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“Islamic” Dress? Evidence from the Internet Generation

“Islamic” Dress? Evidence from the Internet Generation

KHIL{A 3 (2007-2009), pp. 1-16. doi: 10.2143/KH.3.0.2066219

Is There an “Islamic” ? Evidence from the Generation

Heather Marie AKOU Indiana University

Get your Islamic direct from , the Holy Land of . Highly trusted by customers around the world since 1999. www.desertstore.com

Famous for creating unique designs, SHUKR was the first to introduce contemporary styled for a new generation. www.shukronline.com

In 1999, desertstore.com registered with the Jeddah family from Lebanon to Australia, produces “spe- Chamber of Commerce and became the first cialized to the Muslim female.” e-commerce business based in Saudi Arabia1. In 1995, for a chapter in Dress and Ethnicity, Within just a few years, Saudi Arabian Airlines con- Joanne Eicher and Barbara Sumberg recognized tracted the company to supply its official . items of dress such as “, sweatshirts, T-, It was also chosen to be an official supplier trench , , , , , shirts, for the 2006 Asian Games in Doha, Qatar (which , business , school uniforms, and athletic attracted hundreds of athletes from 45 countries). ” as being part of a “world ” system that By 2007, Desert Store was one of the largest online originated in the West5. In this article I ask the retailers of Islamic clothing in the world, reaching question, “Does a similar system exist in the Islamic customers in 118 countries with websites in English world? And if so, what are the parameters?” Are and French. Compare that to McDonalds — one of there garments that can be identified as “Islamic,” the superstars of globalization — which was estab- not just “Arab” or part of some other specific cul- lished in the United States in 1940, but took more ture that belong to? For a 2007 article in than 65 years to reach customers in 117 countries. Fashion Theory6 I argued that there is a “world Desert Store sells some “Arab” styles of dress, fashion” system for Islamic dress, but I did not go such as the iconic checkered head covering for men into detail on what those garments are or how they known as ghutra, kaffiyeh, or smagh (see figure 1), became “Islamic.” What do they have in common complete with igal (offered in four different head in terms of vocabulary and aesthetics? How have sizes) to hold it in place on the head. Most products they blended styles from different cultures into a on the website, however, are described as “Islamic” new global fashion system? or “Muslim.” Is it accurate to call these products This analysis is based on more than seven years “Islamic” dress? Other online retailers make similar of field research on Islamic dress, first with Somali claims. Al Hannah2, based in New Britain, immigrants in Minnesota and then with a diverse Connecticut, offers a “wide variety of traditional Muslim Clothing for you and your whole family.” SHUKR3, based in St. Louis, Missouri (with a fac- 1 “About Us,” www.desertstore.com tory in Damascus, ), aims to provide “quality 2 www.alhannah.com 3 www.shukronline.com fashionable Islamic clothing which Muslims can 4 www.ahiida.com 4 wear with pride.” Ahiida , conceived and run by a 5 Eicher and Sumberg 1995:300. who migrated as a young child with her 6 Akou 2007.

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KH03002.pdf 1 10/06/11 14:26 93399_Khila_3_2007-2009_01.indd 1 7/06/11 16:17 THE INTERNET GENERATION

Advances in online technology, such as secure data transfer, high-speed connections and wireless net- works have revolutionized how many people shop, search for information, and even perform their jobs. EBay, which bills itself as the “World’s Online Marketplace,” is a good example: the concept of an “auction” existed before eBay, but that website has given consumers around the world unparalleled access to many kinds of specialized merchandise and created opportunities for both new and existing businesses. For “sellers” who make a living (or hope to make a living) on eBay, the company offers online tutorials, CDs, and even classes in major cities. In areas where Internet access is widespread, technol- ogy like e-mail, chat rooms and media such as , online newspapers, and YouTube videos have dra- matically altered how people communicate, pay bills, search for information, read the news, and even decide how to vote in elections. A study pub- lished in the Journal of the American Medical Association found that as early as 2001, approxi- mately 40% of respondents in the United States Figure 1. Ghutra (checkered head covering) and igal who had Internet access were using it to gather (black band that holds it in place on the head) from advice or information on health care8. Desert Store, based in Saudi Arabia; author’s personal Globally, however, access to the Internet is highly collection. This is an Arab style of “ethnic” dress for men. uneven. In popular terms this is called the “global digital divide.”9 Out of 6.7 billion people in the world, it is difficult to estimate exactly how many community of Muslims in southern Indiana7. In people have access to the Internet. Factors keeping 2005 I became a direct participant, going to the many off the “web” include extreme poverty; lack with my husband and daughter, attending of access to electricity, computers and networks; Islamic study circles (halaqa) and eventually con- literacy; knowledge of global languages like English; verting to Islam. These experiences have been crit- physical disabilities; and censorship by governments ical to building my knowledge and vocabulary, including Cuba, , North Korea and the People’s enabling me to understand developing trends in Republic of . At the same time, the Internet Islamic dress. I see the Internet as a particularly has created many opportunities for people — espe- important place for gathering data on global trends, cially the young and well-educated — to share ideas since it serves as a place where Muslims from all across geographical divides like never before. In a over the world can share ideas and products. time when many countries are trying to prevent another event like September 11th10 with tighter border security and “no fly” lists, the Internet is a crucial site where people from different countries 7 The largest groups within this community are , Turks and Central Asians (Afghans, Kazakhs, etc…) but it can still interact with little interference. also includes men and women from , In many ways the Islamic world is no different; , Africa, and other parts of Asia. most governments have embraced the technology 8 Baker, et al 2003:2400. and opportunities of the Internet (if not always the 9 See, for example, www.digitaldivide.org 10 Referring to the 2001 attacks by hijacked commercial jets content). In effect, this has allowed Muslims to cre- on the World Trade Center in New York and the Pentagon ate a new “virtual community” that intersects with in Washington, DC the West, but meets the unique needs and desires

