ILIMI Journal of Arts And Social Sciences Volume 1 No1 November/December, 2015

THE SOCIOLINGUISTICS OF SLANG AMONG STUDENTS OF UNIVERSITY OF ILORIN, NIGERIA

By

Abdulkadir Adamu Department of English Gombe State University, Nigeria [email protected] ______Abstract This paper sets out to investigate the sociolinguistics of slang among students of University of Ilorin, Nigeria. To accomplish its aim, the paper used questionnaire through accidental sampling to collect the data from the respondents. Out of 100 copies distributed, 79 were filled and returned. 349 slang expressions were collected and subsequently analysed. The results are presented in simple tables and each category of the data is discussed. The findings revealed that: Unilorin students use slangy expressions to refer to/describe so many things and they do so for various reasons; their use of slang is determined by the situations in which they find themselves; they use slang in many forms of communication including conversation, text messaging, and social networking; and the use of slang has some negative effect on their academic performance. Finally, based on the findings, the paper recommends: the collection of more students and staff slang expressions, focus on linguistic features of Unilorin slang in subsequent researches; and the compilation of Unilorin Slang Dictionary using the collected slang expressions on the campus.

Key Words: Slang, Jargon, Cant, Style, Dialect. ______

Introduction A cursory look at the Sociolinguistics literature reveals that slang is very crucial in understanding language and society, yet it is one of the under-explored subjects in Sociolinguistics: many Sociolinguistics textbooks, like those of Wardhaugh (2006) and Holmes (2013), do not even have sections dedicated to slang. The story is the same in the area of research too, as research on slang is not as much as that of other aspects of Sociolinguistics. Consequently, to contribute in the continuity and the development of the slang research, this paper aims at investigating the sociolinguistics of slang among students of University of Ilorin (henceforth, Unilorin). It specifically attempts to find out: i. Slang expressions used by Unilorin students, ii. Why the students use the expressions, iii. The various situations in which the students use slang, iv. The forms of communication via which the students use slang, and v.

Meaning of Slang Like other sociolinguistic concepts, there seems to be lack of consensus among slangists as regards to the meaning of slang due to its controversial, complex nature. Thus, the paper explores the various definitions of slang by sociolinguists.

nging set of colloquial words and phrases that speakers use to establish or reinforce social identity or cohesiveness within a

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are short-lived; they are colloquial (meaning, they are non-standard/informal); they function as social identity or group membership marker. Similarly, Ellis (2002) looks at slang as that variety of language used by members of a group to express their sense of belonging. Further more, Ali

(2008:39). Thus, slang can be extended to many social groups such as, for instance, teenage slang, army slang, theatre slang and prisoners slang (Leech & Svartvik, 1981).

refer to] colloquial, informal or non- gues that slang expressions are generation-

cate an interesting pattern of

wicked and sick

Features of Slang Instead of defining slang, Dumas & Lighter (1978:14-16) argue that an expression must meet at least two of the four conditions before it qualifies as slang: it should be informal; it should -interlocutor; it is a tabooed term when used with people of high social status; and it is used to substitute a well-known conventional synonym. In what is considered to be an early discussion of slang, Encyclopaedia Britannica (1926:207) identifies some features of slang: it is in the lexicon (not grammar); its words are non-standard variety of a language; it is used and understood by only members of a given group not the whole speech community; and it is a concealing or secretive variety. The features are further expatiated upon by Anderson (1990:69-81): that slang is language use below the neutral stylistic level; it is typical of informal situations; it is typical of spoken language; it is found in lexicon not in grammar; it is not dialect; it is not swearing; it is not register; it is not cant, or jargon; it is creative; it is often short-lived; it is often conscious; it is group-related; and it is ancient.

Note that slang, for Mathiello (2008), can be divided into general and specific. The former constitutes expressions used generally by people irrespective of their age, group, social identity, education, and so on in order to deviate from conventions, formality and instead of using the standard form of a language. The latter, on the other hand, is used only by people who share certain commonalities: age, social identity, social status, education, occupation, and lifestyle. Therefore, there is homosexual slang, military slang, student slang, criminal slang, drug addict slang, to mention a few.

