Explore Equip Engage

20 YEARS

EXPLORE EQUIP ENGAGE

SAHARA CHALLENGE MANUAL 2021 Muslims are searching. Go prepared.

Written and compiled by Fouad Masri

Published in the United States of America.

Quotations from the Qur'an are from The Quran Translation, 7th Edition, by Abdullah Yusef Ali (Elmhurst NY: Tahrike Tarsile Quran, Inc., 2001 ).

All Scripture quotations, unless otherwise indicated, are taken from the HOLY BIBLE, NEW INTERNATIONAL VERSION®. NIV®. Copyright © 1973, 1978, 1984 by International Bible Society. Used by permission of Zondervan. All rights reserved. “The thief comes only to steal and kill and destroy; I have come that they may have life, and have it to the full.” – Jesus (John 10:10)

Greetings in the name of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ!

I welcome you to Sahara Challenge, an intensive, practical training program designed to prepare Christians for a biblical, effective ministry among Muslims.

Crescent Project is an interdenominational Christian ministry focused on helping fulfill the Great Commission to the Muslim world.

Our goal is to see every Muslim have an opportunity to respond to the Gospel and be connected to a true follower of Jesus.

Millions of Muslims today have never heard the Gospel. Our Challenge is to take the gospel message to the hearts of spiritually thirsty Muslims. They are in need of the living water, our Lord Jesus Christ.

Confidence is needed as we minister. This confidence comes from a steadfast belief in our Creator and redeemer Jesus the Messiah. Confidence comes as we prepare to be a growing and effective minister of the Gospel. All followers of Jesus are invited to minister to others. We are not asked to be perfect, but we are commanded to share (Matthew 28:18-20).

Make the best use of your time. Equip yourself. Enjoy the teachers, the discussion time, and the fellowship with other believers.

I pray God will use this training to refresh your soul as you refresh others.

Reaching Muslims for Christ,

Fouad Masri President/CEO, Crescent Project Contents

NOTES

Day One 11 Day Two 30 Day Three 50

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

God's Historic Heartbeat 65 Islam Rising & Falling 70 The Christian Shahada 75 A Guide to Prayer Walking 77 A Visit to the Mosque 80 Arabic Phrases to Use 81 Your Evening with the Lord 82 What Does the Bible Say about Jesus? 84 The Parables of Jesus 89 Jesus in the Bible and the Qur’an 91 Jihad: An Islamic Perspective 93 What do Muslims think of America? 102 Recommended Reading 107

Bibliography 108 Glossary of Terms 109

4 Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 About Sahara Challenge

"Water will gush forth in the wilderness and streams in the desert. The burning sand will become a pool, the thirsty ground a bubbling stream."

More than 1.6 billion Muslims today Islam as a political and religious movement live in a spiritual desert and do not conquered many lands and gained converts, it has deprived its followers experience the power of the Living from spiritual satisfaction. Islam offered an Water, our Lord Jesus Christ. intricate religious system but failed to offer salvation or peace to its followers. Democracy and education might temporarily heal some Muslims' open Sahara - or "sahra" in Arabic - means wounds, but spiritual transformation desert, and it describes the spiritually dry will come only with the knowledge and state of the Muslim world today. Our vision lordship of Jesus Christ. He alone will bring through Sahara Challenge is to equip streams in the desert. Christians to become vessels in the hand of God to pour out fresh spiritual blessings The goal of Islam has always been on the Muslim world. Christ alone is the to create a community of the faithful true living water that can quench the thirst replacing the body of Christ. Although of many Muslims.

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 5 The Purpose Behind the Challenge

Ministry to Muslims has been described we set out to reach! We all aspire for our as challenging, fruitless, and even ministry efforts to be informed by love, unnecessary. Of course that does not discernment, and truth. dissuade us from trying to share the Gospel with Muslims, but it is a disheartening Crescent Project believes that for those report. Is the task really as impossible and ministering among Muslims, practical hopeless as it seems? training is a must. Sahara Challenge is an intensive, innovative course designed When Christians seek to minister to as a blueprint for anyone called to serve Muslims, whether in the United States among Muslims. With a practical approach or abroad, what preparation have they to training that focuses on challenging, received? Are they ready spiritually, informing and equipping Christians to mentally, and personally – or just witness to Muslims, Sahara Challenge has intellectually? Could it be that the "lack instilled hope in Christian workers from of fruit" in Muslim ministry is partly due to Bangladesh to Boston since 1999. Christians' lack of training? We are here to turn your burden into a joy. Sometimes we try to learn about Islam by We hope you leave this place knowing that osmosis, or by self-study with pamphlets reaching Muslims is possible, the Word of or books. Unfortunately, we often learn God is powerful, and Jesus Christ is worth it! the hard way and end up offending those

"I have read several books and websites that dealt with reaching Muslims, but everything that I studied only left me feeling the burden of the task before me. Sahara Challenge removed the burden and turned the 'task' into a joy. It set my wife and I free to openly and intentionally engage Muslims in conversations about Christ. You will not only leave Sahara Challenge with a wealth of information on how to reach Muslims, but also with great faith that the job can be done."

– Keith SAHARA CHALLENGE GRADUATE AND CHRISTIAN WORKER AMONG MUSLIMS

6 Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 The Purpose Behind the Challenge WHAT WE'RE ABOUT

• A CONCERTED PRAYER EFFORT We challenge Christians to unite in prayer for the Muslim world every Friday at noon.

• PERSONAL OUTREACH We work to connect you with mobilization opportunities relevant to you and your location.

• TRAINING We train committed Christians through training seminars and programs.

• NETWORKING Networking with other ministries to send trained Christians to serve the Muslim world.

• RESOURCES We provide sensitive and biblically-based materials that bridge the gospel to Muslims.

WHAT WE VALUE

1. WE ARE COMMITTED TO A GROWING personal relationship with Jesus Christ.

2. WE HAVE FAITH that God can and will save millions of Muslims.

3. WE MODEL lifestyle evangelism to every Muslim we meet.

4. WE REFUSE to involve ourselves in denominational divisions that create bitterness.

5. WE MAKE USE of transferable tools that will spread the gospel among Muslims.

6. WE ARE COMMITTED TO BRIDGING Christian doctrines to the Muslim heart and mind.

7. WE ARE COMMITTED TO DISCIPLESHIP and leadership training.

WHERE YOU CAN REACH US

P.O. Box 681924, Franklin, TN 37068 (615) 622-7910

crescentproject.org

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 7 The Empowerment Initiative A Vision to Reach Muslims and Address Unique Cultural Vulnerability

FACT #1 The Muslim population is growing.

IN THE The Muslim population ACROSS The number of Muslims UNITED THE STATES is projected to grow by GLOBE is projected by the year 77% 2070 in the next 10 years. to equal that of Christians.

FACT #2 The opportunities to reach Muslims are growing too. The Empowerment Initiative represents a journey from “Life on Life” contact to full commitment to Jesus:

“GROWING IN GRACE”

“LIFE ON LIFE”

“EVERY IMAM” MOVEMENT SAFE HOUSE NETWORK GLOBAL LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT Pursuing a vision to connect every Coordinating a church-based network Organizing clusters of Christian leaders Imam in America, face-to-face, with of Safe Houses that serve the acute on six continents to mobilize hundreds a local Christian leader needs of Muslims exiting Islam of local churches to reach Muslims

DIGITAL MISSIONARIES DIGITAL FAITH EXPLORATION MUSLIM-BACKGROUND STAFF Training Christians to invest Building a secure online platform for Working to have 50% of our staff 1 - 5 hours per week to engage Muslims to explore the Christian faith comprised of Muslim-background Muslims online, all over the world and get connected to trained believers believers within the next five years

VIRTUAL INTERNSHIPS CHRISTIAN-BASED ESL SPECIALIZED DISCIPLESHIP Offering 1,000 university students a Coaching partner churches in Developing unique discipleship tools way to serve with Crescent Project developing English as Second for new Muslim believers, who face from anywhere in the world Language classes that serve Muslims unique spiritual growth challenges

8 Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 FACT #3 God wants to include people like you in this work.

FUEL THE MISSION Your sacrificial investments into this ministry make the vision reality. Fund the vision at crescentproject.org/give.

ENCOUNTER THE MISSION Give one hour per week to connect with a Muslim somewhere in the world – we will train you! Or consider becoming an advocate for Crescent Project, and even joining our team, either part-time or full-time.

COVER THE MISSION There are safer things to do in ministry than to reach Muslims. We are subject to the darts of the enemy. We depend on a solid “prayer force” to cover our lives, our families, and our work in prayer.

JOIN THE MISSION If you are a pastor or leader in your church, we want to come alongside your efforts to reach your region for Christ! Let us help you reach the Muslims and other hard-to-reach people around you!

Learn more at crescentproject.org

More Muslims have come to faith in Christ in the past 20 years than in the previous 1,400 years combined. Join the movement! Fouad Masri FOUNDER, CRESCENT PROJECT

Scan to stay connected to what God is doing in the Muslim world, and to learn how to be a part of it!

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 9 DAY 1 SESSIONS

Teaching Notes

10 Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 DAY 1 SESSIONS

9:00 AM “Stake in the Ground” | Fouad Masri

“Water will gush forth in the wilderness and streams in the desert. The burning sand will become a pool, the thirsty ground a bubbling stream.”

MORE THAN 1.8 BILLION MUSLIMS TODAY LIVE IN A SPIRITUAL DESERT AND DO NOT EXPERIENCE THE POWER OF THE LIVING WATER, OUR LORD JESUS CHRIST.

John 10:1-21

For every million Muslims, there are 3 full-time workers.

They are not hard, they have not heard!

Jesus is the new message and the timeless message of hope.

THE PURPOSE BEHIND THE CHALLENGE

Conclusion: You never regret being courageous for Christ – Luis Palau

Additional Notes

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 11 DAY 1 SESSIONS

9:15 AM “Muhammad: The Man and Messenger” | Ali Reza

Commenting on the prophet of Islam and pointing to Jesus

INTRODUCTION

Qur’anic Verses: Sura 33:40; Sura 3:19

TIMELINE

570 The birth of Muhammad

576 Muhammad’s mother Amina dies, leaving Muhammad orphaned; Abu Talib cares for him

610 Muhammad claims prophethood in Arabia Khadijah confirms his call

622 Hijra (emigration) – Muhammad escapes from Mecca to Yathrib (Medina). Muslims date the beginning of the Muslim era to July 16, 622, the first day of the lunar month in which the Hijra commenced. Notice the date is not the prophet’s birthday or the revelation of the Qur’an, but the Hijra.

623 Muhammad raids caravans and leads military campaigns 632 Death of Muhammad

APPROACH

• List some of the good deeds of Muhammad: Taught One God Taught to follow Jesus Stopped infanticide Women’s rights Stopped warfare United tribes

• State the effect of the Qur’an on the Arab culture.

• Stress that only Christ was sinless from birth.

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• Show from the Injeel (New Testament) that Christ was the Redeemer. • Read Hebrews 1:1-2

• Ask if he/she has read the Injeel (New Testament) and offer one as a gift.

“In the past God spoke to our forefathers through the prophets at many times and in various ways, but in these last days he has spoken to us by his Son, whom he appointed heir of all things, and through whom he made the universe.” Hebrews 1: 1-2

Additional Notes

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 13 DAY 1 SESSIONS

9:30 AM “The Wives of Muhammad” | Safeeya

Aisha – the saddest name in history

WOMEN IN ISLAM

Women’s status in Islam is one of the most serious issues of our time!

Education entered many Muslim countries due to the efforts of Christian missionaries. Although many Muslim women are educated and involved in the professional arena, the majority are still illiterate, hidden, and treated as property.

This is an overview of what the Qur’an, Hadith (traditions of the life of Muhammad), and Sharia (Islamic Law) discuss about women and their role in a Muslim society.

QUR’ANIC VERSES

Surah 4:34 “As to those women on whose part ye fear disloyalty and ill-conduct, admonish them (first); (next) refuse to share their beds; (and last) beat them (lightly); but if they return to obedience seek not against them means (of annoyance): for Allah is Most High Great (above you all).”

Surah 2:228 “Men are a step up from women.”

Surah 2:282 “The testimony of two women is equal to one man in a court.”

Surah 30:21 “Women are created for Man, just like other beings.”

FROM THE HADITH

Muhammad and his Wives

1. Khadijah: A Christian by birth from Mecca. Muhammad did not remarry until her death.

2. Sauda bint Zam’ah: A widow with a son who had been among the emigrants to Abyssinia.

3. Aisha: Married her at age 6 or 9. She was his favorite wife.

4. Hafsah: The daughter of Umar, whose husband was killed at Badr.

5 & 6. Umm Salamah and Zaynab bint Khuzaymah: Married both in quick succession. Zaynab died, however, within three months of her marriage to Muhammad.

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7. Juayriyah: A young woman of the Banu Khuza’ah, defeated in an attack by Muhammad. Her marriage became a ransom for the whole tribe who were released immediately.

8. Zaynab bint Jahsh: First cousin and wife of Muhammad and therefore considered by Muslims to be a Mother of the Believers.

9. Mariyah: A Coptic slave woman. Out of all his marriages, Mariyah alone bore him a child, a much-loved son named Ibrahim, who died after 18 months.

10. Umm Habibah: The daughter of Abu Sufyan, who had also immigrated to Abyssinia.

11. Safiyah: A Jewess, who lost her father Huyayy, her husband Kinanah, and both her brothers during Muhammad’s assault on the fortress at Khaibar. Muhammad wed her the same night.

12. Maymunah: This widow was his last marriage.

13. Rayhanah (usually left out): A Jewess. There is some doubt as to whether she ever married Muhammad.

Conclusion:

What issues need to be addressed when ministering to Muslim Women?

Muhammad is the model husband according to Islam. How might we help Muslim women see the difference in the teachings of Christ?

Additional Notes

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 15 DAY 1 SESSIONS

9:45 AM “Muhammad and the Qur’an” | Rani Espanioly

PRE-ISLAMIC ARABIA

• Paganism in the Arabian Peninsula • Ka’aba was a shrine for idol worship • Church divisions

FAJR-UL-ISLAM: THE DAWN OF ISLAM

570 The birth of Muhammad

576 Muhammad’s mother Amina dies, leaving Muhammad orphaned; Abu Talib cares for him

610 Muhammad claims prophethood in Arabia Khadijah confirms his call

623 Muhammad raids caravans and leads military campaigns

632 Death of Muhammad Age of the Rashidun (rightly guided leaders)

655 The Qur’an collected by Caliph Uthman ben ‘Afan Ridda Wars and Abu Bakr as first Caliph

Inspiration and Revelations:

• Who is Jbreil? • Who copied the verses? • What ayah or Qur’anic verse was eaten by a goat

Role of Aisha in the Qur’an

The manuscripts of the Qur’an today?

How might we be able to use this information to move the conversation to the Gospel?

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10:00 AM “Understanding Muslim Beliefs” | Keivan Tehrani

The basic beliefs of Muslims everywhere

INTRODUCTION

Islam as a religion derives its teachings from two primary sources: The Qur’an and the Hadith.

I. THE QUR’AN

II. THE HADITH

III. PILLARS OF ISLAMIC BELIEF (IMAN)

Belief in God

Belief in Angels

Belief in Prophets (Sura 2:136; Sura 3:84)

Belief in Holy Books (Sura 5:44-47)

Islam teaches that God sent four holy books that must be read and studied by all Muslims. Tawrat Book of Moses* Zabur Book of David* Injeel Book of Jesus* Qur’an Book of Muhammad

*Muslims do not possess these books; they are only referenced in the Qur’an.

Belief in the Judgment Day

Belief in Fate

Additional Notes

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 17 DAY 1 SESSIONS

10:15 AM “Understanding the Rituals of Islam” | Sara Abdalla

How Islam’s ritualistic structure can never be a means to salvation.

INTRODUCTION

Islam claims that there are specific rituals that act as pillars in the religion of Islam. Muslims are required to perform them in obedience to God’s command. In the West, with the influence of evangelicals, imams have begun describing the rituals of Islam as “spiritual disciplines.”

PILLARS OF ISLAM (DIIN)

1. Al-Shahadah: Creed

2. Al-Salat: Prayer Ceremony

3. Al-Saum: Fasting

4. Al-Zakat: Alms

5. Al-Hajj: Pilgrimage

Additional Notes

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10:45 AM “Roots and Wings: The Spread of Islam” | Rani Espanioly

The spread of Islam: Islam’s foundation, rapid growth, and influence on the world today.

INTRODUCTION

Islam as a major religion has impacted whole civilizations through its military and political structure. To understand Muslims, we must have a clear understanding of Islam’s historical and cultural influence throughout history.

PRE-ISLAMIC ARABIA

• Paganism in the Arabian Peninsula • Ka’aba was a shrine for idol worship • Church divisions

FAJR-UL-ISLAM: THE DAWN OF ISLAM

570 The birth of Muhammad

576 Muhammad’s mother Amina dies, leaving Muhammad orphaned; Abu Talib cares for him

610 Muhammad claims prophethood in Arabia Khadijah confirms his call

623 Muhammad raids caravans and leads military campaigns

632 Death of Muhammad Age of the Rashidun (rightly guided leaders)

655 The Qur’an collected by Caliph Uthman ben ‘Afan Ridda Wars and Abu Bakr as first Caliph

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 19 DAY 1 SESSIONS

DHUR-UL-ISLAM: THE NOON OF ISLAM

656 A civil war between Ali and Mu’awiya ensues, resulting in the division of Islam: Shi’ites – followers of Ali Sunni – followers of tradition – Mu’awiya

661 The Umayyad Dynasty (Al-Umawiyoun) begins

711 The Muslim conquest of Spain

732 Charles Martel defeats Muslims in the Battle of Tours Advancement in astronomy, mathematics, optics and chemistry in Arab Spain Political and military advancement as Arabs conquer other cultures

794 The Abbasid Dynasty (Al-‘Abbasiyoun)

1258 Arabic numerals of Indian origin are used in Baghdad. Greek philosophers and scientific books translated into Arabic by Greek-speaking Christians under Arab Muslim rule. Al-Chwarazmi writes a book on equations and coins the term “Algebra.” Arabs borrow Indian numerals, including zero, to multiply by ten. Astrolabe is perfected by the Arabs. Arab physicians mention infectious diseases in medical books of this era. Advancements are made in astronomy and physics.

‘ASRU-UL-ISLAM: THE AFTERNOON OF ISLAM

Many cults and Muslim sects began during this era (i.e. The Druze)

1258 Mongols overrun Baghdad and destroy its library. 1453 Constantinople falls into the hands of the Turks 1914 World War I – Colonization of the Muslim World

GHOROUB-UL-ISLAM: THE SUNSET OF ISLAM

1939 World War II 1948 The Liberation War – The birth of the state of Israel 2001 9/11 – WTC and Pentagon and Pennsylvania – Islam’s attempt to control major Western countries in the political arena

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MASA’ UL-ISLAM: MODERN ISLAM / NIGHTTIME OF ISLAM [MODERN ISLAM / DARKNESS OF ISLAM]

Will the Islam of Muhammad survive?

Since September 11, 2001, Muslim leaders and imams have been forced to reevaluate Islam and the teachings of its leader. The Muslim world is going through a major dilemma.

2010 Arab Spring 2020 COVID-19 pandemic

The resurgence of Islam today is primarily based on the following factors:

• Failure of the Church to invest in reaching Muslims who are thirsty for the Truth • The reaction of Muslim immigrants to the decadence of the West • The political use of religion for personal gain • The last resort for Muslims before abandoning their oppressive religion

Christian Witness

CONCLUSION

• Muslims and globalization • A new awakening – Muslim encounters with Jesus • Lessons learned

Additional Notes

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 21 DAY 1 SESSIONS

11:00 AM “Digital Tower of Babel” | Fouad Masri

The Information Age on a digital platform

Is it information or opinion?

Where do I check the facts I am reading?

Muslims, Social Media and Faith

Searching for Hope

How might we use the digital platform to introduce the teachings of Christ?

What are the necessary changes to impact Muslims in “closed” or creative access countries?

Additional Notes

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11:15 AM “What is Shari’a?” | Ali Reza

The religious apartheid today

What is Sharia?

Sources of Sharia?

Countries that practice full Sharia

Women in Sharia Islam hold the honor and shame

Al Hudood 2:187 – rules and regulations Quran 2:230 – disastrous solution to any marriage

Christians and Jews in Sharia

Jizya: What is it? How much? Who decides when and how much to pay?

Dhimmitude: Why? Christians are capable of providing for themselves.

ISIS and Jihad against non-Muslims: Is Sharia right today? Quran 7:55 and attacks on non-Muslim property

How might we transition to the teachings of Christ due to the deficiency of Sharia Islam?

Additional Notes

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 23 DAY 1 SESSIONS

11:30 AM “Women in Islam” | Sara Abdalla

Ministering to women and families in Islam

INTRODUCTION

WOMEN IN ISLAM

• Women’s status in Islam is one of the most serious issues of our time! • Education entered many Muslim countries due to the efforts of Christian missionaries. Although many Muslim women are educated and involved in the professional arena, the majority are still illiterate, hidden and treated as property. • This is an overview of what the Qur’an, Hadith (traditions of the life of Muhammad), and Sharia (Islamic Law) discuss about women and their role in a Muslim society.

QUR’ANIC VERSES

Surah 2:228 – Men are a step up from women. Surah 2:282 – The testimony of two women is equal to one man in a court of law. Surah 30:21 – Women are created for Man, just like other beings.

FROM THE HADITH

Muhammad and his Wives

POSITION

• Equal in religious responsibility • Women are expected to perform all duties of Islam. Nevertheless, the husband reserves the right to disqualify her from entering heaven. • Unequal in social status >> Women’s world revolves around the men’s world

POLYGAMY

• Unequal in marriage >> She is one of four wives at a time. • A wife may not have four husbands. • Unequal in Family >> Motherhood is the only role in the family structure.

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DIVORCE

• Reasons a Muslim man is allowed to divorce his wife: Unable to bear male children Physical beauty and age Housekeeping Conversion to another religion

AL-MUT’A

• Pleasure marriage or temporary marriage

AL-HIJAB

• In Arabic, hijab literally means: a covering or something that separates two objects. • Historically, we cannot find a command for women to wear the veil. The hijab in Arabia might have been used to distinguish a free woman from a slave so that no one would molest her.

MODERN MUSLIM WOMEN

• Issues with modernity • Issues in politics and education • American women married to Muslims

Additional Notes

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 25 DAY 1 SESSIONS

11:45 AM “The Many Faces of Islam” | Keivan Tehrani

Additional Notes

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12:00 PM “Baraka Baraka Baraka” | James Cha

Understanding Folk Islam, its widespread practice, and how it paves the way for the Gospel

WHAT IS FOLK ISLAM?

• A blend of Islamic monotheism and animism. They are doctrinally Muslim, practically animist.

“In folk Islam, people in everyday life are believed to be at the mercy of evil powers: spirits, ghosts, demons, evil eyes, curses, and sorcery. Their only protection is to seek the aid of Allah, angels, saints, charms, good magic, and other power.” – Paul Hiebert

“The ordinary Muslim understands the power of the Qur’an to heal, or the use of the rosary to divine and guide. He needs to discover that Christ can heal, can give power, can defeat demons, can speak supernaturally to man to guide him.” – Bill Musk

WHAT DO THEY BELIEVE?

• That the seen world is related to the unseen world. Therefore, humans can be controlled by spiritual forces.

• “Baraka” means “blessing”- Blessings of Allah is what is sought after on a daily basis.

• To attain this baraka the system is based on people or events that can manipulate God to invoke his blessing.

How might we use this concept to shift the focus on Jesus and his power?

Additional Notes

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 27 DAY 1 SESSIONS

12:15 PM “Something Old, Something Blue” | Fouad Masri

Mysticism in Islam

WHERE IS IT?

• Everywhere! Among 3/4 of the Muslim population.

Powerful Places, Powerful Beings:

Mecca and Medina Allah Cities of prophets Satan Tombs of prophets and their wives Angels / Demons Mosques or shrines Dead prophets Tombs of holy men Dead Imams/Mullahs Ancestors

Powerful Times, Powerful Objects:

Islamic festivals and holidays Amulets Local festivals Charms / Blue beads Rites of Passage: birth, circumcision, Hand of Fatima engagement, marriage, pregnancy, The Qur’an birth of firstborn, death The Shahadah Visions and dreams Calligraphy of Qur’anic verses Sunrise or sunset Islamic rosary

Additional Notes

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1:00 PM Day 1 Breakout Session

Breakout Leader(s):

Topic:

Breakout Session Notes

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 29 DAY 2 SESSIONS

9:00 AM “Conversations Count” | Fouad Masri

Basic attitudes and foundational knowledge for sharing with Muslims

Guidelines in Sharing Your Faith

A look at Christ’s model of compelling evangelism.

We are to share Him! – Matthew 28:18-20

A Woman from Samaria – John 4:1-41

APPROACH: METHODS IN SHARING YOUR FAITH

Questions:

• Where did you find this information? • How do you know it is true? • Have you read the Injeel? • What do you mean by that? • What happens if you are wrong?

Bible Verses

Testimonies

Stories / Bible Stories

Psalms

Miracles

Gift-giving and Prayer

CONCLUSION

How can you learn from Jesus’ interaction with the woman from Samaria? What methods do you feel most comfortable using in ministry?

Conversations lead to conversions

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The Levels of Conversation:

1. Physical Level

2. Religious Level

3. Miraculous Level

4. Spiritual Level

5. Salvation Level

Additional Notes

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 31 DAY 2 SESSIONS

9:15 AM “At the Well” | Jenny G.

Meeting Muslims where they are

Introduction:

The Messiah Jesus is our model in ministering to people The incarnation is the greatest model: Philippians 2:7-8

The Samaritan Woman:

• Jesus met her where she was • Barriers Jesus crossed

Zacchaeus the Tax Collector:

• Jesus invited himself, giving honor to a man hated by many • The fellowship of a meal was the best place to impact a life in need of salvation

Feeding the Five Thousand

We are the Hands and Feet of Jesus:

• Meet Muslims where they are • Willingness to listen • Understand cultural cues • Be straightforward in your message • You are an ambassador

Refugee testimony: Muslim refugee beaten by her husband; the need is not for food, but for Christ to change the husband.

Conclusion:

• What changes do we need to make in order to incarnate the Gospel? • Where do I need to be to impact Muslims with the Gospel? (Location)

Additional Notes

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9:30 AM “Points of Connection” | Ali Reza

Similarities to Build Bridges

Introduction

• Islam and Christianity share many similar Ideas and beliefs • Similar beliefs but they are not the same beliefs

Points that can be used as a starting point to build a Bridge: • God is one • Jesus the son of Mary • Judgment Day • Heaven and Hell • Prophets and Messengers

The Biblical Revelation

Conclusion:

Muslims see God as transcendent and unreachable. He is the master and humans are slaves to His laws.

How might we be able to use these similarities to begin a conversation on joining the family of Jesus?

What changes must we make to impact Muslims with the message of hope?

Additional Notes

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 33 DAY 2 SESSIONS

9:45 AM “Jesus in the Qur’an” | Keivan Tehrani

Is it the same Jesus?!

INTRODUCTION

Top prophets in Islam?

Jesus and the Qur’an:

• Servant of God • Son of Mary • Word of God

Jesus and the Bible:

• Redeemer/Savior • Messiah • Son of Man • Son of God

CONCLUSION

What do we need to change to give Muslims a biblical view of Christ?