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KH03002.pdf 2 10/06/11 14:26 93399_Khila_3_2007-2009_01.indd 2 7/06/11 16:17 of people who practice Islam or claim a Muslim out interest, or even arrange a that satisfies identity. To a certain extent, the idea of a global local laws as well as the principles of Islam. community of Muslims without cultural or national For Muslims, most often for women living in borders (the umma) has always existed. The , Europe, Australia, and North America, the Internet for example — one of the fundamental practices or can also be an important source of clothing. Some “five pillars” of Islam — has been bringing together from local stores — like dusters, tunics, Muslims from diverse cultures since the earliest and wide-legged jeans — are modest enough that days of the . Historian Caesar Farah has they easily fit the requirements of Islam. In other observed that for those who participate, the cases, clothing can be adapted, for example, by to brings “a keener awareness of wearing pants under a short or a long- the power of Islam which can bring together each under a shorter one. Other fashions be year men and women of so many different nation- reserved for times when only family members or alities and races. This is one of the strongest forces women are present18. SHUKR designs “Islamic” working for solidarity among Muslims devoted to fashions, but is very mindful of blending styles from their faith.”11 The ability to carry out this ritual, different cultures to meet the needs and desires of a however, has always been uneven. Physical disabil- diverse, global clientele. ities, family obligations (especially for women), and financial difficulties have prevented many Muslims We aim to produce designs … which are suitable from making the pilgrimage. Until air travel to wear to school, college, and work, as well as to became widespread and relatively affordable, the the mosque and Islamic events. We at SHUKR journey was time-consuming and even dangerous see this as a necessary development in our grow- for many pilgrims12. ing self-identity as Muslim Americans, Muslim Access to the Internet is also uneven (as well as Canadians, and Muslim Europeans. Whilst hab- being largely determined by age and social class), its of dress are only one aspect of this growing but as prices drop and the technology spreads, more and developing collective self-identity, it is an and more people are getting a chance to use it. The important aspect, because how one looks on the term “Internet Generation” is sometimes used in outside often reflects a lot about how one feels on the West to describe young people (born starting in the inside. SHUKR … encourages all Muslims the mid-1990s) who grew up with home computers to take an active part in this quest for Islamic and the Internet13. This might be a more recent phe- authenticity in the new environments which we nomenon in many parts of the Islamic world, but have been destined to live in19. the impact is still being felt. Islamicity.com, for example, which bills itself as the “Global Muslim eCommunity,” offers translations of the Qur’an in WHAT MAKES DRESS “ISLAMIC”? 23 languages ranging from Albanian to , a searchable database14, 24-hour audio and Any list of what constitutes Islamic dress is bound video feeds from Al-Jazeera (in English as well as to be somewhat problematic. The only words used ), CyberTV, discussion boards, links to online retailers, a matchmaking service, recipes, screensav- ers, and a “donation gateway” for giving 11 Caesar Farah 2003:150. (charity). As of 2007, the website was getting 14 12 Tschanz 2004:4. 15 16 million hits a year . On icTunes (remarkably sim- 13 See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Generation for ilar to iTunes), consumers can download Islamic an example of how this term is being used in marketing, the media and popular culture. lectures and music from around the world. Much 14 17 A compendium of the Prophet Mohammed’s “sayings” or like Amazon.com, Astrolabe Islamic Bookstore commentary on his lifestyle as recounted by his family sells books, CDs, videos, toys, computer software, members and companions; part of the basis for Islamic law cards and gifts, as well as specialized merchandise (shari’a) like clocks that keep track of prayer times and 15 http://www.islamicity.com 16 http://www.ictunes.com announce the adhan (call to prayer). Other websites 17 http://www.astrolabe.com offer guidance (especially for Muslims in the West) 18 Somashekhar 2005:B01. on how to find food, obtain a mortgage with- 19 http://www.shukronline.com, “About SHUKR”

