lower rates for older children and adolescents may be related to the covert nature of this behavior, as children experi- To displace hostility from a person to Forced abuse (i.e., the child is coerced ence greater independence and venture an animal (i.e., attacking a vulnerable into animal abuse by a more powerful farther from home for more prolonged animal when assaulting the real human individual). periods. Sakheim and Osborne (1994) reported similar results with samples of target is judged too risky). Attachment to an animal (e.g., the child children who set fires (n=100) and those To experience nonspecific sadism (i.e., kills an animal to prevent its torture by who did not (n=55). Fifty percent of the enjoying the suffering experienced by another individual). firesetters’ parents reported that their the animal victim, in and of itself). Animal phobias (that cause a preemp- children had been cruel “to children or Child and adolescent motivations for ani- tive attack on a feared animal). animals,” but only 9 percent of parents of the children who did not set fires reported mal abuse have not been studied as exten- Identification with the child’s abuser the same (p<0.01). sively. However, case reports and a youth (e.g., a victimized child may try to re- interview study (using the Cruelty to Ani- gain a sense of power by victimizing a Animal abuse in the context of firesetting mals Assessment Instrument) conducted more vulnerable animal). may also have predictive value. Rice and by Ascione, Thompson, and Black (1997) Harris (1996) reported on a sample of 243 suggest a number of developmentally Posttraumatic play (i.e., reenacting vio- firesetters who had resided in a maximum- related motivations: lent episodes with an animal victim). security psychiatric facility and were later Curiosity or exploration (i.e., the ani- Imitation (i.e., copying a parent’s or released. In a followup of 208 of these mal is injured or killed in the process of other adult’s abusive “discipline” of men, Rice and Harris found that a child- being examined, usually by a young or animals). hood history of cruelty to animals (coded developmentally delayed child). Self-injury (i.e., using an animal to inflict from patient records) predicted violent offense recidivism (p<0.001) and nonvio- Peer pressure (e.g., peers may encour- injuries on the child’s own body). lent offense recidivism (p<0.05) but not age animal abuse or require it as part Rehearsal for interpersonal violence firesetting recidivism.5 of an initiation rite). (i.e., “practicing” violence on stray ani- Mood enhancement (e.g., animal mals or pets before engaging in violent The Salt Lake City Area Juvenile Firesetter/ abuse is used to relieve boredom or acts against other people). Control and Prevention Program depression). Vehicle for emotional abuse (e.g., injur- (1992), funded by the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, is ing a sibling’s pet to frighten the sibling). Sexual gratification (i.e., bestiality). based on a typology of juvenile firesetters that may be relevant for developing a

6 children who are developmentally delayed may also fall into this group. Pathological animal abuse. Children in this category are more likely to be (though not necessarily) older than chil- dren in the exploratory/curious group. Rather than indicating a lack of educa- tion about the humane treatment of ani- mals, animal abuse by these children may be symptomatic of psychological disturbances of varying severity. For example, a number of studies have tied childhood animal abuse to childhood histories of physical abuse, , and exposure to domestic vio- lence (see pages 8–9 for discussions of these issues). In these cases, profession- al, clinical intervention is warranted. Delinquent animal abuse. Youth in this typology for children who abuse animals made to educate parents about fire safety category are most likely to be adoles- (Marcel Chappuis, personal communica- and the need for supervising young chil- cents whose animal abuse may be one tion, March 23, 1998). The typology of dren. Children who fall into the other two of a number of antisocial activities. In juvenile firesetters categorizes children groups are referred to mental health serv- some cases, the animal abuse may be a into the following groups: ices because fire departments are not pre- component of gang/cult-related activi- pared to deal with the psychological prob- ties (e.g., initiation rites) or less formal Normal curiosity firesetters. The mean lems these young people may present. group violence and destructiveness. age of this group is 5 years (range, 3–7 The use of alcohol and other substances years). Children in this group often It might be possible to develop a similar may be associated with animal abuse share the characteristics of poor paren- typology for children who abuse animals. for these youth, and they may require tal supervision, a lack of fire education, Although there is not a great deal of em- both judicial and clinical interventions. and no fear of fire. pirical information on which to rely, the study by Ascione, Thompson, and