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BOROBUDUR SHIP RECONSTRUCTION: DESIGN OUTLINE
The intention is to develop a reconstruction of the type of large outrigger vessels depicted at Borobudur in a form suitable for ocean voyaging and recreating the first millennium Indonesian voyaging to Madagascar and Africa.
DISTANCES AND DURATION OF VOYAGES

Distances: Sunda Strait to Southern Maldives: Approx. 1600 n.m. Maldives to Northern Madagascar: Approx. 1300 n.m.

The vessel should be capable of transporting some 25-30 persons, all necessary provisions, stores and a cargo of a few cubic metres volume.
Assuming that the voyaging route to Madagascar was via the Maldives, a reasonably swift vessel could expect to make each leg of the voyage in approximately two weeks in the southern winter months when good southeasterly winds can be expected. However, a period of calm can be experienced at any time of year and provisioning for three-four weeks would be prudent. The Maldives would provide limited opportunity for re-provisioning. It can be assumed that rice sufficient for protracted voyaging would be carried from Java.
As far as possible the reconstruction will be built using construction techniques from 1st millennium Southeast Asia: edge-doweled planking, lashings to lugs on the inboard face of planks (tambuku) to secure the frames, and multiple through-beams to strengthen the hull structure.

There are five bas-relief depictions of large vessels with outriggers in the galleries of Borobudur. They are not five depictions of the same vessel. While the five vessels are obviously similar and may be seen as illustrating a distinct type of vessel there are differences in the clearly observed details. The depictions are probably not all by the same artist. Following van der Heide (1929), I shall use the plate (Afbeelding) numbers from van Erp’s (1923) paper to identify the Borobudur ships.

Volume

  • Component
  • Calculation basis
  • Amount Weight

<2 tonnes including containers,
Water for drinking and cooking approx 33m
Thirty persons, twenty-five days, not less than 2 litres per person/day
1500 litres

Average 50kg per person Sleeping space 1.6m x 0.45m for 25 persons
Ships' compliment
1.5 tonnes
182m

Thirty persons, sixty days, 0.5kg per day approx 1.53m
Rice
900kg

A fire would be kept smoldering at all times when a stronger fire was not required
Firewood for cooking

3

  • ~1 tonne
  • 2 m

Salt fish, plantains, tubers, tamarind,
Other foodstuffs etc.

3

~0,5 tonne 0.5 m
Approx 2 tonnes of spices and other high-value commodities

3

m
Cargo

Other

  • ~2 tonnes
  • 4

3

Personal belongings, e.g. sleeping mats, tools; spare ship's gear;
~0.5 tonnes
2 m

However, these are not sailing vessels — they are motorised and use multiple stays to hold up the outriggers. Sailing vessels impose much more load on their outriggers and outrigger booms. The largest sailing outriggers of recent decades have

been the perahu sande and perahu pangkur of the

Mandar people from the west coast of Sulawesi, and some very large jerangkat built on the western coast of the Gulf of Bone and used as FADs (Fish Aggregating Devices) anchored in very deep water to the south of the Gulf. These vessels have been up to about 10-11m length and the largest pangkur have been able to load more than 5 tonnes. In the first half of the 20th century, outrigger perahu paduwang from Madura were probably slightly larger than the vessels mentioned above. However they seem to have regularly employed human ballast on the weather outrigger to enhance stability.
The total stowage space indicated by these approximations is 133m. The weight calculated is approx 8.5 tonnes. Depending on design, the vessel might also need to carry a tonne or two of ballast. Approximately 182m of sheltered space would be required for most of the ship’s company to sleep. It is assumed that some persons would be on watch at all times.

MAXIMUM SIZE OF OUTRIGGER SAILING VESSELS There are vessels without outriggers depicted at Borobudur but the five large vessels depicted in detail all have outriggers. The Borobudur ships appear to be fairly large. Sizes up to 25m have been posited for the largest example: Erp 6. Heide (1929) offers a more sober estimate of 12-15m based on the number of oar ports. This allows about 1m for each oarsman. In recent decades some very large outrigger vessels have been built in Indonesia and the Philippines.

The largest pangku r , s ande and jerangkat had very

large and long bamboo outriggers. Pangkur and boom is increasingly susceptible to breaking off when pitching into a headsea.