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KH03002.pdf 3 10/06/11 14:26 93399_Khila_3_2007-2009_01.indd 3 7/06/11 16:17 for clothing in the Qur’an were khimar (head cov- be integrated with the demands of modernity.”23 At ering) and jilbab (a long garment covering the the same time — partly in response to these stereo- body)20, but even those were not described accord- types — a new image of what contemporary, cos- ing to design, color, fabric, etc… Therefore, it can mopolitan can look like is develop- be argued that most forms of dress worn by Muslims ing through Islamic media outlets such as Al-Jazeera today are cultural or individual interpretations of and Muslim Girl magazine. Islamic fashion shows what is required in Islam. Eicher and Sumberg’s list have even been staged in a number of countries of what constitutes “world fashion” is no less prob- including Indonesia, Iran, and the United lematic. Blue jeans and athletic shoes, for example, Arab Emirates. In Turkey, designers for a popular are clearly Western because there were created and Islamic dress (tessetür) manufacturer called Tekbir, popularized in the United States, but what about “regularly visit international fashion shows and garments like trousers and shirts? How can “trou- fairs. They follow Turkish, Western, and Asian sers” be defined and where did they come from? fashion trends and adapt them to acceptable and Using Eicher’s definition of dress as including “body desirable local styles. They regularly organize fash- supplements” and “body modifications,”21 a very ion shows and develop glossy catalogs.”24 Özlem basic definition of trousers might be “a bifurcated Sandıckı and Güliz Ger have argued that this kind supplement that covers the lower body.” Clothing of research and branding is a critical sign of like this has existed for hundreds if not thousands market maturity. Advertising is directed not just at of years both inside and outside what is now consid- the “pious woman” but at the “modern consumer.”25 ered the West. Sirwal, a term for a garment still Although Turkey is a leader when it comes to fash- worn in the and South Asia that fits ionable Islamic dress, this is truly a global trend. In the same definition as “trousers,” was reported to be a statement on “Islamic Fashion,” the California- in use as early as the 7th century CE, as recorded in based retailer Artizara notes, “…we strive to keep up the hadith s.22 with the trends whether it be the new colors of the One of the things that Eicher and Sumberg did season or the latest cuts of , but do not believe discuss was some of the features that hold Western in following the trends slavishly. We modify current fashion together as a system. These include media styles to conform to modest clothing norms and such as MTV and Cosmopolitan magazine, Paris, create our own of hip and trendy ‘Islamic , fashion shows, and the “business Fashion.’… The result is styles that are truly unique, suits” that are part of international corporate cul- and say something about who you are.”26 ture. At a deeper level, the Islamic world has ways of Within the basic principles of Islamic dress lies a defining what a “Muslim” is and what is keeping great deal of room for various interpretations as well the umma together: the Qur’an and hadith s; the as differences in color, fabric and style. For men, the Arabic language; and rituals like salat (formal requirements are fairly simple: clothing should prayers), fasting for , and the Hajj. Over cover the body from the navel to the knees and the last century, events like Turkey’s repeated bans should not be transparent or tight-fitting (so as not on Islamic dress, the (1979) — to reveal the outline of what has been covered). which forced everyone in Iran to wear Islamic dress Many Muslims would expand that to include pro- — and ’s ban on “conspicuous religious sym- hibitions on gold or anything gold-colored, , bols” in public schools (2004) have created a grow- cologne with alcohol, leather made from pigs, or ing division between Western and Islamic dress. anything “feminine” such as a or . In the West, Islamic dress is often depicted as Shoes are not worn indoors and men often wear “oppressive” and Muslim values as being “unable to some kind of head covering during prayers or when entering a mosque. Growing a beard and dyeing facial with henna are considered sunna, optional 20 El Guindi 1999:139. (but beneficial) practices that fall in line with the 21 Eicher 2000:422. lifestyle of the Prophet Mohammed. Men who have 22 El Guindi 1999:140; Farah 2003:191. completed the Hajj often shave their heads at the 23 Yaqin 2007:176. 24 Sandıckı and Ger 2007:204. end of the ritual and sometimes keep them shaved 25 Ibid:197. for years. For daily prayers, both sexes are expected 26 http://www.artizara.com to maintain a state of cleanliness.

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KH03002.pdf 4 10/06/11 14:26 93399_Khila_3_2007-2009_01.indd 4 7/06/11 16:17 Principles of dress for women include covering Muslims — when going to a mosque, performing the entire body except for the face and hands while prayers (salat), and especially during the Hajj, since avoiding anything that is transparent, tight-fitting, non-Muslims are forbidden to participate. The most or too “masculine.” These rules are relaxed when simple garment for men that indicates Islamic iden- women are alone with family members or at gather- tity is the (see figure 2), also known as kufiyya ings where the sexes are segregated. In practice, or . This “body supplement” is essentially a there is a range of opinions on what can be consid- without a brim. It often fits closely to the head, ered “modest” dress. Some women cover their arms but can also stand up a few inches. The material for and legs but forgo wearing a head covering when the kufi is generally flexible so it can be folded and not performing prayers or going to a mosque. tucked away when not in use. Although not required, Wearing a covering over the face (niqab) is contro- these head coverings tend to be white since that versial since many Muslims consider it optional or color conveys piety and cleanliness. even demeaning to women. Wearing jewelry Another “Islamic” garment for men is the galabi- (including gold) is allowed, but other practices such yya, also known as jalabiyya, dishdash, tobe, or qamiz as avoiding perfume with alcohol and removing (figure 2). Around the arms and chest it fits like a shoes indoors are the same for both men and women. -down shirt (the kind that would be worn Another source of debate concerning women’s dress with a Western business suit), however it has a is over exactly how much jewelry and ornamenta- stand-up and the hemline extends to at least tion is acceptable. “Beauty” (jamil) is one of names of , so dressing beautifully could be seen a means of honoring the source of beauty. On the other hand, the Qur’an and hadith s caution believers against wastefulness, ostentation, and sex- ual attraction outside the bounds of marriage27. This is a major difference from Western fashion, where — at least for young women and “metrosex- ual” men — sexiness is considered an acceptable or even desirable feature of dress. For example, the website “Babies N Bellies” proclaims that it sells, “Crazy, Sexy, Cool Maternity Clothes.”28 This kind of sentiment — portraying mothers as public objects of sexual desire — is absolutely contrary to the prin- ciples of Islamic dress.

NAMES AND STYLES OF GARMENTS

So what are the names and styles of garments that can be considered Islamic? To a certain extent, this could include any garment worn by a Muslim that fits the basic requirements of Islam, regardless of where it originated. For men, in fact, there are not many styles of “Islamic” dress because globally there are so many options available. Western “world fash- Figure 2. Kufi (also known as kufiyya or taqiyah) ions” like business suits, t-shirts, and loose-fitting head covering from Desert Store; with galabiyya tunic blue jeans are easily modest enough to fit the (also known as jalabiyya, dishdash, tobe or qamiz) requirements of the religion and are common in and sirwal (pants) for men from SHUKR; many parts of the Islamic world. In areas of East author’s personal collection. Africa and Southeast Asia are very common for men, even though this is considered a woman’s garment in the West. There are some situations, 27 Sandıkcı and Ger 2005:75-76. however, where men want to be clearly identified as 28 http://www.babiesnbellies.com