Black “Plea-for-help” firesetters. The mean The Etiology of Animal age of this group is 9 years (range, (1997) suggests the varied motivations 7–13 years). The group’s firesetting that may underlie child and adolescent Abuse animal abuse. Using the extensive experi- is often symptomatic of more deep- Although “bad seed” interpretations of ence of animal control and seated psychological disturbance. youth violence have waxed and waned professionals, one could develop a typolo- The individuals usually have had ade- throughout history (Garbarino, 1999; gy mirroring that for juvenile firesetters. quate fire education. Kellerman, 1999), it is clear that attention A sketch of such a typology might ap- to the family, social, and community con- Delinquent firesetters. The mean age proximate the following: of this group is 14 years (range, 13 texts of children’s lives is critical for un- years to adulthood). Firesetting may be Exploratory/curious animal abuse. derstanding violent behavior. This holds one of a host of adolescent-onset anti- Children in this category are likely to true for the special case of animal abuse. social behaviors, including gang-related be of preschool or early elementary As Widom (1989) has demonstrated, a activities, exhibited by this group. school age, poorly supervised, and history of and neglect places lacking training on the physical care individuals at risk for later delinquency, The Salt Lake City program has developed and humane treatment of a variety of adult criminal offending, and violent crimi- a series of assessment scales geared to animals, especially family pets and/or nal activity. This section addresses factors each age group of firesetters that can be stray animals and neighborhood wild- in children’s lives that have been associat- administered to the child and the child’s life. interventions ed with increased levels of animal abuse. parent/guardian. In addition to questions (teaching children to be kind, caring, The factors range from negative but rela- about fire education and the firesetting and nurturing toward animals) by par- tively normative experiences (corporal incident(s), this series has questions about ents, childcare providers, and teachers ) to potentially more devastat- general behavior problems (similar to are likely to be sufficient to encourage ing circumstances (physical abuse, sexual items on the CBC), including one item desistence of animal abuse in these abuse, and ). about cruelty to animals. (There is also a children. Age alone should not be the direct question about whether the fireset- determining factor in including children ting incident involved the burning of an Corporal Punishment in this category. For example, CD symp- animal.) Responses to these assessments Evidence continues to mount on the inef- toms may have an early developmental are used to select an intervention strate- fectiveness and deleterious nature of cor- onset, and as noted earlier, cruelty to gy. Children who fall into the normal cu- poral punishment as a child-rearing tech- animals is one of the earliest CD symp- riosity group are often enrolled in a fire nique (Straus, 1991). Two recent studies toms to be noted by caretakers. Older education program, and may be link this evidence to animal abuse. In a survey of 267 undergraduates, 68.4 percent

7 of whom were women, Flynn (1999a) asked of 53 New Jersey families that met State Bestiality may range from touching or participants about their history of abusing criteria for substantiated child abuse and fondling the genitals of animals to sexual animals (e.g., hurting, torturing, or killing neglect and had pets in their homes re- intercourse and violent sexual abuse. pets or stray animals; sex acts with ani- vealed that in 60 percent of these families, Some species of animals may be seriously mals). Students also responded to items pets were also abused or neglected. Animal injured or die as a result of the abuse assessing attitudes toward spanking and abuse was significantly higher (88 percent) inflicted (e.g., penetration that damages husband-on-wife abuse. In all, 34.5 percent in families where child physical abuse was internal organs). Beirne (1997) provided of the men and 9.3 percent of the women present than in families where other forms an excellent theoretical overview of this reported at least one childhood incident of of child maltreatment (e.g., sexual abuse) issue, but empirical studies, especially animal abuse. These respondents (both occurred (34 percent). One or both par- with children, are rare (e.g., see case study men and women) were significantly more ents and their children were responsible by Wiegand, Schmidt, and Kleiber, 1999). likely to endorse the use of corporal pun- for abusing the families’ pets. Lane (1997) noted that juvenile sex offend- ishment and to approve of a husband slap- ing may include bestiality, sometimes com- ping his wife. Although these findings do Sexual Abuse bined with other violent behavior toward not establish a direct link between abusing animals. Adolescent sexual offenders may Friedrich et al. (1992) compared a non- animals and spanking children or slapping also use threats of harm to pets as a way abused sample of 880 children ages 2–12 wives, they do suggest an association be- of gaining compliance from their human with 276 children in the same age range tween animal abuse and accepting atti- victims (Kaufman, Hilliker, and Daleiden, who had been sexually abused in the past tudes toward these activities. 