A Selat Badung jukung with a 6m long hull has outriggers 9m long, mean diameter at least 125mm and buoyancy of about 100kg. (0.0625 x 0.0625 x π x 9m = 0.1103m)

Using these proportions and assuming that the largest bamboos would have diameter about 200mm, the largest possible outrigger canoe is about 10m long.

perahu pangkur

Extrapolating from that calculation, outriggers of sande usually have outriggers more than 150% the about 300mm diameter with buoyancy of about length of the hull. They normally depended entirely 1.3 tonnes would be required by an outrigger vessel on outriggers for stability and sometimes made a little more than14m long. Such a vessel, designed

  • fairly long, open-sea voyages.
  • with a long narrow hull would scarcely have the

The maximum size of pangku r , s ande and jerankat capacity to carry the proposed passengers,

is probably determined by the maximum size of provisions and cargo. Therefore it can be bamboos available. Since the sail area that imposes concluded that it is not possible that an outrigger heeling loads increases as the second power of the vessel, designed to derive all its stability from length of the vessel, the volume (buoyancy) of the outriggers, could be built of a size large enough to outriggers needs to increase at the same rate. In carry the proposed passengers, provisions and other words the diameter of the outriggers must cargo. increase in proportion to an increase in hull length. This leads to engineering problems as size The outriggers shown on the Borobudur ships are increases: if the length of the outriggers increases not like the long outriggers of the large outrigger in proportion to the hull length, the long projection vessels of the 20th century. They appear short and of the outriggers forward of the forward outrigger small relative to the size of the ships.

THE DESIGN AND PURPOSE OF THE BOROBUDUR OUTRIGGERS

The relatively small outriggers of the Borobudur ships, with their short projections forward and aft of the booms would be relatively robust but they would provide little buoyancy and stability relative to the size of the ships and their sail area.

Single or double outriggers?

In four of the five Borobudur ship depictions only the windward side of the vessel is shown. Whether the vessels are double outriggers with another

19th century perahu paduwang

dhoni means “pilgrimage boat”. Single outrigger canoes are used on some parts of the north coast of Central and West Java. They have a single outrigger boom and they shift the outrigger from one side to the other when changing tack. The arrangement is simple, loose, and temporary in appearance. It is not suitable for larger sea-going vessels. The Borobudur ships have three or four outrigger booms of complicated construction: it does not look like an arrangement that could be shifted when changing tack. Large single outrigger, non-shunting, canoes were outrigger on the leeward side or single outriggers built at Macassar, South Sulawesi. These vessels carrying a flying outrigger on the windward side were built exclusively for racing and were a single only cannot be determined with certainty. outrigger version of the double outrigger However, Erp 10, which has its sail partly furled, jerangkat. They had one very large outrigger and has that sail on the side of the mast towards the employed a lot of movable human ballast when viewer which suggests that we are looking at the racing (Collins 1936). leeward side. Four of the five depictions show the It seems unlikely that the Borobudur ships were port side of the vessel but Erp 9 shows the single-outrigger craft. starboard side so outriggers are seen on both sides Double outrigger canoes are not widely used on

  • of the hull though not simultaneously.
  • the coasts of Java but they are more common on

Most single outrigger vessels are designed to tack neighbouring islands including Madura and Bali by “shunting” in order that the outrigger remains where sophisticated designs exist. on the windward side when they change tack. When a vessels tacks by shunting it reverses The Borobudur outriggers have a number of direction and reverses ends — the bow becomes characteristics that make them significantly the stern and vice versa — the steering gear must different from the outriggers of sailing canoes of be shifted from one end to the other and the rig more recent times. reconfigured to drive in the opposite end. Such vessels are necessarily longitudinally symmetrical Length of the outriggers — the ends are very similar — and they have a The outriggers of Indonesian vessels, including simple rig usually with the mast positioned those first depicted by Europeans in the late 16th

  • midships.
  • century, have generally been similar in length to

The Borobudur ships do not exhibit longitudinal the hulls of the canoes they were fitted to. In many symmetry and do not have rigs that could be easily cases they are longer than the hulls. The Borobudur