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KH03002.pdf 5 10/06/11 14:26 93399_Khila_3_2007-2009_01.indd 5 7/06/11 16:17 the knees. Desert Store customizes these to the buy- from navel to knees. Other garments have the er’s instructions, requesting a size, neck size MuslimGear logo (figure 3) in script that resembles and length29. Often, this garment is worn with the Sean John logo (a brand of hip hop clothing pants known as sirwal or salwaar, which fit loosely popular in North America) or display some other around the thighs and taper down at the ankles. A allusion to Islam. One t-shirt, for example, says “I drawstring closure makes it comfortable for a range know my role model” (referring to the Prophet of sizes and body types, enabling easier movements Mohammed). Another says salaam (peace) in sev- during formal prayers (salat). This ensemble is a eral languages including Arabic, English, Hebrew common sight at Friday prayers (jum’aa) in the West and Chinese. A t-shirt sold by the Shop and is worn on a daily basis in countries like Iran (based in London)32 displays a quote from scholar and . The collar and length of the galabiyya Abul Hasan Nadwi, “The need of the hour is make it clearly “Islamic” and distinct from Western that your life should be revolutionised. The revolu- fashion. In most cases, the fabric is a subdued, solid tion should not be an individual one but a collec- color such as white, navy blue, black, brown, khaki tive one. The change should be concerning your or olive green. beliefs, your morals, your actions, your dealings, Clothing for the Hajj, known as , is espe- your decisions, and your efforts. Your life in every cially important since the garments are clearly way should become a beacon of guidance and it Islamic but also different from styles of clothing should become a means for dawah [inviting others worn on a daily basis. For men this consists of two to Islam].” These shirts are very similar to Western identical pieces of white cloth approximately seven fashions, but convey a Muslim identity. One of feet long (214 cm) and four feet wide (122 cm). One MuslimGear’s customers in the United States of them (izar) is wrapped and tucked around the posted the message: “Why would anyone want to lower body; the other (rida) is arranged over one or both shoulders, depending on the temperature and stage of the pilgrimage ritual30. Snaps are allowed to keep the garments fastened, but any kind of is not. In the twenty-first century the fabric is expected to be white and is usually made from cot- ton terrycloth to absorb sweat. Although the cloth should be new (unworn), the place where it was manufactured is not so important; a set I purchased from Desert Store, for example, has “Made in China” labels. Since the purpose of these garments is to erase social distinctions, the only other cloth- ing allowed is a or small bag to hold possessions (like a passport) and a pair of plastic . All of these garments for men — the kufi, gala- biyya, and ihram garments — have existed for cen- turies, but new Islamic fashions for men (especially young men) are being developed. MuslimGear, based in Montreal, , sells t-shirts, sweat- shirts, and “beanies” (knit )31. Although the garments themselves are Western, the shorts are longer than usual so can they cover the wearer

29 http://www.desertstore.com, “Islamic Clothing for Men” 30 Textile Research Centre (TRC), Leiden), “Dressed in Figure 3. “” and long-sleeve t-shirt for men from ihram?”. http://www.rmv.nl/publicaties/19hajj/e/fr_pub. html. Leiden 2005. Muslim Gear; author’s personal collection. The shirt says 31 http://www.muslimgear.com salaam (peace) in several languages including Arabic, 32 http://www.thehijabshop.com English, Hebrew and Chinese.

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KH03002.pdf 6 10/06/11 14:26 93399_Khila_3_2007-2009_01.indd 6 7/06/11 16:17 wear Nike or Tommy [Hilfiger] when they have non-Western37. At the same time, there are still MuslimGear? Something made by Muslims for many kinds of “traditional” or “ethnic” dress (espe- Muslims!” (recalling the African-American brand cially for women) that belong to a limited geo- Fubu, made “for us, by us”). graphic area. MuslimGear, however, is one of the few Islamic One garment of concern to the government of online retailers that sells clothing primarily to men. is the niqab (figure 4), a head covering Most websites are targeted at women; if clothing for from Saudi Arabia that has become popular in other men is included it tends to be a small percentage. Al parts of the world, especially other Arab countries. Hannah, for example, has fifteen pages of clothing Some Muslims would not recognize this as “Islamic” and accessories for women but just one page of dress since most schools of Islamic law do not pro- clothing for men33. Head coverings (hijab) are one mote covering the face; detractors have referred to it obvious need for women that sets Islamic dress as “ninja .” When worn outside of Arab coun- apart from Western dress. Long skirts and loose- tries, however, this garment is clearly not “ethnic fitting garments like tunics and dusters (a dress” but a cosmopolitan influence. The niqab is that extends to at least the thighs) are - usually black — occasionally white, gray or some est enough to fit the requirements of Islamic dress. other solid color — and covers the entire head, leav- At the same time, for a woman there are two major ing just a slit for the eyes. Often, this is paired with problems with relying on “world fashion” to fill out an (figure 4), a full-length body covering that a : long skirts and tops are not always in also spread from Saudi Arabia. This -like gar- style (or available year-round), plus many garments ment is worn as an outer layer (presumably over that look appropriate at first glance have problems clothing that is not as modest), covering the arms like 3/4-length or a slit going up the back of down to at least the wrists and the legs down to the a long skirt. A press release by Artizara notes that ankles. In Saudi Arabia, the abaya is compulsory for “Artizara long skirts fall to the ankle or below and women, regardless of citizenship or religious affilia- never have slits, yet are roomy enough to move tion38. To completely cover the body, this ensemble comfortably. In line with today’s trends, we offer is sometimes worn with solid-color gloves and circle skirts, embroidered skirts, tie dye skirts and opaque ; an additional layer of sheer fabric beaded skirts in a variety of styles… We also offer might be used to cover the eyes. This ensemble long skirts that are hard to find without should not be confused with the head-and-body slits.”34 In countries that are primarily Muslim this covering known in as chaadaree39 (pic- kind of modest clothing is easy to obtain, however tured on the cover of Fadwa El-Guindi’s mono- a company like Artizara might still be appealing graph, ) which drapes down over the whole because it has a cross-cultural, cosmopolitan flair. body and covers the eyes with a screen. Since it has For Muslims living in the West, these retailers are not become popular outside of , the satisfying a unique market that has not been catered chaadaree should be considered “ethnic” dress and to before. not “Islamic” dress, even though it satisfies religious Determining what constitutes “Islamic” dress is principles. not just an academic exercise. In Uzbekistan, for A style of clothing from South Asia (specifically example, the government makes a distinction and Pakistan) that has expanded to a global between “traditional” head coverings (which leave market is the salwaar kamiz40. This ensemble the face or even the neck uncovered and often have includes pants (salwaar) and a tunic (kamiz) as well colorful patterns) and “foreign” head coverings “of a solid color that are clasped at the front or cover the face.”35 Concerned about the influence of “Islamic 33 extremists,” students, faculty, and administrators at http://www.alhannah.com 34 http://www.artizara.com, “Modest Yet Exceedingly state-run schools and universities have been expelled Fashionable” or even arrested for growing a beard or wearing this 35 McGoldrick 2006:226. kind of “foreign apparel.”36 Globally, there do seem 36 Ibid. 37 to be styles of dress that span across different Akou 2007. 38 McGoldrick 2006:233. cultures—“world fashions” as described by Eicher 39 Daly 2000. and Sumberg, but also world fashions that are 40 Bhachu 2004.

