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All Volumes (2001-2008) The sprO ey Journal of Ideas and Inquiry

2007 The rC escent and the : in the U.S. Southeast Naima Brown University of

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Suggested Citation Brown, Naima, "The rC escent and the Bible Belt: Islam in the U.S. Southeast" (2007). All Volumes (2001-2008). 22. http://digitalcommons.unf.edu/ojii_volumes/22

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The Crescent and the Bible Belt: diversity worthy of examination. This research and subsequent article will present Islam in the U.S. Southeast the ways I which this diversity presents itself, navigates through the larger needs and Naima Brown requirements of the community, and participates in interface with the larger, non- Currently a graduate student in Muslim Jacksonville community. Studies at the University of Chicago Setting the Stage: A Brief Faculty Sponsor: Ronald Lukens-Bull in America: Associate Professor of Sociology and Anthropology “If the Muslim community continues to grow at the present rate, by the year 2015 Introduction: Islam will be the second largest religion in the .” Yvonne Haddad, A The Jacksonville Islamic Center is Century of Islam in America, 1986 uncommon; its unique qualities are illustrative of the social and cultural issues that According to the available 2006 accompany a minority status in terms of both statistics, the Muslim population in the U.S. religion and nationality or ethnicity. Over the comprises only 2.2% of the world’s Muslims course of the past year (2005-2006), I have (statistics provided by the United Nations, conducted ethnographic research within the Islam and the , 2006, Husain). Muslim community of Jacksonville. My It may seem a rather insubstantial number, but research focuses primarily around the Islamic it translates roughly to 5 million people Center of Northeast Florida (ICNEF) which (Oxford History of Islam, 1986;604). The first serves as both and community center, notable migration of Muslims occurred yet my research extended into wider circles of between 1875 and 1912 from countries that the American Muslim experience, including a are today known as , Jordan, , conference if Washington D.C. that dealt with and Lebanon (Smith, 1999;51). It should be issues surrounding and Anti- noted that many scholars agree that Muslims Americanism in the media hosted by CAIR from Spain may have accompanied Columbus (Council on American Islamic Relations). I into the (ibid). Jane Smith cites have conducted formal interviews as well as three significant migration periods of Islam participant observations while staying abreast into the United States; the first being of the current scholarship regarding Islam in mentioned above. The second came with the American. It is my proposal that my data will fall of the that coincided demonstrate that the experience of Muslims in with the end of World War One; the third Jacksonville who attend the ICNEF is unique, migration, lasting through the 1930's, was both in context of the larger Muslim world restricted to the relatives of those Muslims and in contrast to other American Muslim already residing in the States (ibid;52). The communities. This is in larger measure due to in 1979 caused a large Jacksonville’s Muslim population being large amount of Iranian citizens to flee the enough to warrant a strong community center Ayatollah Khomeini and relocate in the U.S. and a thriving mosque, but not sizeable (Ibid). The Iranian emigre’s brought with enough where there are separate for them the Shi’a sect of Islam (ibid;60). While separate groups of people who might the first Muslim immigrants came primarily otherwise be divided along such variables as from the Middle East, the majority of ethnicity, theological/sectarian differences, Muslims now emigrate from South , language, etc. Instead, there is a veritable Pakistan, India and (ibid). The cornucopia of diversity within the ICNEF, a countries mentioned above do not, by any

means, exhaust the list of places where over the - the political leadership or American Muslims have come from. As my the rapidly growing Muslim community - paper will illustrate further, the Jacksonville produced a lasting split between the Sunni Islamic community reflects the great diversity (the majority) and the Shi’a Muslims. There of origins and ethnicities represented in the are many other divisions within Islam Islamic American population. (Leonard, Muslims in the United States, The first American cities where 2003;3).” Muslim communities took root were primarily It is important to address the fact that in the Midwest. There were also small Muslim immigration was not always, nor is it settlements in California, New York, and now, greeted with unconditional warmth and Massachusetts, (ibid;60). As will be further welcome, and the information presented explored, many of these early communities above is a woefully condensed presentation of were divided along ethno/linguistic origins or the immigration experience of most Muslims. similarities. Today, it is not uncommon in Muslim communities face a variety of some of these larger metropolitan areas for challenges, both in terms of personal practice mosques and communities to fall along such and agency, as well as politically, ethnically, lines. “While many of the Islamic associations linguistically, academically, etc. Yvonne of the city are characterized by particular Yazbeck Haddad writes that “the suitability of ethnic identities, others are consciously Muslims for citizenship was questioned [in attempting to use this very diversity to bring countries, such as the U.S., with a history of together immigrant and indigenous Muslims European style immigration policies] in a as well as Sunni and Shi’ites (ibid; 57, variety of ways and eventually somewhat emphasis added).” It is in the emphasized resolved. This has not necessarily lessened category where, I argue, the ICNEF belongs. the prejudice against their presence (Haddad, The population of American converts must Oxford History of Islam, 1999;608).” As also be briefly examined. Islam is the fastest Haddad wrote this statement before growing religion the world over, and its September 11th, 2001, it is clear that the appeal has attracted many . Smith “prejudice against their presence” can only distinguishes between Anglo American have increased exponentially, a topic that will converts and African America converts, be addressed further in this paper. In a section although I am not convinced of the merit of of Haddad’s article, Institutionalization: the such an argument. Though many African Creation of Mosque Culture, she explores the American’s converted under the tutelage of phenomenon that is the Mosque Culture of the Elijah and the , I West. It may seem obvious that in a have come across no supporting scholarship predominantly Islamic country there would be that Anglo American’s are more inclined to no need to carve out a niche for Muslim subscribe to mainstream Islam while African experience, exchange, community, etc., it Americans prefer the Nation of Islam. would be pervasive and therefore Certainly, my research at the ICNEF would inconspicuous. In the U.S., as can be viewed run counter to such an argument. Smith does through the ICNEF, the Mosque takes on new not neglect to mention, however, the growing meaning, new responsibility, and often, number of Hispanic and Native American modified or negotiated terms of community converts to Islam, highlighting the diversity management than in a Muslim country. These within the American conversion experience institutional shifts were not without growing (ibid;65-67). To be sure, there is no single pains; “ the majority of the immigrants are form of Islam that is “the true Islam”, at least Sunnis, “explains Haddad, “ who believe not academically speaking. “Islam is not a there is no clergy in Islam; thus the creation monolithic entity,” explains Karen Isaksen and maintenance of Islamic institutions in the Leonard, “its beliefs and practices are not the West is a new experience for the majority of same throughout the world. An early battle the Muslim diaspora community (ibid;615).”

