The Conrad Grebel Review The Conrad Grebel Review Volume 24, Number 2 Volume 24, Number 2 Spring 2006 Spring 2006

Foreword 2 Foreword 2

John Howard Yoder as Historian John Howard Yoder as Historian

Doing History with Theological Ethics in Mind: John Howard Yoder Doing History with Theological Ethics in Mind: John Howard Yoder as Historian of Anabaptism C. Arnold Snyder 3 as Historian of Anabaptism C. Arnold Snyder 3

On Flushing the Confessional Rabbit out of the On Flushing the Confessional Rabbit out of the Socio-Ecclesial Brushpile Stephen Dintaman 33 Socio-Ecclesial Brushpile Stephen Dintaman 33

John Howard Yoder’s Contribution to Research on John Howard Yoder’s Contribution to Research on Anabaptist History Hanspeter Jecker 50 Anabaptist History Hanspeter Jecker 50

Walking with Yoder toward a Theological Approach to the Walking with Yoder toward a Theological Approach to the Automobile from a Mennonite Perspective Paul C. Heidebrecht 59 Automobile from a Mennonite Perspective Paul C. Heidebrecht 59

BOOK REVIEW: Paul Doerksen BOOK REVIEW: Paul Doerksen John Howard Yoder, Anabaptism and Reformation in Switzerland: John Howard Yoder, Anabaptism and Reformation in Switzerland: An Historical and Theological Analysis of the Dialogues Between An Historical and Theological Analysis of the Dialogues Between Anabaptists and Reformers. 81 Anabaptists and Reformers. 81

The 2005 Benjamin Eby Lecture The 2005 Benjamin Eby Lecture A Mennonite Novelist’s Journey (from) Home: Ephraim Weber’s A Mennonite Novelist’s Journey (from) Home: Ephraim Weber’s Encounters with S. F. Coffman and Lucy Maud Montgomery Encounters with S. F. Coffman and Lucy Maud Montgomery Hildi Froese Tiessen 84 Hildi Froese Tiessen 84

Cover: John Howard Yoder, by artist Matthew Tiessen Cover: John Howard Yoder, by artist Matthew Tiessen Foreword Foreword

Most of this present issue explores the theme of John Howard Yoder (1927- Most of this present issue explores the theme of John Howard Yoder (1927- 1997) as historian. Yoder was constantly asking unique questions of historical 1997) as historian. Yoder was constantly asking unique questions of historical sources—as he himself acknowledged. He was pressing sources for answers sources—as he himself acknowledged. He was pressing sources for answers that differed conspicuously from those sought by academic historians. What that differed conspicuously from those sought by academic historians. What Yoder had in mind while “doing history” was theological ethics, a term Yoder had in mind while “doing history” was theological ethics, a term that fairly well represents his over-arching concerns. If we recognize this that fairly well represents his over-arching concerns. If we recognize this motivation, we can more accurately assess his work in its original context— motivation, we can more accurately assess his work in its original context— and also see more clearly its continuing relevance for ours. Many of Yoder’s and also see more clearly its continuing relevance for ours. Many of Yoder’s questions remain with us today, and are not merely curiosities of one man’s questions remain with us today, and are not merely curiosities of one man’s intellectual biography. Articles by Arnold Snyder, Stephen Dintaman, and intellectual biography. Articles by Arnold Snyder, Stephen Dintaman, and Hanspeter Jecker deal directly with this theme, while an essay by Paul Hanspeter Jecker deal directly with this theme, while an essay by Paul Heidebrecht takes Yoder into new, uncharted territory. A book review by Heidebrecht takes Yoder into new, uncharted territory. A book review by Paul Doerksen of Yoder’s doctoral studies, recently published in English, Paul Doerksen of Yoder’s doctoral studies, recently published in English, completes this part of the issue. completes this part of the issue. The rest of this issue presents the latest Benjamin Eby Lecture, given The rest of this issue presents the latest Benjamin Eby Lecture, given by Hildi Froese Tiessen at Conrad Grebel University College in November by Hildi Froese Tiessen at Conrad Grebel University College in November 2005. This lecture, the eighteenth in the long-running series, may be many 2005. This lecture, the eighteenth in the long-running series, may be many readers’ first introduction to Mennonite man-of-letters Ephraim Weber readers’ first introduction to Mennonite man-of-letters Ephraim Weber (1870-1956). (1870-1956). * * * * * * * * * * Our Fall 2006 issue will focus on the Lord’s Supper, and will also include a Our Fall 2006 issue will focus on the Lord’s Supper, and will also include a Reflection by Thomas Finger on the Ninth Assembly of the World Council of Reflection by Thomas Finger on the Ninth Assembly of the World Council of Churches, held in February 2006 in Brazil. As our issues are becoming filled Churches, held in February 2006 in Brazil. As our issues are becoming filled to overflowing with full-length articles, we are struggling to accommodate to overflowing with full-length articles, we are struggling to accommodate in a timely fashion the book reviews that are a traditional and integral part of in a timely fashion the book reviews that are a traditional and integral part of our publishing agenda. For the time being, we direct readers to our website, our publishing agenda. For the time being, we direct readers to our website, where the latest reviews are being posted on an experimental basis. Visit where the latest reviews are being posted on an experimental basis. Visit www.grebel.uwaterloo.ca/academic/cgreview. We are planning to get these www.grebel.uwaterloo.ca/academic/cgreview. We are planning to get these same reviews into print as soon as possible. Meanwhile, let us know what same reviews into print as soon as possible. Meanwhile, let us know what you think of the experiment. you think of the experiment.