Additional Notes

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10:00 AM “Salvation in Islam” | Safeeya

Sin and salvation in Islam, as contrasted to the Bible

Surah 31:33: “O mankind! Do your duty to your Lord, and fear (the coming of) a Day when no father can avail aught for his son, nor a son avail aught for his father.”

Surah 2:281: “And fear the Day when ye shall be brought back to Allah. Then shall every soul be paid what it earned, and none shall be dealt with unjustly.”

Surah 7:8-9: “The balance that day will be true (to nicety): those whose scale (of good) will be heavy, will prosper.”

MAN’S PLACE IN CREATION

• “Khalifat Allah” The master of creation • Man is master of earthly domain. • Man’s desires and actions are ordained. • Man sins because he is prone to forget God’s commands— Insan-Nassa

MAN’S MORAL NATURE – “AL-FITRAH”

• All humans are born Muslim. • All humans are born pure.

Surah 30:30 “So set thou thy face steadily and truly to the Faith: (Establish) Allah’s handiwork according to the pattern on which He has made mankind: no change (let there be) in the work (wrought) by Allah: that is the standard Religion: but most among mankind understand not.”

ORIGINAL SIN AND ISLAM

• Adam is responsible for his own sin. • Humans today are responsible for their own deeds.

JUDGMENT DAY

• “Yaum Al-akhira”, literally, “the final day in history of mankind” • Islam teaches that God will judge the living and the dead. • The Scale (al-Mizan): A scale will weigh the good and evil deeds. • Mathematical righteousness

PARADISE IN ISLAM (Sura 2:266; Sura 56:8-46)

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 35 DAY 2 SESSIONS

• Al-Janah in Arabic means a beautiful garden • Described for men only, no description of a heaven for women. • Very sensual and material • Imams dispute if Paradise is one garden for all Muslim men or multiple levels where each is blessed according to his deeds.

HELL IN ISLAM

A wood-burning, perpetual fire

SALVATION IN THE BIBLE

Matthew 18:11: “For the Son of Man has come to save that which was lost.”

Ephesians 2:8-10: “For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith – and this not from yourselves, it is the gift of God – not by works, so that no one can boast. For we are God’s workmanship, created in Christ Jesus to do good works, which God prepared in advance for us to do.”

Romans 10:9-10: “That if you confess with your mouth, “Jesus is Lord,” and believe in your heart that God raised him from the dead, you will be saved. For it is with your heart that you believe and are justified, and it is with your mouth that you confess and are saved.”

CONCLUSION

What can Jesus offer Muslims? • 1 John 1:9 • Philippians 3:10 • John 17:3 • Revelation 3:20

If we’re not born into sin, then at what age do humans first sin?

Additional Notes

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10:15 AM “Is the Injeel Corrupted?” | Fouad Masri

Defending the Injeel’s integrity and pointing the way to Jesus

INTRODUCTION

Qur’anic Verse: Sura 2:146

Folk Islam / Muslim Logic:

• The Tawrat of Moses was corrupted, so God sent the Zabur. • The Zabur of David was corrupted, so God sent the Injeel. • The Injeel of Jesus was corrupted, so God sent the Qur’an. • The Qur’an will never be changed, since God keeps and protects His word.

Christian Response: The Injeel is the inspired word of God (2 Timothy 3:16).

Christian Logic:

• God inspired the writing of the Injeel. • God will keep His word to enlighten and judge the human race.

APPROACH

The “Zero-Corruption” Bridge

• Theological • Logical • Historical

Theological: “Man stronger than God? Astaghfur-Allah!”

• If God sent the Injeel and humans corrupted it, then humans are stronger than God. Impossible!

Logical: “Show me the evidence!”

• Who corrupted the Injeel? • When was the Injeel corrupted? • Where was the Injeel corrupted? • Why was the Injeel corrupted? • Where is the original Injeel? • What parts of the Injeel were corrupted? • Was the Injeel corrupted before or after the life of Muhammad?

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Historical: “May I share my research?”

1.The Eyewitness Stage (AD 1-100): 2.The Persecution Stage (AD 100 – 325): 3.The Translation Stage (AD 325 – present):

CONCLUSION OF THE BRIDGE

• The Injeel has not been corrupted. It is God’s letter to humans about His Word, Jesus Christ. We must obey all its teachings in our faith and conduct.

• Point of Decision

“Here I am! I stand at the door and knock. If anyone hears my voice and opens the door, I will come in and eat with him, and he with me.” Revelation 3:20

“And the things you have heard me say in the presence of many witnesses entrust to reliable men who will also be qualified to teach others.” 2 Timothy 2:2

“All Scripture is God-breathed and is useful for teaching, rebuking, correcting and training in righteousness.” 2 Timothy 3:16

Additional Notes

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10:45 AM “Practical Apologetics” | Keivan Tehrani

What is Apologetics?

Defense of the faith

Biblical Apologetics: return to the message of hope Biblical Foundations: 1 Peter 3:15

The Jesus Way:

• The art of asking questions • Answering questions with a sharp focus • Answering questions with a thought-provoking question • Answering with Scripture verses • Answering with a parable or proverb from the culture (the lost son/lost sheep/lost coin)

The Art of Sharing the Hope We Have:

• Philip and The Ethiopian: Acts 8 • Peter and John in Front of Priests: Acts 4 • Paul and King Agrippa: Acts 25

Conclusion:

• All Christian believers are on a mission • All are ambassadors • Conversational Apologetics take place daily • What would you change as a ministry to impact Muslims?

Additional Notes

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 39 DAY 2 SESSIONS

11:00 AM “Adha in the Injeel” | Sara Abdalla

Responding biblically to the question, “Why did Jesus have to die?”

INTRODUCTION

• Why did Jesus have to die? • There is no need for sacrifice. Are we not saved by good works?

MUSLIM VIEW: Qur’anic Verse: Sura 7:8-9

Folk Islam:

Muslim Logic:

BIBLICAL VIEW

Christian Response:

No man is righteous. All need salvation through an eternal sacrifice (Acts 4:12; Ephesians 2:8-9; Romans 10:9-10; Romans 3: 10-12, 23)

Christian Logic:

APPROACH

Adha in the Injeel Five Main Points: 1. Al-Wadud “The Affectionate” 2. Al-Qudoos “The Holy One” 3. Al-Adil “The Just” 4. Al-Raheem “The Merciful” 5. Al-Ghafoor “The Forgiver”

Christ the Eternal Sacrifice

Point of Decision: Toub = Repent Ish-had = Confess or Testify

Additional Notes

40 Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 DAY 2 SESSIONS

11:15 AM “Final Revelation?” | Fouad Masri

Introduction: Revelation in Islam

Revelation in Christianity: Hebrews 1:1-2

Abrogation in Islam: Quran 2:106

Responding to Muslims who argue that the Qur’an replaces previous Scripture, including the Injeel:

“The last revelation was the Qur’an, so all people should follow it. It replaces the need for the first 3 books.” (Qur’anic Verse: Sura 16:101-102)

Folk Islam:

Muslim Logic:

• God sent the prophets with a message, “Rasul” in Arabic. • Each prophet came to lead his generation to worship God. • Islam came last chronologically, so it should correct what the Injeel teaches about God.

Christian Response:

“Jesus Christ is the ultimate revelation of God. His life and teachings are the measure.” (Hebrews 1:1-2; Mark 13:31)

Christian Logic:

• God sent His Word, Jesus Christ. The Injeel records and explains what Jesus taught. • The Word of God became flesh and redeemed us. • The life and person of Jesus Christ is the ultimate revelation of God. • The Qur’an and all religious materials should be viewed in light of the teachings of Christ.

Jesus Christ proved that He is the true messenger of God by resurrecting from the dead.

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APPROACH

• Read Bible verses from Hebrews 1:1-2 and Mark 13:31. • Explain that as believers in God, we reject that any human can corrupt God’s book, the Injeel. • Show that Moses, David, and Jesus went to people who believed in God. • Explain that Muhammad’s generation was pagan and needed to worship one God, but this lesson had already been taught to the Jewish people from the days of Abraham. • Although Muhammad and the Qur’an came last chronologically, the core message had been revealed before from the days of Abraham. • The message of the Injeel has a more advanced spiritual level. • The Injeel moves beyond monotheism to salvation, grace, faith, sanctification, and holiness. • Christians accept the Qur’an when it agrees with the Injeel. • Muslims must study the whole Bible to understand fully the will of God for their life.

Additional Notes

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11:30 AM “The Trinity” | Rani Espanioly

Defending God’s revealed character as Three in One in light of the Gospel

INTRODUCTION • “Don’t Christians believe in three gods?” • “Christians worship God, Jesus, and Mary!”

Qur’anic Verses: Sura 5:76; 112:1-4; 4:171; 5:119-122

Folk Islam:

• The Trinity is viewed as three gods: generally God, Jesus, and Mary. • 1+1+1= 3; Christians are idol worshipers.

Muslim Logic:

• Trinity is tri-theism, a teaching that would not be accepted by Jesus, who is a prophet of Islam. • Christians fall in the sin of “shirk” (the one unforgivable sin) because they associate equals with God. • This is similar to pre-Islamic Arabian Paganism.

Christian Response:

• The concept of the Trinity is taught in the Injeel. • We worship one God in three Persons (Matthew 28:18-20; John 14:9,16; John 16:13).

Christian Logic:

• There is no difference between any of the three Persons of God. God always existed with His Word and His Spirit. God’s Word is Jesus; His Spirit is the Holy Spirit. They are all the same and equal. • We believe in this doctrine, for the Injeel clearly states it. • The concept of the Trinity may be above our reason but it is not against it.

APPROACH:

• Stress that the Injeel teaches this doctrine. • Explain that God is Father, Son (Word), and Holy Ghost. Mary is not part of the Trinity. • Humans cannot understand God’s nature. God reveals His character. • Ask “Which existed first in eternity? God, His Word, or His Spirit?”

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Physical examples might help:

• Multiplication (1 x 1 x 1 = 1) • Triangle • Water (solid, liquid, gas) • Electricity (power station, cables, light bulb

CONCLUSION

How might we use this approach in leading Muslims to faith in Christ?

Additional Notes

44 Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 DAY 2 SESSIONS

11:45 AM “The Sonship of Christ” | Ali Reza

INTRODUCTION

“Don’t Christians believe Jesus is the Son of God, semi-god and semi-man?” Qur’anic Verses: Sura 5:19; 5:75; 6:101-103; 10:68; 112:1-4

Folk Islam:

• God incarnated in Gabriel and had sexual relations with Mary. • The offspring is called the Son of God, which is blasphemy in Islam.

Muslim Logic:

• This is considered idolatry and paganism, which is unacceptable in Islam.

Christian Response:

• Jesus Christ is the Incarnate Word of God. (John 1:1-4; Hebrews 1:1-5; 1 Timothy 3:16; Matthew 1:18-24; Luke 1:26-56)

Christian Logic:

• All things are possible with God.

APPROACH

• Ask your Muslim friend why the Qur’an calls Jesus “Isa bin Maryam.” • Stress that you believe in the same miracle of the virgin birth. • Ask if there is a difference between God and His Word. • Stress that Jesus is the Word of God. Read John 1:1, 14. • Stress that the Injeel teaches the incarnation, though above human reason.

Additional Notes

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12:00 PM “Muhammad in the Bible?” | Rani Espanioly

Islamic Propaganda

Why Muslims look to find Muhammad in the Bible

Quran 61:6 “So Jesus the son of Mary said: ‘Children of Israel, I am Allah (God)’s messenger to you, confirming whatever came before me in the Torah and announcing a messenger coming after me whose name will be Ahmad.’ Yet when he brought them explanations, they said: ‘This is sheer magic!’” Muhammad Hijab

Deuteronomy 18:18 – A Prophet From Your Brethren

John 14:25-26 – The Comforter

John 10: 1-2

• Jesus compared to Muhammad

• How might we use this info in sharing the Good news?

• What impacts Muslims when comparing the life of Muhammad with the Life of Jesus?

• What responses are best to transition the conversation to Jesus and salvation?

Additional Notes

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12:15 PM “The Question of the Cross” | Fouad Masri

A biblical response to the crucifixion of Jesus

INTRODUCTION

Jesus was a prophet of God, so how can he lose by dying? Qur’anic Verse: Sura 4:157

Folk Islam: • Jesus was lifted to heaven to escape his enemies. • Someone else was crucified instead. • Christians are mistaken in believing that Jesus died on the cross.

Muslim Perspective: • Muhammad defeated the enemies of Islam and destroyed the idols in the Ka’ba. • God’s prophet must win and be victorious. • Five Theories on who died on the cross: - Judas Iscariot - Jewish bystander - One of the disciples (Peter) - A Roman soldier - Swoon theory (Ahmaddiyah)

Christian Response: Christ rose from the dead, victorious over sin and Satan.

Bible Verses: Matthew 26-28, Mark 14-16, Luke 22-24, John 18-21, Acts 4:33, Romans 1:4, Romans 10: 9-10, Philippians 3:10, 1 Peter 1:3

Philippians 3:10 “I want to know Christ, the power of his resurrection and participation in his sufferings, becoming like him in his death, in so attaining to the resurrection from the dead.”

Christian Logic: • Jesus died on the cross for the sins of the world. • Jesus rose from the dead to indwell and guide all who believe. • The resurrection proves the power of God and Jesus is victorious over the enemies of God. • Jesus is the only Prophet who is still alive today. • No human has risen from the dead. • Resurrection of Jesus is proof that Christ was righteous, and his sacrifice was acceptable to God.

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Approach:

• Christ is glorified through the resurrection. • Ask what glorifies God more: to help Jesus escape death or help conquer death? • Wait for the response of your Muslim friend. • Read the story of the resurrection in the New Testament (if possible). • Explain to your Muslim friend that God is glorified in the resurrection of Jesus. • Jesus did not lose by dying; He won through the resurrection from the dead. • Jesus is the only prophet who conquered death, sin, and Satan.

Additional Notes

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1:00 PM Day 2 Breakout Session

Breakout Leader(s):

Topic:

Breakout Session Notes

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9:00 AM “Form and Meaning” | Fouad Masri

Additional Notes

50 Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 DAY 3 SESSIONS

9:15 AM “Keys to Understanding a Culture” | Rani Espanioly

As we take the forms used by the host culture, what meaning are people associating with our behavior?

The following are to assist us in evaluating the forms we use for the purpose of best communicating the meaning we hope to teach.

KEYS TO UNDERSTANDING A CULTURE: • Geography • History • Politics • Family • Religion • Money/Possessions • Time • Space/Social Distance • Humor • Education • Skill/ Talent

POSITION (Social Status)

INFLUENCERS - DECISION MAKERS - MEMBERS

KEY ADVICE: Third culture: a person who is comfortable and connects with the heart of the home and host cultures.

CONCLUSION: How might we use this information to connect with the community we are ministering in?

“And whatever you do, whether in word or deed, do it all in the name of the Lord Jesus, giving thanks to God the Father through him.” Colossians 3:17

Additional Notes

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9:30 AM “Fences” | Brett W.

Seeing culture and its components through the lens of the Bible.

INTRODUCTION

WHAT IS CULTURE? The sum total of ways of living built up by a group of human beings and transmitted from one generation to another. It can also be defined as the sum of values, traditions, and views developed by a group of people.

WHAT IS WORLDVIEW? “Worldview is the basic way of interpreting things and events that pervades a culture so thoroughly that it becomes a culture’s concept of reality – what is good, what is important, what is sacred, what is real. Worldview is more than culture...The beliefs, values, and behaviors of a culture stem directly from its worldview.” – Carol Hill

FIVE VIEWS ON GOD AND CULTURE

THREE BASIC INFLUENCES ON WORLDVIEWS

• Guilt-Innocence – most of the Western world • Shame-Honor – 10/40 window • Fear-Power – tribal peoples in Africa, South America, and Asia

Muslim societies often have a combination of Shame-Honor and Fear-Power worldviews.

All three worldviews are found in the Genesis story of the fall: • When man broke God’s law, he was in a position of guilt. (Gen 3:7) • When man broke God’s relationship, he was in a position of shame. (Gen 3:8) • When man broke God’s trust, he was in a position of fear. (Gen 3:10)

Conclusion: Jesus transforms cultures.

Additional Notes

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9:45 AM “Hidden Signals” | Fouad Masri

CONCLUSION

Matthew 28:18-20 • All cultures are tainted by sin and need the intervention of Jesus. • All cultures need a redeemer to save them from this present darkness.

How we might use this process to connect with the community and culture we are serving in?

Additional Notes

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10:00 AM “Gender Relationships” | Safeeya

The Biblical and Islamic view of gender relationships.

INTRODUCTION

GUIDELINES FOR CROSS-CULTURAL INTERACTION

• Men to Men or Women to Women - Encounters should be with same sex. Avoid one-on- one relationships and activities with the opposite sex. It may be acceptable for couples to minister to a male or female student as a team.

• Be sensitive to customs regarding dating and marriage.

• Think ahead about how you would handle being a potential date or marriage prospect.

• Some cultures consider single women living in another country as an indication of a problem with family or reputation. They question why you are not married and home with children.

• Be aware of how men from Muslim cultures view women and their role in society.

• If someone from the opposite sex shows interest in spiritual matters, arrange for them to be introduced to someone from the same sex to continue the spiritual discussions.

GENDER RELATIONSHIPS

• Matthew 5:28-30 • Mark 10:2-13

What changes will you make to impact Muslims in your community?

Additional Notes

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10:15 AM “Peer Influence” | Fouad Masri

Introduction

Community in the 21st century

• Location • Language • Digital

Communities are always interacting within themselves.

Three Levels of Influence in a Community:

• Influencers - opinion/interpretation • Leaders - decision makers • Members - cross generational, different education, different careers

Understanding the hidden messages connects with the heart of the community.

Cultural connections are the platform to impact the community.

What changes we must make in light of this information?

Who are the peer influencers and where to find them?

Additional Notes

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10:45 AM “The Nations Among Us” | Aaron Myers

My Neighborhood is Changing:

• Changes in the 21st Century

• Travel and Migrations

• Refugees and Civil Wars

• The Global Village

Having the Eyes of Jesus:

• Compassion

• Do we see them?

What might we do as we see our communities change?

• Prayer

• Research

• Visit stores, community center and homes

Additional Notes

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11:00 AM “The Gospel with Skin On” | Rani Espanioly

Additional Notes

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11:15 AM “Beyond Tolerance” | Fouad Masri

The Time is Now

“Shadrach, Meshach and Abednego replied to him, ‘King Nebuchadnezzar, we do not need to defend ourselves before you in this matter. If we are thrown into the blazing furnace, the God we serve is able to deliver us from it, and he will deliver us from Your Majesty’s hand. But even if he does not, we want you to know, Your Majesty, that we will not serve your gods or worship the image of gold you have set up.” - Daniel 3:16

Islam and Freedom of Religion: • Persecution • Propaganda • Sharia- Religious Apartheid

Islam and Human Rights: • Women in Islam • Children and Refugees

Distractions to the Church: • Political Involvement • Social Gospel • Political Correctness • Avoidance • Hypocrisy • Judgmental Spirit

House Churches Across the Muslim World: • A new spiritual awakening • Jesus gives hope

What changes must we make to increase our impact on Muslims in our community?

Be an influencer. Be a leader. Take a stand when everybody bows and kneels – stand up for Jesus.

Additional Notes

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11:30 AM “Something Amazing About Grace” | Jenny G.

Muslims transformed by grace

Introduction

Ibn Taymiya (1263—1328) “Man can only attain perfection by being a true slave to Allah.” Al ‘ubudiah, p. 62

Contrast between a slave to Allah and a child of God.

”Yet to all who did receive him, to those who believed in his name, he gave the right to become children of God— children born not of natural descent, nor of human decision or a husband’s will, but born of God.” John 1:12-13

Why is grace attractive?

Why do Muslims decide to follow Jesus?

• Dreams and visions • Bible in their language • Friendship with a follower of Christ

What changes happen in the life of a Muslim who decides to follow Christ?

Why is the Gospel necessary?

Social services and the Gospel?

What changes do we need to make to become effective in reaching Muslims around us?

• Urgency of the Gospel • Faithful to our faith even when it is not comfortable • Faithful to share the message entrusted to us • Faithful with those in our circle of influence

Additional Notes

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 59 DAY 3 SESSIONS

11:45 AM “World Changers” | Keivan Tehrani

“But other Jews were jealous; so they rounded up some bad characters from the marketplace, formed a mob and started a riot in the city. They rushed to Jason’s house in search of Paul and Silas in order to bring them out to the crowd. But when they did not find them, they dragged Jason and some other believers before the city officials, shouting: “These men who have caused trouble all over the world have now come here, and Jason has welcomed them into his house. They are all defying Caesar’s decrees, saying that there is another king, one called Jesus.” - Acts 17:5-7

Here Comes Those Who Have Caused Trouble: • Troublemakers??? • Against the status quo • Change influencers

Impacting Diaspora

Impacting the Community

Dedication and Leadership • Persecution • Discipling others

What changes will you make to reach Muslims with the Gospel of Jesus?

Additional Notes

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12:00 PM “Together” | Ali Reza

Jesus’ mission will only be accomplished by community. (Acts 2:42)

How Should We Treat One Another?

“A new command I give you: Love one another. As I have loved you, so you must love one another. By this all men will know that you are my disciples, if you love one another.” - John 13:34-35

“Be devoted to one another in brotherly love. Honor one another above yourselves... Live in harmony with one another. Do not be proud but be willing to associate with people of low position. Do not be conceited... If it is possible, as far as it depends on you, live at peace with everyone.” - Romans 12:10,16,18

“Accept one another, then, just as Christ accepted you, in order to bring praise to God.” - Romans 15:7

“As a prisoner for the Lord, then, I urge you to live a life worthy of the calling you have received. Be completely humble and gentle; be patient, bearing with one another in love. Make every effort to keep the unity of the Spirit through the bond of peace... Be kind and compassionate to one another, forgiving each other, just as in Christ God forgave you.” - Ephesians 4:1-3; 32

“Therefore encourage one another and build each other up, just as in fact you are doing.” -1 Thessalonians 5:11

“And let us consider how we may spur one another on toward love and good deeds.” - Hebrews 10:24

“Finally, all of you, live in harmony with one another; be sympathetic, love as brothers, be compassionate and humble.” - 1 Peter 3:8

CONCLUSION

• “One another” and “community” are major themes in the bible • How does a “together” team concept impact Muslims in our community?

Additional Notes

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12:15 PM “Call to Action: 2033” | Fouad Masri

“Then Jesus came to them and said, ‘All authority in heaven and on earth has been given to me. Therefore go and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, and teaching them to obey everything I have commanded you. And surely I am with you always, to the very end of the age.”

- Matthew 28:18-20

Additional Notes

62 Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 DAY 3 SESSIONS

1:00 PM Day 3 Breakout Session

Breakout Leader(s):

Topic:

Breakout Session Notes

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 63 Additional Resources

64 Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 God’s Historic Heartbeat How God, throughout history, has always accomplished His purpose among Muslims

"This gospel of INTRODUCTION the kingdom must History reflects God’s purpose in spreading the Gospel first be preached as a testimony to all God’s design for Israel—a lighthouse for the nations—a blessing for the nations nations, and then the end will come."

Matthew 24:14 Discussion

• Discuss God’s heart for the nations as revealed in Matthew 24:14. • Discuss the statement “God will either have a holy people or He will not have a people at all” in relation to fulfilling the Great Commission.

Five Eras of Missions in Modern History

Romans AD 1 – 400 Barbarians AD 400 – 800 Vikings AD 800 – 1200 Saracens AD 1200 – 1600 Ends of the Earth AD 1600 – Present

ERA 1: ROMANS (AD 1 TO 400)

33 Crucifixion and Resurrection of our Lord Jesus Christ Pentecost signifies Christianity is not a Jewish sect Arabic spoken by the disciples – God’s heart for the Muslims (Acts 2:11) 40 Disciples spread the Gospel out of Jerusalem “Thou hast made us for Paul contrasts Mosaic Law to the Law of Christ thyself, O Lord, and our Jerusalem (Acts 2:5-9); Samaria (Acts 8:5-6/9:31); Phoenicia (Acts hearts are restless 11:19/15:3) until they find their Syria (Acts 15:23); Asia (Acts 16:6-9/19:10); Philippi (Acts 16:12); Athens rest in Thee.” (Acts 17:10); Rome (Acts 18:2-4); Illirycum (Romans 15:19); Spain (Rom.15:24) Augustine of Hippo Jerusalem, Samaria, Ethiopia (Acts 8:27); Egypt (Acts 18:24); Libya (Matthew 27:32/Mark 15:21/Acts 11:20); Black Africa (Acts 13:1) Jerusalem, Arabia (Galatians 1:17), India 70 Fall of Jerusalem c. 200 Monasticism begins in Egypt 280 Gregory converts the king of Armenia 305 Anthony of Egypt organizes a colony of hermits

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 65 312 Constantine becomes a Christian The Council of Nicea 324 Constantine sole ruler and emperor (+ tolerance – state religion) didn’t determine what 325 Council of Nicea was the Word of God. 348 Ulfilas (Wulfila) began his Gothic translation of the Bible It determined what wasn’t. 395 Augustine Bishop of Hippo – (Algeria) 398 Chrysostom Bishop of Constantinople 405 Armenia declared Christian due to the efforts of Mesrop

Questions for Reflection What have you learned from the “Romans” Era of Missions that you could apply today in reaching out to Muslims?

ERA 2: BARBARIANS (AD 400 – 800)

410 The Goths sack Rome 430 Death of Augustine of Hippo – Berber conversion 455 The Vandals take Rome after repeated raids by the Huns and the Visigoths 460 Death of Patrick the Apostle to Ireland 563 Columba leaves Ireland to Iona Barbarians reached by the Celts and the Benedictine monks. Phoenician sea routes Celtic Monasteries vs. Roman Catholic Monasteries Methodist Expansion vs. Presbyterian 590 Charlemagne copies the Bible Missionaries to the Germans and the Anglo-Saxons 610 Muhammad claims prophethood in Arabia 622 Escapes (emigrates) to Yathrib (Medina) 632 Death of Muhammad 638 Arab conquest of Jerusalem 640 Muslims conquer Iraq, Syria, and Egypt 655 The Qur’an collected by Caliph Uthman ben ‘Afan The Berbers: Not 711 Muslim conquest of Spain permitted to worship 732 Charles Martel defeats Muslims in the Battle of Tours in their own language. (Historical events in the Muslim world in Bold)

Questions for Reflection What have you learned from the “Barbarians” Era of Missions that you could apply today in reaching out to Muslims?

66 Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 ERA 3: VIKINGS (AD 800 – 1200)

793 Northmen begin invading southern settlements 800 Vikings invade the Holy Roman Empire (catholic) Barbarian Christians face the Vikings 863 Cyril and Methodius Apostles to the Slavs John of Damascus 988 Conversion of Russia – Vladimir baptized 749 AD 996 Persecution of Christians in Egypt under Caliph Al-Hakim 1037 Unification of Castile and Leon 1054 Leo IX – declares the Petrine Doctrine – the Great Schism 1093 Anselm archbishop of Canterbury 1098 Anselm’s Theology of the Atonement 1099 Crusaders take Jerusalem – the First Crusade 1187 Defeated by Saladin (a Kurd) JOHN OF DAMASCUS was the first minister to Muslims that required Christians to read the Qur’an and be familiar with its teaching Questions for Reflection before conversing with Muslims. Employed by What have you learned from the “Vikings” Era of Missions that you could the Muslim Caliph apply today in reaching out to Muslims? Yazid, ben Mu’awiya. John of Damascus often based his writings on conversations with his ERA 4: SARACENS (AD 1200 – 1600) Muslim friends.