She goes on to explain that there is no ideal the Al Furqan Academy, with about sixty form that a Western Mosque might take, and students. There is a Sunday school. There is a that each community is addressing its Muslim cemetery (not on the premises, the particular and specific aims and goals. I will ICNEF owns a section of a municipal return to Haddad’s views in the presentation cemetery). Matrimonial services are available, of my research at the ICNEF, which I believe as well as counseling and various other family exhibits the qualities she describes. oriented programs. Like many places of Furthermore, Haddad discusses the worship, there is a kitchen that provides meals development of “Umbrella Organizations” as for its own community gatherings, as well as a unique aspect of the Muslim American for community outreach. There is a experience. “Such organizations are the norm playground and a basketball court that are in the West, as governments and civic generally in use, and an overall palpable sense institutions expect to deal with a recognized of business and goings-on at any given point national leadership, a religious hierarchy; in the day. Indeed, I often find myself simply put, it is the Western way of confused at the correct way to refer to the organizing religion, and Muslims are pressed building itself and I generally employ the to reformulate themselves accordingly term that seems to fit the moment at hand. If I (ibid;621).” I explored these concepts am attending prayer or a religious event, I through my observation of CAIR and refer to the building as the masjid, or mosque. although it is not compulsory that members of If I am attending an class or a public the ICNEF also have membership in CAIR, it event such as Sharing , I refer to the is through the ICNEF that I learned of CAIR, space as the ICNEF. If, however, I am visiting and there are many overlapping and the school or meeting with the principal, I articulating functions between the two refer to it as Al Furqan. Nobody has ever organizations. Again, these organizations are corrected me when I have used one or another not free from the scrutiny of those who of these terms and I have never inquired as to associate them with militant or foreign which of these is the most appropriate; “other” based organizations such as Al Qaeda. indeed, in terms of practice, it is all of these In truth, however, they are modeled much places, which, I argue, is exemplary of its more in the image of a typical American unique American experience. advocacy group. I will return to all of these The building itself is a work in ideas in my subsequent analyses; my aim at progress. Currently, it is a non-descript and this point is simply to place the ICNEF within unembellished white building set a few a larger cultural context. hundred feet away from the bust St. John’s Bluff road which it shares with other houses The Islamic Center of Northeast Florida: of worship including a few Christian denomination, a Bahia Center, a Jehovah’s “To be the lighthouse in the of life, Witness Kingdom Hall, and others. It is facilitating the path to Islam in encircled by a modest chainlink fence and its accordance with the Qu’ran and sign is so small that it is easy to miss. Near (traditions of Prophet the right corner of the building, there is a Mohammed PBUH) through religious, skeleton of what will one day be a , spiritual and moral guidance and yet beyond this, these is nothing Islamic about social interaction.” Mission Statement the exterior. The ICNEF has plans to of the ICNEF, www.icnef.org renovate, (plans that can be viewed on their website), and the exposed innards of the Founded in 1978, the ICNEF is future minaret are the only features that would technically a non-profit corporation whose inform a passerby that this place is indeed a services extend beyond a place of worship; Mosque. Through the large wooden front indeed, there is a full time elementary school, doors there is a long hallway; on the right

hand side there is an office and library, a large reproachfully quiet. It is a spiritual place, but classroom that sometimes doubles as prayer not ascetically solemn. There are rules and space for women and children. On the left, codes of conduct, but they are instilled by there is a restroom, more offices, and a large example rather than by posting or policing. It kitchen. The hallway itself belies the multi is a mosque, but it is so much more. functionality of the space; there are cubbies I began my ethnographic research of for the students and examples of their latest the ICNEF in the fall of 2005. Then, as now, artwork and test scores, there are free Qu’rans the spiritual leader of the community was and DVD’s about Islam for visitors, there is a Zaid Malik. Malik, originally form bulletin board with notices and fliers about Pakistan, has been in Jacksonville for six upcoming events or information for the years. Highly educated, he holds a masters general Muslim community. The hallway degree in both Arabic and leads into a large room where there is a from Pakistan, as well as a degree in stairway leading straight up to a spacious, law and Islamic history. He also holds a seat lofted room that doubles as both classroom on the faculty of Sharia in Saudi Arabia. He and prayer space for women and children. speaks fluent English, as well as Arabic, Urdu Back downstairs, below the loft, there is a and Punjabi. Malik’s duties range form bookstore stocked with Qu’ran’s, calenders, leading prayers five times a day, giving a Islamic clothing and more. Beyond this room Friday sermon, performing marriages and is the main prayer hall, the masjid, this room divorces, counseling, funerals, prison is more visibly Islamic, but by no means ministry, interfaith activities, and speaking on ornate. There is carpeting with local television programs. I asked the Imam shaped rectangles to help in the physical about the unique nature of the ICNEF. He nature of prayer and spacing needed for the replied that indeed, it is unique, and added proper prostrations. There is a modest wooden that in bigger cities the mosques are separated podium from where the Imam speaks and by nationalities whereas at the ICNEF there is where the call to prayer is made. Yet, in a “beautiful diversity”. When I asked how the keeping with Islamic prohibitions against ICNEF compared with Muslim communities images of the Prophet or depictions of and mosques in Pakistan, he answered that in religious imagery, there is little else. Pakistan, a mosque is just a mosque, used for Most of the women, and some of the prayer only, without the variety of uses as in young girls, wear some form of head the ICNEF. “A party in the mosque [in covering, but there is no standard, rather, Pakistan]?” he laughed as if to say, not a there is a range of what is considered modest. chance. Malik also remarked that the ICNEF, One of my first experiences at the ICNEF was with its myriad of functions and purposes, during prayer in a room with only women and represents more accurately the Prophet’s children, and an elderly did not think mosque; in Malik’s interpretation, a that my head covering was sufficient. Gently community center as well as a place of and kindly, she came over to me and gave me worship is more akin to what the Prophet was a lovely piece of white embroidered cotton, offering his companions. Malik is not which she wordlessly proceeded to pin around unaware that there are other factors involved my head and neck. I was grateful for her and clearly stated that because of the thoughtful instruction, and have used her Jacksonville Muslim community’s minority method ever since. The men, too, dress status, it is more important to create a strong modestly, and there is a code of conduct community without regards to ethnicity - between men and women that is common in “when you are in the majority, it doesn’t places of worship. Men and women do pray matter as much,” he explained, it is not as if separately, sometimes in the same room, there are no community centers in Pakistan, sometimes not, and I will discuss this further of course, they are simply separate of the on in this article. It is a peaceful place, but not mosques. There are two primary spheres that I

