“Searching for situations that facilitate cooperative interaction can help mitigate the negative effects and increase the positive effects of individual attitudes within a group. However, attitudes do not always predict behavior. This is often the case in groups, especially ones that have high instances of unobservable diversity.”
Harnessing Unobservable Diversity
Utilizing Non-Protected Traits to Improve Organizational Groups
By Eric Litton When people consider diversity in the of perspectives and more high-quality workplace they tend to think about solutions (Milliken & Martins, 1996). characteristics that are protected by federal When diversity research expanded to law. Traits such as race, sex, age, and unobservable diversity it focused on disability have become ubiquitously aligned high-profile teams, such as the board of with diversity due to the Civil Rights Act of directors and C-suite executives. Only 1964 and the Americans with Disabilities in the past twenty years has research on Act of 1990. However, workplace diversity unobservable traits migrated to project also depends on other latent types of teams and line-level groups. Individual differences amongst employees. Diversity articles and papers provide further insight in characteristics that are not protected into underlying forces driving individual by law is called unobservable diversity and group decision-making, but none (Farmer & Farmer, 2014) because these have combined results to offer advice on traits are not usually noticeable right away. harnessing unobservable diversity (Phillips Unobservable traits that are common et al., 2014). in the workplace include functional Leaders and organization development background (functional areas—production, (OD) practitioners can design better groups R&D, engineering, etc—where individuals after examining theories and research on have spent most of their time) and tenure; unobservable diversity and applying them however, even unobservable characteristics to their specific situation. Unfortunately, such as which university someone research tends to focus on a combination attended or what state they are from can of protected and non-protected traits or impact how organizational leaders interact only examines one or two non-protected with their staff. Any type of underlying traits at a time. So, it is crucial to use characteristics can be considered as other organizational behavior theories to unobservable diversity, including political integrate studies into an organizational affiliation, work experience, socioeconomic setting. A basic knowledge of specific status, personality, and even different types concepts in social psychology allows OD of mindsets. practitioners to anticipate how certain Most research on diversity in types of unobservable diversity will organizations focuses on protected traits. benefit a group. The main goal of this This helped pass inclusive legislation and article is to offer tools and techniques has identified various effects that diversity for organizational leaders to harness the of protected traits has on organizational benefits of unobservable diversity to design performance and outcomes. Greater more productive teams. Before getting to diversity of protected traits can lead to that point, though, the article will review lower group member integration and relevant social psychology topics and higher dissatisfaction and turnover. discuss how unobservable diversity affects It also tends to lead to greater variety group dynamics.
Harnessing Unobservable Diversity: Utilizing Non-Protected Traits to Improve Organizational Groups 39 Social Psychology in the Workplace themselves to others in their work unit. story. OD practitioners can add value to They will look at the type of work they group interactions by making diverse Social psychology is the study of the nature do, how often and when they speak up in traits more salient when they can improve and causes of human behavior in social meetings, when it is okay to discuss non- performance. situations (DeLamater, Myers, & Collett, work issues, as well as other social norms. Other techniques can also influence 2014). In the workplace, social psychology This can happen consciously or without social identity and social comparison. has been adapted to become industrial the new employees recognizing that they Cialdini (2008) identifies six core and organizational psychology (or I/O are making these comparisons. More principles of influence: reciprocity, psychology). However, some of the basic often, people new to a setting will compare commitment and consistency, social social psychology theories help when themselves to similar people. They do proof, liking, authority, and scarcity. Even applying outcomes from unobservable this to minimize the difference amongst though each principle offers opportunities diversity research. Specifically, harnessing multiple traits, thereby giving themselves a for organizational practitioners to inspire unobservable diversity for organizational representation of their standing (Corcoran, employees, social proof, authority, development requires understanding how a Crusius, & Mussweiler, 2011). and liking have specific application to group member identifies with others, how group members are influenced, and how individual’s attitudes adjust to other people Public policy seeks to minimize discrimination of observable in the group. traits. In unobservable traits, discrimination can constrict A group is composed of multiple individuals that have a specific trait in creativity. Diversity and