St. Francis of Assisi—witnesses to the Egyptian Emir 1212 The Children’s Crusade 1295 Mongol dynasty converts to Islam 1315 Raymond Lull—establishes missions to Muslims, dies in Algeria 1348 The Black Death 1375 John Wycliffe – establishes the Lollards – excommunicated twice 1418 Thomas a Kempis writes the Imitation of Christ 1453 Constantinople falls into the hands of the Turks 1492 Muslims expelled from Spain / Columbus sails west “There will be 1498 Savonarola burned in Florence absolution and 1517 Luther posts the 95 theses at Wittenberg remission of sins for 1522 Ignatius of Loyola begins the Society of Jesus Christ—Army for the all who die in the Pope service of Christ.” 1536 John Calvin writes the Institutes Pope Urban II, 1545 Council of Trent preaching the First 1560 John Knox reformation in Scotland Crusade 1570 The Geneva Bible

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 67 Questions for Reflection What have you learned from the “Saracens” Era of Missions that you could apply today in reaching out to Muslims?

ERA 5: ENDS OF THE EARTH (AD 1600 – PRESENT)

1600s 1611 King James Bible published 1620 The Mayflower sails to America 1684 John Bunyan writes The Pilgrim’s Progress

“I feel now, that 1700s 1722 Count Zinzendorf founds the Pietist Herrnhut colony Arabia could easily 1738 Conversion of John Wesley – the Methodist Revival be evangelized within 1740 George Whitefield in America the next thirty years 1776 United States of America Declaration of Independence if it were not for the 1800s 1805 Henry Martin arrives in India wicked selfishness of Christians.” 1850 Hudson Taylor sails to China 1860 The American Civil War Samuel Zwemer, missionary Christian Revival among the Druze of Lebanon to Arabian Gulf Muslims 1869 First Vatican declares the Pope infallible 1884 Arrival of missionaries to Korea 1900 - 1905 The Keswick Revival 1950 1914 Word War I 1923 Abolition of Caliphate by Ataturk 1939 World War II 1945 Student Volunteer Movement –European Colonization 1948 The Los Angeles Revival – The Liberation War 1950 - 1967 The Six Day War 1999 1973 Yom Kippur War 1974 The Oil Embargo 1979 Ayatollah Khomeini returns to Iran 1982 The safety of Galilee war – Invasion of Lebanon 1990 The Gulf War Establishment of the One World Government 1999 First Training Cycle of the Sahara Challenge 2000s 2000 More Missionaries to Muslim countries 2001 9/11 Attacks Awaken the Church (?) 2002 Afghanistan freed from Taliban 2003 Saddam Regime dismantled 2004 Women vote in a free election in Afghanistan for first time

68 Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 “The challenge of the unoccupied fields of the world is one to great faith and, therefore, to great sacrifice. Our willingness to sacrifice for an enterprise is always in proportion to our faith in that enterprise. Faith has the genius of transforming the barely possible into actuality….The unoccupied fields of the world must have their Calvary before they can have their Pentecost.”

Samuel Zwemer 1902 AD

CONCLUSION

• Many ask, “Why these cycles?” >> We are not sharing the blessing. • God is good and He is good all the time. >> Romans 8:28 • This is a reflection of the spiritual warfare in which we are engaged. • God allows change to make people receptive.

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 69 Islam Rising and Falling Islam’s foundation, rapid growth, and influence on the world today

INTRODUCTION Islam as a major religion has impacted whole civilizations through its military and political structure. To understand Muslims, we must have a clear understanding of Islam’s historical and cultural influence throughout history.

Discuss the following questions in groups of 3 or 5:

• In your perception, who is Muhammad, the prophet of Islam?

• How do Muslims view history in relation to their religion?

PRE-ISLAMIC ARABIA “The sting of death • Paganism in the Arabian Peninsula is sin, and the power of sin is the law; but • Ka’aba was a shrine for idol worship thanks be to God, who gives us the victory • Church divisions through our Lord Jesus Christ.” FAJR-UL-ISLAM: THE DAWN OF ISLAM 1 Corinthians15:56-57 570 The birth of Muhammad—an orphan 576 Muhammad’s mother Amina dies; Abu Talib cares for him 610 Muhammad claims prophethood in Arabia Khadijah confirms his call 622 Hijra (emigration) – Muhammad escapes from Mecca to Yathrib (Medina). Muslims date the beginning of the Muslim era to July 16, 622, the first day of the lunar month in which the Hijra commenced. Notice the date is not the prophet’s birthday or the revelation of the Qur’an, but the Hijra. 623 Muhammad raids caravans and leads military campaigns 628 Muhammad seeks to visit Mecca but is refused entrance. After some negotiations, it is agreed that he and his followers can enter Mecca unarmed the next year with the understanding that there will be no war for 10 years. He and 2,000 followers return the next year for pilgrimage. After his return to Medina, Muhammad raises an army of 10,000 Muslims. The leadership of the Quraysh tribe under Abu Sufyan realizes resistance is futile and surrenders to Islam and its prophet. Muhammad takes the city unopposed and grants a general amnesty.

70 Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 632 Death of Muhammad Ridda Wars and Abu Bakr as first Caliph Age of the Rashidun (rightly guided leaders) 634 Abu Bakr dies 638 Omar leads the Arab conquest of Jerusalem 640 The Muslim army conquers Iraq, Syria, and Egypt 655 The Qur’an collected by Caliph Uthman ben ‘Afan

Questions for Reflection

• How do Muslims today view the founding of their religion in light of the events listed above?

• As a Christian, what ways can you identify with the early Muslim community?

• Were Christians neglectful or racist in their lack of communicating the gospel to Muslims? In the last 1400 years, more Muslims have DHUR-UL-ISLAM: THE NOON OF ISLAM died at the hands of other Muslims than of 656 A civil war between Ali and Mu’awiya ensues, resulting in the division anyone else. of Islam: Shi’ites – followers of Ali Sunni – followers of tradition—Mu’awiya 661 The Umayyad Dynasty (Al-Umawiyoun) begins 711 The Muslim conquest of Spain 732 Charles Martel defeats Muslims in the Battle of Tours Advancement in astronomy, mathematics, optics and chemistry in Arab Spain Political and military advancement as Arabs conquer other cultures 794 - The Abbasid Dynasty (Al-‘Abbasiyoun) 1258 Arabic numerals of Indian origin are used in Baghdad. Greek philosophers and scientific books translated into Arabic by Greek speaking Christians under Arab Muslim rule. Al-Chwarazmi writes a book on equations and coins the term “Algebra.” Arabs borrow Indian numerals, including zero, to multiply by ten. Astrolabe is perfected by the Arabs. Arab physicians mention infectious diseases in medical books of this era. Advancements in astronomy and physics 1258 Mongols overrun Baghdad and destroy its library.

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 71 Questions for Reflection

• Discuss how Muslims must feel about their religion due to the scientific advances of the Muslim Empire during the Noon of Islam.

• What is a Muslim’s view of the Western claim to scientific advancement and technology? Are Christianity and technology synonymous?

‘ASRU-UL-ISLAM: THE AFTERNOON OF ISLAM

915 The Fatimid Dynasty in Egypt Many cults and Muslim sects began during this era (i.e. The Druze also known as Nusairis or Muwahidun). 996 Persecution of Christians in Egypt under Caliph Al-Hakim (founder of Druze) 1054 Leo IX – declares the “Petrine Doctrine” – the Great Schism 1099 Crusaders take Jerusalem – the First Crusade 1187 Crusaders defeated by Saladin (a Kurd) 1212 The Children’s Crusade 1288 Osman I begins The Ottoman Dynasty 1295 Mongol dynasty converts to Islam 1348 The Black Death 1453 Constantinople falls into the hands of the Turks 1492 Muslims expelled from Spain 1860 Christian Revival among the Druze of Lebanon 1914 World War I – Colonization of the Muslim World 1923 Abolition of Caliphate by Ataturk This era was characterized by social and political decline. The Ottoman Dynasty attempted to abolish Arabic as a language and literature. The Muslim world considered the Sultan of the Ottoman Dynasty as the Caliph (successor) of Muhammad. The Ottoman Dynasty was commonly known as the ‘sick man of Europe.’

Questions for Reflection

• What is a Muslim’s view of Christianity in light of the Crusades?

• Are Crusaders and Mongols looked upon as an inferior culture with an inferior religion?

• Discuss how the abolishment of the Caliphate affects Islam today

72 Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 GHOROUB-UL-ISLAM: THE SUNSET OF ISLAM

1939 World War II 1943 France controls many Muslim countries 1948 The Liberation War – The birth of the state of Israel 1967 The Six Day war 1973 Yom Kippur War 1974 The Oil Embargo 1975 The Lebanese war begins 1979 Camp David Peace agreement—Ayatollah Khomeini returns to Iran 1982 The safety of Galilee war – Invasion of Lebanon 1990 The Gulf War – establishment of the One World Government 2001 9/11—WTC and Pentagon and Pennsylvania – Islam’s attempt to control major Western countries in the political arena

• After 9/11, militant Muslims vs. moderates seeking reform

• The West was long blamed for the social ills of Muslim societies.

• Islam has been proven to offer no peace.

• In the last 1400 years, more Muslims have died by the hands of other Muslims than anyone else.

Questions for Reflection

• What is a Muslim’s view of modernity and Western culture?

• How would you attempt to modernize Islam and the Muslim community?

MASA’ UL-ISLAM: MODERN ISLAM / DARKNESS OF ISLAM

Will the Islam of Muhammad survive? Since September 11, 2001, Muslim leaders and imams have been forced to reevaluate Islam and the teachings of its leader. The Muslim world is going through a major dilemma.

On one hand, moderates are claiming Islam as a peaceful and tolerant religion. They cover over bloody historical events and embarrassing teachings by their prophet in order to present Islam in a modern light.

On the other hand, there are the fundamentalists or “purists,” as their Arabic name translates. They claim Islam must continue to be practiced exactly as the first Muslim community did in 7th century Arabia.

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 73 The resurgence of Islam today is primarily based on the following factors:

• Failure of the Church to invest in reaching Muslims who are thirsty for the Truth

• The reaction of Muslim immigrants to the decadence of the West

• The political use of religion for personal gain

• The last resort for Muslims before abandoning their oppressive religion

CONCLUSION

• How are Muslims dealing with modernity and globalization?

• What can Jesus offer Muslims in this traumatic period of their history?

• How can we minister to Muslims in their respective cultural setting?

74 Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 The Christian Shahada How to share your testimony with the Muslim in mind

INTRODUCTION

• The Bible teaches that a person must testify that there is only one God, Creator of heaven and earth, and one Savior, Jesus Christ. • A Christian repents (toub) from sin and confesses or testifies (ish-had) that Jesus is his/her personal Savior. In the Injeel this is called being “born- again.” The Christian has begun a new life – a new walk with God through Jesus Christ. • A Christian, according to the Injeel, is expected to give his/her testimony to others everyday all the time.

SHARING YOUR TESTIMONY

1 Peter 3:14-15 But even if you should suffer for the sake of righteousness, you are blessed. And do not fear their intimidation, and do not be troubled, but sanctify Christ as Lord in your hearts, always being ready to make a defense to everyone who asks you to give an account for the hope that is in you, yet with gentleness and reverence.

Acts 1:8 But you will receive power when the Holy Spirit comes on you; and you will be my witnesses in Jerusalem, and in all Judea and Samaria and to the ends of the earth.

Essentials of a Testimony

My life before becoming a follower of Jesus Christ:

Why I believe that Jesus Christ is the only Savior:

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 75 How I decided to follow Jesus Christ:

My life after deciding to follow Jesus Christ:

Conclusion of your testimony:

76 Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 A guide to Prayer Walking Adapted from “Prayerwalking” by Steve Hawthorne and Graham Kendrick and “What Would Jesus Pray” by Waymake

BIBLICAL FOUNDATION “And all things you ask in prayer, believing, you shall receive.” (Matthew 21:22)

“I urge, then, first of all, that requests, prayers, intercession and thanksgiving be made for everyone… I want men everywhere to lift up holy hands in prayer, without anger or disputing.” (1 Timothy 2:1,8)

WHAT IS PRAYER WALKING?

Praying on-site with insight

• Responsive insight Our eyesight General observations

• Revealed insight Praying according to the Word of God Praying according to the promptings of the Holy Spirit Seeking to “see” what God might see Attentive to “hear” what God might say

• Researched insight Fuel: facts of the present condition of people Fire: anticipating the soon-to-come glory of God

Praying nearer to pray “dearer”

• Praying in the very places where you expect God to answer our prayers • Allowing sights, sounds, and smells to open our minds and hearts to the spiritual condition and needs of those we are praying for

Praying intentionally rather than reactively

• Focus on taking new ground rather than defending old ground • Intercessory rather than devotional prayers • Praying about the needs of others rather than our needs

WHAT HAPPENS WHEN WE PRAYER WALK?

• We conquer fear and apathy. • We become sensitized to the realities of the community.

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 77 • Our heart gets connected to the people. • The fragrance of God is brought into the community. • The imprint of God is left on the community. • We gain insight regarding ways to serve the community. • The kingdom of darkness is weakened throughout the community. • The kingdom of God advances within the community.

HOW TO PRAYER WALK

Before

• Confess and repent of personal sin • Praise, worship, read Scripture to clear mind and set tone • Pray for spiritual protection (Ephesians 6) • Research the community • Pray that God would reveal the things that are on His heart

During

• Form a team (2-3 people) • Walk and pray • Keep eyes “open” for insight • Pray at conversational volume so those on the team can hear and enter in agreement • Follow and build on a topic • Pray using God’s Word • Pray with relevance (what we see and hear) • Pray with faith (beyond what we see) • Don’t draw attention to yourself (be on the scene, without making one) • Don’t pray against the people or community (us against them attitude) • Don’t confront the powers of evil (to do so is to invite retaliation)

After

• Debrief as a group • Report significant prayers, observations, and insights • Consider points of obedience and action • Set plans for further preparation and prayer

78 Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 WHAT TO PRAY FOR

• For God’s “blessings” upon the community (Matthew 5: 3-10) • That God would reveal Himself to these people and lift the darkness and deception to which they are subject (1 Timothy 2:4-6) • That God would reveal His goodness to these people (Psalm 136) • That God would destroy the works of Satan in their lives (Romans 16:20) • That God would cause them to become dissatisfied with the ways they are seeking satisfaction and purpose in life (John 10:10) • That God would reveal to them their true spiritual condition and need (Colossians 1:13) • That God would draw them irresistibly to Himself (Luke 15) • That God would convict them of their sin, His righteous standard, and the judgment to come (Romans 6:23) • That God would reveal who Jesus is and that only He can deliver from sin and its consequences (John 14:6) • That God’s kingdom would come to this people and community as it is in Heaven, and that His will would be done (Matthew 6:9-13)

DEBRIEFING YOUR PRAYER WALK

• How did your vision change? • Do you see the area differently? How? • What was new or surprising? • What did you perceive about God’s will regarding the community? • Recount a significant experience during your prayerwalk. • How did your praying change? • What happened to your focus in view of the surrounding people and issues? • How did God’s Word impact your prayers? • Share a prayer that seemed particularly significant, and why you think so. • How will this prayer time affect further prayer times? • Who did you meet? • Were there any encounters with people? What did it lead to? • Who did you sense needs further prayer or other assistance? • What did you hear or learn? • Did you sense God teaching or speaking to you about anything? • What new insights have you gained that will help you or others in further prayer?

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 79 A visit to the mosque

PURPOSE OF VISIT:

• To pray for a blessing and the salvation of Muslims • To learn about the concept of worship in Islam

DEFINITION AND PURPOSE OF THE MOSQUE:

• The Arabic name is masjid, literally, “a place to prostrate.” • A center of Islamic prayer and meditation • May serve as a center of other activities such as courts, markets, and schools

FEATURES (In USA many mosques are simple rooms of prayer):

• Imam – He leads prayers and is a leading elder. There is no institutionalized clergy. • Mihrab – Recess in wall indicating Qiblah. • Qiblah – Direction of Kaabah (Mecca - Saudi Arabia). • Minbar – An elevated pulpit reached by stairs or simply the place of preaching. • A microphone is now used in the United States. • Flooring – Mats aligned in rows facing Mihrab. • Place of ablutions. • Place for shoes when removed. • Separate room or section for women.

DO'S AND DON'TS

• Do pray silently from the moment you enter the mosque for God to reveal His word to them. • Do dress modestly. For women long skirts, arms covered to wrist and hair covered entirely by a scarf. For men pants or slacks, shirt or T-shirt. • Do take off shoes and put them in the rack. • Men – do sit at rear of the room as you observe prayer. • Women – do go to the women's section during prayer. • Do be a learner – Ask good questions – Be interested -- be a listener. • Don’t engage in prolonged conversation about Christianity in the mosque.

80 Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 Arabic phrases to use

GREETINGS:

Assalamu Alikum - Peace be upon you

Wa ‘alikum Assalam - and to you peace also

Sabah el Kheir - Good Morning

Masa’ el Kheir - Good Evening

Marhaba -- Hello

Salaam – Peace (May be used as a greeting)

CONVERSATIONAL:

Kaif Al Hal – How are you?

Ana Issmee ______- My name is ______

Shukran – Thank you

SHARING:

Hadha Al-Injeel – This is the Injeel (New Testament).

Hadha Ha deeya – This is a gift.

Issa Al- Massih or Yasu’ Al Massih – Jesus the Christ

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 81 Your Evening with the Lord

An important part of the Sahara Challenge is time spent seeking the Lord’s will and direction for your life as you prepare to reach out to Muslims.

It is a time to develop a closer walk with the Lord, to reflect on what He has been doing in your life, and to gain a vision for how God will use this training to prepare you for your next steps in ministry to Muslims.

Below are some ideas for using your time, as well as a page designed to help you record what happened.

• Find a quiet, private place. • Open your time in worship. Read the Psalms and pray them back to the Lord. • Spend some time in the Word, studying a concept or digging deeper in an area of which God has been reminding you. A notebook or journal will be helpful to record what you’ve learned. • Carve out an extended time to pray and seek God’s will for your life. What is God showing you? What specific steps do you sense Him giving you? • Using the summary page, record what God has taught you during this time. • Prepare to share any breakthroughs or other impressions with your small group.

AFTER MY EVENING WITH THE LORD…

Name: Date:

My schedule was the following…

82 Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 The Lord showed me the following things…

My personal dream is…

The next step I believe God is asking me to take is…

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 83 What does the Bible say about Jesus?

Offered as our substitute Genesis 22:13 David prophesied about 2 Samuel 23:3 As a suffering servant Isaiah 53:1-12 Matthew written to show Jesus as Messiah Matt. 1:1; Matt. 12:17-21; Matt. 21:2-5 when he entered history Matthew 1:1 significance of his genealogies Matthew 1:1; Matthew 1:1-17 why he came when he did Mark 1:2 He is a light to mankind John 1:4-5; John 1:8 Importance of his humanity John 1:14; Hebrews 2:14-15 Why his virgin birth important to Christian faith Matthew 1:18; Luke 1:34 without sin Luke 1:35 is both God and human Matthew 1:20-23 why he came to be our Savior Matthew 1:21 his coming fulfilled God’s promise to David Luke 1:32-33 as God with us Matthew 1:23 don’t underestimate him Luke 2:7 why Herod was disturbed about his birth Matthew 2:3 Herod’s wrong expectations of him Matthew 2:4; Matthew 2:16 his age when Magi found him Matthew 2:11 significance of Magi’s gifts to him Matthew 2:11 may cause your life to take a new direction Matthew 2:12 why he wasn’t to return to Bethlehem Matthew 2:19-22 had unexpected and humble beginnings Matthew 2:23 impressed religious leaders as a boy Luke 2:46-47 relationship to his parents Luke 2:49-50 the 18 silent years Luke 2:52 lived a normal childhood Luke 2:52 his ministry compared to John the Baptist’s Mark 1:7-8 can’t be neutral about Luke 2:34-35; John 6:67 how we can prepare people to meet him Matthew 3:3 why he wanted to be baptized Mark 1:9; Luke 3:21-22 his boyhood home in Nazareth Mark 1:9 in the Trinity Mark 1:10-11 how Satan tried to stop his mission Matthew 4:1 limited divine power to experience humanity Matthew 4:3-4 moved to Capernaum Matthew 4:12-13 words he used to start his ministry Matthew 4:17 called Peter and Andrew Matthew 4:18-20 three key aspects of his ministry Matthew 4:23 what his Good News was Matthew 4:23-24; Romans 1:3-5 his authority Mark 1:22 the claims of Jesus John 5:31

84 Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 examine his claims for yourself John 3:1 he alone can offer salvation John 6:67-68; Acts 4:12 summary of his Sermon on the Mount Matthew 5:1 what to expect when you follow him Matthew 5:1-2 his teachings often contradict those of the world Matthew 5:3-5 did not contradict Old Testament law Matthew 5:17; Matthew 5:17-20 his message is for everyone Matthew 8:11-12 how his message was “new” Matthew 9:17 calls people from all walks of life Matthew 10:2-4 authority over Satan and demons Mark 1:23 why he didn’t want demons to reveal who he was Luke 4:41 Matt.12:14; Matt. 21:23-27; exposed evil attitudes and motives of Pharisees Matthew 22:15-17; Matthew 23:5-7 he touched the untouchable Luke 5:13 why religious leaders turned against him Mark 3:2 he knows us completely Matthew 12:25 why his hometown rejected him Luke 4:24 when we take our eyes off him Matthew 14:28 what is your real motive for seeking him? Matthew 14:35-36; Mark 3:7-8 why many of his followers deserted him John 6:66 his brothers had a hard time believing John 7:3-5 how people reacted to him John 7:26 Matt. 16:13-17; Luke 9:18-20; John who do you say he is? 3:31-35; 1 John 5:21 knowing who he is is not enough for salvation Mark 3:11 what it takes to follow him Mark 3:14; Luke 9:23-26 his family Mark 3:31-35 don’t underestimate him Mark 4:41 his goals contrasted with Satan’s Mark 5:10 how people try to explain him away Mark 6:14-15; Luke 9:7-8 why he called himself the bread of life John 6:35; John 6:47 how we are united with Christ John 6:51 his power not limited by distance Mark 7:29 why many would be ashamed of him Luke 9:26 God clearly identified him Luke 9:35 Matthew 16:21; Matthew 17:22-23; predicted his death Matthew 20:17-19 his transfiguration Matthew 17:1; Mark 9:3 as the Son of God Matthew 17:5 understanding him is understanding God John 12:45; Hebrews 1:2-3 taking him for granted Luke 10:23-24 plenty of evidence to believe in him Luke 11:31-32 preparing a kingdom for his followers Luke 12:35-40 his coming results in conflict Luke 12:51-53 benefits of following him 18:26-30 whom he spent time with Mark 10:13-16

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 85 under the Father’s authority Matthew 20:23 significance of triumphal entry Matthew 21:2-5 as the cornerstone of the church Matthew 21:42 answers trick tax question Matthew 22:15-17 puts prophecy in perspective Mark 13:3 difference between his first and second comings John 12:48 his second coming will be unmistakable Matthew 24:24-28 why he talked about his second coming Matthew 24:44 how Satan misunderstood his death Luke 22:3; John 13:27 Our actions toward others demonstrate what we Matthew 25:31-46 think about him. as the Lamb of God Luke 22:14-18 as the new covenant Luke 22:20 religious leaders plot to kill him Mark 14:1 why Judas wanted to betray him Mark 14:10 Mark 14:24; John 19:30; significance of his final sacrifice Hebrews 7:11-17 as the complete revelation of God John 14:9; Hebrews 1:1-2 present with us in the form of the Holy Spirit Matthew 28:20;John 14:15-16 as the vine John 15:1 what “remaining in Christ” means John 15:5-6 why he had to die and rise again John 16:7 returned to God’s right hand John 17:5 prayer in the garden Mark 14:35-36 struggled over impending death Matthew 26:37-38 Matthew 26:57; Matthew 26:59; tried before Sanhedrin Matthew 26:60-61 why religious leaders hurried to try him John 18:12-13 false accusations against him John 19:7 religious leaders didn’t believe he was God Matthew 26:65-66 how we deny Jesus Mark 14:71; Luke 12:8-9 why he was sent to Pilate Mark 15:1 Pilate knew he was innocent. Matthew 27:2 why he didn’t answer Pilate’s questions Mark 15:5 Who was really guilty of Jesus’ death? Mark 15:15 separated from God at crucifixion Matthew 27:46 his death brings us into God’s presence Matthew 27:51; Luke 23:45 miraculous events surrounding his death Matthew 27:52-53 we played role in his death Luke 23:34 nothing could keep him from rising Matthew 27:66 Matthew 28:6; Mark 16:6; Mark significance of his resurrection 16:15; Luke 24:6-7 Do you believe he has risen? Luke 24:24 last words to his disciples Matthew 28:18-20 central theme of the Bible Luke 24:27 his resurrection body Luke 24:36-43

86 Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 significance of his ascension Mark 16:19; Luke 24:50-53 as a perfect example for us Luke 24:53 make him King of your life Matthew 28:20 caused friction among Jews Acts 2:46 Peter preached that he was alive again. Acts 3:15 mediator between God and man Romans 1:8; Hebrews 7:25 He should be the emphasis of preaching. 1 Cor. 1:12 how to have the mind of Christ 1 Cor. 2:15-16 the difference knowing him can make 2 Cor. 6:8-10 incarnation of 2 Cor. 8:9; Phil. 2:5-7 what it means to be crucified with him Galatians 2:20 key characteristics of Phil. 2:5-11 To be like him you must think like him. Phil. 2:13 five benefits of his death for us Col. 1:12-14 What will happen when he returns? 1 Thes. 4:15-18 God has put him in charge of all. Hebrews 2:8-9 how he functions as our high priest Hebrews 2:16-17; Hebrews 7:25 his relationship with believers Hebrews 3:1-6 knowing about him versus knowing him Hebrews 4:2 as he appeared in John’s vision Rev. 1:13-14 how he is both a Lion and a Lamb Rev. 5:5-6 the main theme of Revelation Rev. 19:10 will return as a warrior Rev. 19:11-21 Jesus begins His ministry. Matthew 3:13-4:25, Mark 1:2-2:17 Jesus’ temptation and return to Galilee Luke 4:1-44 Jesus’ first travels John 1:35-2:25 Jesus’ travels through Samaria John 3:1-4:42 Jesus arrives in Galilee and moves to Capernaum. John 4:43-54 Jesus teaches in Jerusalem. John 5:1-47 miraculous displays around Sea of Galilee Matthew 5:1-8:34 Jesus raises a widow’s son. Luke 7:11-17 healing a demon-possessed man. Mark 4:35-5:20, Luke 8:22-39 travels to Nazareth where he is rejected Matthew 13:53-58 preaching in Galilee Mark 6:1-44 Matt. 14:13-36, Mark 6:45-56, Jesus walks on the sea of Galilee. John 6:1-59 His ministry in Phoenicia Matthew 15:1-39, Mark 7:24-30 Journey to Caesarea Philippi Matthew 16:1-20 ministry beyond the Jordan. John 7:1-10:42 Jesus raises Lazarus. John 11:1-44 Jesus’ last trip toward Jerusalem Matthew 19:1-20:34 Jesus nears Jerusalem. Mark 10:1-52 Jesus’ triumphal entry into Jerusalem Matthew 21:1-17 last week in Jerusalem. Luke 19:28-44 Jesus clears the temple. Mark 11:12-19 visit in Bethany Matthew 26:6-13

