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Patterns of Indigenous Thnber Extraction from \Ioiuecan Rain Forest Fringes*

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Patterns of Indigenous Thnber Extraction from \Ioiuecan Rain Forest Fringes* JOllrnal ofBiogeography (1985) 12,559-587 Patterns of indigenous thnber extraction from \Ioiuecan rain forest fringes* R. F, ELLEN Centre of South-East Asian Studies, University of Kent .tt C:wterbury, Eliot College, Kent CT2 7NS ABSTRACT. Using ethnographic and historical data, this paper tries to show the effects of different patterns of demand and extraction on the condition of rain forest fringes in the f\,Ioluccan islands ofeastern Indonesia. The first pc.rt examines contemporary folk perceptions and use, with particular reference to the Nuaulu of south central Seram. It covers the impact of gathering forest products, s'Nid· dening, timber extraction and forestry practice, together WiTh the cultural uses for wood in construction and manufacturing, and for fuel. The second part ranges mQre wideiy, and loo:(s historically at production of forest commodities fo;exchange, the demands of boat·building, clearance for spice plantations and, finally, modern commercial logging. Traditional modes of extraction had a con­ siderable impact on Moluccan forests prior to the intrusion and effects of occi­ dental capitalism, and an attempt is made to outline a scheme of historical periodization which might serve as a hypothetical framework for future palace­ botanical and archaeological research. Introduction ture, and a few general summaries (see e.g, Heyne, 1927; Freeman, 1970: Fri.edberg, i"'A' studies exist of the character and organiza­ 1970; Cohban, 1968). The main exceptions "~)n of timber extraction among the indige­ to this otherwise rather uneven coverage have "'JUS peoples of insular southeast Asia. There been investigations connected with ascertaining ~:~. ir is true, many lists of llseiul trees, the the effects of swiddening on the rai:l forest. ....l~ionally relevant ethnographic account of Harold Conklin's notable report on Hanunoo .:"'11sten~e, a growiilg ethno~otanical litera­ agriculture in the Philippines (1957) was even •J he field research UpO(; which thi:; paper is '; ,,:,1 \....;.1:\ conducted under the ad.~pice;; of the published as an FAO Forestry Development ;"!le~i:Jn Academy of Sciences ht:Cween 1969 :Jnu Paper. It is, however, significant that this "I, .1nJ again in 1973,1975 and 1981. It has been important work does not extend to a con­ ·"·,,:,Iy funded hy the Social Sci'c'llce Research "ideration of other aspects offorest and timber ,n.:ii. the LOl1don·CorneJl Project lor East ami use . •• 1111:;1>1 Asian Studies, the HJyter Travel A\varus • '.:01\', The Central Research Funu of th<: Univcr­ A partial effect of this neg1ed is the per­ .,!" Lundon, the lJritisll Academy thwllt,!;h itlC niciolls but nonetheless persisting 35SUHipticn { ',,11 ill~titute in South East Asia, anu the IJniver­ that there is a sharp bre:lk between so-,'JJkJ t.l K\'nt at Canterrury. For iuentification of 'trnditionul't patterns of extr~ll.'tjon ::lnd " "!ICIIS I am inuehted to \1r L. L. Forman of th~ ., !l'I!:lr;ic Gardena, Kew.and Dr Chang Ki:l\v Lan modern ones; that prior to the intrusion of ~~,.: BOI:llllc GarrJ.;n.'i, Singapore. I ..... .,lIld like to t Th~ woru is uhiquitous in th~ lit.:r:tture on b.:al ':'. t.'le' following for vanous useful comments and \:C(Jnorni~s throu~hollt tlt~ r~gion 'lnu hl'came Tra:1S­ :J.nic'ls: Dr M. M. J. vall UalgL1oy, Dr '!ohn lated as JC'l"ma of a kind in J. H. D'.eke's ·~conomic ,. 1 ·:·.!il'lJ. Dr N. Go\v:Jru, l)r K\vi£on Jong .. l1r dtnlisl1I. l\lore often still it js simply in;l'!kit. F')f :J .1. ;rj '\'alnney and Dr 'f. C. \\'hitillore. 1)r Anort:\\' ,:ol,wnient outline uf thi~ tl1~()ry ;1I1d of tll" ,;"it i ­ , ":r h'!\ !w~n helpflll in putting me in touci! \vitll .;isms levelleu at it "t~e Koentj:Jranin~:i:lt (14::<O~..\s ·':·."r'lurt! Oil EUrl1\h',!!l deforest:Jtion and ship- applit:u til pattern" of foft'st extracti'ln (he '!SSlImp· tillll underlies, for exampl~, Cobb:1O (1968). BES!AV,IU,~/';8LECOPV 55{j \ 560 R. F. Ellen occidental capitalism methods of extraction least two important respects they differ. The were uniform and, for the most part, of little first is in terms of their position within the consequence. While there have undouhtedly eastern part of the Malesian floristic division been major changes in recent times, and while (Steenis, 1950; Balgooy, 1971), in a zone of the level of timber extraction has risen at an transition between the southeast Asian and exponential rate L, the last few decades, the Australian biogeographic regions. The second antithesis as it is sometimes drawn will not is topographic: the islands are smaller, more sustain much serious examination. There have mountainous for their size, with few big rivers been precious few attempts to embark upon a and all of them fast-flowing. proper study of