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KH03002.pdf 7 10/06/11 14:26 93399_Khila_3_2007-2009_01.indd 7 7/06/11 16:17 Figure 4. Niqab (head covering) from Hijab Girl Figure 5. Salwaar (pants), qamiz (tunic) and (http://www.hijabgirl.com) and abaya (cloak) (shawl) for women from Al-Ikhlas (http://www.al-ikhlas. from Desert Store; author’s personal collection. com); author’s personal collection. Note the extensive printing, beading and sequins which make this version appropriate for a special occasion.

as a length of cloth (dupatta) that can be worn as a not always associated by non-Muslims with Islam, shoulder cloth, , or head-and-body covering. the term caftan is widely known in the West since When designed for the Indian fashion market, the this garment was part of fashion in salwaar and kamiz are often close-fitting and reveal the 1970s. the mid-torso; as part of Islamic dress they should In the Qur’an, the words khimar and jilbab are fit more loosely and the kamiz should be at least as general terms for head and body coverings. On the long as the wearer’s thighs. For everyday use, these Internet, however, these garments have specific garments tend to be made of simple or poly- characteristics. The jilbab (figure 7), a style of dress ester fabrics. For holidays — like the Islamic cele- that Turkish women are particularly known for brations of Eid Al-Fitr and Eid Al-Adha — this wearing41, is a calf- to ankle-length that cov- ensemble is often made of more colorful fabrics and ers another layer of clothing. This garment has a decorated with printing, embroidery, and/or bead- little more shape than the abaya (often including ing (see figure 5). The caftan (figure 6), an ankle- darts, and lapels), comes in a wide length, loose-fitting tunic that originated in the range of colors and fabrics, and has down Middle East, is similar in terms of being suitable the front so it can easily be removed indoors in the for both everyday use and holidays depending on company of family or other women. Depending on the quality and decoration of the fabric. Although the cut, fabric, and details like buttons, the jilbab can either be conservative or very fashionable, appropriate for a range of ages. In and Southeast Asia, however, the 41 Sandıckı and Ger 2007: 193. terms jilbab and jelaabib are used for a very differ-

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KH03002.pdf 8 10/06/11 14:26 93399_Khila_3_2007-2009_01.indd 8 7/06/11 16:17 Figure 6. Caftan (ankle-length tunic) from Desert Store Figure 7. Jilbab () for women from Jelbab.com with head covering from Arabesque; with hijab pinned at the neck from Hijab Al-Muminat; author’s personal collection. author’s personal collection.

ent garment — a solid-color, opaque head covering the word hijab means to “cover, , curtain, veil, that fits closely around the face and drapes down screen [or] partition”, referring not just to clothing over the chest42. Carla Jones has argued that this is but to furnishings like screens, architectural ele- a global Islamic influence; until the 1980s and 90s ments, and amulets designed to protect the wearer “the jilbab had never been common in Indonesia.”43 from harm. 44 El Guindi has noted that hijab “is In the Middle East, this garment is referred to as a not a recent term, but neither is it that old. It is a khimar (figure 8). This head covering can be worn complex notion that has gradually developed a set all day as dress, but some women use it to of related meanings.”45 Online retailers use the cover their hair and chest specifically for prayers. word hijab for a head covering made from a trian- Many websites sell a similar “prayer outfit” or gle of fabric (or square of fabric folded into a trian- “prayer dress” designed for this purpose (see figure gle) designed to be pinned under the chin. Since 9). One example that I purchased from Jelbab.com this is a fairly conservative — even old-fashioned comes with a matching head covering and skirt — garment, the fabric is usually a solid color or has made from seersucker to prevent wrinkling when a subdued floral or geometric design. A more tucked away. It arrives with a package of elastic so it sophisticated look can be achieved by wrapping the can be customized to comfortably fit the waist of ends around the neck. Instead of using a pin, the the individual wearer. Aside from the khimar, there are many other styles of Islamic head coverings including one sim- 42 Akou 2004. ply known as hijab (figure 7) along with new fash- 43 2007: 217. ions like the al-Amira (figure 10), shayla (figure 6), 44 El Guindi 1999:157. and al-Aroub (figure 11). Translated from Arabic, 45 Ibid:152.