participated in during my research at the ICNEF: an Arabic course taught by Imam Circles within Circles: The Women’s Study Malik, and a women’s halaka, or study circle. Circle and other Observations and For this article, I will focus primarily on my Encounters: experiences at the halaka, and how it demonstrates dome of the distinct “Do my political visions ever run up characteristics of the ICNEF. against the responsibility that I incur for the Haddad asserts that “Mosques in destruction of life forms so that America have taken on certain non-traditional ‘unenlightened’ women may be taught to live functions that are normal for Christian more freely? Do I even fully understand and churches, (Haddad, 1986;7).” She goes on to comprehend the forms of life that I want so explain that the adaptation of Islam to passionately to remake?” Saba Mahmood, America has changed the role of the Mosque Politics of Piety, 2005 through many of the characteristics that the ICNEF has adopted: conducting weddings “No one gets what being a Muslim and funerals, Sunday morning religious woman is...the degree of respect...as a mother education classes, fundraisers, bake sales, in Islam, is, amazing.” Sister “S” during an bazaars, community dinners and cultural interview at the ICNEF. events (ICNEF hosts a Sharing Ramadan community dinner and lecture) (ibid). She The excerpt above from Mahmood’s also addresses the changing role of the Imam text outlines the parameters I attempted to within the American context. Haddad place on my analyses of the women I described the same duties that Imam Malik encountered at the ICNEF. Oppressed, veiled listed above as uniquely American, “maintain women are iconic of Islam for many Mosques, provide counseling, services similar Westerners. I wanted to avoid, as much as to those offered by Christian clergy, and act possible, the hermeneutic hurdles that as Islamic spokesperson to communities in accompany the assumption that one is which Islam is little known and even less engaged with an oppressed or otherwise understood (ibid).” Indeed, Malik is often on encumbered person. I wanted to explore public access television engaging in interfaith agency, to be sure, but as Mahmood points dialogue and public education. I asked the out, without an intimate understanding of Imam what the goals of events such as what I am encountering, how can I speculate Sharing Ramadan are, he responded that it is about freedom and oppression? Secondly, I to “remove ignorance about Islam, to show assert that without placing a certain mental the true picture and teachings. It works very rubric in place, I could not have received the well, that’s what the people I meet with who comment made by Sister “S” above openly give me feedback say.” It seems reasonable and without bias, I could, rather, attempt to to assume that there is no Sharing Ramadan perceive the “emic” experience that she in Pakistan. I also asked Malik if his described. As I recount the comments and community asks him different questions or opinions of the women I interviewed, it is my requires different counsel than in Pakistan. He goal to elucidate the complexities of gender responded that, more often, people ask about negotiation in any culture and that many of mortgage or financial issues, or about the the Western views of women in particular suitability of certain American foods and simply stall or impede cultural awareness and whether they are , pure, or haram, sharing rather than promote understanding forbidden. and common ground. In relation to my core argument, I also maintain that the women I encountered at the ICNEF are an expression of the American Islamic voice and experience; examining gender is a doorway