  • reversed.
  • ships all have outriggers shorter than the waterline

There was a type of a large single outrigger vessel length of their hulls. Erp 6 (which appears to be from Sri Lanka, the yatra dhoni, which did not the largest vessel) has an outrigger only 0.54 the shunt. Unfortunately the last of these fell into length of the hull. Erp 8 has the longest outrigger disuse early in the 20th century and it is not known at 0.79 the hull length, it has four outrigger booms how the yatra dhoni was operated. The hull form while the other vessels have three outrigger booms. of the yatra dhoni had enough beam and stability

  • Erp No.
  • Outrigger length as decimal

if ballasted to sail without an outrigger (Vosmer 1993). It seems possible that the outrigger could be shifted from one side to the other (with some difficulty) and that the yatra dhoni was used mainly for long monsoonal voyages to and from India when wind direction might be consistent for the entire duration of the voyage. The name yatra

fraction of hull waterline length

Erp 6 Erp 7 Erp 8 Erp 9 Erp 10
0.545 0.585 0.79 0.64 0.750
On all but one of the Borobudur ships the there is another outrigger on the inboard-underside outriggers are doubled — there are two outrigger of the boom. components which I presume are bamboos, one The booms or connectives (it is not clear which on the inboard side of the outrigger boom/ they are) project below the outriggers. connective, one on the outboard side.

Some of the Indonesian vessels recorded by Captain Paris in the 19th century (Paris 1841, Reith 1992) had outriggers of relative lengths that fell within the range illustrated in the Borobudur ships. They were mostly from the Moluccas and neighbouring regions of Eastern Indonesia where

Detail from Erp 6 shows outrigger connectives that project well below the outrigger

outriggers have remained relatively short in more

Volume of the Outriggers

recent times. Light weight timber rather than bamboo is often used for outriggers in Eastern Indonesia (in some areas suitable bamboo is unavailable) and outrigger craft depend on movable human ballast for stability. By contrast, in areas closer to Java (e.g. Bali, Madura) outriggers are usually significantly longer than the canoe they are fixed to. Typically relatively large and fast sailing canoes have a crew of only one or two persons and depend on the buoyancy and hydrodynamic lift of the lee outrigger for stability. The shortest outriggers (0.525 relative to hull length) in a survey of sailing vessels illustrated in the literature were on a large kora kora from Dorey off the western end of New Guinea (Paris 1841). The kora kora had a fairly capacious planked hull and a length beam ratio of less than 4:1 which could sail without outriggers if properly ballasted. Most outrigger craft have a quite different type of hull, built up from an unexpanded dugout canoe and therefore of very narrow beam and not suitable for sailing without outriggers.
The Borobudur outriggers do not appear large in diameter. They are shown with diameter about the same as that of the outrigger booms or less than that of the booms. This relative proportion probably reflects the large size of the ships and the upper limit to the size of bamboo available. A Borobudur vessel of about 14m length would have outriggers about 8m in length: if the outriggers were about 200mm diameter, and the outriggers were doubled (inner and outer outrigger) the buoyancy of the outrigger would be about 0.5 tonne which is significant but not in proportion to the size and sail area of the ship.

Fairings

Erp 6 shows a fairing on the forward end of the outrigger. The other four Borobudur ships have no outrigger fairings. Fairings similar to those on Erp 6 have been used in recent times so that the bamboo outriggers can cut smoothly through the water. They are a standard feature of most sailing outrigger canoes.

All the features discussed above suggest that the outriggers of the Borobudur ships were not intended to provide stability to the extent that the leeward outrigger of double outrigger canoe normally does: they lack volume and therefore the buoyancy to resist heeling. They are not faired to cut through the water. The outrigger booms or connectives project below the outriggers and would cause significant drag to the detriment of speed and steering if depressed into the water. Erp 9 shows its lee outrigger apparently flying clear of the water since the outrigger boom (connective) ends can be seen projecting below the outrigger.

Attachment of Outriggers to Outrigger Booms

There are several different ways of attaching outriggers to the outrigger booms used in Indonesia. In some cases there are curved timbers connecting the outriggers to the booms (these are termed “outrigger connectives” by Haddon and Hornell). Whether there are connectives or the outriggers are secured directly to the booms, the outrigger usually lies under the boom or connective. Alternatively the boom or connective penetrates the outrigger. On all the Borobudur ships there is an outrigger attached on the outboard side of the boom/connective. On all except Erp 8 If it is concluded that the outriggers are not Larger and wider galleries, running the full length primarily intended to provide stability another of the hull, were a feature of 18-19th century perahu explanation of their use is required. Like the lancang. outriggers of the 19th century bouanga from New Guinea, drawn by Capt M. Paris, the outriggers The galleries seen on the Borobudur ships are might be seats for paddlers to propel the vessel in large, enclosed, and exhibit complex structure.