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KH03002.pdf 9 10/06/11 14:26 93399_Khila_3_2007-2009_01.indd 9 7/06/11 16:17 Figure 8. Khimar (head covering that also drapes over the Figure 9. “Prayer outfit” made of wrinkle-resistant chest) from Al-Ikhlas with “Zenobia dress” from SHUKR; seersucker with matching head covering and skirt from author’s personal collection. This particular khimar is a Jelbab.com; author’s personal collection. one-piece garment made of Lycra with a edge and decorative beading along the .

ends are tied in a knot and the loose edges are especially for athletic Muslims and for new hijabis tucked in at the neckline; this look recalls Western [covered women].”46 The al-Aroub is made of the fashion icons like Grace Kelly and Jackie Kennedy same materials, but the initial tube is connected to (see figure 12). a long rectangle of fabric; this is simply wrapped The al-Amira or “princess” head covering is eas- around the head and neck and either tucked or ier to wear and more fashionable. Although it can pinned to hold it in place. The Hijab Shop also sells be a one-piece garment, it usually consists of two head coverings for athletes (“sporting range”)47. At pieces: a tube of fabric that covers the hair (like a first glance they look like the al-Amira, but the ten- very wide ) and a second “” that nis hijab, for example (figure 13), is a complex one- frames the face and drapes down to at least the piece garment constructed to fit precisely around upper chest (sometimes longer). The fabric is usu- the head. It locks in place at the neck and chest with ally a light-weight knit made of polyester, Lycra or a a strip of Velcro. The “outdoor” version (for winter cotton-Lycra blend since stretchiness helps keep the sports) is made of red polar fleece and also closes al-Amira firmly in place. Heather’s (based in with a band of Velcro at the neck. Ohio) notes that although the al-Amira was origi- The shayla is another fashionable Islamic head nally from Syria, these head coverings “are popular covering, but much more versatile and therefore in the United States for their of wear and care, more complicated to wear. Generally, a shayla — a rectangular at least six feet (two meters) long and 18 inches (half a meter) wide — is worn with 46 http://www.heathershijabs.com, “Glossary” the same tube-shaped cap as the al-Amira. As the 47 http://www.thehijabshop.com shayla is wrapped over it, going around the head at

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KH03002.pdf 10 10/06/11 14:26 93399_Khila_3_2007-2009_01.indd 10 7/06/11 16:17 Figure 12. Square hijab head covering from Primo Moda with the points tied together and the loose edges tucked in at the neckline, paired with a denim and suede jilbab Figure 10. Two-piece al-Amira or “princess” style head from The Canadian Muslim (http://www.thecanadian- covering from Primo Moda (http://www.primomoda.com) muslim.ca); author’s personal collection. with “tunic” from Hijab Al-Muminat and “skirt” from SHUKR; author’s personal collection. Note the fashion- able leopard skin pattern.

Figure 11. Al-Aroub head covering from The Hijab Shop; author’s personal collection.

Figure 13. “Tennis” head covering from The Hijab Shop; author’s personal collection. This one piece garment closes with Velcro along the neck and chest.

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KH03002.pdf 11 10/06/11 14:26 93399_Khila_3_2007-2009_01.indd 11 7/06/11 16:17 least two times, the scarf is pinned to the tube of fabric to hold it in place. This can be done with hijab pins — long stick pins with decorations like crystals and flowers — with tiny safety pins (which tend to get caught and tear the fabric), or with sim- ple straight pins like the kind used for sewing (these are almost invisible when carefully inserted). For a shayla made of sheer fabric, lace, or net, the tube serves a dual purpose since it can cover the hair on its own. Because of this, the width of the tubes can vary; some are truly like (no wider than a few inches), but others cover the head completely and could be worn by themselves without an al- Amira or shayla. Fabrics for this head covering come in the widest range of fabrics, colors and designs. Some even have elements like beads or fringes that can be strategically displayed. Arabesque, a com- pany based in the owned by two French designers, sells a range of “sheilas” on its website with decorations like brass rings, ribbon bows, and circle tassels (all imported from France)48. The shayla also bridges a divide between Islamic and Western fashion; although not all Western “” are wide enough, some can easily be adapted and worn as part of Islamic dress. This Figure 14. Burqini (burqa + ), a trademark Islamic opens a lot of options for consumers and retailers. manufactured by Ahiida (http://www.ahiida. Since it is not obvious — even to many Muslims com) in Australia; author’s personal collection. There are -how to wear a shayla, websites like Jelbab.com, other Islamic , but this one has just two pieces: 49 pants and a tunic with an attached hood. The tunic and The Canadian Muslim , and even YouTube offer pants tie together at the thighs. instructional videos. As with men’s dress there are also styles of cloth- ing for women that look like Western fashions, but from ultraviolet light up to SPF 50+) and comes in have important modifications that make them two pieces: a pair of pants and a tunic that has an Islamic. Many of these — the sports outfit, tunic, attached hood. The hood covers the neck and hair, jeans, skirts, and — do not have names in leaving space at the back for a bun or ponytail. In Arabic50. Burqini — a trademark of the Australian addition, the pants have loops at the thighs and the company Ahiida51 — is a clever combination of the tunic has strings so the two pieces can be tied Arabic word burqa and the English word “bikini.” together. This keeps the tunic from accidentally This garment (figure 14) is made of the same fabric floating up in the water. Ha≥ema — a Turkish com- used for light-weight surfing gear (giving protection pany with a logo of two jumping dolphins — makes an Islamic swimsuit with four pieces (pants, a jacket, and a two-piece head covering) as well as other kinds of athletic garments for men, women and 48 http://www.arabesque-hc.com children52. 49 http://www.thecanadianmuslim.ca 50 Undoubtedly, there are local translations of these words, The Canadian Muslim sells a three-piece outfit but these kinds of terms are commonly used to sell Islamic with pants, a jacket and a hood that attaches at the dress on a global scale since English is a primary language neckline with a zipper, advertising it as both a swim- of the Internet suit and a “track suit.” Other websites have ensem- 51 http://www.ahiida.com 52 http://www.hasema.com Another sign of global appeal for bles designed for sports like jogging and basketball. Islamic dress — Ha≥ema has websites in Turkish, English, A “sports outfit” manufactured by Ha≥ema (see German and French. figure 15) has a pair of pants and a thigh-length