While agreeing with McGregor (2009) in terms of the characteristics of slang words he has identified, Denham and Lobeck (2013:192) go further to differentiate slang from other seemingly similar concepts like jargon, dialect, register and taboo. For them, jargon is not necessarily informal while slang is. And, unlike slang which manifests at lexical level only,

- (2013:192) although both slang and dialect can be geographical, temporal and social (Vogel, 2007). Also, for Denham & Lobeck, while slang is different from a register in that the former

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Moreover, Coleman (2004:2) differentiates slang from its counterparts by identifying their points of divergence: slang is characterised with short lifespan, it is age-specific, and social group-specific; jargon is peculiar to occupational or interest groups used by their members in

Hotten (2008:7) vividly captures the difference between slang and cant in terms of age, thus:

Note, however, that, despite the various their features seem to be overlapping and thus the boundaries between the concepts are not clear, as Coleman (2004) herself admits. She adds that what connects them all is that they are never considered standard varieties of whatever language they belong to. To avoid this overlap, the paper defines student slang as those informal, non-standard expressions (whether lexical or phrasal) which are uniquely used and understood by either individual student groups or the generality of the students on campus.

Reasons for Slang Slangists have identified different reasons for using slang, but Crystal (1997:530) provides an almost exhaustive list of the reasons thus: for the fun of it; as an exercise in wit or ingenuity; to be different; to be picturesque; to be arresting; to escape from clichés; to enrich the language; to add concreteness to speech; to reduce seriousness; to be colloquial; for ease of interaction; to induce intimacy; to show that one belongs; for exclusion/inclusion; and to be secretive.

Methodology The data used in this study were collected via the use of questionnaire which was designed in accordance with the objectives stated in the introduction and then administered to 100 students within the University campus. To make the data collection easier, the researcher employed accidental sampling by giving the questionnaire only to the students he encountered and who willingly agreed to fill the questionnaire. Out of the 100 questionnaires admitted, 79 were completed and returned. Data generated were presented with the use of tables, frequency distribution, and simple percentage.

Results and Discussion The slang expressions collected from the students are categorised into five groups: those used to refer to lecturers; those used for students; those used to refer to courses; those that are exams/tests-related; and those that fall under miscellaneous group. They are presented and discussed below:

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Table 1: Lecturer-Related Slang Expressions S/N Slang Expressions Meaning No. of Percent Expressions 1. Mother fucker, Oga-ade, sadist, Strict lecturer 18 14.51% mean, No mercy, devil, aloof, boss, Barbie doll, mad guy, Indian Idol, evil spirit, Mogana, Lion, Wikipedia, Tortoise, Margaret Thatcher, Emperor Nero 2. Confirm lecturers, doves, Friendly lecturer 7 5.64% diplomatic, lenient, de well, daddy, easy going, 3. Sure man, eru- Lazy lecturer 8 6.45% lecturers, segbe, ole, snail, Juman, Big Drum, 4. Over sabi, jet plane, jack of all the Hardworking lecturer 10 8.06% trade, workaholic, clock, mad, daddy, engine room, jaclay, Farmer, 5. Pomn, badoo, shako, boss, one- Arrogant lecturer 12 9.67% sided head, badolee, 50-50 shoulder pad, Headboy, Proud, Zombie, Driver, Cocky, 6. Sure man, nice, flenible, Mr. nice, Humble lecturer 8 6.45% Mera, daddy, cool lecturer, Pastors/Alphas, 7. Brilliant, guru, effico, Prof., sabi Lecturer who knows his/her 10 8.06% die, Don, Effective, Sabi Boy, course very well Book, Emeritus, 8. Olodo, idea, ote, struggler, olofo, Weak lecturer 11 8.87% figure head, dolly P., class captain, La Cram La Pour, Carpenter, Empty vessels 9. Ja lecturers, beggar, greedy, Lecturer who extorts 8 6.45% oshomo, thief, businessman, money from students hustlers, Poor rat, 10. Hustlers, oga, osomo, Baba Lecturers who have 12 9.67% badoo, China, aristo, bangalee, immoral sexual Ashy, womaniser, bingo, Dog, relationships with their Panty, students 11. Confirm lecturers, brain box, Igi Lecturer who teaches well 7 5.64% iwe, guru, perfect, Correct, Library, 12. Olodo, magician, esho odo, doro Lecturer who is weak 9 7.25% dull, class captain, Goggle, Fake, Tee-board, Copy and Paste, 13. File, Mr. man, proud, Turkey, pompous and boastful 4 3.22% lecturer TOTAL 124 100%