1996). In the study of sexual homicide per- 12 months. Based on a reexamination of petrators cited earlier (Ressler, Burgess, In a followup report with this same sam- data from this study, Friedrich (personal and Douglas, 1988), 40 percent of the men ple of undergraduates, Flynn (1999b) communication, April 1992) provided who said they had been sexually abused in found that, for men, perpetrating animal information on cruelty to animals derived childhood or adolescence reported having abuse was positively correlated with the from the nonperpetrating caretakers’ CBC sexual contact with animals. Itzin (1998) frequency of their father’s use of corporal reports on children. As shown in figure 6, reported anecdotal evidence of bestiality punishment (spanking, slapping, or hit- children with a history of sexual abuse being forced on children who also were ting) in adolescence. Self-reports of animal were significantly (p<0.001) more likely to sexually abused and involved in the pro- abuse by men experiencing paternal cor- have been cruel to animals than children duction of child pornography. poral punishment in adolescence were 2.4 in the nonabused group. A study of 499 times higher than for men who were not seriously mentally ill 5- to 18-year-olds Although it is difficult to obtain informa- physically disciplined (57.1 percent and hospitalized at a tertiary care psychiatric tion about sexual behavior in children and 23.1 percent, respectively, p<0.005). facility (McClellan et al., 1995) also found adolescents, especially sexual behavior cruelty to animals to be more prevalent with animals, Friedrich (1997) provided Physical Abuse among patients who had been sexually some information on this issue with data abused than among those who had not from his Child Sexual Behavior Inventory Research specifically designed to assess been sexually abused (p=0.004). (CSBI). Caregivers of 1,114 children ages the relation between animal abuse and 2–12 who had not been abused and care- child maltreatment is meager yet compel- One form of cruelty to animals that has givers of 512 sexually abused children in ling in its implications. For example, a 1983 received scant attention in the literature is the same age range reported on a variety study by DeViney, Dickert, and Lockwood the sexual abuse of animals, or bestiality. of sexual or sexualized behaviors in the children, including whether the child “touches animals’ sex parts.” (Note: The Figure 6: Percentage of Youth Ages 2Ð12 Reported by Caregivers reporting caregivers of the sexually abused children were not the perpetrators of the To Have Been Cruel to Animals, by Offender’s Gender and abuse.) The children were divided into History of Sexual Abuse three age groups: ages 2–5, 6–9, and 10–12. The queried behavior was relatively infre- quent, but it was clear that in the two No history of older groups, sexually abused children sexual abuse were more likely to display the behavior than nonabused children (see figure 7). Although the behavior appears to decline History of among sexually abused 10- to 12-year-olds, sexual abuse one might speculate that the decrease is accounted for, in part, by a greater secre-

Victimization Status 0 5101520253035 tiveness in older children in acting out sex- ually with animals. The decrease may also Youth (%) be related to older children’s transferring their inappropriate sexual activity from Boys Girls animal to human victims. Further evidence for the relation between Source: Friedrich, W.N., personal communication, April 1992. sexual abuse victimization and bestiality is

8 whether their adult partner had ever Figure 7: Percentage of Youth Ages 2Ð12 Reported by Caregivers threatened or actually hurt or killed one To Have Sexually Abused Animals, by Offender’s Age, or more of their pets, 71 percent of women with pets responded “yes.” Thirty-two per- Gender, and Victimization Status cent of women with children reported that their children had hurt or killed one or 12 more family pets. In a replication study of 100 women who were battered and had 10 entered a shelter and a comparison group of 117 nonbattered women, all of whom 8 had pets, Ascione (2000b) found that 54 percent of the battered women compared 6 with 5 percent of the nonbattered women reported that their partner had hurt or Youth (%) Youth 4 killed pets (see figure 8). Children’s expo- sure to this animal abuse was reported by 2 62 percent of the battered women. Nearly one in four of the battered women report- 0 ed that concern for their pets’ welfare had 2Ð5 6Ð9 10Ð12 prevented them from seeking shelter sooner.6 Age (years) Flynn (2000) reported similar findings in Sexually abused boys Sexually abused girls a study of 43 