competition, on the other hand, common. In an organization, this trait is can further innovation by creating an atmosphere that is usually a common goal or mission. As a result, there is a distinction between an challenging and encourages open-mindedness. in-group and an out-group. The in-group is the collection of people that share that trait, The two practices of creating a social unobservable diversity. The theory of social such as a desire to successfully complete a identify with an in-group and socially proof stipulates that people interpret a project for a client. In contrast, the out- comparing oneself with other people who behavior as correct in a given situation group includes the people who do not have have similar traits significantly affect the based on the degree that they see others that trait. A person tends to identify with attitudes people have towards a group’s performing it. A simple yet common the in-group by internalizing the traits that purpose and their behavior within the example of social proof is a person looking they have in common. Individuals attempt group (Greene, 2004). Even though social up on a busy sidewalk. As people walk to maximize the differences between the identity and social comparison hold up by they may also glance upwards out of in-group and the out-group, which causes for observable traits, these practices also curiosity but they do not usually slow them to show favoritism to in-group occur with underlying and unobservable down or worry too much about the single members, enhancing their own self-image. traits as long as other members of the person gazing into the sky. If the solitary A strong self-image and in-group cohesion group also perceive those characteristics person is now joined by a few other people can lead to discrimination and competition (Milliken & Martins, 1996). For example, they create significantly more influence. with out-group members (DeLamater et new employees may take pride in their Instead of simply glancing up, other people al., 2014). Public policy seeks to minimize ability to use statistical analysis software will now stop and also look in the same discrimination of observable traits. In to solve data-heavy problems. However, direction. In some cases, people claim unobservable traits, discrimination if the organization and their colleagues to see something even though the initial can constrict creativity. Diversity and never emphasize data analysis then they group only says, “Do you see it?” without competition, on the other hand, can further will not consider that interest relevant to specifying what “it” is. Employees similarly innovation by creating an atmosphere the organizational setting and, as a result, use social proof cues in an organization to that is challenging and encourages will not socially compare themselves to assess proper ways to act. Think about a open-mindedness. others based on that trait. Interestingly, senior management meeting that is led by In settings with a large population, though, if the organization uses a lot the division director. How likely a single such as in a large company, people who of success stories and other types of person is willing to interject or question are new to the situation seek to identify qualitative analysis techniques then the the Director’s statements depends a lot on where they fit. They do this by comparing new employee will notice that they are in if other meeting participants do the same. themselves to others, which allows them the out-group; but they may try to affiliate One person asking a question provides to evaluate where they are situated within themselves with the in-group by explaining enough social proof for others to speak the organizational and social hierarchy. how some types of quantitative analysis can up as well, which can mitigate the effects New employees, for instance, will compare add even more value to a common success
40 OD PRACTITIONER Vol. 48 No. 1 2016 of groupthink and incite ideas that would can be created by highlighting similarities Group Dynamics have not otherwise been considered. amongst employees, such as a common The principle of authority claims that city people lived in or a favorite sports Unobservable diversity can be applied to people tend to obey figures that are in team. This can mitigate the chance that groups of almost any size. As mentioned positions of authority. The most famous unobservable diversity traits create an out- before, the only real criteria for a group study on authority and obedience was group scenario. is that members share one trait. The conducted by Stanley Milgram in 1963. In The social psychology element that group can be large or small and that the experiment, subjects were instructed to affects unobservable diversity in an one trait may be the only thing that they shock another person sitting in a separate organization is attitudes. Each attitude a have in common. Groups that are very room each time that person got a question person experiences contains a belief, an similar are called homogenous. They may wrong. The shocks increase in severity evaluation, and a behavioral predisposition. not have all of the same traits, but the as the person answered more questions Beliefs are cognitive components that prevailing traits of the group are all the incorrectly. As the shocks progressed form about an object. For instance, a same. In an organization, these groups subjects heard the person grunt and shout project manager may dislike a new client usually comprise members from the same complaints. Despite