  • calms and in martial use.
  • Again martial use is suggested with a need to

If the outriggers are not designed to be the vessel’s protect the oarsmen from spears and arrows. primary source of stability then the hull form will not be a typical outrigger canoe hull form. Instead All the Borobudur ships except Erp 9 have a deck it will have a broader, more stable and more house with a pitched roof positioned aft of the main

  • capacious hull form.
  • mast. The deck houses appear to be small and are

unlikely to represent all the accomodation space in the ship.

  • THE SUPERSTRUCTURES
  • HULL PROFILES

The Borobudur ships all have considerable The upper parts of the hulls of the Borobudur ships superstructures obscuring their hulls. There are are hidden by the galleries and the bow and stern outboard galleries for rowers along the full length screens. of the hull. In the bow and stern tall screens Four of the five Borobudur ships have a straight, surround the stem and sternpost. Heide has forward raked profile to the bow. Erp 9 has a proposed that the bow and stern screens are curved, forward raked bow profile. In Heide’s protective structures for use in warfare. This seems interpretation, Erp 7 and 8 both have an external very likely. Later warships used by Sulu sea pirates stem. Erp 6 does not obviously have a stem in the had a heavier timber screen in the bow to offer lower part of the bow, but there is a high prow

  • some protection from cannon shot.
  • timber projecting above the bow screen. Some

types of Indonesian perahu are built without a stem (and also without sternpost). These include the

Javanese perahu jegongan.

None of the Borobudur ships show a sternpost. However, very little detail of hull structure is

19th C Sulu Sea vessel with bow screen

The tall screens seen on the Borobudur ships would create much windage which would be detrimental to sailing performance and might not be fitted to ships engaged on long voyages. The tall screens are fitted on top of large through beams and wing-like projections in the bow and stern. Both the heavy through beams (polangan) and the wing-like transoms (kopengan) have been features of some Javanese and Madurese vessels until the late 20th century. In some examples those wings support the ends of small galleries (ambeng) built out from the hull.

Stern of perahu kacik showing kopengan supporting an aft gallery

shown in any of the depictions.All show an inward HULL FORM raking, recurved profile to the stern. This kind of Little information about hull form can be derived profile has remained a stylistic feature of a number from the Borobudur iconography. The bows and

  • of Javanese perahu types.
  • sterns appear to be sharp rather than bluff. The

Heide traces some evidence of hull shape below underwater body of the hull is not shown and the the waterline in Erp 6 and 7. The bows do not show bas-relief does not provide a fully threea cutaway forefoot but in the stern there is a curved, dimensional representation that would allow cutaway heel profile. Again, this is typical of assessment of beam. Javanese perahu design. Indeed the perahu Hull form must be inferred from archaeological konteng of East Java when planked up to increase data and from critical use of more recent freeboard and cargo capacity has a profile much ethnographic data. like a Borobudur ship.

Midships cross-sectional shape

Afairly large number of Medieval shipwrecks have been discovered and investigated in Southeast Asia. The vessels discovered at Butuan in the Philippines illustrate a relatively small and sharp type. A larger and more capacious type has been identified as a South China Sea hybrid type combining some Chinese construction techniques with SoutheastAsian hull form and edge-doweling of planks. A large wreck discovered near Palembang, Sumatera probably represents a version of the type with entirely indigenous

Profile of a planked up perahu konteng

structure. All these wrecks exhibit similar crosssectional shape. They all show hollow deadrise and fairly slack turn to the bilge. None of the
Because of the full-length galleries it is not wrecks include the remains of the topsides (with possible to see the rail of the hull and therefore the possible exception of Butuan 5). Ethnographic the freeboard cannot be judged. However, it is data suggests that the topsides were flared rather unlikely that outrigger booms would cross the hull than vertical since vertical topsides are virtually above the height of the rail. Clearly the lower unknown in the region. However, if the rowing outrigger booms pass through the hull; possibly galleries are fitted outboard of the topsides, the the upper outrigger booms rest on the rail. The flared topsides would seem to interfere with the hulls do appear to have considerable freeboard and use of the galleries. the lower outrigger booms appear to be well above the waterline. It is not proposed that the freeboard/ Length-beam ratio, beam-depth ratio length ratio measured from the depictions could The iconography gives no clear indication of the be taken as representing the actual ratio. Distortion, ratio of proportions of the hull. As noted above, exaggerating freeboard, is more or less a standard outrigger vessels usually have very little beam