into examining identity which, in turn, is a but members of the society in which they doorway into an examination of American live.” This is a contested concept, even Islam. I aim to be clear at this point that I am within the sample of those whom I not proposing that Muslim women are never interviewed, for many held that it is their oppressed. Simply, I am attempting to expand Muslim identity that comes first, that they are the question from the rather elementary Muslim Americans rather than American dichotomy that seeks an absolute answer - Muslims. In the spirit of the comfortable either Muslim women are oppressed or they environment of the halaka, I chose to conduct are not - to a more inclusive examination that a group interview of three women, (one from seeks, rather, to broaden our definitions and Somalia, one from Pakistan, and one from develop a deeper grasp of what is so Florida who is a recent convert), to further emblematic of the “other.” discuss these issues and more. The following When I first began attending the is a summary of their views and they will be halaka meetings it was, quite honestly, referred to here as Sister “1", Sister “2" and because I was effortlessly welcomed. The Sister “3": women were all aware of my position as I wanted to know if the women felt researcher, and were no less inclined to allow that the Jacksonville Islamic community was me to study with them, ask questions about unique or uncommon, so I asked them about the teachings, and chat about kids and school. the different forms of practice or lifestyles The format of the meetings were that they observe at the ICNEF. straightforward; beginning with a prayer and blessing, and proceeding into readings from Sister 1, Pakistan: The various cultural either the Qu’ran or the , followed by a aspects are very integrated, people pray the discussion or question and answer period. same, modesty is still important. In Pakistan, Often, these meetings were interrupted by there is only one phenotype; here you step children, cell phones calls, or other needs. into being with Muslim people from all over There is no designated leader, but there are the world. It is the University of Islam. natural ones, and a few women seem to take the lead in terms of reading and guiding Sister 2, Somalia: In Somalia, it is 95% discussions. Not all of the participants are Muslim. The US is so different. I don’t know from Arabic speaking countries and a few are where food comes from here; in Somalia all local Jacksonville converts, and so those food is halal. women who speak and read in Arabic often take the reins. Before or after the official Sister 3, Florida: Everyone seems halaka, conversation topics range from casual comfortable here. inquiries into the well being of family and children, to the pressing and often I wanted to probe deeper into what controversial issues facing the Muslim exactly defines the women’s experience of community. On one occasion, shortly after the their American Islamic community. In 2005 riots of Muslim youth in , a sister discussing the kinds of questions that non- brought with her a copy of an interview of Muslims address to them, questions that they Tariq Ramadan, a renowned scholar of Islam would likely not be asked in Muslim (one whose book I cite in this article), and countries, which may aid in further proceeded to read the entire interview aloud elucidating their particular experience. to the rest of the group. Much of the interview spoke to the need of Muslims in and Sister 1: They ask about the or my head the US to engage as citizens of their countries, scarf. They ask me if I know that loves and not to retreat into their religion. The sister me. I am asked less questions since 9/11, read Ramadan’s quote, “Muslims living in the people are more wary. They watch the news, West should not be defined by their religion, CNN, and they think they know you. Before,

people asked questions...now, they are just Sister H: There are some Arabic women with sure that you are oppressed, they don’t bother chin tattoos, the Qu’ran strictly forbids that. to ask, they want to know what color my hair That bothers me a little. Maybe they are is. Afghani. Some of the older women wear sari’s, that’s forbidden. But, the women will Sister 2: There is a man at my job who sometimes police each other, and tell each always wants to talk to me abut Jesus. other to cover up. Sometimes, though, if I like the different style, I’ll borrow from it. Some of Note: at this point, the other two women the women can make me feel underdressed - wanted to make sure that Sister 2 knew that like I am not as religious as they are. this was harassment and illegal and that she should report it to her boss. What is clear is that the dynamic cultural and ethnic diversity of the ICNEF Sister 1: I had a woman follow me in Tampa affects the experience of its members who kept asking me why don’t I believe, why differently. I asked the same questions of the don’t I believe [in Jesus]. Generally, still, in men that I interviewed, including the Imam. America it is acceptable to be different. One young man from France who is currently an exchange student at a University offered I asked the sisters how they respond to his views about the ICNEF, I will refer to him such questions and comments, also, I asked as Brother “F”. them what they perceive to be the greatest challenges facing their community: Brother F: Compared to France, it is so much better! In France we pray in little sub- Sister 3: I tell them God loves you more [than basements. There is no MSA [Muslim Jesus]. Most people are not supportive [of her Student’s Association], the Muslim conversion], if I answer fully, people are community here is more connected - it is a receptive. If I told them I was a lesbian that wonderful mosque [the ICNEF], more like an would be more accepted. umma [global Muslim community]. France does have more halal markets, I cannot really Sister 1: I just try to answer their questions. eat on campus here. I am surprised by the The community needs to project Islam to gender inclusion here - the presence of counter the image portrayed by the media, women and children. In France, genders are that we are not extremists, we need to build a more separate. The ICNEF is very American - better understanding. how sometimes at prayer announcements will be made about other stuff. There is more I began to understand that the women diversity here than in France. This is the first felt that the Muslim community in time I have prayed with Egyptians, Jacksonville is diverse and unique; all three Ethiopians, Pakistanis, Bosnians... women said that they felt the diversity are illegal in France, they are disguised. The enhanced their own experience, but, at the U.S. campus is very religious, a much same time, it is not without its challenges. different perspective than in France. Yet, the ideas expressed by the women at the halaka were not unequivocally shared by I asked Brother F how he responds to other women I interviewed. Indeed, there are the comment that Islam is oppressive to certain contested views. I interviewed a women, and what his experiences regarding woman who is from Jacksonville and had women and Islam were. been a Muslim all her life, Sister “H”’s opinion about the diversity at the ICNEF was Brother F: It is not true that Islam is more apprehensive. oppressive to women. The hijab is the choice of women, my sister chose the hijab at 25