C. Arnold Snyder, Academic Editor Stephen A. Jones, Managing Editor C. Arnold Snyder, Academic Editor Stephen A. Jones, Managing Editor John Howard Yoder as Historian John Howard Yoder as Historian

Doing History with Theological Ethics in Mind: Doing History with Theological Ethics in Mind: John Howard Yoder as Historian of Anabaptism1 John Howard Yoder as Historian of Anabaptism1

C. Arnold Snyder C. Arnold Snyder

It is common to connect the name of John Howard Yoder with “Anabaptism” It is common to connect the name of John Howard Yoder with “Anabaptism” and to describe his work as “neo-Anabaptist.” This connection is not and to describe his work as “neo-Anabaptist.” This connection is not accidental. Yoder’s ground-breaking theological and ethical contributions accidental. Yoder’s ground-breaking theological and ethical contributions were given significant shape by the historical studies in sixteenth-century were given significant shape by the historical studies in sixteenth-century Anabaptist beginnings he carried out from 1950 to 1957 at the University of Anabaptist beginnings he carried out from 1950 to 1957 at the University of Basel.2 In 1957 Yoder completed a two-part study of the dialogues between the Basel.2 In 1957 Yoder completed a two-part study of the dialogues between the early Swiss Anabaptists and the Reformed under Professor Ernst Staehelin, early Swiss Anabaptists and the Reformed under Professor Ernst Staehelin, the first part of which was accepted as his doctoral dissertation in theology the first part of which was accepted as his doctoral dissertation in theology at the University of Basel.3 The second part was a theological analysis of at the University of Basel.3 The second part was a theological analysis of the dialogues, published separately in 1968 in Zürich, Switzerland.4 In the dialogues, published separately in 1968 in Zürich, Switzerland.4 In the foreword to this later work, Yoder notes that this study originated “at the foreword to this later work, Yoder notes that this study originated “at the beginning of 1957 as the second, more systematic part of a work on the beginning of 1957 as the second, more systematic part of a work on ‘Anabaptism and Reformation in Switzerland.’”5 ‘Anabaptism and Reformation in Switzerland.’”5 These early publications – now translated into English in a single These early publications – now translated into English in a single volume6 – document Yoder’s initial historical research in sixteenth-century volume6 – document Yoder’s initial historical research in sixteenth-century Swiss sources and his analysis of biblical, theological, and ethical themes Swiss sources and his analysis of biblical, theological, and ethical themes derived from it. Yoder’s doctoral work is a careful study of Reformation derived from it. Yoder’s doctoral work is a careful study of Reformation events in and around Zürich in the 1520s. It is a piece of historical research events in and around Zürich in the 1520s. It is a piece of historical research and was treated as such by contemporary scholars. As the basis for his and was treated as such by contemporary scholars. As the basis for his later work, Yoder’s historical studies shed unique light on the origin and later work, Yoder’s historical studies shed unique light on the origin and development of his thought. However, this present article will not attempt development of his thought. However, this present article will not attempt to trace that development; it will instead provide an overview of Yoder’s to trace that development; it will instead provide an overview of Yoder’s activity as an historian of Anabaptism and will review his historical work in activity as an historian of Anabaptism and will review his historical work in the context of the Anabaptist scholarship that developed in the second half the context of the Anabaptist scholarship that developed in the second half of the twentieth century. of the twentieth century.