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The table above shows that there are 124 slang expressions that Unilorin students use to describe 13 categories of lecturers. Out of the 13 categories, the first category in the table strict lecturer has the highest number of expressions (18), thereby taking the highest percentage (14%). Interestingly, while the one with the highest frequency tops the table, the lowest category pompous and boastful lecturer in terms of frequency is the last one in the table. Therefore, the data implies that strict lecturers are very many in Unilorin and that the students

their perception of the lecturers is more negative than positive because, out of the 13 categories, 8 portray lecturers negatively only 5 are positive about them. Plus, out of the 124 slang expressions, 82 tell us good things about the lecturers but only 42 tell us the opposite.

Table 2: Student-Related Slang Expressions S/N Slang Expressions Meaning No. of Percent Expressions 1. Scholar, guru, effy, efiko, hegemony, Academically 8 5.26% boss, brainy, Jacko excellent/intelligent students 2. Back benchers, slow learners, dolly P., Academically weak 7 4.60% dumb, doro dull, Double Digit, Follow students Come 3. Scholar, constant, Mr. one in all, Mr. Punctual students 10 6.57% Senior, early bird, janitor, Head Master, Bookworm, Time Keeper, Landlord 4. Late comers, omo, latingo, Attendance, Students who are 4 2.63% habitual latecomers 5. Over sabi, alase, parrot, sabi sabi, lond, Extrovert/talkative 7 4.60% mouthpiece, Approco, students 6. Introvert/reserved/q 5 3.28% uite students 7. Real niggers, exployers, tutors, Prof., crol, Students who 9 5.92 scholar, efigo, commander, bebeto, willingly share their knowledge with others 8. Crazy boys, disploers, I.T.K., 3 1.97% want to share their knowledge with others 9. Buga boys, jingo, too know, sabi sabi, Students who like to 7 4.60% notice me, I.T.K., show case, show off among other students 10. Sure boy, indoor, Tebligh, coded, loaded, 6 3.94% secret machines, show off 11. Fish, fresher, October rush, Jambito, J.J.C., Fresh students 6 3.94% Jambite, 12. Stalites, Students who have 1 o.65% stayed for two or more years on campus

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S/N Slang Expressions Meaning No. of Percent Expressions 13. Casanova, fine boy, oshomo, girl freak, Male students who 12 7.89% osomo, General, bad guy, player, aristo, have many woman wrapper, Tony Montana, ruged girlfriends guys, 14. Runs girl/babe, olosho, boy freek, Female students 9 5.92% distributor, aristo, asha, B.R.T., Flist, who have many Bitch, boyfriends 15. Good and 7 4.60% good champ, comrade, Mandelas, incorruptible student leaders/representativ es 16. Murder fuckers, badest, demon, fakers, Bad and easily 5 3.28% bad shild/shide, corruptible student leaders 17. Frosh, homo sapien, angel, fine girl, mami Beautiful female 9 5.92% wota, queen, face of MCB, pinky lady, students Miss Campus, 18. Wowo babes, smellos, homoh, Miss Ugly female 9 5.92% Pepeye, Ayamatanga, beautiful nightmare, students wanted, Angel Shara, shrek, 19. Jaye jaye, solo guy/girl, Mr. Social, party Students who 10 6.57% freek, sina, bubbler, Jasi students, always attend Paparazi, Rider, Waka Waka, parties and other social activities 20. Babe, chick, geshy, olosho, G.F., wifey, Girlfriend 9 5.92% chicka, boo, shanty 21. Boo, maga, B.F., dear, guy, my guy, nigga, Boyfriend 9 5.92% bobo, TOTAL 152 100%

As the table above shows, there is no much frequency difference among the subcategories whose expressions are 152 in number. However, it is noteworthy that while sub-category 13 male students who have many girl friends is the highest in terms of the number of slang expressions, the preceding subcategory students who have stayed for two or more years on the campus has only one slang expression, stalites. The slang expressions are about the academic and social aspects of the students but, as it is evident from the table, the social aspect has more expressions than its counterpart. This means that social life is more important to the students. Also, item 13 suggests that relationship between female and male students is prevalent on the campus. Slang expressions for subcategories 13 (male student with many girlfriend), 14 (female student with many boyfriends), 17 (beautiful student), 18 (ugly student), 20 (girlfriend) and 21 (boyfriend) are a proof to this.