this, most subjects because he perceives the client as being functional background who have the same proceeded to administer shocks after the brash and inflexible. Often times it is opinions and mindset when it comes to other person complained of heart issues not possible to prove if beliefs are true or solving problems. Homogenous groups and the instrument panel read “Danger: false since they are subjective. Evaluation can still have unobservable diversity, but Severe Shock.” Milgram attributes this is the affective component of an attitude. the similarities tend to overpower the behavior to the simple fact that there was a Whereas the belief is what a person thinks diversity. For instance, even though a doctor in a white coat observing the subject. about something, the evaluation is how business development team is composed The doctor would state, “The experiment that person feels about it. For instance, of staff from different backgrounds, their requires that you continue” when the a University of Oklahoma graduate may team can be considered homogenous if subject objected. The simple presence of dislike the University of Texas simply they all believe partnership-based business an authoritative figure persuaded people to because of the rivalry that exists between growth is the only effective means to build inflict harm on someone else (fortunately, the schools’ sports teams. Lastly, an capital. in the experiment, the shocks were fake attitude involves a predisposition to The leader in homogenous groups is and the objector’s voice was pre-recorded). behave in a certain way, often because of usually prototypical of the group, which Similarly, simple authoritative elements the thoughts or feelings that accompany furthers negative group interactions. As in an organization such as dressing the attitude. Both the project manager a result of self-identity in homogenous professionally, including one’s credentials and the University of Oklahoma alumni groups, prototypical leaders may find it in an email signature, and highlighting will tend to avoid the client and denigrate difficult to discipline within the group a manager’s years of experience can all University of Texas alumnus (respectively) because any negative feelings expressed facilitate employee deference. because they have associated the behavior against a member of a highly prototypical The principle of liking asserts that of avoidance with things they do not like group is, by extension, also expressed people are persuaded more by other people (DeLamater et al., 2014). against themselves (Hogg, 2001). who they like. Liking someone else can Employees’ attitudes affect their Social comparison is also more be a result of having things in common, behavior and performance, especially in a difficult in homogenous groups because physical attraction, receiving compliments, group setting. Fortunately, attitudes evolve there are fewer differences that can provide and having extensive amounts of contact or over time. OD practitioners, whether in a basis for comparison. Even though cooperation. Liking is used in many sales a leadership or consultant role, are well- individuals tend to fixate on similar traits techniques. For example, the Tupperware situated to influence employee attitudes. when comparing themselves to others, too organization would sell its products by For example, cooperative interaction many similarities create close-mindedness hosting a party at a client’s house. The between a leader and members of the that augments a person’s expectations. client invites their friends to hear about group can help decrease negative attitudes Social comparison contributes to all the great products Tupperware offers. and increase positive attitudes (Banks, homogenous group members having a Even though the Tupperware representative 2014). Searching for situations that higher expectation that other members describes the products, most of the selling facilitate cooperative interaction can help will agree with them. As a result, those occurs because a friend vouches for the mitigate the negative effects and increase individuals display more negative feelings product and other friends at the party the positive effects of individual attitudes when others disagree with them, especially have already purchased something. In an within a group. However, attitudes do not when they are in the social majority organization, liking affects the extent to always predict behavior. This is often the (Phillips et al., 2010). which employees experience unobservable case in groups, especially ones that have Perceptions, which are also a result diversity in an organization. In-groups high instances of unobservable diversity. of social comparison, can influence group