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 87 from the upper room to Gethsemane Mark 14:12-41 Jesus’ trial Matthew 26:47-27:26, Mark 14:53-15:15 Matthew 27:27-44, Mark 15:16-47, the way of the Cross Luke 23:26-49 on the road to Emmaus Luke 24:1-53

Saul meets Jesus on the road to Damascus Acts 9:1-19

88 Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 The parables of JESUS

I. TEACHING PARABLES

A. About the Kingdom of God 1. The Soils (Matt. 13:3-8; Mark 4:4-8; Luke 8:5-8)

2. The Weeds (Matt. 13:24-30)

3. The Mustard Seed (Matt. 13:31-32; Mark 4:30-32; Luke 13:18-19)

4. The Yeast (Matt. 13:33; Luke 13:20-21)

5. The Treasure (Matt. 13:44)

6. The Pearl (Matt. 13:45-46)

7. The Fishing Net (Matt. 13:47-50)

8. The Growing Wheat (Mark 4:26-29)

B. About Service and Obedience 1. The Workers in the Harvest (Matt. 20:1-16)

2. The Loaned Money (Matt. 25:14-30)

3. The Nobleman’s Servants (Luke 19:11-27)

4. The Servant’s Role (Luke 17:7-10)

C. About Prayer 1. The Friend at Midnight (Luke 11:5-8)

2. The Unjust Judge (Luke 18:1-8)

D. About Neighbors 1. The Good Samaritan (Luke 10:30-37)

E. About Humility 1. The Wedding Feast (Luke 14:7-11)

2. The Proud Pharisee and the Corrupt Tax Collector (Luke 18:9-14)

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 89 F. About Wealth 1. The Rich Fool (Luke 12:16-21)

2. The Great Feast (Luke 14:16-24)

3. The Shrewd Manager (Luke 16:1-9)

II. GOSPEL PARABLES

A. About God’s Love 1. The Lost Sheep (Matt. 18:12-14; Luke 15:3-7)

2. The Lost Coin (Luke 15:8-10)

3. The Lost Son (Luke 15:11-32)

B. About Thankfulness 1. The Forgiven Debts (Luke 7:41-43)

III. PARABLES OF JUDGMENT AND THE FUTURE

A. About Christ’s Return 1. The Ten Virgins (Matt. 25:1-13)

2. The Wise and Faithful Servants (Matt. 24:45-51; Luke 12:42-48)

3. The Traveling Owner of the House (Mark 13:34-37)

B. About God’s Values 1. The Two Sons (Matt. 21:28-32)

2. The Wicked Tenants (Mat 21:33-34; Mark 12:1-9; Luke 20:9-16)

3. The Unproductive Fig Tree (Luke 13:6-9)

4. The Marriage Feast (Matt. 22:1-14)

5. The Unforgiving Servant (Matt. 18:23-35)

90 Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 Jesus in the Bible and the Qur’an

Titles Qur'an Bible Word of God. His (God’s) Word 3:34, 39, 40, 45; John 1:1, 14 (Kalimah) 4:169, 171 A Word of Truth (Qawl Al-haqq) 19:34, 35 John 4:6; Ephesians 1:13 The Truth from your Lord (Al-haqq) 3:53, 60 John 8:32-36, 14:6 A Spirit of God (Ruh) 4:169, 171; 17; 21:91 Matthew 12:28; Luke 1:35 The Messiah (Al-Masih) 3:40, 45; 4:156, 157 Matthew 16:16; John 1:41 2:81, 87; 254, 253; Apostle [Messenger] (Rasul) Mark 1:2 3:43, 49 2:130, 136; 4:161, Prophet (Nabiyy) Matthew 21:11; Luke 4:24 163 Servant of God 4:170, 172; 19:31 Matthew 12:18; John 4:34 Son of Mary (Ibn Maryam) 40, 45; 4:157; 171 Luke 2:48 Witness on Resurrection Day 4:45, 41, 157, 159; Matthew 24 (Shahid) 5:117 Witness of [over] the people 3:120, 117 John 5:30 Mercy from Us [God] (Ramah) 19:21 Matthew 9:27-30 Bearer of Wisdom (Hikmah) 43:63 Luke 2:40,52 Matthew 24:36-44; John Knowledge of the Hour (‘Ilm) 43:61 4:25 3:44, 50; 19:21; Sign to all beings (Ayah) Matthew 2:2-29 21:91 An Example [Pattern] (Mathal) 43:57, 59 John 13:1-11 The Miracle Worker 3:49 Mark 1:34; 5:41, 42; 6:33 Revelation to Mankind (Ayah) 19:21 Luke 2:10, 30-32 The one to be followed 43:61 John 1:37; John 10:27 Matthew 17:5; 8:27; Mark The one to be obeyed 3:44, 50 1:3 Giver [Bringer] of Good Tidings 61:6 Luke 4:18; Acts 10:38 Matthew 27:19; 2 Timothy One of the Righteous (min Salihin) 3:40,46 4 The Knowledgeable in Scriptures 3:43, 48; 5:109- 110 Matthew 12:25; John 4:25 The Like of Adam (Mathal al 3:52, 59 1 Corinthians 15:45-47 Adama) The Faultless [Holy, Most Pure] 19:19 Luke 23:4, 14, 41; Acts 2:14 Son (Zakiyy) One of the Closest to God (Min al 3:40, 41; 7:111, 114 John 14:9, 10; Hebrews 2:9 Muquarrabin) High-honored [Eminent] in this 3:40, 45 Philippians 2:9, 10 world and Hereafter (Wajih) The Blessed One (Mubarak) 19:32, 31 Matthew 21:9; Luke 1:42 The Favored One 43:59 John 1:18; Mark 1:11

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 91 The One Confirmed [Strengthened] with the Holy 2:81, 87, 254, 253 Mark 1:11; Luke 4:14 Spirit (Ruh-Al-Qudsi) The Noble; Lordly (Sayyid) 3:39 Matthew 21:8-10 2 Corinthians 5:21; 1 The Chaste (Hasuwur) 3:39 Peter 2:21 Man of Peace (Salam) 19:34, 33 Isaiah 9:6; Daniel 19:25 1 Corinthians 13:10; A Perfect Man (Sawiy) 19:17 Hebrews 2:10 Spirit of God 4:171 Luke 1:35 1 John 3:3; Hebrews Pure and Sinless 19:19 7:26 Matthew 24-26; Mark Christ will be born, die and 3:55; 4:158; 19:15 15-16; Luke 22-24; John raised from the dead 18-21

92 Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 Jihad: An Islamic Perspective

Jihad: The Highest Peak of Islam Uploaded to khaliafah.com 10 Dec 2001

The Prophet (Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam) stated in one hadith, “The head of its matter is Islam and its pillar is the Salah and its highest peak is the Jihad.”

The discussion concerning Jihad is taking place throughout the Ummah and indeed many misunderstandings and distortions, some deliberate, have come forth. Some of these have been propagated by the likes of the government scholars both in the West and in the Muslim World, such as Jihad an-Nafs, Jihad against oneself and Jihad as a defensive war only.

We must realize that Jihad is a pillar of Islam and was described as its peak by Sayyidina Muhammad (Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam). It is the thing, which Allah (Subhanahu Wa ta’ala) in the Qur’an states that gives the Ummah life; indeed Umar ibn al Khattab (ra) stated, “There is no izza (honour) without Jihad”. Hence any misunderstanding of this vital concept would have huge ramifications. Hence, it is necessary to have a clear understanding of Jihad and make clear these corruptions, which have been propagated by the Kuffar, their agent rulers and their “scholars”.

Jihad an-Nafs Some have attempted to justify their stance on this concept with what is apparently intended as a daleel (Islamic evidence), and so have used a narration to justify this concept of Jihad an-Nafs or dealing with all the political and military problems we face by becoming introspective or looking inwardly as opposed to looking at the Ahkam Shari’ah and seeing what Allah (Subhanahu Wa ta’ala) has demanded from us.

So they use what they claim is a hadith, or saying of Muhammad (Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam), “We have returned from the lesser Jihad to the greater Jihad, that is the struggle against the evil of oneself.” This is in fact a fabrication and is known as Mawdu’ (spurious). Hafidh al Iraqi and Ibn Hajar al Asqalani, who were hadith masters and muhaditheen, who memorised one hundred thousand hadith by Isnad and were qualified to scrutinise hadith and their authenticity, stated that this was not a saying of the Messenger of Allah (Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam) but was in fact a statement that was made by someone in the later generation named Ibrahim ibn Abi Yabla. Hence, this is not considered an evidence in the Islamic Shari’ah.

To elaborate further, it is in contradiction with the subject matter of Jihad that has been elaborated in over a hundred ayat of the Qur’an that have come with the meaning of Jihad being Qitaal, which means to slay or to kill or to fight. This was how the Prophet (Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam) and the Sahabah (ra) understood it. To give an example from the Seerah that was narrated by Ibn Majah with a source in Bukhari, woman came to the Prophet (Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam) and asked “O Messenger of Allah! Is Jihad obliged upon the women?” To which he responded,

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 93 “Yes, a Jihad without Qitaal (fighting), it is the Hajj and the Umrah!”

This clearly demonstrates that Jihad is Qitaal i.e. Jihad is undertaking the physical fighting and this is how it was understood by the woman and the Prophet (Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam), as explained in the Prophet’s (Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam) answer i.e. Jihad in Islam means fighting. The Messenger of Allah (Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam) did not respond by saying that there was the greater Jihad for everyone i.e. Jihad against oneself! Rather he informed her that Allah had prescribed the Hajj and the Umrah for her and that she would get the reward of the Mujahid for undertaking this action, as explained by Imam Sanani in his explanation in the book Sub us Salam.

A definition of the subject of Jihad can be extracted from the Islamic evidences rather than a mere linguistic understanding - so for example the term “Salah’ in the Arabic language means seeking maghfirah (forgiveness) or blessing or Du’a (supplication); however we know that in the Islamic Shari’ah it is referent to the five obligatory prayers. Similarly the term “Zakah” means, literally, purification but in the Islamic Shari’ah, Zakah is referent to a specific amount of charity that is taken from specific types of wealth and distributed to particular categories of people. So when we scrutinise the Islamic daleel we can extract a clear definition or definitions. When the Prophet (Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam) was asked who is in the way of Allah i.e. who is a Mujahid, he explained, “Whosoever fights to make Allah’s word the highest, then he is in the way of Allah.” [Bukhari and Muslim].

Similarly looking at the Ayat of Qur’an we can see that Jihad is undertaken to convey Islam, and to remove the barriers from implementing and propagating Islam, this can be seen from the rules to do with Jihad as well. So we can define Jihad as struggling to remove the material barriers to conveying the Islamic Da’wa, whether it is by the physical means, or by wealth or expressing an opinion concerning the same.

Myth: Jihad is only defensive Another distortion that is promoted is the idea that Jihad is only defensive. The protagonists of this idea again utilise certain misinterpretations to justify their positions.

"Fight in the cause of Allah those who fight you, but do not transgress the limits. For Allah loves not the transgressors” [TMQ Al-Baqarah: 190].

“And if they incline to peace, you incline to it also, and trust in Allah. Verily! He is the hearer, the knower” [TMQ Al-A’raf: 61].

These two verses however, cannot abrogate the 119 other verses of Qur’an that suggest that Jihad is not merely limited to defensive war alone. These 119 verses, which are general and absolute, indicate that Jihad encompasses all of the following types of war:

1. Defensive war

2. Offensive war

3. Limited war

4. Unlimited war

94 Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 5. Protective war

Before we go into the details of the subject let us first clarify what we mean by the terms “general” (aam) and “absolute” (mutlaq). When a verse is described as “general” it means that it covers everything related to the subject. “Absolute” means that the verse is not limited in a particular aspect of the subject in question. If a verse is general, another verse (or evidence from Sunnah) is required to make it specific (khass) otherwise it must remain as general. Similarly if the verse is absolute another evidence is required to “limit” (muqayad) it, otherwise it to remains absolute.

The verses concerning Jihad were revealed as general and absolute without limitation. Accordingly an evidence from Shari’ah is required to limit these verses concerning Jihad. However there are no evidences from Qur’an or Sunnah that place limitations on Jihad. Thus, Jihad encompasses all of the aforementioned types of war.

There are many verses concerning Jihad that could be drawn upon to illustrate this understanding. It is sufficient to focus on Surah At-Taubah (Repentance), which is one of the last Surahs to be revealed. Thus no one can claim that the verses are abrogated, limited or specified by later revelations.

"Fight against such of those who have been given the scripture as believe not in Allah nor the last day, and forbid not that which Allah hath-forbidden by his messenger, and follow not the Deen of truth, until they pay the Jizya readily, being brought low” [TMQ At-Taubah: 29].

"Verily! The number of the months with Allah is twelve months by Allah's ordinance in the day that he created the heavens and the earth, four of them are sacred: that is the right Deen, so wrong not yourselves in them. And wage war on all the idolaters as they are waging war on all of you, and know that Allah is with those who keep their duty (unto him)” [TMQ At- Taubah: 36].

"O Prophet! Strive against the disbelievers and the hypocrites! Be harsh with them, their ultimate abode is hell, a hapless journey's end” [TMQ At-Taubah: 73].

"Verily! Allah hath bought from the believers their lives and their wealth because the garden will be theirs: they shall fight in the way of Allah and shall slay and be slain. It is a promise which is binding on him in the Torah and the Gospel and the Qur’an. Whoever fulfils his covenant better than Allah? Rejoice then in your bargain that you have made, for that is the supreme triumph" [TMQ At-Taubah: 111].

"O you who believe! Fight those of the disbelievers who are near to you, and let them find harshness in you and know that Allah is with those who keep their duty (unto him)" [TMQ At-Taubah: 123].

If we examine these verses we see that they include:

“Fight against those who…have been given the scriptures as believe in Allah and the last day…until they pay the jizya.”

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 95 “Fight all the idolaters as they fight you.”

“Fight against the disbelievers and the hypocrites and be harsh with them.”

“ …the garden, will be theirs, they shall fight in the way of Allah.”

“Fight those of the disbelievers…”

These verses command Muslims to fight, generally and absolutely. The verses impose no restrictions or conditions. Therefore this is clear evidence that “Jihad” may be offensive or defensive.

These verses of At-Taubah were revealed under certain circumstances. The following verses chronologically precede these verses of Surah At-Taubah. They provide an insight into the circumstances in which Surah At-Taubah was revealed.

“Let not the unbelievers think that they can outstrip (Allah's purpose). Verily! They cannot escape” [TMQ: At-Taubah: 2].

“Make ready for them all you can of (armed) force and of horses tethered, in order that you may dismay the enemy of Allah and your enemy, and others beside them whom you know not. Allah knows them. Whatsoever you spend in the way of Allah it will be repaid to you in full, and you will not be, wronged” [TMQ Al-Anfal: 60].

“And if they incline to peace, you also incline to it, and trust in Allah. Verily! He is the hearer, the knower” [TMQ Al-A’raf: 61].

The meaning of abrogation (naskh) is that the rule (hukm) of one revelation is completely canceled by another later revelation. When something is specified it is abrogation of a kind i.e. partial abrogation but it is only in the stated areas of the subject. The criteria for abrogation and specification is that the abrogating or specifying revelation must have been revealed at a later date. It should be noticed that the verses of Surah At-Taubah were the last to be revealed concerning Jihad.

A misunderstanding of abrogation and specification by some of the Muslims may have resulted in these people saying that Jihad is a purely defensive war. Others however are happier distorting Islam in order to please the rulers in the Muslim lands or the Western lands rather than please Allah (Subhanahu Wa ta’ala).

However a further point to be clarified is that the mere appearance of contradiction between two statements (either Qur’an or Sunnah) is not sufficient to claim abrogation. There must be a divine evidence to state that the abrogation is actually relating to the abrogated. There must be a clear context concerning the occurrence of the abrogation. There are a number of incidents where two, apparently contradicting revelations where implemented in total compatibility. Concerning the above verses from At-Taubah they should be understood without abrogation.

Two verses may refer to one subject, such as Jihad, but differ in their context and situation. Therefore one verse may be applicable to a particular situation, and a different verse, seemingly contradictory, is applicable in a totally different situation. Consequently there is no abrogation.

When we examine the verses of Jihad we see that they refer to the same subject but in different situations.

96 Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 Therefore, Jihad cannot be understood as being neither purely defensive nor purely offensive. The two verses quoted at the beginning relate to the situation of peace and the verses from At-Taubah relate to the situation of conflict. Conflict and peace are two different situations. To explain this, one must look to the accepted explanations of Qur’an and the opinion of our great scholars.

Az-Zamakhshari in his Tafseer of the Qur’an, Al-Kashaf, says:

“If they tend towards peace you must accept it, but this depends on what the Imam sees as a benefit for Islam and Muslims. It is not a must on the Imam to fight always, nor is it a must on him to accept peace always.”

Thus both are compatible, but used under different situations and conditions. Both As-Sadi and Ibn Zaid have stated:

“If they ask you for peace, accept it from them and there is no abrogation in it.”

Hence according to As-Sadi and Ibn Zaid it is incorrect to say that the “sword verses” abrogate the “peace verses”. Abu Bakr Ibn Arabi in his Tafseer of the Qur’an, Ahkam ul Qur’an comments; “The answer here differs…Allah says, ‘don't weaken, don't call for peace whilst you have the upper hand. If Muslims are mighty with strength, invincible, and numerous in groups let there be no peace’ [TMQ Muhammad: 35].”

Thus peace may be accepted but not if Muslims have the upper hand. In addition to the evidences of the Qur’an, Sunnah and Ijma-as Sahabah present clear evidences of the reality of Jihad.

Abdullah ibn Umar (ra) relates that the Prophet of Allah (Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam) said:

“I have been ordered to initiate the fighting of people, until they testify that there is no god save Allah, that Muhammad is Allah's Prophet, establish Salat and pay Zakat. If they do that they save their blood from me, except by the right of Islam, their account will be to Allah” [Bukhari and Muslim].

In another hadith related by Anas ibn Malik;

“Three are the origin of faith, to refrain from saying; 'they are disbelievers,' if they say there is no god save Allah, merely because of a sin or bad action. Secondly, that Jihad is continuous until the Day of Judgement, till the last one of my Ummah fights the 'Dajjal'. Thirdly to believe in the Qadr.”

If Jihad is only defensive war how can it continue until the Day of Judgement? If it was so Jihad would be periodic and would not be continuous. Moreover, this completely contradicts evidences from the life of the Prophet (Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam) and the example of Sahabah.

In the nine years that followed the Hijrah to Madinah (where permission was given to fight) the Prophet (Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam) personally led 28 military campaigns, and during the same period the Companions (ra) embarked on another 51 military campaigns.

If one looks in detail at these expeditions and battles one finds clear evidence that the Prophet (Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam) and the companions undertook both defensive and offensive action. The battles of Uhud and Ahzab are clear

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 97 examples of defensive battles - on the other hand, Tabuk and Mutah are clear examples of offensive wars. Indeed the Prophet (Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam) took part in thirteen expeditions and eleven major battles in which he took the initiative and launched offensive action. Likewise of the 51 Sariyah (campaigns), 39 were offensive. How can one say, therefore, that Jihad is only defensive?

Transgression "Fight in the way of Allah, those who fight you, but do not transgress limits; for Allah verily loves not transgressors” [TMQ Al-Baqarah: 190].

The above verse describes the way in which Jihad is being carried out. It refers to the limits that have to be observed when engaging the enemy. It by no means implies that Jihad is defensive. Islam has its own regulations of war - the limits Muslims are strictly commanded to adhere to, are not to kill women, children, old men, and priests who do not participate in war against Muslims. To attack such people would be to transgress the limits set by Allah (Subhanahu Wa ta’ala) because they are not "those who fight you". However, if they fight against Muslims on the battlefield then to fight them would not be transgression. Muslims are also commanded to treat war prisoners kindly not to torture them or mutilate dead bodies - all of these actions would amount to a transgression.

Transgression would also arise if a nation was attacked without first calling them to Islam. Muslims are ordained to call their enemies to Islam before fighting against them. If they refuse, Muslims should call them again to pay Jizya and submit to the laws of Allah (Subhanahu Wa ta’ala). If the enemy refuses again, Muslims should fight them in order that there be no persecution, and the Deen should be for Allah alone. This procedure should be observed, otherwise the limits have been transgressed and, “Allah verily loves not transgressors.”

The verse; "it is permitted for those to fight, that they have been wronged", does not tell us to fight because we have been wronged. It merely gives us the permission to fight. The question of the reason for fighting does not enter into it. If being “wronged” were the reason then Muslims would have been able to fight in Makkah. In Makkah, after great suffering the Companions approached the Messenger of Allah (Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam) asking him for permission to fight the enemy. The Messenger (Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam) replied, "Be patient, I have not been permitted to fight" [Ibn Hisham].

The verse "it is permitted for those to fight, that they have been wronged", which was revealed in Madinah, gave the permission to fight.

The Call Before a land is opened up to Islam the inhabitants must be invited to Islam. Without this call the fight is not allowed. This call may take a variety of forms: direct invitation, conferences, via the media and so on and so forth. The Prophet (Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam) for example sent letters to the leaders, like the following letter sent to Heraclius of Rome:

"In the Name of Allah Most Gracious Most Merciful. From Muhammad, Servant and Messenger of Allah, to Heraclius Emperor of Rome. Peace be upon those who follow the Guidance. I invite you to Islam; accept Islam, you will be safe, Allah will grant you two-fold reward; if you turn away, the sin

98 Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 of (the wrongdoings of) all the people will be upon you. "O people of the Book come to an agreement between-us and you, that we worship none but Allah, and that we shall associate no partners to Him, and that none of us shall take other for words beside Allah and if they turn away, then say: Bear witness that we have surrendered to Him." Muhammad, Messenger of Allah.

Prior to the Battle of Qadisiyyah, Sad ibn Abi Waqqas (ra) sent a delegation to Yazdagird, Emperor of Persia, headed by An-Nu'man ibn Muqarrin with the purpose of inviting the Emperor to Islam. Yazdagird greeted the delegation in the following way:

"Why have you come to our dominions and why do you want to invade us? Perhaps, you have designs on us...and seek to venture against us because we are preoccupied with you, but we do not wish to inflict punishment on you".

An-Nu'man replied:

"Indeed Allah has been Kind and Merciful to us and has sent to us a Messenger to show us the good and command us to follow it, to make us realize what is evil and forbade us from it. The Messenger promised us if we were to respond to what he commands, Allah would bestow on us the good of this world and the good of the hereafter. Not much time has elapsed but Allah has given us abundance in place of hardship, honour in place of humiliation and mercy and brotherhood in place of our former enmity. The Messenger has commanded us to summon mankind to what is best for them and to begin with those who are our neighbours. We therefore invite you to enter into our Deen. It is a Deen, which beautifies and promotes all good and which detests and discourages all that is ugly and reprehensible. It is a Deen, which leads its adherents from the darkness and tyranny of unbelief to the light and justice of Iman. Should you respond, positively to us and come to Islam, it would be our duty to introduce the Book of Allah in your midst and help you to live according to it and rule according to its laws. We would then return and leave you to conduct your own affairs. Should you refuse however, to enter the Deen of Allah we would take the Jizya (tribute) from you and give you protection in return. If you refuse to give the Jizya, we shall declare war on you" (Ibn Sad in his Tareekh).

This is the reality of the call to Islam and the manner in which it spread. It is a call to deliver people from the servitude of man to the service of Allah (Subhanahu Wa ta’ala), not a desire for exploitation and domination.

Consider these noble words of Umar ibn al-Khattab (ra) to Sad ibn Abi Waqqas (ra) as he bade farewell to the Muslim army that was to confront the Persians at Qadisiyyah.

"O Sad! Let not any statement that you are the uncle of the Messenger of Allah or that I or you are the companion of the Messenger of Allah distract you from Allah. Allah Almighty does not obliterate evil with evil but he wipes out evil with good.”

“O Sad! There is no connection between Allah and anyone except obedience to Him. In the sight of Allah all people whether nobleman or commoner are the same. Allah is their Lord and they are His servants seeking elevation through taqwa and seeking to obtain what is with Allah through obedience. Consider how the Messenger of Allah used to act with

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 99 the Muslims and act accordingly..."

Are these the words of a leader to an army that is embarking on conquest for the sake of domination and exploitation? Clearly not.

The Opening of Lands The opening of lands by the means of Jihad is to destroy the material obstacles that prevent people from entering Islam. The objective is not to exploit the lands in the manner of the imperialists but to free men from the servitude of other men to the worship of Allah (Subhanahu Wa ta’ala). The proof that Islam never exploited or dominated in the manner of the imperialists is the success of Islam in melting the different nations into one Ummah.

History has proved that the unjust conquering of lands alienates the conquerors from the conquered. In the entire history of the world no nation has been able to impose its will on a people to the extent that the people themselves freely leave their own culture and nationality, and adopt freely the will of the conqueror. The Greeks, Romans, Nazis, British, French, Italians, and so on, all tried and all failed. In recent times we have seen countless examples of nations fighting for their independence and freedom from imperialism. The conquerors have always sought to dominate and the conquered have always been treated as second-class citizens.

The West has sought to tarnish Islam with the same brush - to accuse Islam of dominating by force; this however is so far from the truth. Islam spread all over the world until the authority of the Islamic Khilafah encompassed Persia, Iraq, Bilad as-Sham, North Africa and many more lands. The people of these lands were Persians, Berbers, Copts and Romans, who all had their own nationalities, cultures and languages. These people under the shade of the rule of Islam grew to understand it - they all embraced Islam and became one Ummah (nation). The success of the Islamic intellectual leadership in melting these people and cultures is unparalleled in the history of the World and proof that Islam was adopted by individuals out of conviction and not because a sword was placed to their necks. This is the picture that the West has sought to propagate so that Muslims would leave Jihad and leave conveying Islam to the entire world.

The reality is that any nation that has a doctrine, which deals comprehensively with the universe, man and life, must be a nation with the need to spread this doctrine. Islam is not simply a doctrine of thoughts and ideas. Islam is also a practical system and way of life. Faith in Islam is not based only on its thoughts and concepts. A Muslim must also have belief in its actual implementation as a comprehensive way of life. Belief in this must then be followed by action.

It is obligatory for the Islamic nation to invite people to Islam, to propagate it and to subjugate other nations to the Islamic system of ruling.

No Compulsion in Deen Whilst other nations must be subjugated to the rule of Islam, the individual residing in a land opened by Islam must not be compelled to become Muslim. The Messenger of Allah (Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam) has said:

100 Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 "I have been commanded to initiate the fighting of people until they say there is no god save Allah..."

The Arabic word used here is “naas” – people; which is plural and does not refer to individuals.

Allah, the Supreme says in Qur’an,

“There is no compulsion in Deen the right direction is henceforth distinct from error and he who rejects false gods and believes in Allah has grasped a firm handhold which will never break. Allah is hearer, knower” [TMQ Al- Baqarah: 256].

The Messenger of Allah (Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam) has said, “Whoever has been a Jew or Christian is not to be coerced from his Deen.”

Jihad does not mean as the West intimate when they say Islam was spread by the sword that individuals are forced to become Muslims. Rather, it is the subjugation of the State and nation to the rule of Islam. The individual is compelled to abide by the Islamic ruling (with certain concessions permitted to non-Muslims by Shari’ah) but the Aqeedah (creed) of Islam is not forced upon him.