years old, and my parents were against it, the primary issue for the men and women I they were worried for her. I think girls are interviewed. In fact, they seemed to expect nicer looking in hijab, more mysterious. But it that I, an American non-Muslim woman, is not my place to make these decisions. would ask about gender, and I was accommodated and indulged. However, when The last part of Brother F’s comment, I asked about other issues facing the Muslim regarding whose place it is to advocate hijab Community gender issues were not among or other issues regarding women’s roles, them. The president of the local MSA is a intrigued me. Perhaps a closer look at woman. The principal of the Al Furqan authority and who has the right to address academy is a woman. There are women on the these issues would further illuminate the board of directors for the ICNEF. When I expressly American Islamic female discuss CAIR, it will be noted that women experience. I asked my participants about who play a significant role within that particular, will address a woman who is not dressing and distantly American, organization. None of modestly enough, or not representing the the participants I interviewed agreed that Muslim concept of a pious woman. Islam is oppressive to women. In fact, the fair Unanimously, the women said that they police question is often raised as to what exactly each other, it was a source of laughter to oppression is, and is American culture imagine men telling them how to dress or perhaps more oppressive to women than the behave. The Imam, I was informed, will religion of Islam? That is a question best left sometimes address issues of modesty in his for a separate article, but I offer it to the sermons, but his message is addressed to both reader as a point of entry into new men and women. The men I asked all agreed perspectives. Finally, as I mentioned at the that it was not their place. Is this unusual? Is onset, it is not the goal of this article to this a fundamentally American perspective. propose tautologies, Islam is either oppressive Certainly it is not the Iranian or Afghani to women or it is not. It is germane for the perspective. Another participant, a highly intentions of my research to limit my educated man from India and a University observations and considerations to the professor had some poignant critiques of American Islamic distinction, which I have gender issues in Islam, he will be referred to not, by any means, exhausted. For instance, I as Brother “I”. have not studied enclosed or isolated Muslim immigrant groups living in larger urban Brother I: It is easy for me to say that Islam settings where assimilation and participation is not oppressive to women - I am not a with American culture is easily avoided or at woman and that is a question best answered least truncated - perhaps the experience of by women. Islam’s texts show that Islam was women from such a context would be progressive, revolutionary for women. Even drastically different than the women at the today, Islam balances between the needs of ICNEF. At this point, I intend to introduce individuals and the needs of communities. another circle within the circle, the Council of When Europe was still debating whether American Islamic Relations, CAIR. women had a soul, Islam was offering women new rights. But, some people misinterpret CAIR: texts. Men have abused power. They confuse their freedom with the right to abuse women. “CAIR’s vision is to be a leading advocate for The problem of women’s rights are not justice and mutual understanding. CAIR’s exclusive to Islam. mission is to enhance understanding of Islam, encourage dialogue, protect civil liberties, Ultimately, I got the feeling that the empower American Muslims and build question or debate surrounding women in coalitions that promote justice and mutual Islam within the American context was not understanding.”

of American Muslims. Many of the CAIR’s mission and vision statements, participants who I interviewed are members www.cair-net.org of CAIR, and as I mentioned, I learned about CAIR through a poster on a bulletin board at CAIR, established in 1994, based in the ICNEF. As I am interested in circles of Washington D.C., is one of, if not the, identity and identity crafting in the Muslim primary advocacy groups for American American community, I felt that an Muslims. Leonard explains their conception examination of some of the other as a part of a series of Muslim advocacy organizations, outside of the ICNEF, that groups emerging in the 1990's beginning with people are involved in may shed light on the Muslim Public Affairs Council (MPAC). some of these issues. There are a few other “In northern California, a year later,” Leonard organizations that some of my participants writes, “the American Muslim Alliance mentioned: the MSA (Muslim Students (AMA) was established by a political scientist Association), CERWIS (committee for of Pakistani origin. On the East coast the enhancement of the role of women in American Muslim Council (AMC) was society), ISNA (Islamic Society of North established in 1990 in Washington D.C., America), as well as many other non-religious under Arab leadership, and in 1994 it was also groups. Arab leaders who founded the Council of The CAIR conference that I attended Americna Islamic Relations (CAIR) in highlighted the diversity of the American Washington D.C. (Leonard, 2003;18). Islamic community. There were many In 2005, CAIR hosted a weekend ethnicities represented, as well as a large seminar entitled Islamophobia and Anti- amount of women both as panelists, Americanism. Its premise was that, for mediators, and audience members. Although American Muslims, both Islamophobia (the many different topics and ideas were fear of Islam) and Anti-Americanism are explored, the overarching theme of the important issues, as American Muslims conference was to clearly define the role of straddle both identities. The conference the American Muslim, and to, as mentioned consisted of six sessions whose topics ranged before, feel comfortable and empowered to from Anti-Americanism and U.S. foreign embrace American citizenship and identity policy, Misconceptions about Christians and along with Muslim identity. Dr. Ahmad Muslims in Public Discourse, to Impact of spoke on the opening night of the conference. Islamophobia and Anti-Americanism in Civil During the course of his presentation, he Rights and Policymaking. Panelists included made the statement that “America defines many Muslim scholars and political activists, progressive as the furthest away from Islam Christian leaders, representatives from the one can get.” He, and many other speakers, ACLU, Amnesty International, and the State did not consider the Muslim community Department, to diplomats and ambassadors without fault or accountability in remedying from Muslim countries. While the details of the current situation. The situation, as Ahmad the discussions and presentations were defines it, is that student visa’s from Muslim riveting and, in my estimation, crucial and countries are being denied, there is little timely, it is the existence of CAIR and the outsourcing in the Muslim world, there are promotion of a conference such as this one few American Muslim diplomats, and more. that is applicable to my larger argument: He points out that September 11th, 2001 has CAIR and its goals are exemplary of a put American Muslims in a precarious distinctly American Islamic expression, position and that their civil liberties are at moreover, CAIR is well aware of this aspect risk. He also called on the American of their impact and works to promote the government to change its policies towards values, rights and principles of the best of Palestine (this, of course, was said before the American culture as important to the identity 2006 election of Hamas, and it would be