the historic changes in forest In the south central part of the island ther~ use in the context of local economic systems, are four basic forest formations, overlying and there can be little doubt that the pros­ coastal Quaternary deposits of alluvium con­ pect may seem daunting. Dunn (1975) is an taining conglomerates and outcrops of coralline important exception. limestone, and further inland phyllitic rocks. In this paper I look at the interaction These formations are: tropical wet evergreen between people and forest in the Moluccas as forest, which stretches from sea level moun­ a set of dynamic relations: variable in any tainwards (mostly on low hills); montane rain short-term ethnographic analysis, shifting forest, generally above 1000 m; Metroxylofl from place to place and between one historical swamp forest; and patches of semi-evergreen epoch and the next, depending on the uses to associations. Although no detailed studies which the forest is put and the technical exist, there is undoubtedly considerable varia­ means of extracting its resources. I begin with tion in profiles from place to place, wit h an examination of the local scene on the perhaps as many as 200 different tree species island ofSeram. Between 1969 and the present, per hectare (Jones, 1976; 59). Canopy height much of my own research in this area has is generally 30-40 m. The typical dominant focussed on the ecology and ethnobiology of of the more inland and highland areas (above the Nuaulu, a small, ethnically distinct, group 300 m), Agatlzis (kamane), is replaced towards of some 500 individuals mainly located in five the coast by SIlO rea spp. (onie), Canari1l111 hamlets in the south central part of the island, sylvestre, Callarium vulgare (iane), species of and whose economy rests predominantly Terminalia (kaiane, nosate), Calophyllu11l upon the extraction of sago. swiddening, (ahutaune), ilfyristica (asaherane), and hard­ hunting and gathering (Ellen, ] 978). I shall woods such as Pterocarpus (kinai), and Dinspy· draw upon this fieldwork to illustrate many ros (ai yarine). According to Jones (1976: 59\. points concerning inland and highland patterns up to 50% of the volume over 35 CIn diameter of extraction. I shall also refer to the wider are Dipterocarps. In favourable IOCJlities literature and to my own more recent work (especially in the semi-evergreen and morc at a number of scattered locations around the open grassland areas on Buru and the Huamoal circumference of the Banda sea. These latter peninsula of Seram) the giant Me/alellc,' data furnish evidence for modes of settlement cajuputi (= leucodelldra) (sakaputj). and and forest use linked to maritime and trading Melastoma (Malabathricum?) are common. In lifestyles. riverine areas, stands of Ficus (nunul and Casuarilla (neune) are frequent. These salllt' lowland zones contain both seasonal and per· The natural history of Seramese forests* manent swamp forest, composed alnw,t exclusively of natural sago palm, Merrox.r'tln The woodland biotopes of Seram share many sagu. features in common with rain forest in other There has probably been a human impa([ oil parts of insular southeast Asia. However, in at the forests of Seram for many thousands of "' For some hackground, see Ellen (J 978: 212­ years. In virtually aJI coastal areas primJr;. 219). Wallace (1869). Warhurg (1893) and Rant forest has been replaced by cultivated (orriJ,'r~ (1934) provide some general descriptions of central of swiddens, groves and permanent dry fiehh Moluccan forest vegetation and inventories of tree species. Local names provided are those used by the together with anthropogenic secondary for ... "! Nuaulu, unless otherwise indicated. the width of which varies depending on WPll' f.?EST ,.1 \,'/~/~/l[JLE coPy Timber extractioll from Moluccan rain forest fringes 561 graphy. Where the hills descend sharply to the in the rich alluvial areas around the mouths of sea, the corridor may be no more than I km the larger rivers and creeks. This is the situa· wide; elsewhere the cultivated areas may tion, for example, around the estuaries of the penetrate several kilometres inland, especially rivers Kawa, Eti in the vicinity of Kairatu in I j f FIG. 1. Recently planted swidden cut from rntlture forest (in background). Usa river an~a, south Seram: 22 August 1981. (Neg. 75-5.18.) 562 R. F. Ellen west Seram, around the mouth of the Ruatan coastal land is heavily cultivated with a con­ on Elpapntih Bay, along the course of the siderable proportion devoted to coconut and river Bobot and for much of the moth coast clove plantations. The land rapidly steepcn'> from Seleman Bay as far as the river Masiwang. away from the shoreline and even coasl:.i1 Some of this has been encroached upon for settlements are forced to find gardens on th~' gardens and has succeeded to grassland. Other steep valley walls of the short rivers descending areas are too swampy and remain largely to the sea.
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