Conclusion Jihad is the removal of obstacles, by force if necessary, that stand between people and Islam. It is the practical method of spreading Islam. The call to Islam is compulsory on Muslims. Jihad is included within this compulsory action. Like the call, Jihad is to be performed by the nation (Ummah).

Jihad is continuous and will always be so. This is an obligation imposed on Muslims by Shari’ah. However, this is not the Jihad that is carried by the nation whose intention is to open land to the justice of Islam. Practically speaking this is not going to take place until the Ummah can perform this Jihad and make the Call to Islam as a nation, and that nation must have a state that implements Islam i.e. Dar al Islam. Once this State has been established we can (Inshallah) carry on the work commenced by the Companions of our Prophet (Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam), which is, to spread the Deen of Allah (Subhanahu Wa ta’ala) to all corners of the earth. The Prophet (Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam) stated, "This Deen will never cease to exist. A party of the Muslims shall always fight for it until the Hour comes to pass" [Al Jami us Sahih of Imam Muslim].

Rashad Ali

Source: Khilafah Magazine December 2001 Edition

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 101 What do Muslims think of America?

A Saudi-raised pastor offers an insider's perspective by Mateen A. Elass

Moody Magazine - Nov/Dec 2001 Issue

At 4:55 a.m. the minaret loudspeaker blared outside my window.

It was early September. I was in Damascus, Syria visiting relatives, and hundreds of mosques all over the city were calling Muslims to prayer. This day was no different from any other - the breaking of dawn signals the expected stirring from bed and attending to one's spiritual duties of morning prayer. This is the first of five daily prayers which faithful Muslims weave into their everyday lives - if they forget their duties in the midst of the details of life, muezzins from minarets throughout the Muslim world cry "Allahu akbar" ("God is great") at the appointed times to bring them back to this most basic of religious tasks.

Throughout the Middle East and in much of North Africa and lower Asia, Islam dominates the religious landscape. The sing-song chanting of the Qur’an (Islam's holy book) often serves as a background for marketplace conversations. Public artwork in Arabic-speaking countries often consists of beautifully calligraphied Arabic script portraying verses of the Qur’an. Lyrics to popular music are often religiously inspired and sometimes created to arouse opposition to the enemies of Islam. Commerce and public activities slow down or cease during the appointed times of prayer, as Muslim men are expected either to attend the mosque or pray wherever they find themselves, after engaging in ritual washing and facing the direction of Mecca, the seat of Islam's holiest shrine.

Of course, Islam is not monolithic, though Muslims like to talk of one universal community of faith. In every country, whether predominantly Islamic or not, Muslims vary by culture and local belief. There are two major sects of Islam: the Sunnis who comprise roughly 85 percent of all Muslims, and the Shiites who comprise around 10 percent. Within these larger groupings and apart from them there are numerous splinter groups and movements, the most well-known of which may be the Sufi mystics (sometimes remembered from the caricature "whirling dervishes"). Most Muslims you will come into contact with are probably Sunnis.

Where the infidels live In this day and age, the United States is viewed by many in the Muslim world as at least a threat and at most an outright enemy. Of course, this is not true of all Muslims. Many in this country and in Western societies generally wish to live in peaceful coexistence with America, or even sing the praises of much of what America stands for. But they represent a small slice of the roughly 1.3 billion Muslims worldwide. For the vast majority of those, the United States represents the stronghold of the "infidels," those who refuse to bow the knee before Allah (the God who Muslims believe rules over all creation), and who therefore must be

102 Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 opposed or even destroyed.

Why does America spark such a negative reaction among Muslims? How can religious schoolteachers in Muslim Pakistan, like Fazal Hussein, train students for physical warfare?

Hussein, quoted in the Chicago Tribune, said, "From young boys to men of 55, we are teaching jihad. Jihad means fighting America. We will sacrifice ourselves." Radical Muslims in Lebanon, Gaza, Iraq, Iran, Indonesia and elsewhere regularly take up the chant, "Death to America! Death to the Great Satan!" Certainly some of this is posturing for CNN, but the fact that such chanting can even take place indicates the brewing of a major storm for which America is the tallest lightning rod.

Why?

Learning from Hollywood There are at least five reasons, probably more. The first is a media-fed perception of American immorality. The U.S. is seen worldwide by religious Muslims as the primary exporter of immorality, particularly through entertainment channels. The international marketing of Hollywood sex, scandal and slasher movies paints a lurid picture of American life for the sheltered Third World. The fact that reruns of "Dukes of Hazzard," "Dallas" and "Baywatch" are played around the world lead those who have never been in American homes to assume that illicit sex, fast cars, guns and intrigue are the daily menu of average American lives. Young people see MTV and get a very distorted idea of their American counterparts. Many Muslim governments have sought to stem the flow of cinematic corruption into their country through censorship, but with the advent of satellite dishes and other technological advances this is becoming impractical.

America the puppet? Second, Muslims see the United States' foreign policy as a political puppet of Israel and American Jews. They perceive in our government's positions over the last 50 years an unbending, blind support of a nation which in the eyes of most Muslims has been the cause of untold suffering among the Arabs throughout the Middle East. Many followers of Islam are gripped by a paranoia drummed into them by their religious traditions that Israel and the Jews have concocted a global conspiracy against Islam. It does not help matters any that in the Qur’an Muhammad bitterly calls the Jews the greatest enemies of Islam (from Sura "The Table," 5:82).

One of my close Syrian relatives told me in early September that the Jews were behind the repressive Arab regimes in the Middle East, having installed these governments in secret ways and paying these Arab leaders to keep their Arab peoples oppressed. She went on to say that both America and NATO have declared that since the fall of communism the greatest enemy left to defeat is Islam. Another cousin of mine points to all the Jewish-sounding names in Cabinet- level and Congressional positions and declares, "The United States is in the pocket of the Jews." Since Israel is the great enemy of the Arabs especially, and of all Islam by extension, and since the United States has allied itself so unstintingly

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 103 with Israel over against Arab concerns and issues, we by our actions have declared ourselves enemies of Islam and the Middle East (in Muslim minds).

Cries ignored Third, Muslims perceive an anti-Arab bias not only in foreign policy but in human rights issues as well. Muslims point to the ignored cries of the Palestinians, not just over their displacement from their homeland but over the ongoing oppression and violence which they suffer under the rule of Israeli authorities. It is American planes, they say, which bomb their villages, and American helicopters which fire missiles into their apartment buildings, and American bulldozers which knock down their settlements, and American bullets which shatter their children's skulls. True, Israeli fingers are on the triggers, but American money and support are behind these police actions. Three weeks ago, one of my Syrian cousins declared to me with undeniable passion, "If I could go to occupied Palestine (Israel) and fight against the oppressors and give my life to help liberate Palestine, I would count it a privilege. I would count it an honor!"

Muslims point as well to the decade-long sanctions against Iraq which, though justified against Saddam Hussein and his government, are causing deep suffering among the people. Estimates are that close to a million children have died due to the embargoes and sanctions engineered and supported by the United States. To most Arabs, it doesn't matter that Saddam Hussein could alleviate the desperation of his people. The fact that the U.S. government has allowed this failed policy to continue at the expense of innocent Arabs is inhumane.

A “Christian” enemy Fourth, Muslims (especially non-Western ones) view the United States as a Christian nation, and therefore the most powerful rival to their faith. Though we know that there is no such thing as a "Christian nation" since God has not called us to a kingdom of this world, the Muslim mind cannot conceive of religion apart from political realities. For Islam the kingdom of Allah must in the end become the unrivaled kingdom of this world. Since the United States is not in the fold of Islamic nations, it is labeled as Christian and thus seen as an adversary to be opposed. In many quarters of the world, there is a sense of jealousy among Muslims as they look at the military strength of America projected across the globe, the standard of living and technological advantages of our society, the freedoms and pioneering spirit which characterize our way of life. American influence in the world translates for some Muslims into Christian advances into Muslim territory, and that cannot be tolerated.

Particularly aggravating is the significant American military presence in Saudi Arabia, the cradle of Islam and home of its holiest shrines. Osama bin Laden's call for a jihad against America, while more extreme than what many Muslims are comfortable with, nonetheless illustrates what many are thinking - America's "crusader forces," to use bin Laden's words, must be opposed by every true Muslim, lest they infiltrate and undermine the strength of Islam.

A world under Allah

104 Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 This leads to the final reason why many Muslims struggle with antipathy toward the United States. Even if we were not a "Christian" nation, in their eyes, as long as we are not Muslim, we are an enemy to be conquered. For theologically, Islam is committed to the complete subjugation of the entire world to Allah. Though there is not consensus among Muslims concerning the use of force to advance Islam, there is unanimity concerning three fundamental principles: 1) Islam is the one true religion, meant to be accepted universally; 2) its ultimate goal is the establishment of a one-world theocracy where the laws of Islam (Sharia) become the laws of all societies; 3) all human beings will one day be either converted to Islam, or subjugated under Muslim rule (as second class citizens who must pay a poll tax and abide by Islamic laws regardless of their beliefs), or eliminated by the sword. For many Muslims, the United States stands as the greatest present barrier to the fulfillment of this ultimate goal, and they feel duty-bound to work for the downfall of our nation or its transition to a fully Muslim country.

What about holy wars? Since Sept. 11, the world has become a more fearful place for Americans. Terrorists in the name of Allah slaughtered thousands of Americans and internationals from over 80 countries. Their justification was the declaration of jihad against the enemies of Islam, principally in their minds the infidels (unbelievers) of the United States. The term "jihad," often translated "holy war," leads those unfamiliar with Islam to ask, "Is such violence sanctioned by Islam?" Moderate Muslim leaders assert that Islam is a religion characterized by peace (in fact the word "Islam" comes from the root "salaam," the Arabic word for "peace," or more technically "surrender"). They claim that terrorism has no place in Islam, and point to a verse in the Qur’an which says, "There is no compulsion in religion" (Sura 2:256).

Fundamentalists, on the other hand, point to numerous texts in the Qur’an where Muhammad as Allah's spokesman commands his followers to fight and subdue all who resist Islam, if necessary by killing them. For example, Sura 47:4 directs, "So, when you meet (in fighting in Allah's Cause) those who disbelieve smite at their necks till when you have killed and wounded many of them, then bind a bond firmly on them (i.e. take them as captives)."

Jihad literally means "struggle" or "exertion" in the cause of something good. In Islam it is considered the duty of all Muslims. Moderates argue that jihad has first and foremost a spiritual meaning, not unlike Paul's statement in Ephesians 6:12, "We wrestle not against flesh and blood but against principalities and powers." Muslims are to subdue evil in their own hearts, and then peacefully to engage in the jihad of mouth and pen - apologetics and evangelism. Fundamentalists do not dispute the goodness of these activities, but point out that strong textual support from the Qur’an, traditions from Muhammad's own life, the early spread of Islam by the sword under the approval of Islamic caliphs, and Islamic law as finalized in the second century after Muhammad's death all clearly support the main definition of jihad as armed aggression against those who resist the advance of Islam. What non-Muslims call terrorists, they instead call holy warriors. What the media refers to as "suicide bombers," they praise as martyrs.

Eternal hedonism What leads Muslim men to volunteer for death, even young men with all their lives

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 105 before them? Principally it is the fact that the religion of Islam offers no certain hope of heaven to any of its adherents (the final decision is up to sovereign whims of Allah) with one exception. Those who die while fighting militarily in a jihad are promised immediate access to Paradise, the highest level of heaven with the greatest sensual delights imaginable. For those trapped in a religious system where you can never be sure you have done enough good to please God eternally, and whose lives amid poverty, oppression and despair do not guarantee much of an earthly future, the assurance of a reward of eternal hedonism is undeniably attractive. Add to this the high tribute in the minds of the faithful left behind and the thought of being an underdog who in the name of Allah does grave damage to the Great Satan, and you have a recipe for conflagration.

Let me stress again that not all Muslims think this way - to be a Muslim is not necessarily to condone the use of terrorism or others means of violence to advance the cause. But there is sufficient evidence in the history of Islam and in the clear teachings of Muhammad and the Qur’an to show that such an approach to the non-Muslim world finds a natural home in the religion of Islam.

Grace, love, and listening How should Christians respond? Confidence and love are the first two words which come to mind. Paul reminds us in 2 Tim 1:7, "God has not given us a spirit of fear, but of power and love and self-control." Jesus teaches us that to live by the sword is to die by the sword - his followers are to love enemies and pray for those who engage in persecution. Since our futures are secure in God's hand because of the finished work of Jesus Christ, we are not to fear those who make threats against our lives, nor to seek to destroy them in return. Rather, we are to approach them with the same love by which Jesus first approached and won us to Himself.

In the end, it is not really a question of what Muslims think of America, or of Christians. It is much more a matter of what Christians think of Muslims. Will we extend them Christ's love, the only real hope for peace and transformation, or will we turn away in fear or anger? The future is not in the hands either of Muslim terrorists or of Muslim moderates. It is in the hands of Jesus Christ, and He still calls the Church to meet the world with grace and love. The next months and years will show whether we are listening or not.

Dr. Elass is senior pastor of Immanuel Presbyterian Church (EPC) in Warrenville, Illinois.

106 Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 Recommended Reading

Answering Islam, The Crescent in the Light of the Cross By Norman L. Geisler and Abdul Saleeb ISBN 0801038596

A Christian Approach to Muslims, Reflections from West Africa By James P. Dretke ISBN 0878084320

Healing the Broken Family of Abraham: New Life for Muslims By Don McCurry ISBN 0971085307

A History of the Arab Peoples By Albert Hourani ISBN 0674395654

The Koran, A Very Short Introduction By Michael Cook ISBN 0192853449

Ministry to Muslim Women: Longing to Call Them Sisters Edited by Fran Love and Jeleta Eckheart ISBN 0878083383

Muslims and Christians at the Table By Bruce A. McDowell and Anees Zaka ISBN 0875524737

Planting Churches in Muslim Cities: A Team Approach By Greg Livingstone ISBN 0801056829

The Prophet and the Messiah, An Arab Christian’s Perspective on Islam and Christianity By Chawkat Moucarry ISBN 0830823158

Unveiling Islam: An Insider’s Look at Muslim Life and Beliefs By Ergun Mehmet Caner and Emir Fethi Caner ISBN 0825424003

Waging Peace on Islam By Christine A. Mallouhi ISBN 0830823042

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 107 Bibliography

Aland, Kent, The Text of the New Testament, Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, Michigan, 1989

Comfort, Philip W., Early Manuscripts and Modern Translations of the New Testament, Tyndale House Publishers Inc., Wheaton, Illinois, 1989

Geisler, Norman, A General Introduction to the Bible, Moody Press, Chicago, Illinois, 1986

Hourani, Albert, A History of the Arab Peoples, The Belknap Press, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1991

McDowell, Josh, The Islam Debate, Here’s Life Publishers, San Bernardino, California, 1983

108 Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 Glossary of terms Adapted from Encountering the World of Islam, edited by Keith Swartley

Note that in transliteration from Arabic to English, there are variations in spellings. For example, many words may end in either “a” or “ah”, such as mulla or mullah. Other variations may be: “a” or “u,” “al” or “ahl,” “al” or “ul,” “d” or “t,” “h” or “t,” “i” or “e,” “k” or “q,” “u” or “i,” “u” or “w,” “y” or “i.” Diacritic marks in Arabic words are not shown, with the exception of Ka‘aba, Qur’an, Shari’a (Shari’ah), Shi’a, Shi’ism, and Shi’ites.

The glossary follows the standard convention of alphabetizing words under the first letter of the noun, rather than under the first letter of the preceding definite article: for example, al-Islam is listed under “I,” not “A.”

The wide geographic spread of Islam has led to differing usage. Therefore, a word can have more than one meaning, and some words may share a common definition (e.g., adhan, azan).

In general, italics indicate the literal meaning, the term’s form in another language, and/or that the word is cross-referenced herein, except for common terms. Since Arabic contains letters non existent in the English language we follow its English pronunciation and it is found in this Glossary of terms in an alphabetical order. ‘Ayen ( ) and Aleph ( ) are listed under A; Dah ( ), DHAH ( ), Dal ( ) and Dhal ( ) are listed under D; Tah ( ) and Ta’ ( ) are under T.

A abaaya — female dress, black covering robe, head to ankle abangan — the less orthodox Muslims of Indonesia abd, abdal, abdu, abduhu — servant or slave; worshipper of Allah, his servant; common prefix of names

Abd Allah, Abd Ullah — slave of Allah, father of the Prophet Muhammad, of the Hashim family of the Quraysh tribe ablutions — ritual purification with water or sand before prayers

Abraham — Ibrahim, Friend of God, prophet. Muslims trace Muhammad’s lineage back to Abraham through Ishmael. They believe Abraham and Ishmael rebuilt the altar originally built by Adam at the same site; this altar became the Ka‘aba in Mecca. Cf., Hagar, Books of God, Suhoof. abrogated, abrogation — in the Qur’an, newer revelations cancel out (repeal or abolish) earlier revelations. Cf., mansukh, nasikh. abu — father of

Abu Bakr, Abu Bakr As-Siddiq — a rich, respected merchant of Mecca; first man to believe in the Prophet and embrace Islam, the Prophet’s closest friend and

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 109 companion. Muhammad married his teenaged daughter, Aisha. Became the first Caliph (a.d. 632–634) according to Sunnis. Cf., Siddiq, Qur’an, Zayd.

Abu Dawud — collector of hadith; cf., Ath-Thalathah, Al-Arbaah, Al-Khamsah, As- Sittah, As-Sabah.

Abu Talib — Muhammad’s uncle, chief of Hashim family of Quraysh tribe; he brought up Muhammad after the death of his father, Abd Allah.

Abyssinia — modern-day Ethiopia

adah, adat — the indigenous system of customary law, or local practices having the force of law

adan, adhan — announcement; the call (azan) to public prayer, made five times a day by the muezzin (muadhdhin) from the mosque (minaret). Adan of the Fajr, early morning.

Adha, see Id-Al-Adha

afkhar al-umam — noblest of nations; Arab’s concept of his ancestry

afrit — from root meaning to roll in the dust; species of jinn, described by the effect of its attack

a.h. — after Hegira, anno Hegirae (in the year of [Muhammad’s] Hijra); abbreviation for the year in the Muslim calendar (as a.d. is used by Westerners), used to designate date since the flight or Hijra of Muhammad (a.d. 622)

Ahad — the oneness of Allah; the negation of any other number, as in the three of Trinity. The denial that Allah has any partner or companion associated with him. Also, Wahid, “The One, Same God for All.”

Ahadith — Hadith

Ahl al-Kitab — “People of the Book,” designation in the Qur’an for Jews and Christians, the people who have holy books. Cf., dhimmi.

ahl al-Sunnah wa-l-Hadith — “the people of Sunna and Hadith”; official title of those who adhere to orthodox Islam

Ahmad — another name for Muhammad

Ahmad — one of the five compilers of hadith, Al-Khamsah, with Abu Dawud, Nasai, Tirmidhi, and Ibn Majah. Cf., As-Sabah

Ahmadis, Ahmadiya, Ahmadiyya, Mirzais — a small but vocal heretical sect of Islam, named for the founder, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad (a.d. 1835–1908), who claimed to have superseded Muhammad and was regarded as Mahdi and Messiah. Ahmadis follow a modern, progressive interpretation of Sunni Islam, but are regarded by most Muslims as not orthodox due to their belief in another prophet.

ahong — term for major cleric among Chinese

Aisha, Ayisha — Muhammad’s favorite wife, his third. She was the daughter of Abu Bakr.

Aisha Qandisha — named jinniya, seductress who makes slaves of men (Morocco).

110 Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 ajuza — old woman; medicine woman, herbalist akhund — religious instructor

Al — named jinniya, who attacks newborns (Iran) alamat — sign; often received in a dream (Malaysia)

Alhaji, Al-haji — a Muslim who has made the Hajj to Mecca, viewed as source of prestige. Cf., Hajirii, Hajji

Ali — Muhammad’s first cousin, son of Abu Talib. Ali married Fatima, the youngest daughter of the Prophet. Recognized by Shi’ites as the true successor of Muhammad, from whom came the succession of Imams. He was the fourth Caliph (a.d. 655–659), opposed by Muawiya of the Umayyads. alim — a knowledgeable person or religious scholar

Allah, Ullah — The God; The One True God; the creator, sustainer, supreme being for Muslims. Prior to the rise of Islam, the principal deity of the Quraysh tribe, owner of the Ka‘aba; term Allah also used generally to refer to any supreme deity recognized by the many Arab tribes of Persia. Cf., Al-Ilah, Rasul-Ullah

Allah al-Hayy! — “God the Living!”; exclamation used in dhikr rituals

Allah-akbar, Allahu Akbar — phrase meaning, “Allah is the Most Great (or the Greatest),” or “God is Great,” which begins, and is repeated as part of, ritual prayer. Also, the phrase may be used in affirmation, or to express defiance.

Allah wa rasulihi — “Allah and his Prophet” (Muhammad)

Allat — feminine form of Allah; considered by some to be the female counterpart of Allah. Pagan deity worshipped in the Period of Ignorance. Cf., Al-Uzza amal — supplication; often a special prayer by which one asks to see a loved one in a dream amaliya — magic, supposedly of a spiritual, not evil, nature aman — safety of person and possessions for foreign residents, decreed by the Muslim community. Cf., dhimmi, jizyah ambal — offering boats laden with food, launched by local imam into the open sea, to appease unknown causes of sickness (Siasi Tao Sug of the Philippines) amil (plur., amalah) — official who supervised collection and distribution of the zakat al-Amin — the trustworthy; name by which Muhammad was known

Amina — mother of the Prophet Muhammad amir — prince; leader; amir al-muminin, commander of the believers, a Caliph’s title amr — decree; command of Allah amulets — charms, talismans; believed to protect from harm, cancel offensive magic, or reverse sickness. Types: udha (to protect), hajab (shield like a curtain),

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 111 hariz (guard against evil), nafra (flee), wadh (make distinct), tamima (be complete). Cf., dua, evil eye, Hand of Fatima, nazar, Seven Covenants of Suleiman

animism — the religious belief that spirits are manifested in persons, object, or places. They are contacted or controlled by the shaman, witchdoctor, or medium. Animism is largely based on fear.

Ansar — helpers, supporters; inhabitants of Yathrib who became Muslims and asked the Prophet to come live with them; companions and followers of Muhammad in Medina.

Apostle of Arabia, - of Islam — Cf., The Prophet, The Messenger of God (Sura 53:1–18)

aqida — statement of religious belief, a creedal affirmation

aqiqa — naming sacrifice (substitutionary) and ceremony, on seventh day after birth

Al-Aqsa, Al-Masjid-al-Aqsa — the Mosque of Umar (Omar) in Jerusalem, or Dome of the Rock (Sakhra); the third most important pilgrimage destination for Muslims, from which Muhammad reputedly ascended to the heavens (Lailat al-Miraj)

Arafat, Mount — mountain in Mecca; cf., Mina, jamrah

Al-Arbaah — the four compilers of hadith: Abu Dawud, Nasai, Tirmidhi, and Ibn Majah. Cf., Ath-Thalathah, Al-Khamsah, As-Sittah, As-Sabah

archangel — one of four: Azrael, Israfel, Gabriel (Jibril), and Michael

Arkan al-Islam — the Pillars of Faith (of Islam), the five religious duties

arraf (female, arrafa) — one who knows; diviner, fortune-teller

Ashab As-Sunan — the compilers of the prophetic hadith on Islamic jurisprudence

Ashura — the Tenth; tenth of the month of Muharram; the day on which it is believed that the well of Zamzam (in Mecca) overflows and supplies all the springs in Islamic countries with baraka-endowed water

“Assalamu aleikum wa rahmatullah wa barakatuhu” — phrase used in greeting, “May the peace, mercy, and blessing of Allah be upon you.” Cf., taslim

astaghafr Allah — “I ask forgiveness of Allah”; formula continually repeated by the Muslim; also said in his daily prayers. Used to ask forgiveness for blaspheming

Autographs — Original manuscripts of the Injeel, the New Testament

A’udho billahi — “I seek refuge in God” statement used to ward off evil

awliya — friends; the saints of Allah (Sura 10:62)

aya, ayah (plur., ayat); iyah (plur., iyat) — sign; the signs, proofs of Allah; natural phenomena, his mighty acts in nature; miracles, evidence of Allah’s divine mercy. Verses, lessons, revelations; or refers to a single verse in the Qur’an; this sign appears in Arabic after each verse.

ayatollah, ayatullah — miracle of Allah; title of a leading mulla of Shiite Iran, highly educated authority on observance of Islamic law, selected from the ulama

112 Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 Ayisha — cf., Aisha ayn (‘) — Arabic diacritic signifying the sound “eh!” (as in “great!”), from a constriction at the back of the throat, as in Ka‘aba. azan, azawn — the Muslim call to prayer; cf., adhan, minaret, muezzin, muadhdhin

Al-Azhar University and mosque — renowned Islamic university in Cairo, founded a.d. 970; guardians of the faith azima — incantation; exorcism used most often when a person is struck (made ill) by an unnamed jinni az ma bihtaran — “those better than ourselves”; common allusion used to refer to jinn indirectly in order to avoid inciting them (Iran)

Azrael — one of four archangels, with Gabriel (Jibril), Michael, and Israfel

B Bab as-Salaam — Gate of Peace through which pilgrims enter sacred (Haram) area around Ka‘aba

Badr, Battle of — in a.d. 624, first great battle in Islamic history, 80 miles south of Medina; 300 Muslims led by Muhammad defeated 950 Quraysh of Mecca; the first time Muhammad used the sword to advance his cause; he interpreted his victory as Allah’s vindication of his prophethood.

Bahai — a pacifist, ecumenical sect, which became an independent, non-Muslim religion in mid-nineteenth century. Many followers in U.S. bahasa — healer who uses divination (Yakan of Philippines).

Bahira — Nestorian monk who lived in the desert city of Basra, on the Quraysh caravan route to Syria; he strongly, but secretly, influenced Muhammad.

Baitullah, Beit-Allah, Bayt al-Lah — house of Allah, mosque, masjid. A mosque is frequently called Baitullah. Cf., Bait-ul-Maqdis, Al-Aqsa (Al-Masjid-al-Aqsa) Sakhra, the Grand (Great) Mosque, in Jerusalem. Also, Al-Masjid-al-Haram, the Grand Mosque in Mecca; contains the Ka‘aba.

Bait-ul-Midras — a place in Medina; a Jewish center there

Bani Hashim — Muhammad’s family, belonging to the Quraysh tribe. Cf., Hashim bakhshi — dream interpreter (Afghan Turkestan)

Banu Al-Asfar — the Byzantines

Banu Nadir — Jewish tribe living in Khaibar (54 miles from Medina) during Muhammud’s time

Banu Qainuqa — Jewish tribe living in Yathrib

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 113 Banu Quraizah — Jewish tribe living in Yathrib when the Prophet arrived

baraka, barakat — blessing, ultimately, of Allah; special power; that charisma which characterizes the person with exceptional spiritual powers; possessed by a marabout. A positive magic force available from holy persons, places, or objects, obtained or conveyed by touch; sought as cure for evil eye; used to influence people, business, life in general; mana; found in folk Islam, Sufism. Opposite is hasad.