  • feature of ship iconography.
  • relative to their length and depth. Non-outrigger

If the hulls do have considerable freeboard, then Indonesia vessels very often have length-beam they will either have fairly considerable beam to ratio of about 3:1 and beam-depth ratio of not less provide stability or they are narrow canoe like hulls than 2:1. (“Depth” here means moulded depth of deriving all their stability from outriggers. But for the midsection and has no connection to draft.)

  • reasons given above that seems unlikely.
  • These ratios produce a hull with very large righting

moment (stability) at low and moderate angles of heel making outriggers totally unnecessary. Indeed, such a hull form, when rolling in a beam sea would tend to immerse and damage outriggers References if they were fitted. The 19th century kora kora
Burningham, N. 1989. The Structure of Javanese illustrated by Paris has a length-beam ratio of 4:1

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    TRADITIONAL TRANSPORTATION: DUGOUT CANOE GR: PREK-2 (LESSON 6) Elder Quote/Belief: “Summer came and they would go around by boat. They made their first dugout canoes. They chopped down large cottonwood, and fashioned that into a canoe. They went in that into Eyak Lake. Then they tried spruce instead of cotton wood. That too was good. They carved large boats out of spruce.” -Anna Nelson Harry 1 Anna Nelson Harry, Yakutat, about 1975. (Photo courtesy of Richard Dauenhauer) Grade Level: PreK-2 Overview: The Eyak and Sugpiaq people traditionally carved dugout canoes in the Chugach Region, specifically in Prince William Sound. “The canoes were so seaworthy that they were used not just for interisland voyages to visit relatives or allies, but also to wage war and to engage in trade missions over hundreds of miles. In fact, dugout canoes plied the waters between Southeast Alaska, (Eyak) and Kodiak Island in the days before the coming of Europeans”. (Echo’s http://www.echospace.org/articles/273/sections/665.html) Standards: AK Cultural: AK Content Science: CRCC: E4: Culturally-knowledgeable students B2: A student should understand and MC1: Different kinds of wood have demonstrate an awareness and be able to apply the concepts, models, different qualities and different uses; appreciation of the relationships and theories, universal principles, and facts wood can be obtained from the forest processes of interaction of all elements in that explain the physical world. and from driftwood. the world around them. A student should determine how ideas and concepts from one knowledge system relate to those derived from another knowledge system.
  • Dugout Canoe, Prehistoric Period - 20Th Century

    Dugout Canoe, Prehistoric Period - 20Th Century

    Dugout Canoe, Prehistoric Period - 20th Century The dugout canoe, or log boat, is one of the simplest and earliest forms of watercraft used by humans. Dugouts were the primary boat used throughout the Americas before the arrival of Europeans and played an essential role in Native American riverine trade networks spanning across the eastern half of the present U.S. The earliest archaeological examples of this type of watercraft in the New World come from DeLeon Springs, Florida, where two specimens have Archaeologists from LAMP and the St. Johns County record a historic canoe at the Alligator Farm. This appears to be the same been dated to over 6,000 years ago. This type of vessel canoe seen in the banner image above, which was photographed in St. Augustine in the late 1800s. was hollowed out from a felled tree using a tedious process of burning with fire and scraping the charred wood away with shells. After the introduction of European iron tools, construction was rendered much easier and faster. The size of a dugout was limited by the dimensions of available trees; Columbus witnessed 100' long canoes with dozens of paddlers in the Caribbean. Dugouts were also common throughout West Africa and enslaved Africans brought canoe-building traditions with them from the coasts and river deltas of their stolen homeland. The combination of Indian, African and European boatbuilding skills resulted in an increasingly sophisticated dugout canoe. Metal tools were used to shape the outside of the log, flatten the bottom to decrease draft and weight and increase stability, and shape the bow and stern ends to increase seaworthiness.
  • Design and Construction of Traditional Fishing Boat in Jepara in the Context