women with pets who had entered a South Carolina domestic violence Nonabused boys Nonabused girls shelter. (Twenty-eight of the women were accompanied by children.) Of these 43 Source: Friedrich, W.N. 1997. Child Sexual Behavior Inventory: Professional Manual. Odessa, women, 46.5 percent reported threats to FL: Psychological Assessment Resources. (n=9) or harm of (n=11) their pets. Al- though only 7 percent of children were reported to be cruel to animals, 33.3 per- cent of women whose pets were abused reported that their children had also been Figure 8: Percentage of Women Who Reported That Their Domestic abused. Of the women whose pets were Partners Hurt or Killed Pets, by Reporter’s History of not abused, 15.8 percent reported child Domestic Abuse abuse. (The figure was 10.5 percent for women with no pets.) These studies make it clear that in fami- Victims of Domestic challenged by child maltreatment and Abuse (n=100) domestic violence, there is increased op- portunity for children to be exposed to Nonvictims of Domestic the abuse of animals. Even if adult family Abuse (n=117) members do not abuse animals, some chil- dren may express the pain of their own 0 102030405060 victimization by abusing vulnerable family pets. Just as researchers are beginning to Women (%) understand the overlap between child abuse and neglect and domestic violence Source: Ascione, F.R. 2000b. What veterinarians need to know about the link between animal between intimate adult partners (Ross, abuse and interpersonal violence. Proceedings of the 137th Annual Meeting of the American 1996), they must now consider the over- Veterinary Medical Association, Salt Lake City, UT, July 25, 2000 (CDÐROM records #316Ð317). lap of these forms of abuse with animal maltreatment (see figure 9). provided by Wherry and colleagues (1995). Domestic Violence Policy Implications and They administered the CSBI to caretakers Animals may also be abused in the con- Recommendations of 24 boys ages 6–12 who were psychiatric text of family violence between intimate This section addresses issues relating to inpatients. Eight of these boys had been adult partners. Ascione (1998) reported the reporting, assessment, and treatment sexually abused. “Touches animals’ sex an interview study of 38 women who were of children involved in animal abuse. It parts” was reported for 50 percent of battered and had sought shelter. Fifty- presents recommendations associated abused boys but none of nonabused boys eight percent of the women had children with these issues and highlights the need (p<0.01). and 74 percent had pets. When asked for enhanced professional training.

9 and adult-perpetrated animal abuse to sources of information about this be- Figure 9: Interconnectedness social welfare and law enforcement havior problem. To obtain a better es- agencies and should maintain systemat- timate of the incidence of animal of Different Types ic records that could be available for abuse, youth surveys of violent behav- of Abuse archival review (Ascione and Barnard, ior should include self-report items 1998; Ascione, Kaufmann, and Brooks, such as “Have you hurt an animal on 2000). purpose?” or “Have you made an ani- Parents, childcare providers, teachers, mal suffer for no reason?” Also, wit- others who play caregiving roles for nessing animal abuse is a form of Child Abuse Domestic children (e.g., clergy, coaches), and exposure to violence that should be and Neglect Violence young people themselves should be in- routinely assessed because it may have formed that animal abuse may be a sig- significant effects on young people nificant sign of a tendency to violence (Boat, 1999). Often children are deeply and psychological disturbance and attached to their pets and observing should not be ignored. Efforts in this the violent abuse or death of a pet at Animal area are already emerging and include the hands of others may be emotional- Abuse Early Warning, Timely Response: A ly devastating. Guide to Safe Schools (Dwyer, Osher, and Warger, 1998) from the U.S. Depart- Assessment and Treatment ment of Education and the Warning As part of the search for effective youth Source: Ascione, F.R., and Arkow, P., eds. Signs guide (1999) developed by MTV- violence prevention and intervention pro- 1999. Child Abuse, Domestic Violence, Music ™ and the American grams, animal welfare organizations have and Animal Abuse: Linking the Circles Psychological Association and dissemi- been developing educational and thera- of Compassion for Prevention and nated as part of their Fight for Your peutic efforts that incorporate “animal- Intervention. West Lafayette, IN: Rights: Take a Stand Against Violence assisted” or “animal-facilitated” compo- Purdue University Press. campaign. The nents (Duel, 2000). The underlying theme Association’s (1996) Growing Up Hu- of many of these programs is that teach- mane in a Violent World: A Parent’s ing young people to train, care for, and Reporting Guide provides developmentally sensi- interact in a nurturing manner with ani- Cruelty to animals is all too often a part of tive information about children and mals