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KH03002.pdf 12 10/06/11 14:26 93399_Khila_3_2007-2009_01.indd 12 7/06/11 16:17 that comes in six different colors53. Artizara describes many of its “tops” as “tunics” including the “wildly popular embroidered tunic shirt.”54 The company also refers to button-down garments that have the same fit as a “shirt” or a “.” The “Rosa Shirtdress,” for example (figure 16), has long sleeves and extends to the thighs, but it also has a row of tiny glass buttons hidden by a ruffle that runs down the front of the garment. In the United States, this kind of style (a button-down shirt with ruffles) was popular in the 1980s and returned to fashion twenty years later. Another interesting detail of this gar- ment is that the fabric is sheer — a trend in Islamic fashion that flirts with the boundaries of acceptable dress — but it has two layers (one pink, one violet) making the “shirtdress” opaque. It does not need another or “shell” to hide the wearer’s . A “” or “jacket” also has but- tons, but is made from heavier fabric and — much like the jilbab — is designed to be worn with at least one other layer of clothing. The “Essence Jacket” from SHUKR (figure 17), for example, is made of dark denim and extends to the thighs. Although long coats, jackets and are also worn as outer garments in the West, the double-breasted closure makes the version by SHUKR especially modest. Figure 15. “Sports outfit” with matching pants, thigh-length jacket, and head covering manufactured The “skirt” is another garment that looks very by Ha≥ema, purchased from Primo Moda; Western, but when manufactured as part of Islamic author’s personal collection. fashion has subtle differences. One important dif- ference is the length; ankle-length skirts have gone in and out of fashion in the West, but shorter skirts jacket that zips up the front. Both garments are like the “midi” and the “mini” have also been made of polyester, but lined with cotton to absorb accepted as part of Western fashion. The same is sweat. The outfit comes with a one-piece head cov- not true in the Islamic world; ankle-length is always ering (polyester knit) that has a thin band of plastic preferred unless the skirt is being worn with another inside so it makes a crisp line at the forehead. This layer of clothing (like a pair of pants). Because of gives the illusion that the head covering is actually this, designers need to make the skirt practical for made of two pieces like a sleek Turkish-style hijab everyday activities. Skirts manufactured by worn with a matching under-scarf. Aside from the SHUKR, for example, have features like pleats head covering and length of the jacket, this outfit (figure 17), generous A-lines, gores, godets and “cir- would not look out of place in Europe or North cle skirt” patterns. All of these give the wearer a America. greater range of motion without revealing any skin. The “tunic” (figure 10) is another garment that These features also exist in Western fashion, but blends cultures, since the form — a supplement for since they require more fabric and more elaborate the upper body that has long sleeves and extends to sewing, many designers simply put a slit in the back at least the hips — has existed in both the West and or sides of a long skirt. A slit can even be “sexy,” the Islamic world since ancient times. One of the most popular products sold by Hijab Al-Muminat (which offers “Islamic Fashions for the Believing 53 http://www.al-muminat.com/ Women”) is an “embroidered stretch cotton tunic” 54 http://www.artizara.com/

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KH03002.pdf 13 10/06/11 14:26 93399_Khila_3_2007-2009_01.indd 13 7/06/11 16:18 Figure 16. The “Rosa Shirtdress” from Artizara with Figure 17. “Essence Jacket” with box-pleated “skirt” and matching head covering (shayla) held in place with a “crinkle scarf” from SHUKR; author’s personal collection. hijab pin from the Hijab Girl, paired with jeans from Note the length and double-breasted closure of the jacket SHUKR; author’s personal collection. which makes it more modest than many similar garments in Western fashion.

especially when the length is exaggerated. “Jeans” The same is true in Islamic dress. The abaya started also exist in Islamic fashion (see figure 16), but need as a simple (usually black) cloak, but as it became to have a loose fit. This look was popular as part of part of a global fashion system designers started to hip-hop fashion in the United States in the last few change details like buttons, collars, sleeves, fab- years of the 20th century, although the waistline rics, colors and embellishments. In this article I (especially on men) would be allowed to sag and have focused on the major characteristics that expose the wearer’s undergarments. In Islamic fash- allow us to identify garments like the abaya, shayla ion the waistline on pants and skirts is rarely seen and salwaar kamiz when we see them. As the because tunics and extend down to the Islamic fashion industry enlarges and matures, the hips or even the thighs. details will undoubtedly continue to change and new garments might even be added. Certainly CONSIDERING CHANGE OVER TIME “ethnic” dress is a source of new ideas, as are other global fashion systems. Fashions in the West go through cycles of change, It can be difficult to pinpoint what holds Western but the basic garments remain largely the same. fashion together as a system. In Fashion, Culture, “Shirts” can have various types of collars (crew and Identity, sociologist Fred Davis argued that neck, jewel neck, boat neck, peter pan, etc…), fashion (specifically Western fashion) is fueled by sleeves (long, short, cap, dolman…), lengths (hip- “identity ambivalence.” Designers play with gender, length to navel-baring), fabrics (, chambray, social class, sexuality, and “fashion” itself, ranging satin…), and colors, but still be considered “shirts.” from one extreme to another in an effort to produce