Bathr — specific evil devil who presides over misfortunes

batini — esoteric, hidden, or inner meaning of Allah’s word in the Qur’an, as opposed to zahir, the literal or apparent meaning

Battle of Badr — cf., Badr.

bayan — rhetoric as a discipline of study

Bedouin — nomadic Arab tribes of the desert, usually shepherds

Believers — in the Qur’an, Muslim believers

bent, bint — daughter of

Berbers — Muslim peoples living in North Africa

Betjallal — lady of splendor; named jinniya of Algeria, similar to Aisha Qandisha; many Algerian men believe themselves “married” to Betjallal

bida — innovation; heresy, extra legal interpretations of Shari’a law when the ijtihad technically ceased, and was replaced by the ijma

Bilal and Khabbab — Muslims who suffered severe persecution in Mecca

Bilqis — Queen of Sheba (Sura 27:22-44) who had a contest and dialogue with Suleiman, reproduced in the talisman, Seven Covenants of Suleiman.

bin, ibn — son of

birr — righteousness; for the Muslim, obedient belief, generosity, consistency in rituals and requirements, and calm patience in adversity

Bismillah, Basmahah — the phrase, “Bis-mi-llahi ar-Rahamani ar-Rahim”: “In the name of Allah, the Compassionate, the Merciful.” This general invocation of Allah prefaces each sura of the Qur’an, except Sura 9; often used at the beginning of an undertaking, at the beginning of written documents, or as a protective formula.

boka — magical herbalist, exorcist, and charm maker (Hausa of Nigeria)

bomor — indigenous healer specializing in trance-healing (Malaya)

the Book — reference in the Qur’an to Hebrew Scriptures; cf., People of the Book, Taurat

Books of God — deemed to be the five books which God has sent down to man. The book Suhoof (Suhuf), pages of Abraham, revealed through Abraham, has been lost. The other four are Taurat, Zabur, Injil, and Qur’an. Cf., tanzil

bororo — itinerant medicine-man (West Africa)

Al-Bukhari (Sahih) — (a.d. 810–870) one of the two premier (with Muslim) collectors of hadith; examined over 600,000 potential hadith and retained 7,397 (divided into 97 chapters) as authentic. This significant collection of hadith is known as al-Jami al-Sahih al-Musnad min- Hadith Rasul Allah. Cf., Al-Shaykhan; Ath-Thalathah, Al-Arbaah, Al-Khamsah, As-Sittah, As-Sabah. bulan sapal — month of Safar (Yakan of Philippines)

Buraq — winged animal ridden by the Prophet Muhammad on his ascension to Heaven, Lailat al-Miraj. It had the unveiled face of a beautiful, well-dressed woman, wearing cosmetics and ornaments. burka — cf., hijab

Byzantine Empire — eastern part of the late Roman Empire (a.d. 330 to 1453, when Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Turks). Cf., Banu Al-Asfar

Byzantium — ancient Greek city on site of modern Istanbul

C Caliph, Khaliph, Kalifah — representative; the vicegerent of Allah, his administrative deputy, undermaster; his representative on earth to reflect the divine names and qualities, and to fulfill the divine will; the ruler of every Muslim. Former political and spiritual Islamic ruler who was a close associate of Muhammad or the descendant of one; and Muhammad’s successor as head of the Muslim community. Politically, the succession of Muslim rulers with secular authority, from the first, Abu Bakr (a.d. 632–634), to 1924. Cf., Caliphate, Khalifah, Imam chador — scarf or shawl, woman’s head covering in Iran

Caliphate — the Muslim state headed by a caliph. The last Caliphate was abolished in 1924 by Mustafa Kemal, with the collapse of the Ottoman Empire and Turkey’s bid to become part of secularized Europe

Chronicle of Seert — history of the Nestorians, written as early as the ninth century by an unknown author

Church Fathers — Early church leaders who were contemporaries with the disciples of Christ. It also refers to the church leaders of the first two hundred years before the rise of Constantine.

Creed — cf., Shahada

Codex Sinaticus — New Testament Manuscript discovered in St. Catherine’s monastery in Mount Sinai. It is dated 325 AD.

“cutting the Qur’an” (istikhara, Arabic; estekhareh, Farsi) — common method of divination; opened at random, Qur’anic words are interpreted to assist person in decision-making.

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 115 D Dajjal — liar, deceiver; name for the anti-Christ or pseudo-messiah who will appear at the end of time; cf., Malik al-Amlak

Dalail al-Khayrat — Signs of Blessing; a litany by poet al-Jazuli, in which Muhammad is exalted, and acclaimed as sole intercessor and channel of communication between the Muslim and Allah; popular at Maulid al-Nabi celebrations

danb — sin; cf., kufr, mushrikun, shirk

darbar — shrine; dedicated to patron saint; site of annual pilgrimage (India)

dar al-harb, darul-harb — territory outside of Islamic influence, of the infidels (non- Muslims), where jihad wars are permitted, or which is at war with Muslims

dar al-Islam, dar as-Salaam, darul-Islam — house of peace, territory of Islam; lands of Islam in which technically no war is permissible; area of Muslim supremacy

dawah — invitation; calling all people to the path of Allah, to follow divine guidance; missionary work

Dawud — David; cf., rasul, Zabur

dayat al-hibil — robe midwife; female practitioner (Sudan)

deen, din — Muslim religious practice—such as reciting the Creed, praying, fasting, and giving alms—as distinct from a belief, iman

dervish, darwish — Sufi mystic who often engages in whirling dance, trances, and singing or chanting of the names and attributes of Allah

dhikr, zhikr — remembering; Sufi spiritual exercises, in which one is remembering Allah, in order to become one with him (tauhid, tarika), or to perceive the oneness of all being, by concentrating on one of his names or attributes. Cf., haqiqa

dhimmi, ahl al-dhimmah — peoples; people of the covenant, Jews and Christians, who were living as protected subjects, under an Islamic government. This protection was prescribed by the Qur’an. Cf., aman, jizrah; People of the Book, Ahl al-kittab

Dhul-Hijja, Dhul Hajjah, Dhu-l-Hijjah — the twelfth month, set aside for the Hajj, the formal pilgrimage

din, al-din — religion; religion in general, and sum total of the faith and practice of Muslim religious duties in particular, including the Five Pillars of Faith; good works; the complete way of life given in the Qur’an and Hadith

divination — occult attempts to direct and protect one’s life in a complex universe, widely practiced by Muslims; efforts to discover cause and remedy, as well as the future; e.g., istikhara

djellaba — cf., jallabiya

Dome of the Rock — cf., Al-Aqsa, Sakhra

Druze — an Ismaili sect (named after al-Darazi) so divergent from orthodoxy that it

116 Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 ceased to be Muslim. In the tenth century this sect deified a Fatimid ruler, rejected the Qur’an, and adopted an exclusive doctrine. Found in Lebanon and Syria. dua — to call; supplication, informal prayer. In popular Islam, a dua is a special prayer consisting of a magical prescription of occult words and symbols; these charms are written by dua-writers, specialists in composing these written prescriptions.

E emigration — cf., Hijra endogamy — marriage within the extended family, first cousin preferred; common as a method of keeping wealth within family control evil eye — in folk Islam, spiritual power held to be potent contributor to the calamities and disintegration of life: valuable persons or things are constantly vulnerable to harm or destruction caused by other people’s envy (hasad) or jealousy, projected through the eye by a mere look. Various types: salty eye (incurable); bad or unclean eye (both transitory). Cf., baraka

F fahish — one who talks evil fakir, faqir (plur., fuqara) — poor wanderer; religious or poor man who solicits alms in the name of Islam. A mendicant of a Sufi order (Sri Lanka) faqi, faqih (plur., fuqaha) — theologian; cleric or shaikh who can give religious verdicts; Islamic jurist. In popular Islam (Sudan), a mendicant dealing in divination and folk remedies fard, fard ain — obligatory; canonical duty or obligation of faith imposed on each individual. Cf., wajib fard kifayah — collective duty; if performed by one, suffices for all

Fatiha, Al-Fatihah — the opening one; opening Sura of the Qur’an, which is repeated several times during each salat, the five required times of prayer each day. It contains in condensed form all the fundamental principles of the Qur’an. In popular Islam, the Fatiha is spoken as an incantation for protection from the evil eye or because of its powerful, intrinsic baraka. Cf., Bismillah

Fatima — the daughter of Muhammad and his first wife, Khadija; the wife of Ali, the fourth Caliph. As a female relative of Muhammad, she is thought to be a potential mediator with Allah. Cf., Hand of Fatima fatwa — legal ruling or verdict on an issue of canonical jurisprudence made by an

fellah (plur., fellahin) — member of laboring class in Arab country who lives off the land; the farmers of Egypt

festivals — public affirmations of commitment to Islam; also meet the everyday life needs of Muslims. Prescribed: Id al-Fitr and Id al-Adha. Optional: Maulid al-Nabi

Fiqh — the corpus of Islamic jurisprudence

fitnah — trials, persecutions, conflicts among Muslims

fitrah — natural state of purity or submission to the will or law of Allah; innate, pure nature possessed by all people at birth; the pattern according to which Allah has created all things

Five Pillars of Faith, of Islam — cf., Pillars of Faith, Arkan al-Islam, Shahada

folk Islam; cf., popular Islam — Complex, all-embracing explanation of causality in everyday life requiring protective measures (charms, amulets, or other forms of prophylaxis), and or diagnosis by divination, and cures. Components: local myths, folklore, traditions, customary rites, animistic practices. It is the worldview of the Hadith, rather than that of orthodox Islam, or the Qur’an.

fuqaha (sing., faqih) — jurists; doctors of Islamic law, early writers of dogmatic theology

G Gabriel — Jibril

ghashi — one who faints; species of jinn, described by the effect of its attack (Iran)

al-Ghazali — Sunni theologian (a.d. 1058–1111), called The Proof of Islam; main catalyst in a synthesis of orthodox theology and mystic teachings; major work, The Revival of Religious Sciences. Became a committed Sufi.

ghazi — a Muslim fighter returned from jihad, holy war

ghul — destroying; species of jinn, described by the effect of its attack

ghusl, ghusul — full ablution ceremony (bathing), involving the entire body, in the prescribed manner. Cf., janabah

Gospel of Barnabas — a medieval (about a.d. 1300) forgery designed to authenticate Islam; thought to be written in revenge by a Spanish Muslim forced into Christianity by the Inquisition

Greater Pilgrimage — cf., Hajj

118 Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 H hadath — a type of defilement which would invalidate the ritual prayer hadd (plur., hudud) — Allah’s boundary limits for halal (lawful) and haram (unlawful); cf., sin hadith, ahadith, hadis; Hadith — sayings, prophetic tradition, story; Muslims believe Muhammad received wahy ghayr matl (unread revelation), by which he made authoritative declarations. A massive number of these sayings, teachings, practices, and approvals of the Prophet Muhammad, and those things said or done in his presence of which he approved, were passed on through oral tradition by his eyewitness companions after his death, and later transcribed (matn, or texts), and edited by Muslim authorities into great collections, the Hadith, resulting in contradictions, disagreements, and confusion over authenticity. Among Sunnis, gradually six collections, “The Six Books,” won universal recognition and remain authoritative. The purposes of the hadith are: to define appropriate actions, elucidate parts of the Qur’an, and express distinctive theological emphases. They reinforce folk-Islamic cosmology and justify many popular practices. Cf., Al- Bukhari, Muslim; Mishkat, Sihah Sittah. “That which has been transmitted” (sunna, said) is called the Sunna. hadr — from hadara, to bring down; the bringing down of Allah to his worshipers as they remember him through the power of dhikr; public trance-dance performed by devotees of possessing zar spirits. Also, Sufi ceremonial dance of healing from striking or possession by jinn hadrat, hazrat — title of honor and respect haduk al-nas — “those people there”; common allusion used to refer to jinn indirectly, in order to avoid inciting them al-Haffaf — the devil that presides over deserts hafiz, (plur., huffaz) — guardian; Muhammad’s companions who memorized the revelations; title of respect given to those who have memorized the entire Qur’an. Also, professional reciter

Hagar — mother of Ishmael, father of the Arabs al-hajarul-aswad — the Holy Black Stone, a black meteorite, in a corner of the Ka‘aba, the cubical shrine (“House of God”) in Mecca; it is to be ritually kissed by pilgrims as they circle the Ka‘aba.

Hajiri, Hajin, Hajin Bibi — women who have returned from the Hajj; thought to be especially devout. Cf., Alhaji, Hajji

Hajj — setting out; pilgrimage to Mecca, required of all Muslims once in their lifetime, if they are physically and financially able; the fifth Pillar; usually initiated between the seventh to tenth of Dhul Hijjah, the twelfth month, set aside for the Hajj. Cf., Alhaji, Hajiri, Hajji, Rukn, Ihram, Umrah, Manasik al-Hajj wal-Umrah

Hajj-al-Ifrad — pilgrim enters Mecca in the state of Ihram, intending to perform Hajj only

Hajj-al-Qiran — pilgrim enters Mecca in the state of Ihram, intending to perform Umrah and Hajj together. Cf., Qarin

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 119 Hajj Mabrur — Hajj accepted by Allah for being perfectly performed according to the Prophet’s Sunna, and with legally earned money

Hajji, Alhaji — one who has performed the pilgrimage to Mecca, a source of prestige. Cf., Alhaji, Hajiri

hakim — a wise person; local practitioner (Afghanistan)

halal — permitted; what is lawful under the Shari’a; cf., hadd. Meat that is properly butchered in the name of Allah (Surah 22:34): with the animal’s head facing Mecca and its throat slit, allowing the blood to drain out

al-Hallaj — great Muslin Sufi who denied Islam. His request to die as did Christ resulted in his crucifixion on a pole.

Hamadsha — Sufi order (Morocco); plays a major role in initiating and maintaining peaceful relationships between the jinniya and her human victims

“Al-hamdu-lil-lah” — “Praise to Allah”; often said as an expression of thanks

hamza (’) — Arabic diacritic which signifies a glottal stop or catch, as found in Scottish accented English, replacing “t” as “bi’er” for “bitter”) or “Sco’ish” (for “Scottish”), as in Qur’an

hamzad — jinni twin to the human, may be a believer or infidel, that is, a non- Muslim (Iran)

Hanaf, Hanifi — most widespread madhab or school of law, which places a relatively liberal interpretation on the Qur’an; emphasizes qiya (analogical reasoning)

Hanbali — fourth and most conservative madhab or school of law, which rejects innovation beyond the literal Qur’an and Sunna. Founded by Abu Abdillah Ahmad Ibn Hanbal (b. a.d. 780). Modern Wahhabis base some of their teachings upon his views.

Hand of Fatima — protective talisman made of imprint or shape of hand, often with an eye in the palm, painted on surfaces; used to ward off the evil eye. Cf., Fatima

hanif — the pristine faith; title of pre-Islamic monotheist. Hanifs were dissatisfied with pagan idolatry and concerned with the political and religious situation in Arab territories.

haqiqa — divine truth; Sufi goal is the absorption of one’s being into the haqiqa or tarika.

haram — unlawful, that which is forbidden; prohibited and punishable by the Shari’a; an action which is canonically forbidden, blasphemous; cf., hadd. Also, therefore, sacred: a hallowed area, especially around the monuments of Medina; and Mecca, the Haram or Grand (Great) Mosque, Al-Masjid-al-Haram. Cf., Muharram

Harut — angel (with Marut) with access to the power of shayatin, provides knowledge of magic to men (Sura 2:102)

hasad — envy; tangible evil force, conveyed by the evil eye

120 Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 Hasan, Hassan, al-Hasan — son of Ali and Muhammad’s grandson, who, for Shi’as, became Imam after Ali’s murder

Hashim — Bani Hashim, Muhammad’s family, of the Quraysh tribe. Also, Hashim was Muhammad’s grandfather, father of Abd Allah. al-hasud la yasud — “the envier will not overcome”; a rhymed inscription; form of protective measure against the evil eye

Hegira — cf., Hijra

Hejaz, Hijaz — strip of land on northwest coast of Arabia

Hell — Jahannam. Cf., Judgment Day henna, hinna — dye often used by Muslim women on their hair and hands, particularly on special occasions hidayah — Allah’s divine guidance or instruction hijab — curtain; from hijaba, to conceal, or shield, so as to be invisible; a long dress prescribed to cover the whole body from head to feet, worn by Muslim women over the head; cf., burka. Also refers to acceptable Islamic clothing for women, including the veil (Philippines). May indicate any protective amulet.

Al-Hijr — spot in Mecca from which Muhammad began his Night Journey, Lailat al-Miraj, or Ascension to Heaven (Paradise)

Hijra, Hijrah, Hegira, Hejira, Hidjra — change of direction, emigration, flight; Muhammad’s flight from Mecca to Yathrib (Medina) in a.d. 622. The Islamic lunar calendar commences from the beginning of this year, signified by the letters a.h. (anno Hegirae, in the year of [Muhhamad’s] Hijra). Also, to leave one’s place of residence for Allah’s sake.

Hira — a mountain near Mecca where, in a cave, Muhammad first received his revelation of the Qur’an from the archangel Gabriel; or the cave itself hirz — to guard against evil; protective amulet hoja, hodja, hoca — term for major cleric among Turks; in popular Islam, the village sorcerer

Holy Black Stone — al-hajarul-aswad; cf., Ka‘aba

Holy City — Mecca houri (plur., houris) — Allah’s female creations especially provided for the sexual enjoyment of Muslim men in Paradise (Sura 56:22–23, 35–37; 38:50–53; 44:51– 54; 55:71–76; 52:17–20). Cf., hur

House of Allah, Holy House — Ka‘aba

Hubal — a Moabite idol of the chief of the many gods in the Ka‘aba in the pre- Islamic Period of Ignorance; cf., Jahiliyyah, Allat, al-Uzza hubb — a tiny black seed used to combat jinn (Morocco) huda — guidance; revelation which guides man

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 121 Hudaibiyya — the treaty between the Meccan Quraysh and the Muslim umma, or the place where the treaty was made

hudud — cf., hadd

hur, huri (plur., hurin) — a damsel or maiden in Paradise; created by Allah; very fair with intense black eyes. Cf., houri

Husayn, al-Husayn, Hussein — the other son of Ali (Muhammad’s grandson), who, for Shi’ites, became Imam after the murder of Ali’s son, Hasan. Hussein was killed at Karbala (by troops of Yazid, son and successor of Umayyid caliph, Muawaiya). Hussein was succeeded by his son. His martyrdom is deeply mourned, and the Hajj is made alternatively to his tomb in Karbala by Shi’ites.

I ibadat, al-ibidat — worship; acts of worship required to fulfill the devotional rites of Islam. The last four of the Five Pillars of Faith are called la-ibadat.

Iblis — devil; Satan, the source of all evil and temptation; Qur’anic name for the Devil (from diabolos). Also, Shaytan. Cf., Jamrat, al-Shaytanul-Kabir

ibn, bin — son of

Ibn-Ishaq — the earliest, most trustworthy of Muslim biographers of Muhammad (eighth century)

Ibn Majuh — one of the four compilers of hadith, with Abu Dawud, Nasai, and Tirmidhi. Cf., Al-Arbaah, Al-Khamsah, As-Sittah, As-Sabah

Ibrahim — Abraham

Id al-Adha, Eid al-Adha — Sacrificial Feast; the major four-day festival in Islam, on the tenth day of the twelfth month of Dhul Hijjah. Public prayers are held. The sacrifice, obligatory for any Muslim who can afford it, of rams, or other animals, is made in memory of Abraham’s offer to Allah to sacrifice his son Ishmael, and Allah’s provision of a ram instead. The sacrifice is made as part of the Hajj rituals, as well as in every Muslim community. The meat is shared with the poor. Also, Id al-Qurban or Id al-Kabir (Great Festival); Id al-Hajj (Feast of Pilgrimage); Bakr Id (India); Kurban Bayram, Buyuk Bayram (Turkey)

Id al-Fitr, Eid al-Fitr — breaks the fast; the major three-day festival to mark the end of the fast at the conclusion of Ramadan, on first of Shawwal. Also, Little Id, Id al-Saghir (Minor Feast), Id al-Sadaqa (Feast of Alms), Sekar Bayram (Sugar Holiday, Turkey)

iftar — meal eaten at the break of the fast, right after sunset, during the month of Ramadan; often shared in the community.

Ihram — state entered by pilgrim intending to perform the Hajj or the Umrah in which certain activities are prohibited. Or, two seamless sheets (izar and rida) donned by all male pilgrims on the Hajj or Umrah, when they reach Jiddah (on the Saudi coast, 40 miles from Mecca).

122 Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 ihsan — right doing; proper conduct; a moral duty enjoined by Islam; the perfection the individual strives to achieve, as if he sees Allah, or Allah sees him ijaz al-Qur’an — miraculousness of the Qur’an; the doctrine that the Qur’an confirmed Muhammad’s prophethood; that the Qur’an was not created in time, cannot be replicated, and that the Arabic text is sacred. Therefore, the Qur’an’s exact meaning is hidden and cannot be translated accurately from the Arabic. Cf., mujiza ijma, ijmaa — consensus of group of Muslim legal scholars, introduced in the eighth century to standardize legal theory and practice, as opposed to ijtihad; currently, the general consensus of a group of Islamic judges representing the community, who know Islamic dogma; the third source of Islamic law, the first being the Qur’an, and the second, the Hadith ijtihad — to endeavor, exert effort; individual interpretation of the tenets of the faith by a Muslim scholar, as opposed to ijma

Ikhwan — contemporary reform movement within Islam. Cf., Wahhabis. See al- Ikhwan al-Muslimun, The Muslim Brotherhood iktisab — power to appropriate all the good and evil deeds that Allah has created for man.

Al-Ilah, Ilah, Illah — the deity; variant of Allah

Illiyun — related to ilan, blessing; the seventh stage of celestial bliss ilm — knowledge ilm al-tabir — science of interpretation; particularly divination by the interpretation of dreams imamzad — special mausoleum (Iran)

Imam — a pure and sinless leader (ruler, Caliph) granted same divine knowledge and light Allah gave Muhammad; considered by Shi’a Muslims to be the only authoritative interpreter of the hidden meaning of the Qur’an. Shi’ites accept the Imamate, the succession of Imams who trace their genealogy to the Prophet. The twelfth Imam went into hiding and the source of authority was transferred to the Ulama, who are considered to be collectively the representatives of the hidden Imam. Cf., Mhadi. imam — the combination spiritual and political leader who rules by Islamic law. Lay religious leader, or professional cleric of a Muslim community or mosque; leads in Friday salat (noon congregational prayers). The imam khatib delivers the sermon, khutbah.

Imamate — the Shi’a belief that the same divine knowledge and light Allah granted Muhammad continues through a succession of sinless leaders, Imams. Only these leaders (now in hiding) possess understanding of the hidden meaning of the Qur’an. Meanwhile, the temporal authority for interpreting the religion rests with the Ulama. iman — faith (conviction), belief; the Muslim Creed; formal belief (such as in Allah, angels, prophets, final judgment [Last Day]), as distinguished from Muslim practices, deen

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 123 Imanis — Shi’as who accept the Imamate succession through Ali and believe the twelfth Imam (who went into occultation [disappearance] in a.d. 939), will return as the Mahdi (Messiah-like leader), to institute divine rule on earth

inikadowa — familiar spirit, which if offended, causes sickness (Philippines)

infidel — person who does not believe in the religion of Islam. Cf., dar al-harb, mushrikun

Injil, Injeel, Indjil — usually refers to the Christians’ religious book, the New Testament; more accurately, Injil is the Qur’anic term understood by Muslims to refer to an original, uncorrupted Gospel that God revealed to and through Jesus (Sura 5:47–48), which he taught and which is lost; not the four Gospels, the New Testament, or the Bible. Muslims believe that subsequently, the Injil became the greatly corrupted text now known as the New Testament by Christians. Also called Injil Sharif, or Noble Gospel. Cf., tabdil, tahrif.

in-sha-al-Lah — “If Allah wills”; phrase often said as plans are made, or in hopes of something happening

interpolation — inserting extra material into an existing document, altering or falsifying the meaning, thus corrupting the original

Iqamat-as-Salat — the performing of salat (prayers) by every Muslim: men in congregation in the mosque, women at home, five times a day, and in just the same way (by all the rules) as did the Prophet Muhammad

iqra — recite; the recitation of divine revelation

Isa — Arabic for Jesus; in the Qur’an, Jesus is called Kalimat Allah, “the Word of God,” “the Breath from God,” and “a prophet of the Book,” and is considered by Muslims to be one of the five or six authentic prophets, rasul. Cf., Yesua. For Christians, Jesus is God’s Son, which is an offensive concept for Muslims.