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Table 3: Course-Related Slang Expressions S/N Slang Expressions Meaning No. of Percent Expressions 1. Mad course, beans, hard course, shit Difficult course 4 13.79% 2. Nice course, ounjemi, eko, A- Simple course 7 24.13% course, cheap, vegetable, panadol extra 3. Confirm, economy, A-course, sure A course which 5 17.24% course, Walk Over most students usually pass 4. Stupid course, same, ewa, banger, A course which 5 17.24% dere is God o most usually fail 5. Beans, Igbo, ajeseku, C.O., spilo, A carry over 8 27.58% banged course, reference, Take course Away TOTAL 29 100%

With only 5 subcategories, this category, being the third, has only 29 slang expressions as vividly captured in its table. The sub-categories do not, as seen in the table above, exhibit any striking difference in terms of frequency of expressions. This implies that they have relatively equal importance to the students.

Table 4: Exam/Test-Related Slang Expressions S/N Slang Expressions Meaning No. of Percent Expressions 1. Oloriburuku exam/test, apata, NECO Difficult 3 10.00% exam/test 2. Confirm, eko Simple exam/test 2 6.66% 3. Sure course, scape 2ru, wash, flash, to To pass 6 20.00% kill exam, to clear exam exam/test 4. Rubbish exam, O karry, bang, to To fail exam/test 4 13.33% breakdown 5. Thank God, A-pointer, O bam, O lashe Good grade 4 13.33% 6. We still dey thank God, C-pointer, wash, Bad grade 5 16.66% bam, Let my people go 7. Fucking grade, direct entry, beans, ojewa, Poor grade 6 20.00% chop beans, Friday TOTAL 30 100%

The number of slang expressions in this category is relatively small and there is no much frequency difference among the 7 subcategories. Also, negative and positive exam/test- related expressions have almost equal numbers. All this indicates that exam-related things attract both positive and negative attitudes of the students at almost equal rate.

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Table 5: Miscellaneous Slang Expressions S/N Slang Expressions Meaning No. of Percent Expressions 1. To go shaye, to go shayoo, to go shack, to To go for beer 5 8.47% go brew, sharp up, 2. Hangover, tipsy, de well, to be high, to get To get drunk 5 8.47% junkie, 3. Sha, swaque, kanaku, skuak, blue, Igbo, marijuana 14 23.72% skima, weed, fish, abana, gaya, fifa, crack, shack, 4. Rock, outing, bash, buga, Y.Y., surf, Party 8 13.55% stream, groove, 5. Work, teke, oracle, ifa, cyber, yahoo, Internet 8 13.55% yahoyaho, fast food, 6. Wire, dope, palasa, Mobile phone 3 5.08% 7. Kofun, bang, straff, fuck, to bang, to To have sex 10 16.94% shape, to get laid, to shag, to screw, to strave, 8. P.J., Punishment, Project/thesis 2 3.38% 9. Break, isinmi, face Lagos, Holidays/vacat 3 5.08% ion 10. To shunt To refuse to 1 1.69% follow a queue TOTAL 59 100%

With its relatively high number of slang expressions, this category, whose third subgroup marijuana has 14 slang expressions and its last one, only one, is named miscellaneous because the 10 subcategories do not form a uniform group. The highest number of slang expressions for marijuana suggests that its smoking is rampant just as item 7 signals high cases of sexual activities on the campus. Therefore, all this means that there is prevalence of social vices on the campus.