 The Conrad Grebel Review  The Conrad Grebel Review

The Historiographical Setting for Yoder’s Initial Study (to 1968) The Historiographical Setting for Yoder’s Initial Study (to 1968) The historical study Yoder carried out for his doctoral dissertation reflects The historical study Yoder carried out for his doctoral dissertation reflects many of the historiographical outlines of Anabaptist scholarship from the many of the historiographical outlines of Anabaptist scholarship from the late 1950s and early 1960s. More particularly, there are strong echoes of the late 1950s and early 1960s. More particularly, there are strong echoes of the North American Mennonite renaissance in Anabaptist studies associated with North American Mennonite renaissance in Anabaptist studies associated with the names John Horsch, Harold S. Bender, and Robert Friedmann. Though the names John Horsch, Harold S. Bender, and Robert Friedmann. Though Yoder is at pains to correct points of historical interpretation taken by Bender Yoder is at pains to correct points of historical interpretation taken by Bender and other Mennonite scholars, nevertheless his approach to the Anabaptist and other Mennonite scholars, nevertheless his approach to the Anabaptist story and his work as a whole fit comfortably within the mid-century North story and his work as a whole fit comfortably within the mid-century North American Mennonite historical project: rehabilitating the Anabaptists in American Mennonite historical project: rehabilitating the Anabaptists in the face of centuries of hostile Reformed, Lutheran, and Roman Catholic the face of centuries of hostile Reformed, Lutheran, and Roman Catholic historiography. Among European Mennonite scholars, Yoder made common historiography. Among European Mennonite scholars, Yoder made common cause with Heinold Fast, whose work on Heinrich Bullinger and intimate cause with Heinold Fast, whose work on Heinrich Bullinger and intimate knowledge of archival sources for eastern Switzerland become visible from knowledge of archival sources for eastern Switzerland become visible from time to time in Yoder’s own work.7 time to time in Yoder’s own work.7 By the third quarter of the twentieth century, thanks in no small part By the third quarter of the twentieth century, thanks in no small part to the efforts of committed Mennonite scholars, a secure place had been to the efforts of committed Mennonite scholars, a secure place had been made for Anabaptism within the landscape of Reformation history and, made for Anabaptism within the landscape of Reformation history and, more narrowly, within the scope of the Radical Reformation, which was in more narrowly, within the scope of the Radical Reformation, which was in itself a new rubric in Reformation studies. By the late 1960s, however, the itself a new rubric in Reformation studies. By the late 1960s, however, the tone of historical writing in Anabaptist studies began to change from earlier tone of historical writing in Anabaptist studies began to change from earlier denominational attempts to be taken seriously to more technical historical denominational attempts to be taken seriously to more technical historical research on empirical details of the story, undertaken particularly by social and research on empirical details of the story, undertaken particularly by social and intellectual historians (as opposed to theologians doing historical theology). intellectual historians (as opposed to theologians doing historical theology). The shape of Anabaptist historical scholarship had changed dramatically The shape of Anabaptist historical scholarship had changed dramatically by century’s end. Accordingly, one question to be explored in the present by century’s end. Accordingly, one question to be explored in the present article is this: How did Yoder’s historical depiction of Anabaptism change article is this: How did Yoder’s historical depiction of Anabaptism change in response to the changing and evolving historical paradigms? in response to the changing and evolving historical paradigms? At the mid-point of the century, when Yoder was doing his original At the mid-point of the century, when Yoder was doing his original historical work, the most contentious issue in Anabaptist studies was the historical work, the most contentious issue in Anabaptist studies was the question of the origin and essential nature of the baptizing movement. question of the origin and essential nature of the baptizing movement. Theories abounded, related to the various denominational and intellectual Theories abounded, related to the various denominational and intellectual commitments of the authors, but invariably the “origins” of Anabaptism were commitments of the authors, but invariably the “origins” of Anabaptism were said to color its essential character. A particularly contentious “origin” was said to color its essential character. A particularly contentious “origin” was the traditional assignment of a leading role to the insurrectionist theologian the traditional assignment of a leading role to the insurrectionist theologian Thomas Müntzer, called the “father” of Anabaptism by some scholars in the Thomas Müntzer, called the “father” of Anabaptism by some scholars in the Doing History with Theological Ethics in Mind  Doing History with Theological Ethics in Mind 