Isa al-Masiih — Jesus Messiah

Isawa — a sect of Islam in northern Nigeria which exalts Jesus (Isa). Cf., Millat Issawi, Muslimun Issawiyun

isha — evening meal; time of the fourth ritual prayer of the day

Ishmael — Ismail, father of the Arabs and the first son of Abraham, by his wife’s maid, Hagar of Egypt. Muslims believe Ishmael, not Isaac, was the son of God’s promise to Abraham. He and his mother moved to the Valley of Mecca, where Abraham joined him to rebuild the Ka‘aba.

iskoki — originally a pagan possession cult which became included in Islam (Hausa of North Nigeria)

islam — peace, purity, submission, obedience; submission or surrender to the will of Allah

Islam, al-Islam — submission; Islam is the monotheistic faith and practice of Muslims, as revealed to Muhammad and in the Qur’an. It has both official, theological, ethical, and organizational expressions, and extensive, pragmatic, indigenous, informal constructs of beliefs and practices. Cf., folk Islam, popular Islam

124 Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 Islamic lunar calendar — lunar calendar, started at a.d. 622 as the year a.h. 1. Cf., Hijra

Islamic Fundamentalism — Muslim militant movement; resurgence or revolution in doctrine, politics, and life. It advocates return to the union of orthodox Muslim religion and the state, based on Shari’a law. It has arisen in response to disenfranchisement, secularization, and Westernization; and is variously evidenced by the call for idealistic reforms or rebellion against government, fanaticism, dogmatism, or antagonism. isma — preservation; in particular, the preservation of the prophets from all sin; or at least from all major sins; their impeccability al-isma al-husna, al-asma al-husna — “the nicest names”; the ninety-nine Beautiful Names (or attributes) of Allah, mostly derived from the Qur’an; for many Muslims, belief in Allah devolves largely into magical use of his names; cf., subha. As distinguished from Muhammad’s Noble Names. ismah — inerrancy; a quality of a prophet of Allah in the transmission of Allah’s revelation

Ismail — Ishmael

Ismailis, Ismailiyas, Ishmaeli — a sect of the Shi’ites, also called the Seveners, who split over the identity of the seventh Imam, whom they believe was Ishmael (Ismail), the son of Abraham. isnad — witness or chain of authorities through whom (by oral and written narration) the traditions of the prophet Muhammad were handed down from his lifetime; those who transmitted the hadith

Israfel — one of four archangels, with Gabriel, Michael, and Azrael

Issawiyun — the word used to describe a Muslim who exalts Jesus; can be translated “Jesus-ite” istikhara — asking favors; a salat appealing to Allah for guidance in a certain venture; a divinatory practice of opening the Qur’an at random, or counting out prayer beads (subha). ittakala — trust; the trust of commitment to Christ iyah (plur., iyat) — cf., aya (plur., ayat) izar — seamless white cloth, wrapped around loins to knee level, by pilgrim on the Hajj or Umrah. Cf., ihram, rida

J jadoogar — village magician (Iran) jadu — black magician (Afghan Turkestan)

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 125 Jahannam — Hell, hellfire. Place of eternal punishment after death. Cf., Judgment Day

Jahiliyyah — ignorance; the Period (Times) of Ignorance, in pagan, polytheistic nomadic Arabia, before Islam, before the revelation of Allah to Muhammad; practices that existed then or were inherited from that time. Cf., Allat, Al-Uzza, Hubal

jaiz — canonically permissible deed, mubah

al-Jalil — Most Majestic; one of the names of Allah

jallabiya — long dress worn by men and women in Arab countries. Cf., djellaba

jami — mosque; Muslim house of worship; cf., Baitullah, masjid

al-Jami al-Sahah — cf., Muslim

Jamrah, Jamrat (plur., Jimar) — during the Hajj, the ceremony at Mina; a ritual stoning with pebbles of one of three small stone stele representing Iblis and his powers of temptation; recalls Abraham’s turning from the Devil’s suggestion that he not sacrifice Ishmael

Janna — Paradise; abode of peace, Islamic understanding of Heaven, where Adam and Eve first lived, and the place to which the true slaves of Allah will return. Cf., Yawn al-Akhir

al-Jazuli — poet who wrote the litany, Dalail al-Khayrat

Jerusalem — direction of prayer prior to Hijra

Jibril, Jibrieel — Gabriel; archangel by whom Allah sent down his books to Muhammad

jihad — struggle for the faith; an inner struggle for remembrance of Allah, or expenditure of effort for his way. Also, fighting with word or sword for the cause of Allah against his enemies or unbelievers; Islamic religious or holy war; sometimes regarded as the sixth Pillar of the Faith

jinni (male), jinniya (female); (plur., jinn) — separate species of spirits, below angels and above humans, created by Allah from fire; some evil, like demons, but others helpful. Strong component of folk Islam. Intensely jealous of humans, they seek opportunities to injure them. They inhabit the human domain and are specifically territorial, having subtle bodies that can change by metamorphosis or enter people and things. Described by effect (cf., khafi [concealed], ghul [destroying], afrit [rolls in the dust], ghashi [one who faints]); or whether the person is struck or possessed (cf., madrub, majnun, maklu, maqyus, marid, maskun, masqut, matrush, mushar [plur. musharum]); or given specific names (cf., Al, Aisha Quandisha, Umm al-Subyan). Cf., az ma bihtaran, haduk al-nas, hamzad.

jizyah — tribute, tax; a head tax imposed on Jews and Christians or non-Muslims living in an Islamic state and enjoying its protection (aman, dhimmi)

Judgment Day, Last Day — cf., Yawm al-Akhir, Munkar, Nakir; iman

Juma, Jumah, Jumuah — Friday congregational prayer at noon; salat al-Jumah, prayer assembly; Yawm al-Juma, day of assembly

126 Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 juzw — one of the divisions of the Qur’an into thirty equal parts for memorization purposes

Ka‘aba, Ka‘bah, Ka‘ba — cube; cubical shrine (Beit-Ullah, House of God) inside the Al Masjid-al-Haram (the Grand [Great] Mosque) in Mecca, with the Holy Black Stone, al-hajarul-aswad, a black meteorite, in the corner, which was kissed by Muhammad, and Muslims since his time who make the Hajj; the House of Allah or the Holy House is believed to have been built by Adam and repaired by Abraham and Ishmael. For Muslims, the center of the universe, toward which they turn in prayer. kafir, (plur., kuffar) — ungrateful, unbeliever, or infidel; one who rejects the message of Islam, or blasphemes. Opposite of mumin, believer. Cf., mushrikun kalam — speech; academic theology; Muslim dialectics; Kalam Allah (“Word of God”); also scholastic theology discussed rationally

Kalam Allah, Kalimat Allah —“Word of God”; one of the titles of Christ (Isa) in the Qur’an. Not a term used by Muslims to refer to the Bible. kalima — the word; the Creed or confession of the Muslim, as in, kalimat al- Shahada, the word of testimony. Cf., Shahada, Five Pillars of Islam karama — miracle; authenticating sign of a saint.

Karbala — city in Iraq, center of Shi’ism; site of martyred Imam Hussein’s (al- Husayn) tomb. Some Shi’ites make the Hajj to Karbala rather than to Mecca. al-Karisi — the Red; name of a jinniya (Turkey) kebira — great sins; cf., sin, danb, hadd, kufr, mushrikun, shirk

Khadija, Khadijah — Muhammad’s first and only wife until her death. She was the first to believe in the Prophet and to accept the message he brought from Allah. khafi — concealed; species of jinn, described by the effect of its attack

Khalid Ibn al-walid — a great warrior who planned the defeat of the Muslims at Uhud, but later converted to Islam and became one of the most famous Muslim generals

Khalifah, Khaliph — Caliph khamsa — five; refers to five fingers of the human hand, used in a protective gesture: extended toward the potential inflicter of the glance of the evil eye

Al-Khamsah — the five compilers of hadith: Abu Dawud, Nasai, Tirmidhi, Ibn Majah, Ahmad. Cf., Al-Arbaah, Ath-Thalathah

Kharijites, Khawarij — first puritanical and militant sect of Islam; Seceders

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 127 khatam al-anbiya — end; seal; the last and greatest of all prophets, Muhammad; khatimah

khatib — cleric who delivers khutbah

khatimah — khatam al-anbiya

khattat — calligrapher; one who draws figures for the purpose of exorcism by making an incantation (Sudanese)

khimar — cloth worn by woman to cover her head and neck

khitan — circumcision; rite of passage

“khudh al-baraka min al-mawlid” — “take the baraka from the mawlid”; reason for celebrating the birthday or deathday of a holy man

khumrah — kneeling mat of sufficient size to accommodate the face and hands during the prostrations of salat

khutbah — sermon delivered to the congregation by the imam khatib, usually at the Friday prayers. Cf., iman

kismet — fate; qisma (Turkey); maktub, qadaa

kitab (plur., kutub) — book; the religious books. The doctrine of Allah’s books has largely turned into the practice of bibliolatry among Muslims.

al-Kitab — The Book; the Qur’an

Koran — less preferable spelling of Qur’an

kudiya — female practitioner; interpreter of dreams

kufi — skullcap

kufr, kufur — blasphemy; the ultimate evil of disbelief in God, his signs, and any of the articles of Islamic faith; rejection of revelation, thanklessness, atheism, apostasy, or infidelity. Cf., danb, hadd, kebira, mushrikun, shirk, sin

L “La ikraha fil-dini” — “There is no compulsion in religion”; the Qur’anic saying (Sura 2:56) and Islamic ethos against an insistent, dogmatic orthodoxy

“La ilaha illa al-Lah” — confession of faith, or recitation of the Creed; first part of the liturgical expression, the Shahada: “There is no God but Allah.”

Lailat al-Baraa — Night of Liberation; fifteenth of the month of Shaban (Iran)

Lailat al-Miraj — Night of Ascension; of the Prophet Muhammad from Jerusalem into the “Seventh Heaven”; Nocturnal or Night Journey; on twenty-seventh of Rajab. Cf., Miraj

128 Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 Lailat al-Qadr — Night of Power; date Muhammad received his first revelation from Allah; twenty-seventh day of Ramadan. The last ten days of Ramadan are thought to be a time when Allah listens, either directly, or through the archangel Gabriel, to requests concerning the altering of one’s fate (kismit, qisma). langgal — prayer house or mosque (Yakan of Philippines) langsuyar — ghost of a woman who has died in childbirth, feared at such a time (Malaya) lanzil — the sending down of books from heaven

Last Day — Judgment Day, Yawm al-Akhir; cf., iman lesser Hajj — cf., Umrah

Levant — former name of East Mediterranean area (modern-day Israel, Lebanon, parts of Syria and Turkey)

M maddar-e — mother of (Iran) madhab, madhhab, (plur., madahabib) — judicial system or rite; school of law, or interpretation, for ordering religious and community life in Sunni Islam. There are four: Al-Shafi, Hanaf, Hanbali, and Malik.

Al-Madina, Madinah, Madinat al-Nabi, Madinat al-Rasul (Medina) — Medina madrasah — school; originally, school of cannon law; generally, refers to an Islamic school, one that emphasizes Qur’anic studies madrub — the state of being severely struck by jinn maghza, (plur., maghazi) — holy battle, or place it happened, or deeds of ghazi (Allah’s fighter)

Maghreb, Maghrib — sunset, Arabic for the direction west; generally applied to West North Africa, centered on Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia; evening salat magpandi-pandi — washing ceremony (Yakan in Philippines) magtammat — ceremony to mark the end of a child’s Qur’anic studies; rite of passage (Yakan in Philippines) magtimbang — weighing ceremony for persons born in month of Safar (Yakan in Philippines)

Mahdi, al-Mahdi — the rightly guided one; the coming Imam, a Messiah-like world leader who will return or appear, to fill the whole earth with righteousness and cause it to embrace Islam. Sunnis still await his initial appearance, while Shi’ites hold that the last Imam, who disappeared in a.d. 874, will someday reappear as the Mahdi.

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 129 mahr — form of dowry, a normal condition of a marriage contract, paid by bridegroom or his family.

Majma al-daawat — Collection of Invocations, by Muhammad Ibn Kiyas al-Din; book dealing with the meaning and interpretation of dreams

majnun — possessed by jinn; generic term for the state of being harmed by jinn.

Makkah — Mecca

maklu — form of temporary possession by jinn

makruh — not approved of, but not punishable.

maktub — written; that which is fated for a person (cf., qadaa, al-qadr, kismet, qisma); determinism, fatalism, indicating responsibility for calamity. Philosophically, according to official Islam, existence for Muslims is fixed; in reality, through pragmatic activities, they seek to rewrite their destinies.

malak, (plur., al-malaik, malaikah) — the ones in authority; angels, created out of fire, faithful servants of Allah; cf., Archangel. The doctrine of angels authenticates a species of beings to whom ordinary Muslims may appeal for assistance.

Malik — angel that guards the gates of Hell and to whom one may appeal for assistance.

Malik, Maliki — madhab; a school of law, or judicial system based essentially on the hadith, with limited use of ijma (consensus)

Malik al-Amalk — name of the Antichrist in Islam; cf., Dajjal

mallam — term for major cleric among West Africans

malvi — Muslim teacher

mana — power, force (Polynesian societies). Cf., baraka

Manasik al-Hajj wal-Umrah — full ceremonial acts connected with the Hajj or Umrah: Ihram, Tawaf, Say, Jamrat

manaya (plur.) — snared with rope; has the connotation of women who snare the doomed with rope; expression for a specific concept of fate

mangubat — one who cures trances (Tausug of Philippines)

Maqam Ibrahim — the sacred stone on which Abraham stood while he and Ishmael were building the Ka‘aba

mansukh — that which is abrogated; that which abrogates is nasikh

manzil — one of seven portions into which the Qur’an has been divided, so as to be recited in seven days

maqyus — form of being struck quite severely by jinn

marabout — one who has joined himself to Allah; holy man; North or West African cleric possessing exceptional spiritual powers; religious saint; a charismatic leader of a Muslim religious order. Cf., pir, murabit, wali

130 Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 marid — very strong, aggressive type of jinn who try to kill their victims

Marut — angel (with Harut) with access to the power of shayatin; provides knowledge of magic to men (Sura 2:102)

Maryam — Mary, mother of Jesus (Sura 19) ma sha Allah — “What Allah wills”; expression used to ward off the evil eye; the protective substitute name given the newborn child, to mislead the jinn; indicates a good omen

Mashaf — another name for the Qur’an in handwritten form mashhad — martyrium (Iran), shrine built in memory of a martyr masjid — the place of bowing down, the mosque, the Muslim place of worship; cf., Baitullah, jami

Al-Masjid-al-Aqsa (Bait-ul-Maqdis) — the Grand (Great) Mosque in Jerusalem (Omar, Umar), Dome of the Rock (Sakhra, Al-Aqsa)

Al-Masjid-al-Haram — the Grand (Great) Mosque inside the Haram, near the Ka‘aba in Mecca

Masjid Issawi — a Jesus mosque maskun — state of permanent possession by jinn masqut — state of light, temporary possession by jinn matiyalun — popular healers (Morocco) matn — texts of hadiths, put in book form; Hadith matrush — state of being slapped by jinn maulid, mawlid — birthday; of a saint or prophet; such annual celebrations, with fairs, concerts, animal sacrifices and offerings, occur especially at the shrines of pirs

Maulid al-Nabi, Mawlid al-Nabi — birthday of the Prophet; festal celebration of Muhammad’s birthday on twelfth day of third month, Rabi al-Awwal. Also, a poem (qasida) by Al-Mirghanni, popular at celebrations of the Prophet’s birthday mawlana — from protector; official versed in Islamic theology; theologian of the orthodox hierarchy, employed to give religious instruction mazar — place of pilgrimage; site of religious visits; usually a shrine, as in the tomb of a Muslim saint. Also: mashhad (martyrium); qubba, turba, imamzad (mausoleums)

MBB — abbreviation used to refer to a Muslim-background believer. In many places, calling a convert a Christian would cause offense or even endanger the MBB’s life.

Mecca — Makkah, Bakka, Baca; the birthplace of Muhammad; located in Saudi Arabia, considered the most holy city of Islam. It must be visited by those Muslims physically and financially able, at least once in a lifetime, on the Hajj or Umrah.

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 131 Medina — Madinah, “City of the Prophet,” formerly named Yathrib; city to which Muhammad fled (a.d. 622; cf., Hijra), from Mecca, where he established the Islamic state, and where he is buried under the dome of the mosque; second holiest city in Islam. It is some 260 miles to the north of Mecca. Medina is where Muhammad built the first Mosque. Cf., Al Madina.

messehy — Christian

Messenger of God, of Allah — Muhammad (Sura 53:1–18); the Prophet, the Apostle of Arabia, of Islam

Michael — one of four archangels, with Gabriel, Azrael, and Israfel

mihrab — prayer niche in the qibla wall of the mosque, indicating the direction of the Ka‘aba in Mecca, toward which the Muslim should bow in prayer

Millat Issawi — churches as Jesus fellowships; cf., Isawa, Muslimun Issawiyun

Mina — pilgrimage site outside of Mecca on the way to Arafat; cf., jamrah

minaret — tower of the mosque from which the adhan (azan) is made by the muezzin (muadhadhin)

minbar — the raised pulpit in the mosque, on the qibla wall, from which the Friday sermon is delivered

miqat, (plur., mawaqit) — prescribed stations on the approach to Mecca for performing preliminary rites (assuming ihram) in preparation for the Hajj or Umah

Miraj — ladder, way of ascent; Muhammad’s Ascension, of his soul and his body; or Lailat al-Miraj, Night (Nocturnal) Journey to the Seventh Heaven

Al-Mirghanni — writer of qasida, Maulid al-Nabi, subtitled, “The divine secrets about the birth of the most honorable human creature.”

Mishkat — collection of the most reliable hadith; an eclectic arrangement of traditions used extensively by Sunnis in India and Pakistan

Mogul, Moghul, Mughal — member of the Muslim dynasty (of Mongol origin) which ruled in a section of India, a.d. 1526–1857. Urdu mughal. Persian mugul. Sometimes given as “mongol.”

Mohammedan, Mohammedanism — misnomers for Muslim and Islam, based on mistaken idea that the religion of Muslims is the worship of Muhammad (“Mohammed”), a concept vehemently denied by Muslims

momo — midwife (Uzbekistan)

Mongol — n member of the peoples of nomadic origin who inhabited Mongolia, and established the Mongol Empire in the thirteenth century. adj pertaining to Mongolia, or the Mongols, or their culture and language

Monophysite — one who believes that Jesus Christ has a single inseparable nature that is both human and divine

Moses — Musa, Speaker with God. Cf., rasul

mosque — form of masjid, the Muslim house of worship, especially for Friday prayers

132 Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 Mothers of the Believers — Muhammad’s wives; Sura 33:6, 53b muadhdhin — caller of the adhan (azan); he who calls to prayer, pronouncing the adhan loudly; cf., muezzin, minaret

Muawaiya — relative of Uthman, governor of Syria, leader of Umayyad tribe (at the time of the murder of the fourth Caliph, Ali), who became the fifth Caliph, according to Sunnis, causing a major split in Islam, as the Shi’ites, or followers of Ali, separated from the Umayyads. He established the Caliphate in Damascus; eventually succeeded by his son, Yazid, who had killed Ali. mubah — canonically permissible deed, jaiz muezzin — the cantor who gives the call to prayer from the minaret of the mosque. Cf., adhan, azan, muadhdhin mufti — superior judge, interpreter of Islamic law for Sunnis

Muhajir, Muhajirun — emigrants; those who went from Mecca to Yathrib with Muhammad or in his lifetime; one who emigrates for Allah’s sake, or quits all that Allah has forbidden.

Muhammad, Mahomet — praised; the Chosen One, the Prophet and founder of Islam, considered by Muslims to be khatam al-anbiya, the Seal (last) and greatest of the Prophets, or Last Messenger of God (Rasul-Ullah). Born a.d. 570; died a.d. 632. Sometimes written, Mohammed. Cf., Ahmad; Prophet of Allah, of Islam

Muharram — that which is forbidden, therefore, sacred; New Year’s festival, the first month of the Islamic calendar. Cf., haram mujaddid — the Mahdi; the messiah, as defined in Islamic doctrine and belief mujahid (plur., mujahidin) — a Muslim who exerts himself on behalf of the faith, especially a fighter in a holy war, or jihad mujiza — a special miracle granted to a prophet in confirmation of his mission mujtahidun (plur., mujtahid) — independent religious scholars who follow only those religious opinions proved from the Qur’an and the Sunna, the dogma of the Shi’ites. mulla, mullah — term for major cleric among Persians, Iranians, northern Indians, and Pakistanis; Shiite Muslim religious leader. In popular Islam, the practitioner of magic and crisis rites multazam — that to which one is attached; part of the wall of the Ka‘aba to which pilgrims try to “attach” themselves in embrace mumin — believer; in contrast to an unbeliever, kafir

Munafiqun — hypocrite Muslims, a Medinan party tolerated by Muhammad

Munkar — with Nakir, the two angels who subject men to fearsome questioning about their faith after their deaths (Sura 47:27). Cf., Yawm al-Akhir munkir — one who rejects or conceals the truth murabit — one who has joined himself to Allah; a living saint. Cf., marabout, wali

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 133 murid — a Sufi novice, or aspirer, under the guidance of a murshid; Or a member of a Sufi brotherhood or tarika, founded by a pir (saint); he has the function of giving guidance on all matters.

murshid — guide; Sufi spiritual guide who has himself achieved communion with God and is the preceptor of those who aspire to such, especially in Pakistan and India

Musa, Moses — Speaker with God; the prophet of God through whom the Taurat was revealed; cf., rasul

Musa Ibin Uqba — third generation biographer who deliberately accelerated the process of idealizing Muhammad

mushahara — from shahr, a month; complex customs of Egypt dealing with sickness; evil force akin to the evil eye

mushar — state of being lightly struck by jinn

mushrikun — those who worship other powers besides Allah, thus repudiating Islam; polytheists, pagans, idolaters, unbelievers. Cf., danb, kufr, shrik, sin

Muslim — one who submits; one who is surrendered to Allah; a follower of Islam, a believer in Allah and Muhammad as his Prophet. Sometimes written Moslem.

Muslim — (a.d. 817–875); one of two premier collectors (with Al-Bukhari) of hadith; his important collection, called Al-Jami al-Sahah, contains 12,000. Cf., Al-Shaykhan; Ath-Thalathah, Al-Arbaah, Al-Khamsah, As-Sittah, As-Sabah

Muslimun Issawiyun — submission to Jesus movement; cf., Isawa, Millat Issawi

Mustafa — the Elect; one of the names by which the Prophet Muhammad is commonly known.

Mustafa Kemal, Ataturk — (1881–1938) founder of the modern republic of Turkey (1922), formerly an Ottoman general. Cf., Caliphate

muta, mutah — in early Islam, temporary marriage, especially for those soldiers away at war; arranged by contract according to specific guidelines; sanctioned by Shi’ites as having Qur’anic validity; thought by others to be cancelled (abrogated)

muta awwaqa — cutting of the flower, process designed to free a woman from history of problems in childbirth, by bringing bad luck on the qarina

Muttalib — Muhammad’s family, from his paternal grandfather Abd al-Muttalib, who raised Muhammad from age six to eight

muttaqun — righteous person who fears and loves Allah much (does many good deeds, abstains from evil)

134 Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 N nabi, nebi — prophet; informant sent by Allah with his message, or to proclaim the will of Allah. Cf., Nur i-Muhammad, rasul nadhir, nadhr — warner

Nafisa — female relative of Muhammad thought to be a potential mediator with God nafra — from to flee; protective amulet nakibas — plural form of the word for the head of an Islamic religious brotherhood

Nakir — with Munkar, the two angels who subject men to fearsome questioning about their faith after their deaths (Sura 47:27). Cf., Yawm al-Akhir namaz — prayers; the daily salat in India

Naqshbandi — one of the four major orders of Sufism

Nasai — one of the four compilers of hadith with Abu-Dawud, Tirmidhi, and Ibn Majah. Cf., Ath-Thalathah, Al-Arbaah, Al-Khamsah, As-Sittah, As-Sabah nasib — set up; descriptive word for fate, in which death is not involved nasikh — that which abrogates; that which is abrogated, mansukh nazar — glass replica of a blue eye, hung to ward off the evil eye (folk Islam) nazil — sent down; how the Qur’an was revealed verbatim to Muhammad; tanzil

Nebi Isa — the Prophet Jesus

Nejran — territory in southern Arabia, modern-day Yemen

Nestorian Church of the East — Christian practice which maintained a vigorous presence in Persia just prior to the rise of Islam; largely responsible for the missionary work which took the gospel to Arabia, India, Turkistan, and China. Named after fifth century bishop who was wrongly alleged to hold that two distinct persons existed in Jesus Christ, one human, one divine, which was the position held by the Nestorians.

Night Journey — cf., Lailat al-Miraj nikah — conjunction; marriage contract, or the religious rite which, according to Islamic law, validates the marriage

Nisfu Shaban — Middle of Shaban; the fifteenth of the month of Shaban

Noah — Nuh, Preacher of God; cf., rasul

No Ruz — New Day; a joyous New Year’s festival of Zoroastrian origin, celebrated as an annual feast by Shi’ites (Iran)

Nosrani (plur., Nasara) — Christian; the root word is from Nazarene. Designates the European, or conqueror in North Africa. Also has the connotation of one’s being a second-class citizen.

Nur al-Nur — the Light of Light; name which applies to Allah and by which Muhammad may be invoked

Nur i-Muhammad — Light of Muhammad, from which Allah made the rest of creation, and which each prophet manifested to a certain degree. Cf., nabi, rasul

nusub, (plur., ansab) — stone altars on which sacrifices are offered to obtain favor from, or to honor, pirs, saints, angels, jinn, etc

O occult — hidden; supernatural realm of magic or witchcraft; practiced in Sufism, folk Islam, and popular Islam

Omar — Umar. Cf., Al-Aqsa, Al-Masjid-al-Aqsa, Sakhra

omissions — removal of text passages from the original, thus corrupting it

Ottoman Empire — Turkish empire established in the late thirteenth century in Anatolia, eventually extending over Southwest Asia, until 1922. Cf., Mustafa Kemal

P pagans — polytheists; mushrikun

pamumutika — diviner of sicknesses (Tausug in Philippines)

pandai — midwife and healer (Sulu Samals)

pangu-ngubat — medicine-man (Philippines)

Paradise — place the souls of good people go after death, Heaven, Janna. A garden, with feasts and compliant maidens (hurin, houris) to enjoy. Cf., Yawm al- Akhir

Partial Manuscripts — New Testament manuscripts dating between the years 100 and 325 AD. They are copies of different books of the New Testament in Koine Greek not collected in one volume.

pawang — practitioner who employs familiar spirits in divination (Malaya)

pbuh, PBUH — abbreviation of the term for the tasliya, which is, “Salla Allah al ayhi wa sallam” (s.a.w.), a phrase of blessing meaning literally, “May Allah bless him and grant him peace,” or “Peace be upon him.” Used by English-speaking Muslims when reference is made to the name of Muhammad or another prophet. Since pbuh does not give the full meaning, some recommend using s.a.w. in writing.

People of the Book, the Scriptures — translation of the Qur’anic phrase, Ahl al- Kitab, which refers to the Jews and Christians, those who have holy books. Cf., aman, dhimmi

Period of Ignorance — cf., Jahiliyyah

Persia — ancient empire (500 – 330 b.c.) in Southwest Asia that stretched eastward from the East Mediterranean Sea to the Indus River (in present-day Pakistan)

Pilgrimage — Hajj

Pillars (Arkan) of Faith, Five Pillars of Islam, Arkan al-Islam — the five religious duties: Creed, Prayer, Fasting, Alms, Pilgrimage

1. The witness or recitation of the Creed; Shahada

2. The saying of prayers at the five specified times of day; salat

3. The keeping of the fast during the month of Ramadan; saum

4. The giving of 2.5 percent of one’s income to the poor, or for religious causes; zakat

5. The pilgrimage to Mecca and its environs at least once in one’s lifetime; Hajj

6. Sometimes, an additional Pillar is the jihad, struggle for the faith or holy war. pir — elder, wise person; holy man of Eastern Islam; Sufi saint, spiritual guide, medicine man; founder of a Sufi brotherhood (tarika), especially in Pakistan and India. His functions are to make intercession and bestow baraka. Position is often hereditary. Cf., marabout polytheism — worship of more than one deity. Cf., pagans, shirk, mushrikun; danb, kufr, sin popular Islam; cf., folk Islam — addresses the issue of power, rather than information, for the ordinary Muslim. Since the official faith and hierarchy fails to address everyday problems and felt needs, substitute authorities are found in the local, accessible, pragmatic practitioners of folk Islam, individuals who seem to have proven abilities in manipulating and controlling alternative forces of power. Popular Islam is both non-ethical and not accountable. power encounter — confrontation of evil powers, revealing the Living God in a visible manner power evangelism — premeditated use of power encounters and miracles in evangelism as a method to convince people of the truth of the gospel practitioner — informal leader (male or female), healer who oversees crisis and cyclical rites for Muslims, makes up charms, talismans, herbal medicines; writes prayers; deals with spirits prophet — person who is divinely inspired. Cf., rasul, al-rusul

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 137 Prophet of Allah, of Islam — Muhammad, Messenger of God (Sura 53:1–18); the Apostle of Arabia, of Islam

purdah — curtain or veil. Refers to the seclusion of women from the time of puberty, so they will not mix with anyone but close relatives and women friends.