    Design and Construction of Traditional Fishing Boat in Jepara in the Context

    Article Komunitas: International Journal of Design and Construction of Indonesian Society and Culture 12(2) (2020): 209-215 DOI:10.15294/komunitas.v12i2.18937 Traditional Fishing Boat in © 2020 Semarang State University, Indonesia p-ISSN 2086 - 5465 | e-ISSN 2460-7320 Jepara in the Context of http://journal.unnes.ac.id/nju/index.php/komunitas Cultural Ecology: UNNES JOURNALS The Implication as Arts Learning Resources Eko Sugiarto¹, Triyanto², Mujiyono³ 1,2,3Department of Visual Art, Faculty of Languages and Arts, Universitas Negeri Semarang, Indonesia Received: February 25th 2019; Accepted: March 01st 2020; Published: September 30th 2020 Abstract The existence of a traditional fisherman community in Jepara is proven based on the system of equipment or technology of fishing vessels. As part that is familiar with the life of the fishing community, this phenom- enon is very interesting as well as important to be studied more deeply in the context of the north coast Javanese sub-culture. Based on that, this study aims to explain: (1) the design of fishing boat construction as a representation of the technology system of traditional fishing communities in Jepara, (2) the ecological aspect of the north coast Javanese sub-culture includes the process of creating traditional fishing boat in Jepara communities, and (3) wisdom potential in traditional ship design as learning resources. This study uses a qualitative approach with case study design. The data is collected through interviews, observations and document reviews, and analyzed by using flow mode. The results of the study will provide an empirical explanation of the construction design and boat creation technology in the ecological perspective of the north coast Javanese sub-culture.
  • Traditional Fishing Crafts of India

    Traditional Fishing Crafts of India

    Traditional fishing crafts of India Fishing boats of Gujarat There is marked difference in the geographical and physical features of northern and southern regions of Gujarat. Whereas the northern region is arid and stony, the southern region is distinguished by sandy bottom. The following types of boat with their broad features gives along side are found in Gujarat. 1) Haler machwa: Length varies from 8-10 m Broad beam and square stern Open boat except for short decking in the fore and aft. Carvel planking with unusually large and heavy frames Tall mast carries on large lateen sail of Arab pattern It is used for gillnet fishing. 2) Porbandar machwa Length varies from 6-8 m Square stern and raked stem Used for gill net fishing 3) Cambay machwa Raked stem Undecked except for short length at stern Truncated stern with a slight rake 1 4) Navalaki hodi Length 5-6 m, breadth 1-1.5 m and draft of 90-105 cm Square stern and overhang bow Decked only fore and aft Single mast carries lateen soil 5) Malia boat Flat bottom boat which measure about 6-7 m in length, breadth 1.5 m with 65cm draft. Ends are pointed and there is small rudder Carvel planking Mast carries a lateen sail Small decking fore and aft Used in tidal waters for prawn fishery 6) Dugout canoe Double – ended round bottom boat Length varies from 5-9 m, breadth 60-90 cm and depth 60-68 cm Small sail raised on a wooden mast Used for gill netting 2 7) Ludhia The boat measures 9-10 m in length and 1.5 to 2 m breadth Short decking at the fore and aft Slightly racked stem and stern Two masts with small lateen sails Carved planking and has strong keel and heavy frames 8) Madhwad type wahan Length 10-13 m and breadth 2-3 m Raked stem and square stern Decked at the fore and aft Large heavy rudder Mast with lateen soil Used for operation of gill nets and dol nets Fishing boats of Maharashtra The physical and geographical features of northern Maharashtra up to Mumbai are similar to those of southern Gujarat.
  • Spice Routes/Spice Wars with Ian Burnet