Harnessing Unobservable Diversity: Utilizing Non-Protected Traits to Improve Organizational Groups 41 dynamics, even if the perceptions are not congruence is more likely when social more experience (Milliken & Martins, true. Leaders tend to form low-quality comparison is easier. 1996). relationships with members who have Group composition and structure In some specific conditions, group underlying traits that are perceived to add can also impact performance in a structure can have a negative impact. Even less value, such as less education, less variety of ways. Teams with diversity though employees actually prefer to work tenure, and low socioeconomic status in tenure exhibit lower turnover and in groups that have diverse educational (Milliken & Martins, 1996). Because higher performance (Hogg et al., 2005). experiences, sub-groups or cliques can of this, unobservable diversity in traits Through social proof, less tenured form because of this diversity (Hogg et al., that are stereotypically aligned with employees learn how to behave and work 2005). Too many sub-groups can create performance can result in poor leader- from the veterans.. In addition, diversity variable interests that cause schisms in the member relationships and exchanges, in functional background expands the final product. Functional diversity can also unless an effort is made to celebrate or effects of tenure diversity by leading to be debilitating in structured environments harness this diversity. greater communication in general and with a focused product (Milliken & There are some positive aspects to better performance in groups that Martins, 1996). Because of this, groups to minimizing unobservable diversity encourage debate (Milliken & Martins, working on very specific outputs, such as in a group. Attitude adjustments are 1996). Functional background diversity manufacturers or construction contractors, more predictable in groups with less also correlates with a more positive and should favor similar educational studies unobservable diversity because beliefs accepting group (Phillips et al., 2010). and functional backgrounds since and feelings are consistent amongst Members in groups with functional similarities in those characteristics keep members. An attitude change in one group background diversity become less irritated the distinct, structured tasks on plan. member will likely occur in other group when there is a disagreement between members. So, a leader can use an initial the dissimilar members. And, similar Harnessing Unobservable Diversity attitude change to anticipate future attitude education levels (e.g. Bachelor’s, Master’s, changes. Depending on how this attitude etc.) create positive feelings between Overall, OD practitioners should remember shift benefits the organization’s goals, supervisors and subordinates (Phillips et that unobservable diversity study results it can be encouraged or the leader can al., 2010). are meant to be general. Their influence pivot operations to minimize the change. Group dynamics have especially on performance or group cohesion can Overall, the need for leaders to actively interesting performance implications on vary depending on a myriad of factors adjust attitudes is minimized in scenarios top management and high-profile teams. that are context specific. That being said, with less unobservable diversity since Even though organization development organizational leaders can combine attitude change tends to occur organically practitioners do not necessarily influence the intimate knowledge about their within homogenous groups (Hogg, 2001). how top management is formed, it organization with these study results and Some specific types of unobservable is imperative that high-profile teams social psychology theories to provide the diversity also affect attitudes. Milliken are composed well since their success greatest opportunity for improving group & Martins (1996) correlated underlying can motivate an entire organization. performance. attributes directly with group members’ Educational diversity (i.e. different majors First, group leaders and OD attitudes. Differences in organizational of study) results in more diversified practitioners should proactively form cultural, such as the level of collectivism strategies in these groups. Though, this high-quality relationships with the group and power distance, amongst group only occurs when the diversity is allowed members, especially when they feel the members increases perceived group to surface in open debate. Also, bringing group members’ perceptions and attitudes dissimilarities but, it also improves in members from outside the organization are negatively impacting others. High- appreciation of differences. In addition, creates a balance of power and thought, quality relationships occur when the leader value congruence – the extent that which leads to more creative solutions. gives each subordinate the opportunity someone can behave in a way that is Contrastingly, diversity in occupational to take on new roles and responsibilities, consistent with their own self-image – background can result in poorer nurtures high quality exchanges with is positively related to an individuals’ performance and less interaction among subordinates, identifies ways to build satisfaction and commitment at work. top management teams. Similarly, when trust and respect, and creates high quality However, value congruence in diverse there is various years of specific industry partnerships throughout the organization groups is not beneficial when the group experience in these teams they tend to have (Northouse, 2012). This can be done at has numerical or other quantitative more turnover and less group success, work or in other quasi-workplace settings. goals. So, groups that are judged based which is possibly a result of the negative Bonding over similar interests, for on measurable targets, such as sales optics and backlash that occurs when example, can create a gateway to high- teams, should behave better with less someone with unknown experience is quality exchanges because the liking that unobservable diversity because value recruited to a high-profile team with much