interesting to know if Ahmad’s opinion has abandon Islamic doctrine or teaching, but changed), stop exporting American pop- that they synthesize it with mainstream cultures, and to promote dialogue. He American politics to protect, enhance, and wonders why non-Muslim American’s are expand the American Muslim’s position in not speaking out on behalf of Muslim civil the U.S. liberties and issues of discrimination. Second, watchdog organizations, Ahmad then goes on to set the tone for the civil liberties organizations, advocacy remainder of the conference, which is that groups; these are a part of the American American Muslims must utilize their status methodology of citizen engagement with as American citizens and embrace the government and with each other, and it is freedoms and rights included therein, and generally not the privileged or majority class that they must not retreat into closed that require them. communities. Outreach, Outreach, Outreach Third, it is an emergent and currently - this was the clarion call by the panelists to unfolding phenomena that is sometimes the audience. called post 9/11 America; and Muslim Another speaker echoed this Americans are reorganizing and redefining sentiment, Mr. Ahmed Younis from MPAC, their role. CAIR has been pivotal in calling the Muslim Public Affairs Council, when he for Muslim’s to engage and promote the said that Muslims need to exert the energy to ideals and the core principles of Islam, feel ownership in and of American, not to without relinquishing pride, religious change it, but to create a place within th freedom, civil rights, ethnic identities, etc., pluralism that is distinctly American all of which are the legacy of American Muslim. He elaborated that the job of concepts of democracy. Muslims is to remove the phobia from both The ideas presented above do not go Islamophobia and Americanphobia, unchallenged. Additionally, I do not know Muslims need to represent America. I want how many of the members of the ICNEF are to be very careful at this point not to reduce members of CAIR, and of those who are not, the content of the CAIR conference, which I do not know their reasons. There exists an was three days of a multitude of views and organization called anti-CAIR that opinions, to these few points of two challenges CAIR on virtually all fronts. I speakers. However, what is applicable to my have written a separate article, CAIR v. anti- research is how CAIR is an example of a CAIR, that explores their conflict. To new paradigm, an emergent and reiterate, however, I am not at this point contemporary Muslim experience. Would concerned with CAIR as it stands on its CAIR exist in any other environment, or are own; rather, I am concerned with CAIR as the conditions perfect at this point to provide an example of the many circles of identity context for its existence? This may seem within the Muslim American undertaking. like an unanswerable or esoteric question, Indeed, the term circles of identity was but it is in the canvassing of the question offered to me by a man who holds a rather where I propose the dialectic process, and prominent position in CAIR, whom I indeed the Anthropological process, of interviewed almost a year after the understanding culture processes begins. I conference. I asked him to define his maintain that CAIR is a part of the Muslim personal hierarchy of identity, how he American experience in three ways. constructs the levels of his roles. He felt that First, its mission and the issues it my question was too linear and that it would advocates are distinctly American Muslim require a simplified answer. Rather, he told issues, and further, they propose an me, he views it as a question of circles of engagement with these issues, and activist identities, or at least, parallel hierarchies. He mentality, that is very American in flavor. said he identifies as a Muslim, as American, CAIR does not propose that its members as part of his ethnic group, which, he points

out, is unique to America, “it is the exists). Let me be clear, I am certainly not immigrant struggle which this country either insinuating that there is such a stark hinders or facilitates,” he said. I asked other division; that is, the anthropological point of participants the same question: view to which I am bound bars me from offering legitimacy to one form of practice Sister H: For my own sanity, I am a Muslim above another. However, I maintain that first, a Woman second, and American third. these types of articles addressing these types of issues are aimed at the American non- Brother F: In France, the government Muslim public and that this is emergent and wants to create a French Islam. This is a big deserves our scholarly attention. The problem. I am a Muslim first and French subheading of the article reads, second, I don’t really think of myself as “Jacksonville faithful are among those French. Other French don’t think of me as considering the London attacks,” further on, French. Identifying as a Moroccan is more the author writes that one of the motivations difficult, neither country claims ownership. for the statements against the attacks was to Its like “avoir le cus entre deux chaise” [to “prevent retaliation against American have your ass between two chairs]. I am Muslims and preempt the recurring criticism definitely not American, its too late to that American Muslims don’t condemn become American. loudly enough (ibid).” The audience is clear, as is the intention; while Circles and Circles...Local Media and most Jacksonville Muslims likely do Photo-Ethnography: privately condemn the London attacks, their public condemnation is embedded within the Examining and understanding the current climate of the non-Muslim’s post role of organizations such as CAIR help to 9/11 fears. The sub-heading seems to be explain the difficulties of crafting identity assuaging or reassuring its readers, don’t for American Muslims, as well as to observe worry, the Muslims in Jacksonville think the some of the variation therein. There are bombings were wrong. The quotation above many examples of how American Muslims freely admits that the participants are have accessed, or been portrayed in, the engaged in a cultural exchange with non- local Jacksonville public forum to either Muslims, and moreover, they are trying to facilitate awareness or illuminate the lack anticipate any possible backlash. thereof. I wish to cite two of the times where The folioweekly article tackles an local print media helped to give voice to entirely different topic from a different local Muslims, and what the implications perspective, but for the same audience. The are, as well as how it supports my argument. article is entitled, “Unveiled: Dr. Sania Both the Florida Times Union and Shuja puts a new face on Islam”. For whom the folioweekly printed stories about local is she putting on a new face? For other Muslim’s, and both seemed aware that their Muslims? I doubt it. For American non- stories were unconventional, or somehow Muslims with whom she must strive to undermined the commonly held opinion of present an accurate representation of her their average reader. The Times Union experience of Islam? I am convinced that article was entitled, “Muslim’s Respond to this is the likely impetus. The author writes, Bombings: That is not Islam”. The title “Shuja represents a face of Muslim itself, referring to the 2005 London bus womanhood that is not often seen, but is bombings, is transparently American. perhaps more common than acknowledged Americans, and many other non-Muslim (ibid).” The article is peppered with countries, are in need of such clarifications photographs of Shuja in her white lab coat or explainers about what is and what is not performing all manner of recognizably true Islam (which I am not implying even scientific acts; looking at sheets of data,