Table 6: Slang Expressions for all the Groups S/N Group No of Expressions Percentage 1. Lecturers 124 31.47% 2. Students 152 38.57% 3. Courses 29 7.36% 4. Exams/tests 30 7.61% 5. Miscellaneous 59 14.97% GRAND TOTAL 394 100%

As the table shows, this research has been able to collect 394 different slang expressions used by Unilorin students to refer to various things and people on the campus. However, many of the expressions appear in more than one category and subcategory. The table above also indicates that student-related slang expressions have the highest number (152) and they are followed by the lecturer-related ones whose number is 124. Therefore, the first two categories are a clear indication that people (lecturers and students) together with their behaviour, attitudes, capabilities and qualities are more important to the students and their life than things.

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A common thread that runs through all the slang expressions is that they have all the features of slang discussed in the literature review section. However, one feature they all share and which is almost absent in the slang literature is inter-linguistic code mixing they are mostly a mixture of English and Yoruba which shows the bilingual nature of the speech community.

Table 7: Reasons why Students Use Slang S/N Reason Frequency Percentage 1. For exclusion/inclusion 29 30.85% 2. To reduce formality 18 19.14% 3. For the fun of it 23 24.46% 4. To avoid clichés 3 3.19% 5. To enrich the language 6 6.38% 6. To concretise speech 1 1.06% 7. For easy communication 14 14.89% TOTAL 94 100%

As indicated by the above table, the reasons why Unilorin students use slang are the same reasons found in the literature of slang although these are not exhaustive. For instance, almost all the reasons for the use of slang given by Crystal (1997) above are captured here. Consequently, this has proved the universality of not only the slang but why it is used. The variation of these reasons in terms of frequency, as shown in the table, might be that their importance to the students varies too. Therefore, the most important reason for the use of slang among Unilorin students is for exclusion/inclusion which means that they use the expressions to exclude people for/to whom the expressions are meant/related and, at the same time, to show group membership and individual identity. For instance, the students can say negative things about lecturers even in the presence of the latter since the latter may not know the meaning of the slang expressions. This way, the slang expressions protect the students from being punished or victimised by the lecturers.

Table 8: Situations in which Students Use Slang S/N Situations in which Students Use Frequency Percentage Slang 1. When talking with Friends 34 37.77% 2. When in argument 2 2.22% 3. When talking with uneducated people 1 1.11% 4. When talking in an informal context 28 31.11% 5. When talking in crowd/public 6 6.66% 6. During lectures 9 10.00% 7. During students activities 6 6.66% 8. When talking about lecturers 2 2.22% 9. When feeling happy 1 1.11% 10. When feeling angry 1 1.11% TOTAL 90 100%

The table shows that the students use slang in 10 situations, and the two must important are the first and the fourth with each having 34 and 28 frequency. The last two situations, however, with each having only one frequency are then the least important. And this further

129 ILIMI Journal of Arts And Social Sciences Volume 1 No1 November/December, 2015 proves that the expressions collected are indeed slang because we have seen in the literature section that slang is used among friends and it is generally used in informal contexts.

Table 9: Forms of Communication in which Students Use Slang S/N Form of Communication Frequency Percentage 1. Conversation 39 37.5% 2. Mobile Text Messaging 28 26.92% 3. Social Networking 37 35.57% TOTAL 104 100%

The students interestingly use slang in the three forms of communication. However, the table shows that the students engage in both conversation and social networking more in their daily interaction than in the mobile text messaging. All this further shows the informality of the slang expressions collected here.

Table 10: Use of Slang in Academic and Other Formal Writings Academic Effect of Slang Frequency Percentage Yes 15 28.84% No 37 71.15% TOTAL 52 100%

This aspect is very important because it shows that, even though the negative responses take since some of the students do use it unconsciously in their academic and other formal writings. This is indeed a matter of concern to the university authority.

Conclusion So far, we have seen that the paper has been able to achieve, to some extent, its major preoccupation of studying the sociolinguistics of slang among Unilorin students. Most importantly, the paper shows that student slang is a window through which we can know much about staff and students as well as their relationships on campuses. Finally, based on the findings, the paper recommends that: i. the number of the slang expressions already collected. ii. Subsequent studies should focus on slang expressions of the staff of Unilorin. iii. equally focus on their linguistic features. iv. The slang expressions, when further collected, should be used to form a dictionary of Unilorin slang.

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