42 OD PRACTITIONER Vol. 48 No. 1 2016 results can overflow into work related success can be achieved while maintaining since their authoritative influence adds activities. a stern persona. another level of influence that can persuade Liking amongst group members can Nevertheless, disagreement and the majority members (as it relates to be increased by similarities in background, quarrels are sometimes unavoidable. tenure and functional background) to similarities in experience, positive physical Unobservable diversity, such as differences appreciate the point of view of their appearance, and compliments (Cialdini, in functional background, can lead to diverse colleagues. 2008). Increased and repeated exposure workplace arguments because colleagues Unobservable diversity in dimensions to something can also increase familiarity have fundamentally different ways of of skill and knowledge can also improve and liking (Pittinsky, 2010). Unobservable approaching the problem. This is an creativity. It is particularly beneficial for diversity may be disliked at first because opportunity for OD practitioners to dynamic and autonomous groups, such it is different and people are not used to encourage civil discussion that highlights as those designing a new organizational socially comparing with that trait. But, the different mindsets while working strategy. Additionally, transformational over time, group members will grow towards a solution. Whereas homogenous leadership techniques can accentuate the more comfortable with the diversity. groups are more susceptible to groupthink positive aspects of diversity amongst teams and between the leader and the team. OD practitioners should actively encourage Unobservable diversity in dimensions of skill and knowledge leaders to engage with their group can also improve creativity. It is particularly beneficial for members so that they create a connection that improves motivation and performance. dynamic and autonomous groups, such as those designing a Similarly, considerate leaders who show new organizational strategy. Additionally, transformational concern and respect for their subordinates, look out for their welfare, and express leadership techniques can accentuate the positive aspects of gratitude shape the way diversity is diversity amongst teams and between the leader and the team. perceived. These leadership styles are preferred for improving effectiveness of diverse teams (Hogg et al., 2005). Liking can be combined with authority to and making decisions through satisficing, Unobservable traits can sometimes improve this process. OD practitioners can workplace disagreements create an opening have a negative impact. Diversity in the council group leaders to take the initiative for critical group discussion and evaluation skill and knowledge dimensions can by modeling out-group and diversity of the problem at hand. When doing so, the increase turnover when not managed acceptance. OD practitioners should entire group should be present during the properly. And, differences in perceptions, also encourage workplace strategies that discussion, not just the members who are assumptions, and causal beliefs are increase interaction, which improves liking in disagreement. Having the entire group the main drivers for diverse groups not by fostering familiarity with diversity. together will allow ideas and conversation being productive (Milliken & Martins, OD practitioners should focus on the to grow. It will also help the entire group 1996). OD practitioners can implement positive aspects of unobservable diversity understand the way forward. certain managerial strategies to decrease while minimizing any discrimination When considering group formation, these effects. It is a common refrain in that might occur. Though, sometimes a diversity of underlying variables and the research that open communication group turns to discrimination to solidify unobservable traits significantly impact intensifies the positive effects and mitigates the differences between the in-group and group interaction and performance. the negative effects of unobservable the out-group. In these cases, the leader Dimensions of skill and knowledge diversity. One of the most powerful ways can turn to the principle of authority to (e.g., educational background, work a manager can lead through example is by encourage follower deference. Leaders who experience, and tenure) tend to produce offering and accepting critical feedback, already have a well-established authority better understanding for the group due articulating reasons for successes and can capitalize on that to adapt group to a variety of cognitive experiences that failures, and encouraging non-judgmental norms to their preference. However, in members bring to each discussion. Similar dialogue. very diverse groups where social identity is education levels can contribute to improved OD practitioners should also consider difficult and the leader is not prototypical, liking, especially between a supervisor and interaction and communication between authority is not usually well-established. In their group members. Functional diversity different sub-groups. Out-group members these cases, authoritative techniques are and different levels of tenure allow both tend to voice their opinions more strongly more powerful when combined with other majority and minority members to use than in-group members, which can result principles, such as social proof. Leaders social proof to expand their social identity. in one-sided conversations (Phillips et al., that lead by example and are consistent This is especially relevant when the group 2010). On the other hand, when a leader with their messaging illustrate how leader is part of the minority or out-group, noticeably favors in-group members