will reduce any propensity they may the landscape of violence in which youth animals and the significance of animal have for aggression and violence. These participate and to which they are exposed. abuse. The Guide also includes edu- programs assume that children are more The number of animals that are victims of cational strategies appropriate for likely to commit animal abuse when their such abuse is, at present, difficult to esti- preschoolers and some designed for capacity for empathy has been under- mate, as is the number of young people elementary and secondary school mined or compromised (for example, by who perpetrate such abuse. In an ideal students. years of neglect or maltreatment—see Bavolek, 2000). Developing a sense of world, national data would be available on Youth should be surveyed about their empathy for animals is assumed to be the yearly incidence of animal abuse, data treatment of animals. Because animals a bridge to greater empathy for fellow that could be used to track trends and may often be abused covertly, parents human beings, making violence toward serve as a baseline against which the and other adults may not be the best effectiveness of interventions could be them less likely. assessed. The existing national data col- lection systems in the area of child abuse and neglect illustrate the value of such archival records (Sedlak and Broadhurst, 1996). However, it is not clear how animal abuse offenses could be incorporated into the existing categorization (person, prop- erty, drug, public order) of juvenile arrests. Only two States (Minnesota and West Vir- ginia) mandate that veterinarians report suspected cases of animal abuse (Frasch et al., 1999). Until a national system of monitoring and reporting animal abuse is instituted, the following approaches to recording cases of animal abuse are recommended: Local humane societies, societies for the prevention of cruelty to animals, and animal control agencies should rou- tinely refer cases of serious, juvenile-

10 The development of animal abuse assess- mental health (psychology and psychia- Resources ment and intervention programs is accom- try) and other human health professions The American Humane Association panied by a number of issues related to (e.g., social work, child welfare, and pedi- 63 Inverness Drive East evaluation and accountability: atrics) and elementary and secondary Englewood, CO 80112–5117 education. The following are recommenda- Although formal protocols for the clini- 303–792–9900 tions for improving and expanding profes- cal assessment (Lewchanin and Zim- 303–792–5333 (fax) sional training concerning animal abuse: merman, 2000) and treatment (Jory and www.americanhumane.org Randour, 1999; Zimmerman and Lew- Professional cross training should be The National Resource Center on the chanin, 2000) of animal abuse are begin- expanded (Ascione, Kaufmann, and Link Between Violence to People ning to emerge, they are still at a forma- Brooks, 2000). For example, animal and Animals tive stage of development and their control officers should be trained to 63 Inverness Drive East effectiveness is difficult to evaluate. identify signs of child maltreatment Englewood, CO 80112–5117 and child protection workers should be Attempts have been made to create 877–LINK–222 (877–546–5222) trained to identify animal abuse. The typologies for perpetrators of animal [email protected] abuse, similar to typologies for fireset- underlying theme of such training ters. These typologies have intuitive should be that animal abuse is a signif- The American Humane Association (AHA), appeal, but their utility has not been icant form of violence that not only established in 1877, includes both child empirically assessed. Whether using harms animals but may be a warning protection and animal protection divisions. the proposed categories of animal sign of a child who is psychologically AHA operates the National Resource Cen- abusers can facilitate the selection of disturbed or in danger of maltreatment. ter on the Link Between Violence to People appropriate therapeutic interventions Training and continuing education for and Animals, provides training to profes- remains to be determined. judges should include current informa- sional groups across the country, and has brochures, fact sheets, and special issues Given the challenges of incorporat- tion on the associations among animal abuse, domestic violence, and child of Protecting Children available that are ing animals into the therapeutic pro- devoted to this topic. cess (Fine, 2000), evaluation of animal- maltreatment. Decisions about child facilitated therapy programs must custody and foster placements should The of the move beyond anecdotal evidence. be informed by research showing that First Strike™ Campaign Katcher and Wilkins (2000) provided an adults who abuse animals are potential- 2100 L Street NW. evaluation model in a study of animal- ly dangerous to humans. Washington, DC 20037 facilitated therapy for children with Cross training could also enhance the 202–452–1100 attention disorders. The model should success of foster