    Spice Routes/Spice Wars with Ian Burnet

    SPICE ROUTES/SPICE WARS WITH IAN BURNET The Moluccas (better known as the Spice Islands) have been a magical destination for over ten centuries. The first seafarers to explore the region, as early as the 8th century, were the Arabs. In fact, the name Maluku is thought to have been derived from the Arab traders term for the region Jazirat al-Muluk, The Islands of the Kings and an ancient Arab text places the islands rather precisely Fifteen days sailing east of Java. What the Arab traders brought back to their home ports were exotic spices: cloves, mace and nutmeg. These were sold to Venetian merchants and became known in Europe as The nuts from Muscat. Because of > the high value of these spices in Europe and the large profits they generated, many adventurers followed in the wake of the Note: Guests will meet the Ombak Putih in Ternate. Airfares to Arabs; initially the Portuguese, then the Spanish, and later the Ternate and from Ambon are not included in the tour package. Dutch and the English. Our 12-day voyage aboard the Ombak We will be happy to assist you with any information and flight Putih will depart from the fabled Sultanate of Ternate, with its reservations. historical clove plantations, and retrace the marine spice route through the Moluccan islands, visiting the remote Banda ITINERARY islands, the original source of nutmeg, where we will wander through the nutmeg plantations. We will finish in Ambon, the Day 1 - Ternate You and your party will be met at the airport on the island of bustling capital city of the Moluccas.
  • A Comparative Dictionary of Orokolo, Gulf of Papua

    A Comparative Dictionary of Orokolo, Gulf of Papua

    PACIFIC LINGUISTICS Series C - No. 84 A COMPARATIVE DICTIONARY OF OROKOLO, GULF OF PAPUA by Herbert A. Brown wi th line illustrations by the author Department of Linguistics Research School of Pacific Studies THE AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY Brown, H.A. A comparative dictionary of Orokolo, Gulf of Papua. C-84, xxii + 275 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1986. DOI:10.15144/PL-C84.cover ©1986 Pacific Linguistics and/or the author(s). Online edition licensed 2015 CC BY-SA 4.0, with permission of PL. A sealang.net/CRCL initiative. PACIFIC LINGUISTICS is issued through the Linguistic Circle of Canberra and consists of four series: SERIES A - Occasional Papers SERIES B - Monographs SERIES C - Books SERIES D - Special Publications EDITOR: S.A. Wurm ASSOCIATE EDITORS: D.C. Laycock, C.L. Voorhoeve, D.T. Tryon, T.E. Dutton EDITORIAL ADVISERS: B.W. Bender K.A. McElhanon University of Hawaii Summer Institute of Linguistics David Bradley H.P. McKaughan La Trobe University University of Hawaii A. Capell P. MUhlhausler University of Sydney Linacre College, Oxford Michael G. Clyne G.N. O'Grady Monash University University of Victoria, B.C. S.H. Elbert A.K. Pawley University of Hawaii University of Auckland K.J. Franklin K.L. Pike Summer Institute of Linguistics Summer Institute of Linguistics W.W. Glover E.C. Polome Summer Institute of Linguistics University of Texas G.W. Grace Malcolm Ross University of Hawaii Australian National University M.A.K. Halliday Gillian Sankoff University of Sydney University of Pennsylvania E. Haugen W.A.L. Stokhof Harvard University University of Leiden A.
  • INDO 92 0 1319755155 59 96.Pdf (1006.Kb)

    INDO 92 0 1319755155 59 96.Pdf (1006.Kb)

    "The Single Most Astonishing Fact of Human Geography": Indonesia's Far W est Colony Ann Kumar The title of this paper is taken from the following paragraph by Jared Diamond: These Austronesians, with their Austronesian language and modified Austronesian culture, were already established on Madagascar by the time it was first visited by Europeans, in 1500. This strikes me as the single most astonishing fact of human geography for the entire world. It's as if Columbus, on reaching Cuba, had found it occupied by blue-eyed, blond-haired Scandinavians speaking a language close to Swedish, even though the nearby North American continent was inhabited by Native Americans speaking Amerindian languages. How on earth could prehistoric people from Borneo, presumably voyaging on boats without maps or compasses, end up in Madagascar?1 Though he regards the presence of these "prehistoric people from Borneo" on the isolated island of Madagascar as the most astonishing fact of human geography, Diamond does not, to his credit, dismiss it as impossible: he recognizes the strength of the evidence. Not only do Madagascans look astonishingly like Indonesians, they also speak a language that derives from Borneo (Kalimantan). This paper surveys the long series of studies that established this linguistic relationship and deals with a number of different types of evidence not examined by Diamond. It is hoped that this will answer 1 Jared Diamond, Guns, Germs, and Steel: A Short History of Everybody for the Last 13,000 Years (London: Vintage, 1998), p. 381. Indonesia 92 (October 2011) 60 Ann Kumar his "how on earth" question, and it may be possible to answer the "why on earth" question as well.