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KH03002.pdf 14 10/06/11 14:26 93399_Khila_3_2007-2009_01.indd 14 7/06/11 16:18 new designs and keep the flow of commerce going. decide (perhaps at puberty or when she gets mar- Western fashion in the 21st century has a focus on ried) to adopt a more modest wardrobe57. Within youthfulness (a “cult of youth”), but that hasn’t different cultures and households, Muslims have always been the case and probably isn’t true for different points of view on when this kind of change every culture where “world fashion” is common- should take place or even how necessary it is. At one place. Industrialization and have also end of the spectrum is a country like Iran; during been identified as important factors in the appear- the “Islamic Revolution,” laws were passed mandat- ance and growth of Western fashion, as have global ing that all women should dress according to shari’a media like Vogue magazine and the couture indus- law58. Girls are expected to wear hijab, preferably try (especially in Paris). Edward Sapir argued that the , starting at the age of seven. At the other “fashion” began during the fourteenth century as end of the spectrum is a country like Canada where the Renaissance, “awakened a desire for innovation Muslims are a minority group. Muslims living in and … powerfully extended for European society the West often wear a mixture of Western and the total world of possible choices.”55 At the same Islamic styles of dress. time, the “West” is a very amorphous term and Like a very rapid new “renaissance,” the technol- source of identity. This (along with imperialism) ogy of the Internet has opened up the “total world might explain why Western fashions have appealed of possible choice” in both the West and the Islamic to people in so many different cultures, even outside world. What started with the concept of the umma of Europe and North America. has evolved into new global interpretations of Islam In this respect, Islamic fashion is different and “Islamic” dress that Muslims all over the world because it is attached to a particular identity are sharing online. As long as this fashion industry (Muslim) as well as a comprehensive set of beliefs continues to grow and distinguish itself from and practices that concern virtually every aspect of Western fashion — as long as Muslims feel the need life including dress. This does limit what kinds of to have a visible identity — there will undoubtedly changes can be made within Islamic dress, but it be many opportunities for scholars to study the doesn’t prevent change from occurring. In a state- evolving terms and styles of Islamic dress. ment on “Islamic Fashion,” the owners of the retail website Artizara observed: BIBLIOGRAPHY

A person’s dress depicts who you are, what your Akou, H., 2007, “Building a New World Fashion: Islamic Dress in the 21st Century,” Fashion Theory, 11 (4), pp. 403-421. tastes are, and what you stand for. What makes Akou, H., 2004, “Jilbab”, in: V. Steele (ed.), Encyclopedia of a Muslim woman distinctive is the of Clothing and Fashion, New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, her clothes, through which shines the inner pp. 288-290. beauty of the soul. The way a Muslim woman Baker, L, Wagner, T.H., Singer, S., and Bundorf, M.K., 5/14/2003, “Use of the Internet for E-mail and Health dresses, wearing modest clothing, often along Care Information: Results from a National Survey,” with the head covering or the hijab, establishes Journal of the American Medical Association, 289 (18), her identity as a Muslim. She believes that her pp. 2400-2406. dress stands for the values she believes in, and Balasescu, A., 2007, “Haute Couture in Tehran: Two Faces of an Emerging Fashion Scene,” Fashion Theory, 11 (2/3), the modesty of her clothes along with the dignity pp. 299-318. with which she carries herself, sets her apart and Bhachu, P., 2004, Dangerous Designs: Asian Women Fashion defines the way people perceive her56. the Diaspora Economies, New York: Routledge. Daly, M.C., 2000, “The Afghan Woman’s ‘Chaadaree’: An Evocative Religious Expression?,” in L.B. Arthur (ed.), Within the basic values, aesthetics, and vocabulary Undressing Religion: Commitment and Conversion from a of what can be considered “Islamic” dress, there is Cross-Cultural Perspective, Oxford: Berg, pp. 131-145. still a great deal of room for innovation and indi- vidual differences. Certainly, not every Muslim follows the guide- lines of Islam in their dress. Children, for example, 55 Edward Sapir 1931:141. 56 http://www.artizara.com, “Islamic Fashion” are expected to gradually learn the rules and can be 57 Macleod 1991. forgiven for breaking them. A young woman might 58 Failing to do so can be punished by up to one year in wear a t-shirt or a tight-fitting pair of jeans and prison. Balasescu 2007:301.

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KH03002.pdf 15 10/06/11 14:26 93399_Khila_3_2007-2009_01.indd 15 7/06/11 16:18 Davis, F., 1992, Fashion, Culture, and Identity, Chicago: Sandıckı, Ö, and Ger, G., 2007, “Constructing and University of Chicago Press. Representing the Islamic Consumer in Turkey,” Fashion Eicher, J.B., 2000, “Dress”, in: C. Kramarae and D. Spender Theory, 11 (2/3), pp. 189-210. (eds.), Routledge International Encyclopedia of Women: Sandıkcı, Ö. and Ger, G., 2005, “Aesthetics, Ethics and Global Women’s Issues and Knowledge, New York: Routledge, Politics of the Turkish ,” in: S. Küchler and pp. 422-423. D. Miller (eds.), Clothing as Material Culture, Oxford: Eicher, J.B. and Sumberg, B., 1995, “World Fashion, Ethnic, Berg, pp. 61-82. and National Dress,” in: J.B. Eicher (ed.), Dress and Sapir, E., 1931, “Fashion,” in: Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, Ethnicity, Oxford: Berg, pp. 295-306. vol. 6, New York: MacMillan, pp. 139-144. El Guindi, F., 1999, Veil: Modesty, Privacy and Resistance, Somashekhar, S., 8/29/05, “Balancing Religious Sensitivity, Oxford: Berg. Fashion Sense; Young Women Follow Islam’s Ancient Farah, C.E., 2003, Islam, 7th edition, Hauppage, New York: Tents on Modest—but with a Modern Twist,” Washington Barrons. Post, Metro Section, pp. B01. Jones, C., 2007, “Fashion and Faith in Urban Indonesia,” Textile Research Centre, Leiden (), “Dressed in Fashion Theory, 11(2/3), pp. 211-232. Ihram: A Digital Exhibition about Hajj Clothing,” http:// Macleod, A.E., 1991, Accommodating Protest: Working Women, www.rmv.nl/publicaties/19hajj/e/fr_pub.html. Leiden 2005. The New Veiling, and Change in Cairo, New York: Tschanz, D.W., 2004, “Journeys of Faith, Roads of Columbia University Press. Civilization,” Saudi Aramco World, 55 (1), pp. 2-11. McGoldrick, D., 2006, Human Rights and Religion—The Islamic Yaqin, A., 2007, “Islamic Barbie: The Politics of Gender and Headscarf Debate in Europe, Oxford: Hart Publishing. Performativity,” Fashion Theory, 11 (2/3), pp. 173-188.

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