Lutheran and Reformed mainstream. This point of origin, so the reasoning Lutheran and Reformed mainstream. This point of origin, so the reasoning went, gave an essentially “revolutionary” shape to Anabaptism that bore its went, gave an essentially “revolutionary” shape to Anabaptism that bore its logical fruit with the events at Münster. Origins in late medieval mysticism logical fruit with the events at Münster. Origins in late medieval mysticism appealed to less dogmatically motivated scholars, who pointed to the appealed to less dogmatically motivated scholars, who pointed to the influence of spiritualist Anabaptists such as Hans Denck. And so it went. influence of spiritualist Anabaptists such as Hans Denck. And so it went. A point of concentration for North American Mennonite historical A point of concentration for North American Mennonite historical scholarship in the century’s first half was thus the question of Anabaptist scholarship in the century’s first half was thus the question of Anabaptist origin (emphatically singular) and the “essential” Anabaptist character origin (emphatically singular) and the “essential” Anabaptist character reflected by that origin and birth. Bender’s doctoral study confirmed that the reflected by that origin and birth. Bender’s doctoral study confirmed that the first baptizers in sixteenth-century Europe emerged as erstwhile followers of first baptizers in sixteenth-century Europe emerged as erstwhile followers of Ulrich Zwingli: Zürich was the true “birthplace” of the “genuine” Anabaptist Ulrich Zwingli: Zürich was the true “birthplace” of the “genuine” Anabaptist movement and Conrad Grebel was its father.8 As Bender later articulated movement and Conrad Grebel was its father.8 As Bender later articulated in his famous “Anabaptist Vision” statement, the fundamental teachings of in his famous “Anabaptist Vision” statement, the fundamental teachings of genuine Anabaptism were “a new conception of the essence of Christianity genuine Anabaptism were “a new conception of the essence of Christianity as discipleship; second, a new conception of the church as a brotherhood; as discipleship; second, a new conception of the church as a brotherhood; and third, a new ethic of love and nonresistance.”9 Discredited were theories and third, a new ethic of love and nonresistance.”9 Discredited were theories about Anabaptists springing up as continuations of Erasmian humanism, about Anabaptists springing up as continuations of Erasmian humanism, fanatical heresy, “pious heretical groups,” apocalyptic visionaries, or late fanatical heresy, “pious heretical groups,” apocalyptic visionaries, or late medieval movements. Pushed to the margins of the movement were adult medieval movements. Pushed to the margins of the movement were adult baptizers who had deviated from the “genuine Anabaptism” of the Swiss baptizers who had deviated from the “genuine Anabaptism” of the Swiss origins. In 1944 Bender could state with assurance that “Anabaptism is origins. In 1944 Bender could state with assurance that “Anabaptism is the culmination of the Reformation, the fulfilment of the original vision the culmination of the Reformation, the fulfilment of the original vision of Luther and Zwingli, and thus . . . a consistent evangelical Protestantism of Luther and Zwingli, and thus . . . a consistent evangelical Protestantism seeking to recreate without compromise the original New Testament church, seeking to recreate without compromise the original New Testament church, the vision of Christ and the Apostles.”10 the vision of Christ and the Apostles.”10 Yoder’s historical project in no way replicated Bender’s but rather Yoder’s historical project in no way replicated Bender’s but rather took those essential outlines for granted as needing no further essential proof took those essential outlines for granted as needing no further essential proof – although his own work did provide independent arguments for Bender’s – although his own work did provide independent arguments for Bender’s basic view.11 Yoder’s historical project was characteristically his own, in that basic view.11 Yoder’s historical project was characteristically his own, in that he set out to clarify the Reformation roots of Anabaptism through a detailed he set out to clarify the Reformation roots of Anabaptism through a detailed study of the process of separation between Zwingli and the early Swiss study of the process of separation between Zwingli and the early Swiss Anabaptists. It was a question that certainly had not been asked in this way Anabaptists. It was a question that certainly had not been asked in this way before, but it did grow directly out of the historical depiction of Anabaptist before, but it did grow directly out of the historical depiction of Anabaptist origins in Zürich summarized for English readers by Bender’s work. That origins in Zürich summarized for English readers by Bender’s work. That is, Yoder’s research questions assumed the central importance of Zürich and is, Yoder’s research questions assumed the central importance of Zürich and Zwingli to the story as a whole, and they assumed that the true nature of Zwingli to the story as a whole, and they assumed that the true nature of  The Conrad Grebel Review  The Conrad Grebel Review