Harnessing Unobservable Diversity: Utilizing Non-Protected Traits to Improve Organizational Groups 43 Eric Litton is a PhD student studying organization develop ment at George Mason University. the favoritism can be transmitted to is necessary to harness the unobservable others. New members use the social diversity for organization improvement. His research focuses on utilizing proof principle for social comparison and Afterwards, the practitioner can combine organizational policy to improve identity. They take cues from the group their organizational knowledge with these employee motivation and leader on how to act. So, leaders should be strategies and techniques to advance performance. He has over 10 years wary that some actions can be perceived group interactions and productivity. of experience leading diverse as showing favoritism to the in-group, and cross-functional teams especially during times of uncertainty References when group members are using social while working for international comparison to identify their place. In cases Banks, K. H. (2010, June 10). Diversity in organizations in both the public of a larger majority, making the point to leadership. Psychology Today. Retrieved and private sectors. He received include the minority will rub off on others, from http://www.psychologytoday. his MBA from the University of particularly when it is the leader who uses com/blog/race-matters/201006/ Notre Dame and Bachelor’s in their authoritative influence to make this diversity-in-leadership Economics and Mathematics effort. Essentially, the group leader should Cialdini, R. B. (2008). Influence: Science encourage all sub-groups to contribute and and practice (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn from Cornell University. He can be ensure that their voices are heard equally and Bacon. reached at [email protected]. and fairly. Corcoran, K., Crusius, J., & Mussweiler, As mentioned, a diverse team can T. (2011). Social comparison: Motives, make social identity more difficult and standards, and mechanisms. In Theories Understanding the multiple effects social comparison less common. As in Social Psychology (pp. 119–139). of diversity in organizational groups. a result, group members will have an Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell. Academy of Management Review, 21(2), ambiguous understanding of where they DeLamater, J. D., Myers, D. J., & Collett, 402–433. http://doi.org/10.5465/ fall within the group. This is a dangerous J. L. (2014). Social psychology (8th ed.). AMR.1996.9605060217 situation because individuals can lose track New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Northouse, P. G. (2012). Leadership: Theory of their purpose within the group, which Farmer, A. Y., & Farmer, G. L. (2014). and practice, 6th Edition. Thousand decreases intrinsic motivation (Gagné & Research with diverse Groups: Research Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc. Deci, 2005). OD practitioners can mitigate designs and multivariate latent modeling Phillips, K. W., Kim-Jun, S. Y., & Shim, this by facilitating open communication for equivalence. New York, NY: Oxford S.-H. (2010). The value of diversity in between the leader and subordinate. This University Press. organizations: A social psychological is especially valuable for a new member Gagné, M., & Deci, E. L. (2005). Self- perspective. In D. De Cremer, R. van entering a diverse group, but it can occur determination theory and work Dick, & J. K. Murighan (Eds.), Social any time a group member is ambiguous motivation. Journal of Organizational psychology and organizations (pp. 253– about their status. The leader should focus Behavior, 26(4), 331–362. http://doi. 272). New York, NY: Routledge Press. on articulating the individual’s role in the org/10.1002/job.322 Pittinsky, T. L. (2010). A two-dimensional group and where they add value. A leader Greene, S. (2004). Social identity theory model of intergroup leadership: The does not necessarily have to promote and party identification. Social Science case of national diversity. American social identity and social comparison; they Quarterly, 85(1), 136–153. http://doi. Psychologist, 65(3), 194–200. http://doi. must only mitigate the side effects that can org/10.1111/j.0038-4941.2004.08501010.x org/10.1037/a0017329 occur if group members do not partake in Hogg, M. A. (2001). A social identity theory these practices. of leadership. Personality and Social Each of these techniques is dependent Psychology Review, 5(3), 184–200. http:// on OD practitioners and organization doi.org/10.1207/S15327957PSPR0503_1 leaders having intimate knowledge of their Hogg, M. A., Martin, R., Epitropaki, O., organization. They should be able to adapt Mankad, A., Svensson, A., & Weeden, these strategies and techniques to the K. (2005). Effective leadership in salient context in which they are working. When groups: Revisiting leader-member helping smaller groups, practitioners exchange theory from the perspective of should take the time to learn about each the social identity theory of leadership. member’s experience and interests as Personality and Social Psychology well as how their minds work. This Bulletin, 31(7), 991–1004. http://doi. knowledge will allow the OD practitioner org/10.1177/0146167204273098 to recognize the types of unobservable Milliken, F. J., & Martins, L. L. (1996). diversity that a group is dealing with, which Searching for common threads:
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44 OD PRACTITIONER Vol. 48 No. 1 2016