fiddling with test tubes, all sans . method is rather simple - loan a digital Juxtaposed with these images, is a cover camera to the participant, Brother F, along photo that presents Shuja in her hijab. I am with some prompts or guidelines as to what not criticizing the authors of either article, the researcher, myself, is aiming for. I indeed, I am aware of the similarities created a photograph log that included some between their articles and my own. They, prompts and ideas to keep in mind, along like myself, are exploring the American with a place to describe each photograph. Muslim experience. It is as if the non- Following are a few of the prompts I Muslim is suspended between its fear of the provided: “other” and its American impulse to understand and accept everybody. As I -Do I experience this location, quoted Brother I as saying before, America object, group of people, sign or language in either hinders or facilitates the immigrant a distinctly Muslim way? experience. And although many of America’s Muslims are not immigrants, the - Would I use these photographs as same formula can be applied to any tools to describe my personal Islamic marginalized group. Shuja, in the Folio experience to someone who is unfamiliar article, did speak to the diversity of the with Islam? ICNEF, “At the Islamic Center,” she said, “like any place, there are people who are - Is there something about this conservative and those who are progressive photograph that is particular to an and there are women from so many American Islamic experience? countries. For the good, we said we should put our differences aside and pool our -Is this a photograph of something, energy (ibid).” Shuja is herself the secretary someone or someplace that enhances and of the ICNEF. supports my Islamic lifestyle? Does it Ultimately, CAIR, the articles from disrupt, challenge, or contend with my the Florida Times Union and folioweekly, Islamic lifestyle? along with the outreach and interface that the ICNEF promotes, all point to the Brother F, as mentioned previously, contemporary, post 9/11 context of the is an exchange student from France. I found American landscape. All of these his particular view quite instructive in that expressions are relevant because of the he had a keen awareness of American Islam, unique requirements of their specific French Islam, as well as a sense of what community context; the Southern, traditional, or unmarked Islam, are, and how predominantly Christian, post September they compare and contrast with each other. 11th, mainly white, English speaking Brother F took to the photo-ethnography public...they are the audience, they are part eagerly, and produced some invaluable of the context. images, both for this project, and, according I want now to discuss an to him, for himself. I am providing a ethnographic method, photo-ethnography, sampling of these images along with his that I had only introduced into this particular descriptions as an appendix to this article. It project rather late. I only offered the is precisely this aspect of the photo- experience to one participant in hopes of ethnography method that I appreciate; the closely viewing how the process works and reciprocal nature of the method, the fixing any problems so that I could employ elevation of an informant to an active this method in further research. The participant. It is my opinion that Cultural participant I chose, Brother F, who has been Anthropology and ethnographic previously mentioned, is credited for all of methodology are changing in this way. At the images reprinted in this article. The this point, I wish to turn to the work of two

scholars of Islam, Talal Asad and Saba conducted research, in Cairo, , as Mahmood, and attempt to place my research having a particular understanding of as an attempt to work within their emergent submission and subordination that rings scholarship. foreign to the western mind, she asks, “how did the women of the Mosque movement [in Asad and Mahmood...and Me?: Cairo] practically work upon themselves in order to become the desirous subjects of this It is generally accepted that the authoritative discourse? What were the majority of the scholarship pertaining to forms of reasoning and modes of persuasion Islam in the 19th and the better part of the they used to convince themselves and others 20th century was cut from the of the truth of this discourse Orientalist/Colonialist cloth, Rather, the (Mahmood;113).” It should be noted just methodology and theoretical frameworks how current Mahmood’s text is, published in enlisted were not suited to translate fairly or 2005, and that her ethnographic research completely the Islamic worldview. began before the events that brought Islam Additionally, events such as 9/11 and the into the foreground and continued well after. subsequent “war on terror” have served to She has astutely observed that the image of underscore the lack of popular “western” the veiled Muslim woman has become understandings of the Muslim world. Talal emblematic of Islam itself in the popular Asad and Saba Mahmood are contributing to western mind. Insofar as academics have this discourse by examining such concepts supported reductionist arguments against the as agency, gender, and power in their , this “emblem” has infiltrated respective writings; Asad’s Geneaologies of Anthropology as well. Mahmood Religion; Discipline and Reasons of Power understands this phenomenon, but is in and Islam, and Mahmoods, nevertheless surprised by her audiences Politics of Piety; the Islamic Revival and the “lack of curiosity about what else the veil Feminist Subject. Although neither scholar might perform in the world beyond its is focusing directly on American Islam, I violation of women (ibid;195).” Before find both of their theoretical and penetrating further into Mahmood’s ideas, I epistemological frameworks to be vital to will no turn to Asad. the anthropology of Islam. Asad is one of the preeminent Mahmood challenges the existing scholars on the anthropology of religion. models for interpreting the figure of the One of his chief contributions to the field is veiled, religious, Muslim female body by his Geneaologies of Religion, published in exploring the limitations of previous 1993. Asad’s work has greatly influenced scholarship and suggesting new modalities Mahmood, and he is often cited in her work. of inquiry. She challenges the secular-liberal For my purposes, it is the first section of this definitions of freedom and agency, as well text, “The Construction of Religion as an as the western model of feminism, Anthropological Category,” that is most highlighting the incapability of these models germane. The regnant theme of this chapter to probe certain questions. Questions such is the deconstruction of the heretofore as, “How do we conceive of individual accepted definition of religion put forth by freedom in a context where the distinction Clifford Geertz (see appendix b.). Asad between the subjects own desires and challenges, “my argument is that there socially prescribed performances cannot be cannot be a universal definition of religion, easily presumed, and where submission to not only because its constituent elements certain forms of (external) authority is a and relationships are historically specific, condition for achieving the subjects but because that definition itself is the potentiality (Mahmood, 31)?” When historical product of discursive processes describing the women with whom she (Asad;29).” Consonant with Mahmoods