placements for mal- 888–213–0956 be expanded to programs for youth treated children who may be physically www.hsus.org/firststrike/ with CD. or sexually abusing animals. Foster The Humane Society of the United care providers, especially those with Evaluation of intervention effectiveness States (HSUS) launched the First Strike™ family pets, should be alerted to the will continue to grow in importance Campaign in 1997 to raise public and pro- potential for animal abuse to occur. because, in some jurisdictions (e.g., fessional awareness about the connection , Colorado), courts may rec- between animal abuse and human violence. ommend or mandate assessment and Conclusion The campaign provides training for law treatment of individuals convicted of Although vandalism may represent costly enforcement officers, prosecutors, social certain forms of animal abuse (Frasch et and psychologically significant destruc- service workers, veterinarians, mental al., 1999). The effects of such programs tiveness (Goldstein, 1996), smashed wind- health professionals, educators, and the on recidivism have not been examined. shields and graffitied walls do not feel general public on the importance of treat- pain or cry out when they are damaged. ing animal abuse as a serious crime and Training Animals, however, do express their dis- an indicator of other forms of violence. Educational programs at both the prepro- tress when they have been abused, and A complete list of resources available fessional and professional levels should their distress calls out for attention. This through the HSUS First Strike™ Campaign give greater emphasis to training about Bulletin has provided an overview of the is available at the Web site and can also animal abuse and its overlap with other underreported and understudied phenom- be obtained by calling the toll-free number forms of family and community violence. enon of animal abuse in childhood and ad- (both listed above). Resources include a This effort has already emerged in veteri- olescence. Addressing cruelty to animals free campaign kit with brochures and fact nary education (Ascione and Barnard, as a significant form of aggressive and sheets. A general brochure, a brochure on 1998), the legal profession (Davidson, antisocial behavior may add one more domestic violence, and a brochure for 1998), and law enforcement (Lockwood, piece to the puzzle of understanding and children are available in Spanish. Also 1989) and should be expanded to include preventing youth violence. available are the First Strike™ Campaign video and public service announcements,

11 articles addressing the connection be- Send a self-adhesive, self-addressed achieve safety may be one of the best tween animal abuse and human violence, mailing label to: ways to ensure the safety of their chil- and Violence Prevention and Intervention: Frank R. Ascione, Ph.D. dren (Jacobsen, 2000). A Directory of Animal-Related Programs Department of Psychology (Duel, 2000), an 82-page listing of preven- Utah State University References tion and intervention programs. 2810 Old Main Hill Achenbach, T.M. 1991. Manual for the Child Logan, UT 84322–2810 The Latham Foundation for the Behavior Checklist/4–18 and 1991 Profile. 435–797–1464 Promotion of Humane Education Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, 435–797–1448 (fax) 1826 Clement Avenue Department of Psychiatry. Alameda, CA 94501 [email protected] 510–521–0920 Achenbach, T.M. 1992. Manual for the Child 510–521–9861 (fax) Behavior Checklist/2–3 and 1992 Profile. www.latham.org Endnotes Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, 1. In 1997, there were 136,000 arrests of Department of Psychiatry. Established in 1918, the Latham Founda- persons under age 18 for vandalism tion promotes respect for all life through (Snyder and Sickmund, 1999); during the Achenbach, T.M., Howell, C.T., Quay, H.C., education. The Foundation publishes a 1990–99 reporting period, juvenile arrests and Conners, C.K. 1991. National survey of quarterly periodical, The Latham Letter, for vandalism decreased for boys but problems and competencies among four- and maintains a number of print and increased for girls (Snyder, 2000). to sixteen-year-olds. Monographs of the video resources related to animal abuse, Society for Research in Child Development child maltreatment, and humane educa- 2. Of the 299 inmates, 16 percent were 56: Serial No. 255. tion, including: female and 11.9 percent were ages 15 to 19 (the remaining 88.1 percent were older Agnew, R. 1998. The causes of animal Breaking the Cycles of Violence: A Video than 19). Of the 308 undergraduates, 57.1 abuse: A social-psychological analysis. and Training Manual (set). Authored by percent were female. Theoretical Criminology 2:177–209. Phil Arkow, the video and 64-page man- 3. Kazdin and Esveldt-Dawson reported American Humane Association. 1996. ual are ideal for cross training profes- that responses to the cruelty to animals Growing Up Humane in a Violent World: A sionals on animal and human abuse item were positively correlated (r=0.46, Parent’s Guide. Englewood, CO: American issues. p<0.001) with the IAB total score. Cruelty Humane Association. Teaching Compassion: A Guide for Hu- to animals scores were significantly American Psychiatric Association. 