Q qabila — midwife; popular female soothsayer, especially in Morocco

qadaa, qadar, qadr, qisma (kismet) — measuring, fate: divine preordainments, the determination of all things by Allah; his decree of good and evil as expressed in the hadith; the Islamic understanding of predestination, that the timeless knowledge of Allah anticipates events (maktub)

qadi — judge; in both Islamic religious and civil courts

Qadiri — one of the four major orders of Sufism

al-qadr, al-taqdir — doctrine of predestination; cf., qadaa, qisma, kismet, maktub

qalib — a well

Qari, (plur., Qurra) — early Muslim scholars and teachers

Qarin — one who performs Hajj-al-Qiran

qarina (female), qarin (male); (plur., qarinat) — the one united; the spirit double, or counterpart, born into the supernatural world at the birth of the human baby; a familiar spirit.

qasida — traditional Arabic poem, usually having a rigid, tripartite structure; extols the Prophet and is used in festival devotion. Cf., Maulid al-Nabi

qibla — anything opposite; the direction of salat, or of any significant official rite, toward the Ka‘aba in Mecca; provided by the mihrabs (prayer niches) in the qibla wall of the mosque

qisma (kismet) — dividing; lot, fate, destiny; cf., qadaa, maktub

qiya — analogical reasoning; principle of jurisprudence, derived from reason and analogical judgment, for the deduction of new rules; the fourth source for the Shari’a. Qiyas are the body of opinions.

qraya — popular reading of the Qur’an, especially during the sacred month of Ramadan

qubba — a domed mausoleum

Qur’an (Koran) — recitation; Sacred Book of Islam; its sacred text is said to be the uncreated, final, complete (and without errors), inspired word of Allah, (“Divine Speech”), his final revelation to mankind, sent down (nazil, tanzil) to be “a guidance and a mercy” (Sura 16:64); revelation transmitted to the prophet Muhammad by the archangel Gabriel over a period of 23 years; corresponds

138 Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 perfectly to the eternal original (or part of it) in Heaven. The Arabic text is sacred (Sura 16:103), so its exact perfect meaning cannot be captured by translations, called interpretations, or commentaries. First collected into book form by Zayd, under Uthman, a.d. 634; official version, approved a.d. 657. Powerful in its intrinsic baraka to protect. Cf., Mashaf; batini, zahir

Quraysh, Quraish — the descendants of Ishmael, son of Abraham; financially, the most important tribe in Mecca prior to Islam; the tribe of the Prophet Muhammad; responsible for the Ka‘aba qurban — the sacrifice offered at Id al-Adha the day after pilgrims stand on Mount Arafat in Mecca

R Rabb — Lord; most commonly used title for Allah; often in, “Lord of all the Universe (Worlds).”

Rahim, al-Rahim — Most Merciful; the second of the Beautiful Names (qualities) of Allah

Rahman, al-Rahman, Ya-Rahman, Raman — The Gracious, or Merciful; the first of the Beautiful Names (qualities) of Allah rakat (sing., raka, rakah) — from ruku; the salat or full cycle of prayers, or sets of rakas, composing a particular service; ascriptions of glory to Allah, recitations, and various movements and gestures consisting of bowings (ruku), and prostrations (sujud) raksi — compilation of the numerical values of peoples’ names, as spelled in the Arabic alphabet; used for divination, such as in matching potential husbands and wives (Malaya)

Ramadan — sacred month of saum, the fast (the ninth in the Islamic lunar calendar, “the best of all months”), when the Qur’an began to be revealed to Muhammad; cf., Lailat al-Qadr. Now devoted to the Saum, the third Pillar, during which a Muslim is supposed to fast from sunrise to sunset. Ramadam means the scorcher, suggesting it originally fell in summer. Cf., tarawih ramal — fast walking by men (not women) in first three rounds of Tawaf; also, diviner (Afgan Turkistan) ramy — throwing pebbles in the Jamrat at Mina rasul (plur., rusul) — apostle; messenger; a prophet sent as messenger with a revelation from God; Sura 6:83–86; 4:163–65. Muslim tradition lists 124,000 prophets, but five or six are the most prominent: Muhammad (Rasul-Ullah, Messenger of Allah), Apostle of God, Seal (Last) of the Prophets; Noah (Nuh), Preacher of God; Abraham (Ibrahim), Friend of God; Moses (Musa), Speaker with God; Jesus (Isa), Word of God. Some add Adam, Chosen of God; Isaac, Ishmael (Ismail), Jacob, Jonah, and David (Dawud). Cf., Nur i-Muhammadi, nabi; al-rusul

al-Rauf — the Merciful; name which applies to Allah and by which Muhammad may be invoked

rawdah-khani — festival including passion play of martyrdoms at Karbala, Iran

Resurrection — Yawm al-Akhir

rida — seamless white sheet worn around upper part of body by pilgrim on the Hajj; cf., Ihram, izar

Ridwan — angel that guards Paradise and to whom one may appeal for assistance

Riyadh — Saudi Arabian capital

ruh, rih — a spirit; in folk Islam, a spirit of a toilet or bathroom

Rukn — the essential ceremonies of the Hajj

ruku — to prostrate oneself; from rakaa, to bow down; kneeling in obeisance during prayer; part of a rakat, composing the salat, ritual prayers

al-rusul — apostles; prophets; the doctrine of Allah’s apostles mainly deals with their interaction with the supernatural world. For many Muslims, prophets are more appealing than angels, because of their reputed willingness to intercede with Allah.

ar-ruqyah — recitation of any Sura of the Qur’an (“Divine Speech”), while blowing one’s breath with saliva over the sick person, as a means of curing disease

S As-Sabah — the seven compilers of hadith: Al-Bukari, Muslim, Abu Dawud, Nasai, Tirmidhi, Ibn Majah, and Ahmad. Cf., Al-Shaykhan; Ath-Thalathah, Al-Arbaah, Al- Khamsah, As-Sittah

sadakat, sadaqah, sadaqat, sadaga — true, sincere; charity; voluntary alms to the poor, given to acquire merit. Cf., zakat

sahaba — companions of the Prophet Muhammad

sahhara — sorceress; popular practitioner

Al-Sahihan — cf., Al-Shaykhan

sahn — great open space or courtyard of the mosque

sahur — meal eaten before dawn, at the start of the fasting period, during the month of Ramadan. Also written suhur, which has an alternate meaning.

Sakhra, al-Sakhra — the Rock; the sacred rock in Jerusalem, on which the Mosque of Umar (Omar), Al-Aqsa, Al-Masjid-al-Aqsa, or Dome of the Rock, is built; from which Muhammad reputedly made his assent to the heavens (Lailat al-Miraj). It is

Saladin, Salah Eddin — (a.d. 1137–1193) the outstanding Muslim general who defeated the Crusaders at Hattin, near the Sea of Galilee salam — peace; a greeting of peace; kneeling in ritual prayer

“Al-salamu alaykum wa rahmatu l-Lah” — “Peace be with you and the mercy of Allah”; terminal point in ritual prayer, recited by worshipper salat, salaat, salah — ritual prayer; a format of liturgical texts, and fixed gestures and postures, for a total of seventeen prayers, toward Mecca, required five times a day, either in a mosque or in private; the second of the Five Pillars of Faith. Cf., Iqamat-as-Salat. salat al-istikhara — prayer for conciliating favor; special prayer for divining favorable future through dreams salat al-jumah — prayer assembly; Friday noon congregational prayer sanduq al-nudhur — box for vows; box at a saint’s shrine into which are placed written vows of supplicants.

Sarafiel — the being closest to Allah, closer even than the archangel Gabriel; his intercession with Allah offers the ordinary Muslim hope. s.a.w. — abbreviation of the tasliya, which is “Salla Allah al ayhi wa sallam,” words of honor and salutations attached to the name of Muhammad; literally means “May Allah bless him and grant him peace.” Cf., pbuh, PBUH as-Saum, sawm — the fasting; the third Pillar; from before dawn (the Adan of the Fajr) to sunset; performed during Ramadan and at other times. Implies abstinence and the moral inspiration derived therefrom.

Say — ceremonial running seven times between the hills Safa and Marwah outside of Mecca during the Hajj or Umrah, in honor of Hagar and Ishmael. It is believed that Hagar pleaded with God here until he caused water to spring from the Well of Zamzam.

Sayyid, Seyyed — master; a title for descendants of Muhammad; or refers to one who has a possessing zar spirit (not normally exorcised).

Seal of the Prophets — Muhammad

Semite — of the lineage of Shem

Seven Covenants of Suleiman — amulet, supposed to protect against evil, to win love, to bless one’s business activities, and to produce health and prosperity. In the writing, the jinniya, Umm al-Subyan, states for the prophet Suleiman the covenant terms by which she will refrain from touching the sons of Adam and the daughters of Eve. seyh — professional healer (Turkey)

Al-Shafi — the madhab, or school of law, which applies a more liberal interpretation of the Qur’an, and stresses ijma (consensus), and the rights of the community

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 141 shafi, shafaah — intercessor; saints because they are mediators with Allah for ordinary Muslims. Many Muslims believe special permission to be intercessor was granted to Muhammad, as the Qur’an names him to be “a mercy to mankind.”

Shahada, Shahadah, Ash-Shahadah — testimony; to bear witness; confession of faith, or recitation of the Creed in the liturgical expression, the Shahada: “La ilaha illa Allah, (wa) Muhammad rasul Allah”; that is, “There is no God (none has the right to be worshiped) but Allah, and Muhammad is the Prophet (Apostle, Messenger) of Allah.” Making this confession before two witnesses initiates one into Islam. First of the Five Pillars of Faith; repeated in the salat. Cf., tashahhud

shahid, shaheed (plur., shuhada) — witness, martyr; one killed fighting for the faith, witnessing by his death

shaikh, shaykh, sheikh — old man, chief, head, leader; title of respect for Muslim cleric or leader. Leader of a tribe, Sufi order, or religious brotherhood

shamanism — the activities of folk Islam practitioners, such as medicine men (shamans), involving magic, prayers to saints, use of charms, amulets, curses, and incantations

Shams al-Maarif al-Kubra — handbook of al-Buni (d. a.d. 1225), which continues to influence the practice of magic in the Arab world

Shari’a, Shari’ah, Sharia, Shariat — the straight path; codification of rules and principles; fundamental law of Islam, the constitution of the Islamic community; the divine will applied to every situation in life. It is derived from the Qur’an, the Hadith, and the Sunna of the Prophet Muhammad; the ijma, or general consensus of judges representing the community; and qiyas, analogical reasoning derived from preceding cases.

sharif — Muslim in direct line of descent from the Prophet Muhammad; one who inherits his baraka

shawwafa — fortune-teller

shaykha — female zar practitioner, thought to have power over the spirits. She oversees the crisis and cyclical rites of popular Islam, especially for women.

Al-Shaykhan — the Two Shaikhs; the two premier compilers of hadith, Al-Bukhari and Muslim, referred to as Al-Sahihan, The Correct Two, emphasizing their authority in Islamic literary heritage. Cf., Ath-Thalathah, Al-Arbaah, Al-Khamsah, As-Sittah, As-Sabah

shaykh-muashir — a shaikh who is on intimate terms with someone; saint honored by a shrine named after him, as designated in a holy man’s dream, but not the place where the saint is buried

shayatin, (plur. of shaytan) — devils, demons, evil spirits. Suleiman (Solomon) is known as Lord of the shayatin, having control over them (Sura 38:37).

Shaytan — the one who opposes, Satan; Iblis, the Devil

al-Shaytanul-Kabir, al-Shaytan al-Kibir — the Great Devil; third small pillar (stele), representing Satan, at which seven stones are thrown, an integral part of pilgrimage procedure. Cf., Jamrat, Hajj

Shema — liturgical expression of the creed of the Jews: “Shema Yisrael, adonoi

142 Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 alaheynu adonoi achud,” “Hear, O Israel! The Lord is our God, the Lord is One!” (Deut. 6:4)

Shi’ism; Shi’a, Shi’ite (plur., Shi’as, Shi’is, Shi’ites) — followers; from Shi’at Ali (fourth Caliph), the Partisans of Ali, minority Islamic sect, the branch of Islam (in contrast to Sunnis) that holds that the true leadership succession from Muhammad is from Ali, Muhammad’s son-in-law and first cousin, and of the twelve Imams descended from Ali; also called, Ithna Ashariyah, the Twelvers. Most Muslims in Iran, Iraq, Syria, Yemen, Pakistan, and Lebanon are Shiite. Other Shi’as are Seveners, or Ismailis, who conclude with a different seventh Iman, Ishmael (Ismail), who they believe will return as the Mahdi; found in India and East Africa. Others are Fivers, who hold that the Imamate passed to Zaid, second son of the fourth Iman, Ali; found in North Yemen. Approximately ten percent of all Muslims are Shi’ites. shirk — association; associating partners to Allah or worshipping other deities, so as to impugn Allah’s absolute uniqueness, the unforgivable sin in Islam, considered polytheism, pantheism, or Trinitarianism. Cf., danb, sin, kufr, mushrikun shukr — gratitude, thankfulness; to deny shukr is kufr, disbelief in Allah

Siddiq, Siddiqun — “those followers of the Prophets who were first and foremost to believe in them, like Abu Bakr As-Siddiq, the martyrs and the righteous” (Sura 4:69)

Sihah Sittah — the six collections of the six compilers of hadith, As-Sittah

Sijjin — from sijn, prison; a deep pit in which is kept the book in which the actions of the wicked are recorded sin — in Islam, original sin does not exist; sin is over-stepping Allah’s boundaries. Sins are mistakes that can be offset by good works. Cf., danb, hadd, kebira, kufr, mushrikun, shirk sirat, seerat — the bridge over Hell, sharper than a sword and thinner than a hair; metaphorically, the narrow path to Heaven. Those judged not to have accomplished sufficient good deeds will not be able to successfully complete the transverse of this bridge to Paradise, but will be thrown off into Hell. sirat, sirah, seerah — the conduct of Muhammad in his wars, his biography as recorded by his companions; a part of the hadith

As-Sittah — the six compilers of the hadith: Al-Bukari, Muslim, Abu Dawud, Nasai, Tirmidhi, Ibn Majah; their six collections are called Sihah Sittah. Cf., Al-Shaykhan; Ath-Thalathah, Al-Arbaah, Al-Khamsah, As-Sabah souq — market subha — prayer beads, designed to assist in recitation of the ninety-nine Beautiful Names of Allah, but more commonly used in the divination, istikhara

Subhan Allah — “Glorified is Allah.”

Sufi (Sufism) — Muslim mystic who renounces worldly attachments, and seeks and claims direct communication with, experiences of, and spiritual union with Allah, through a series of special rites and ecstatic awakenings of his inherent, but dormant, emotional spiritual faculties. In contrast to orthodox Islamic monotheism,

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 143 Sufism tends toward pantheism (Allah is in all things), absorption (becoming one with Allah, dhikr, tauhid), and deification of Muhammad. Cf., haqiqa, tarika. From the word for the coarse woolen mantle, suf, worn by early ascetics.

Suhrawardi — one of the four major orders of Sufism

Suhoof, Suhuf — pages of Abraham; cf., Books of God

suhur — meal at dawn at start of period of the fast; cf., futur; also, witchcraft, sorcery

sujud — prostration; part of a rakat; high point of ritual prayer (salat)

Suleiman (Solomon) — prophet, lord of the shayatin; stands out because of his power over demons and jinn. Cf., Seven Covenants, Bilqis

Sunna, Sunnah — said, custom; the legal orders, practices, actions, and traditions of the Prophet Muhammad, as transmitted and recorded in the hadith. The Hadith, the corpus of these traditions, is considered the authoritative model to be followed, and supplements the Qur’an. Therefore, the Sunna is the path, manner of life; the way of faith and conduct as followed by the Islamic community.

Sunni, Suni — the major orthodox branch of Islam, about ninety percent, who follow the sunna of their forefathers. Since Sunna in Arabic means the path, it was given to those who followed Mu’awiya in his dispute with Ali. In contrast to the Shi’ites, followers of Ali, they believe that the true leadership succession from Muhammad is found in the four Caliphs: Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali. In the nineteenth century, the Wahhabi Sunnis started a major reform movement in Arabia.

Sura, Surah, Surat — row or series; one of a series of revelations; a chapter of the Qur’an; there are 114. Divided into verses or ayat, iyat (sing., aya, iyah)

sutra — that by which something is concealed; an article placed in front of a person who is engaged in prayer toward Mecca, used to prevent invalidation of prayers by an unbeliever or evil spirit

Syria — the country on the Eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea. Its capital is Damascus.

T taawidh — amulet (Afghanistan)

tabdil, taghyr — change; used especially of a textual change or corruption in the biblical text, tahrif.

tabib — medicine-man (Yakan in Philippines)

tabii (plur., al-Tabiun) — one who met or accompanied any companion of the Prophet

ta ethne (Greek); kol goyey (Hebrew) — all the nations, all the people groups,

144 Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 Gentiles, tongues, languages, peoples, tribes, clans, families of the earth; Gen. 12:1–3, 18:18, 22:18, 26:4, 28:14; Ps. 67; Isa. 49:6; Dan. 7:14; Matt. 24:14, 28:19–20; Gal. 3:8; Rev. 5:9–10, 7:9–10, 15:4. Distinct ethnic groups, linguistically and culturally separate, each with a unique worldview, including behavior, values, and belief system. tafsir, tafseer — explaining, exegesis; commentary on the life of Muhammad, and especially on the Qur’an, and by which it is interpreted taghut — anything worshiped other than Allah; all the false deities; thought by some to include saints, graves, and leaders, as falsely worshipped and followed. Cf., wali, baraka taharah — purification; state of ritualistic purity tahrif — the Islamic doctrine that Jews and Christians have corrupted the original text of their Scriptures, the Taurat and the Injil; tabdil tair — a bird; used in the Qur’an to refer to fate (maktub, qisma)

Taj al-Muluk — The Crown of the Kings; a book of magic revered as a kitab by Malay Muslims takbir — magnification; exaltation of Allah in salat: reciting, “Allahu Akbar,” “Allah is the Most Great.” talajabin — diviner (Afghan Turkistan) talla — diviner of jinn (Morocco) tamima — from to be complete; a type of amulet tampot — shrine dedicated to patron saint, site of annual pilgrimage (Yakan and Tausug in Philippines) taqdir — Allah’s subjection of all mankind and history; cf., qadaa, al-qadr, maktub al-taqdir, al-qadr — doctrine of predestination taqiya — dissimulation; practice of hiding one’s religion, formally sanctioned by Shi’ism taqwa — piety; of a pious or virtuous character, being god-fearing tanzil — sending down; revelation of Qur’an, verbatim to Muhammad, from Heaven; nazil tarawih — special optional prayers in the evening, in sequences of twenty, said during the month of Ramadan, usually corporately tarika, tariqa (plur., turuk) — way, path; complete submission to divine way; Sufi order or path followed to achieve direct experience (gnosis) of Allah; haqiqa tashahhud — the testimony; giving of one’s testimony, the Shahada; professing the faith, the Creed, the first Pillar tashkir — magic, supposedly of spiritual variety taslim — reciting the phrase used in greeting, “Assalamu aleikum wa rahmatullah

tasliya — term for the phrase, “Salla Allah alayhi wa sallam,” “Allah bless him and grant him peace,” used when reference is made to a prophet; cf., pbuh, s.a.w.

tasmiya — giving a name; naming ceremony

tauhid, tawhid — term used to express the unity of Allah, the only God; the absolute oneness of Allah; Islamic monotheism, its fundamental basis. For Sufis, absorption or unity with Allah, or man’s integration by means of the realization of the One God. In orthodox Islamic terms, proclaiming the unity of Allah. Salvation for the Muslim is the purity or totality of this belief, the expression of personal and social integration under Allah’s will. Includes three aspects of belief: in the oneness of the lordship, worship, and names and qualities of Allah.

Taurat, Tawrat — the Arabic name for the holy book given to prophet Moses according to the Qur’an. the Law, or Torah, from the Jewish Scriptures, considered by Muslims to be true revelation from God through and to Moses. Presently, Muslim Imams claim it is Not the Old Testament or Pentateuch. Cf., tabdil, tahrif

Tawaf — circumambulation of (walking around) the Ka‘aba seven times during the Hajj or Umrah

Tawaf al-Ifadah,Tawaf ul-Wada — the Tawaf made before leaving Mecca after performing the Hajj or Umrah, heralding pilgrimage’s end

taziya — a consolation; the annual Shiite procession in Karbala commemorating al-Husayn’s death; also, a model of his tomb carried in the procession at the feast of Muharram

Ath-Thalathah — the three compilers of hadith: Abu Dawud, Nasai, and Tirmidhi

tikkhana — house of curing; after the death of a saint who lived at that site, the building is considered to be a place of healing (Pakistan)

Tirmidhi — one of the three compilers of hadith, with Abu Dawud and Nasai. Cf., Ath-Thalathah, Al-Arbaah, Al-Khamsah, As-Sittah, As-Sabah

translations — Muslims consider translations of the Qur’an inferior to the sacred Arabic text; many think that various Bible translations are contradicting Bible versions.

Trinity, Tri-unity — Christian doctrine that God is one and manifest in Father, Son, and Holy Spirit; for Muslims, often a major objection

Tuareg — the abandoned of God; nomadic, Muslim, Saharan desert tribe

turba — mausoleum

Two Shaikhs — Al-Shaykhan

Ulama, Ulema (sing., Alim) — the learned; for Shi’as, the collective body of Islamic scholars of theology or law, the custodians of Islamic dogma, who make legal interpretations for—and regulate the lives of—the community, and have the temporal authority (since the Imamate), to interpret the Qur’an. For Sunnis, the authoritative principles arrived at by the consensus of Muslim scholars. um, umm — mother of

Umar, Omar; Umar Ibn al-Khattab — one of the bravest and most important men of the Quraysh, an early convert to Islam, Muhammad’s father-in-law, and principal advisor to the first Caliph, Abu Bakr. Later, the second Caliph (a.d. 634 to 644), according to Sunnis; he greatly influenced the course of Islam and authorized assembly of the first codification of the Qur’an. Cf., Omar, Al-Aqsa, Al-Masjid-al- Aqsa, Sakhara

Umayyads, Umayyid — after the murder of the fourth Caliph (Ali, in a.d. 659), the Sunni mantle returned to this tribe (house) and its leader, Muawaiya, the fifth Caliph (a.d. 661–681). He established the Caliphate in Damascus (a.d. 661), and the Umayyad dynasty ruled there until a.d. 750. umma, ummah — community; the relationship group of family, religion, nation, race, occupation, or common cause; the worldwide Muslim community, the people of Islam; umma dun al-nas, a community apart or distinct from other men. Also, the community of Islamic scholars. al-umma al-islaamiya — The Muslim Nation

Umm al-Subyan — named jinniya; a loathsome, invisible woman whose presence destroys, chief voice in the Seven Covenants of Suleiman (amulet)

Umrah — visit to Mecca during which Tawaf and Say are performed; the “lesser Hajj”; cf., Ihram, Manasik al-Hajj wal-Umrah urs — marriage; the union between a pir and Allah at the time of his death; celebrated by his disciples on the anniversary date. Also denotes the annual religious meeting held by a living pir.

Uthman — Muhammad’s cousin, member of Umayyad tribe, one of the first Muslim believers, and the third Caliph (a.d. 644–656). The final canonical editing of the Qur’an took place under Uthman

Al-Uzza — pagan goddess worshiped in the Period of Ignorance; most venerated idol of the Quraysh tribe; received human sacrifices. Cf., Allat

wadi — channel of a water course, normally dry, except in the rainy season

al-Wadud — love; ninety-third name of Allah

Wahhabis — conservative branch of Sunni Islam (founded by Muhammad Ibn Abdal-Wahhab, a.d. 1703–1792), dedicated to strict interpretation of Islamic law, especially strict social codes; responsible for strong, contemporary reform movement throughout the Islamic world, such as the Muslim Brotherhood (Egypt), and Islamic Society (Pakistan). Today Wahhabis control the holy places of Mecca and Medina in Saudi Arabia. Cf., Hanbali

Wahid — The One; “Same God for All”; sometimes used interchangeably with Ahad: the Islamic negation of any number other than one, as in the three of Trinity; the denial that Allah has any partner or companion associated with him

wahy — divine revelation; inspiration by Allah of his Prophets

wahy ghayr matlu — unread revelation; received by Muhammad, by which he was able to make authoritative declarations, which became the hadith

Waihaka — “May Allah be merciful to you.” Literally it means; “Be alert for Allah’s wrath.”

wajib — omission of duties that are obligatory (fard)

Walaka — “Woe upon you!”

Walhan — devil who presides over ablutions and prayer

wali (plur., awliya) — a near one; protector, guardian; “friend of God.” Saint veneration (and vow-making to saints) is important in Islam; cf., baraka, taghut. Also: shafi (intercessor), shaykh (leader), pir (wise person), marabout, or murabit (one who has joined himself to Allah), murashid (guide)

waqf — to dedicate to; the endowment a Muslim leaves at his death for a specific purpose; in Turkey, evkaf. The Ministry of Waqfs is the system established in Islamic countries for the administration of alms.

wasilah — means of approach or achieving closeness to Allah by acquiring his favors

Warsaw — devilish insinuation, temptation, obsessed with delusions; a state precipitated by a death in the family or some other shock

wood — ablution; limited ceremonial cleansing performed before prayers or circumambulating of the Kayaba, in which the hands up to the elbows, feet, and head (face, ears, nose, mouth, hair) are cleaned with water

wuquf — station before Allah; most important phase of Hajj or Umrah ceremony, held on the ninth day

148 Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 Y yaqin — perfect absolute faith ya satir — from satara, to cover; the expression used when a visitor requests his host’s permission to use the toilet yasmak gunu — day of the veil; female rite of passage (Turkey)

Yathrib — the name of the city of Medina before the arrival of Muhammad

Yawm al-Akhir — The Last Day; Day of Justice; Day of Judgment, Yawm al-Din; Day of Resurrection, Yawm al-Qiyamah; when the world has ended and the dead risen, the final trial, based on records kept, will occur; when the reward (Paradise, Heaven), or punishment (Hell) is meted out. Cf., Munkar, Nakir, Janna, iman

Yawm al-Juma — day of assembly; Friday

Yesua, Yesuua — Arabic name for Jesus, from the Hebrew root. Isa is the Qur’anic name for Jesus.

Z Zabur — the Psalms; name applied to the Scriptures (or the book) God revealed to the Prophet David (Dawud)

Zaid, Zayd, Zayd ibn-Harithah — Muhammad’s freed slave and adopted son. Muhammad took Zayd’s wife Zainab as his seventh wife. zahir — literal or apparent meaning of the Qur’an as opposed to batini, the hidden meaning zakat, zakah, zakaat — to be pure, purification; means of purifying one’s soul; statutory religious offering or alms tax, which must total of 2.5 percent of one’s yearly income, given for the cause of Islam and to the needy, and in expiation of what a Muslim retains. Fourth of the Five Pillars of Faith. Cf., sadakat

Zalambur — devil who presides over markets

Zamzam — the famed sacred well on the grounds of the Haram, the Grand (Great) Mosque of Mecca, from which every pilgrim on the Hajj desires to drink or take away a portion; traditionally, the lifesaving spring of water God provided for Hagar and her son Ishmael when they were wandering in the wilderness; cf. Say. Zamzam water, considered holy, is used in various purification rites. zanadiqah — atheists zar — a possessing spirit keeping one in bondage, not normally exorcised but part

Sahara Challenge | © Crescent Project 2021 149 of everyday life and decision-making. Zar spirits determine the form of feminine spiritual experience in folk Islam. Also, a ceremony connected with exorcism, commonly practiced in North Africa. Cf., Sayyid

Zayd b. Thabit — Muhammad’s aide and scribe; assembled the first codified revelations to Muhammad, as the first text of the Qur’an, in a.d. 634 under Abu Bakr; from scattered sources, chiefly the memories of his companions, the huffaz (cf., hafiz)

ziyara — visitation; visit to tomb of Muhammad or grave of any saint

Zoroastrianism — religion in ancient Persia founded by the prophet Zoroaster; preserved in the Avesta (their scriptures), as monotheistic worship of Ahrura Mazda (Lord Wisdom) and an ethical dualism between truth and lie. Almost totally supplanted by Islam. Ahrura Mazda is a dualist god who performs both good and evil.

zuhr — noon salat, third ritual prayer of the day