aims, Asad in concerned with broadening the beautiful dialectic of academia, been the understanding of religion and the inspired and instructed by their work. Have I religious which, in its current form, is not succeeded in employing their methods and adequately suited for the task of stepping out avoiding the inadequate models they caution of the Western European framework. He against? Have I resisted applying a asks, “Can we predict the ‘distinctive’ set of definition of contemporary American dispositions for a Christian worshiper in modernity and rather, promoted the concept modern, industrial society? Alternatively, of multiple modernities? Have I sufficiently can we say of someone with a ‘distinctive’ placed my subject matter into a historically set of dispositions that he is or is not a specific time/space continuum so as not to Christian (Asad;33).” Of course, the same produce tautologies and dysfunctional question could be asked using the term absolutes? Have I presented issues of “Muslim” in place of “Christian”. gender and agency while allowing the Fundamentally, Asad is suggesting that subject to remain unfettered by anthropologists adopt a model that is more western/orientalist concepts and conditions? concerned with the historicity of religion. Of course, my work here is not nearly as Too often, Asad maintains, historical thorough as Asad or Mahmoods, nor I am on contexts and historical trajectories are not par with either academically or otherwise, explored anthropologically. Asad offers his and the title of this section is tongue and caution, “the anthropological student of cheek. I do hope that I succeeded in some particular religions should therefore begin measure to employ their proposed revisions from this point, in a sense unpacking the and reexaminations of the Islamic subject. It comprehensive concept which he or she is in keeping with these ideas that I explored translates as ‘religion’ into heterogenous the photo-Ethnography; to place the elements according to its historical nature researcher at a distance and put the power of (Asad;54).” academic discourse in the hands of the Both Asad and Mahmood explore subject. I asked the Imam of the ICNEF how issues of modernity. If not all cultures strive he defines modernity, his response is as for the same modernity, maintains follows, “Islam is the torchbearer of Mahmood, then how can we assume that all modernity. There has never been a clash cultures understand agency and oppression with science [and Islam]. Science is the in the same way? Furthermore, is it the role study of nature. Nature is Islam. Modern of the anthropologist to assign value to a science establishes facts and concepts, this is particular view, or is it simply to seek to compatible [with Islam]. There is a fine line understand it? Mahmood writes, “agentival between modernity and immorality. Is a capacity is entailed not only in those acts bikini modern? No.” I do not suggest the that resist norms, but also in the multiple adoption of the Imam’s definition in lieu of ways in which one inhabits norms another, again, I propose a scholarly (Mahmood;15).” Asad adds that western acceptance of multiple modernities, which, modernity is thought to be pregnant with essentially, is unavoidable. Just as in positive futures in a way that no other physical or biological anthropology there is cultural condition is (Mahmood interview of no such thing as a “primitive person” alive Asad;4, see full citation in bibliography). today, because all living humans are What I have just presented is an anatomically and biologically modern. And, extremely condensed discussion of the two as with linguistic anthropology, there is no texts, and I wish to be clear that I have not such thing as a “primitive language” for presented the scope of the ideas each author much the same reason. Just so with cultural presented nor have I summed up their anthropology, it is simply not feasible to conclusions and suggestions. What I have suggest that there exists a living culture that done, hopefully, is to present how I have, in is more “modern” than another; all cultures

are negotiating with the knowledge of each Furthermore, the American Islamic other’s existence, and that in itself brings us experience, because of its specific all up to speed with each other. historicity, is unique in comparison to other Muslim communities in other countries. Conclusion and Ideas for Further How the ICNEF and other communities will Research: continue to negotiate with wider circles of American culture is by no means decided, My research of the Jacksonville and it may still be awhile before public Islamic community, as all good research discourse moves towards a deeper should, has left me with more questions and understanding of Islam separate from, or at ideas for further research than conclusions least alongside of, discussions about or answers. I would like to explore further terrorism and violence - I am hopeful that issues of agency and power in the there are shifts occurring in the academic Jacksonville community as it relates to other discourse, and that it is only a matter of time Muslim communities. I am also interested before it penetrates the public. in a deeper exploration of the American Muslim male; it seems that this subject is treated as unmarked or as a given - that the Bibliography and Works Cited: Muslim male defines the Muslim female and is not worthy of separate analyses. During Asad, Talal, Genealogies of Religion; the interviews I conducted, many topics Discipline and Reasons of Power in were raised and discussed that were not , John Hopkins included in this article. How Jacksonville is University Press, , 1993. not meeting the needs of local Muslims, the American conversion experience, the Council on American Islamic Relations, political concerns of the members of the official website, www.cair.com ICNEF and what sources they access for news and information while negotiating Esposito, John L, The Oxford History of politically. Issues of child rearing and Islam, Oxford University Press, New education. Issues of spiritual and religious York,1999. guidance. I find all of these threads worthy of investigation, and encourage other Esposito, John L., and Haddad, Yvonne students of anthropology to pick them up. Yazbeck, Muslims on the Americanization Additionally, I found the preliminary Path?, Oxford University Press, University experience of the photo-Ethnography to be of South Florida, 2000. extremely instructive, and plan to incorporate the method into further research. Husain, Mir Zohair, Islam and the Muslim The Jacksonville Islamic World, McGraw Hill, , 2006. Community, CAIR and other circles of experience that I explored are all rich and Leonard, Karen Isaksen, Muslims in the vital points of entry into understanding the United States, Russell Sage Foundation, American Islamic perspective. Through the New York, 2003. ICNEF, the halaka, the CAIR conference, the photo-Ethnography, and other aspects of Mahmood, Saba, Politics of Piety; the the participant observation and interview Islamic Revival and the Feminist Subject, processes, I offer one conclusion in a sea of Princeton University Press, New Jersey, unanswered questions and undetermined 2005. variables: The Jacksonville Islamic community, in its diversity ethnically and Smith, Jane, Islam in America, Columbia otherwise, is a unique community. University Press, New York, 1999.