1987. mane Educators. Written by Pamela higher for CD-diagnosed than for non-CD- Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Raphael with Libby Coleman, Ph.D., and diagnosed boys and girls, ages 6–13, who Disorders. 3d ed. Revised. Washington, DC: Lynn Loar, Ph.D., this 130-page guide were inpatients at a psychiatric facility American Psychiatric Association. includes a teacher’s narrative and les- (F[1,256] = 8.44, p<0.01). son plans to encourage respect, respon- 4. Randolf (1999) suggested that cruelty to American Psychiatric Association. 1994. sibility, compassion, and empathy. animals also may be one of the core symp- Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Child Abuse, Domestic Violence, and toms of attachment disorders (see also Disorders. 4th ed. Washington, DC: Ameri- Animal Abuse: Linking the Circles of Magid and McKelvey, 1987). can Psychiatric Association. Compassion for Prevention and Inter- 5. It is interesting to note that enuresis Arluke, A., Levin, J., Luke, C., and Ascione, vention. Produced with the assistance (bedwetting) was not significantly related F. 1999. The relationship of animal abuse of the Latham Foundation, this book, to any of the three forms of recidivism. to violence and other forms of antisocial edited by Frank R. Ascione, Ph.D., and Bedwetting has been included in the so- behavior. Journal of Interpersonal Violence Phil Arkow (1999), includes original called “triad” of symptoms (with cruelty 14:963–975. chapters written by authorities from to animals and firesetting) as a possible each of these three areas of profession- Ascione, F.R. 1993. Children who are cruel predictor of serious violence. Research al focus. to animals: A review of research and impli- has been inconclusive about the triad’s cations for developmental psychopatholo- Safe Havens for Pets: Guidelines for predictive value (Barnett and Spitzer, gy. Anthrozoos 6:226–247. Programs Sheltering Pets for Women 1994; Lockwood and Ascione, Who Are Battered. Based on indepth 1998:245–246). Ascione, F.R. 1998. Battered women’s re- interviews with 41 domestic violence 6. Thus, some domestic violence victims ports of their partners’ and their children’s and animal welfare agencies, this book and their children may remain with a bat- cruelty to animals. Journal of Emotional describes the development and opera- terer because they have no one to care for Abuse 1:119–133. tion of programs that shelter pets for their pets if the victim and children enter women and their children who are es- Ascione, F.R. 1999. The abuse of animals a domestic violence shelter. In response, caping violent homes. A free copy of and human interpersonal violence: Making programs to shelter pets of domestic vio- this book is available for any law en- the connection. In Child Abuse, Domestic lence victims have been and continue to forcement, domestic violence, animal Violence, and Animal Abuse: Linking the be established across the United States welfare, child welfare, or related Circles of Compassion for Prevention and and (Ascione, 2000a). The increas- agency making a request (funded by Intervention, edited by F.R. Ascione and ing availability of these pet-sheltering pro- the Geraldine R. Dodge Foundation). P. Arkow. West Lafayette, IN: Purdue Uni- grams will benefit battered women and versity Press, pp. 50–61. their children because helping mothers

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14 Wooden, W.S., and Berkey, M.L. 1984. Children and Arson: America’s Middle Class Acknowledgments Nightmare. New York: Plenum Press. Frank R. Ascione, Ph.D., is Professor of Psychology and Adjunct Professor of Youssef, R.M., Attia, M.S., and Kamel, M.I. Family and Human Development at Utah State University. The author thanks Rolf 1999. Violence among schoolchildren in Loeber for his support and encouragement during the preparation of this Bulletin. Alexandria. Eastern Mediterranean Health Photo on page 7 copyright ©1997Ð99 Photodisc, Inc.; photo on page 10 copyright Journal 5:282–298. ©1998Ð2001, Eyewire, Inc. Zimmerman, E., and Lewchanin, S. 2000. Community Intervention in Juvenile Cruelty to Animals. Brunswick, ME: Biddle Pub- Share With Your Colleagues lishing Company. Unless otherwise noted, OJJDP publications are not copyright protected. We Points of view or opinions expressed in this encourage you to reproduce this document, share it with your colleagues, and document are those of the author and do not reprint it in your newsletter or journal. However, if you reprint, please cite OJJDP necessarily represent the official position or and the authors of this Bulletin. We are also interested in your feedback, such as how you received a copy, how you intend to use the information, and how OJJDP policies of OJJDP or the U.S. Department of materials meet your individual or agency needs. Please direct your comments and Justice. questions to:

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