Anabaptism would be revealed by a thorough and profound examination of Anabaptism would be revealed by a thorough and profound examination of the rupture between the first baptizers in Zürich and Zwingli.12 He explains the rupture between the first baptizers in Zürich and Zwingli.12 He explains in the “Introduction” to his historical study: in the “Introduction” to his historical study: An alignment of the Anabaptists with the whole course of An alignment of the Anabaptists with the whole course of the Reformation demands above all that they be seen in their the Reformation demands above all that they be seen in their positive and negative relationships to the other streams of positive and negative relationships to the other streams of the Reformation, and above all that means in relation to the the Reformation, and above all that means in relation to the Zwinglian Reformation, which can be considered the only Zwinglian Reformation, which can be considered the only possible birthplace of Anabaptism.”13 possible birthplace of Anabaptism.”13 When Yoder speaks of the origin and the nature of “Anabaptism” in this When Yoder speaks of the origin and the nature of “Anabaptism” in this earliest historical work, he intends the term to be as far-ranging as it sounds: earliest historical work, he intends the term to be as far-ranging as it sounds: he is speaking of the baptizing movement as a whole. Empirically speaking, he is speaking of the baptizing movement as a whole. Empirically speaking, however (as he recognized), his research focused only on the early Swiss however (as he recognized), his research focused only on the early Swiss Anabaptists and, even more narrowly, on the crucial interactions of certain Anabaptists and, even more narrowly, on the crucial interactions of certain of them with Zwingli and his reform.14 But since the nature of “true of them with Zwingli and his reform.14 But since the nature of “true Anabaptism” was born and took shape in Zürich and at Schleitheim, a focus Anabaptism” was born and took shape in Zürich and at Schleitheim, a focus on the Zürich events provided the “Anabaptist” template by which all other on the Zürich events provided the “Anabaptist” template by which all other baptizing movements could comfortably be described and measured. baptizing movements could comfortably be described and measured. In order to investigate the Reformation origins of Anabaptism In order to investigate the Reformation origins of Anabaptism in Zürich, Yoder focused his historical analysis on the conversations, in Zürich, Yoder focused his historical analysis on the conversations, dialogues, and disputations (Gespräche) between the Swiss Anabaptists and dialogues, and disputations (Gespräche) between the Swiss Anabaptists and the Zwinglian reformers. This choice of source material provided a fertile the Zwinglian reformers. This choice of source material provided a fertile field, comprised as it was of historical documents in which the protagonists field, comprised as it was of historical documents in which the protagonists debated biblical truth, faithful action, and the shape of a biblical church. debated biblical truth, faithful action, and the shape of a biblical church. These were documents to which biblical, theological, and ethical questions These were documents to which biblical, theological, and ethical questions could later be addressed. In the first part of his study, however, Yoder carefully could later be addressed. In the first part of his study, however, Yoder carefully lays the historical groundwork for the systematic theological questions he lays the historical groundwork for the systematic theological questions he already anticipated engaging: the thoroughly “Zwinglian” nature of the early already anticipated engaging: the thoroughly “Zwinglian” nature of the early Anabaptists,15 Zwingli’s “turn” from his earlier views,16 the Anabaptist will Anabaptists,15 Zwingli’s “turn” from his earlier views,16 the Anabaptist will to dialogue,17 and the emergence of an ordered community (Schleitheim) to dialogue,17 and the emergence of an ordered community (Schleitheim) capable of sustained existence even in the face of determined political capable of sustained existence even in the face of determined political opposition.18 opposition.18 Based on his study of the dialogues, Yoder concluded that the original Based on his study of the dialogues, Yoder concluded that the original Anabaptists stood in no significant causal relationship to peasant unrest or to Anabaptists stood in no significant causal relationship to peasant unrest or to the social and economic issues of interest and tithes, but were motivated by the social and economic issues of interest and tithes, but were motivated by Doing History with Theological Ethics in Mind  Doing History with Theological Ethics in Mind  scriptural, theological, and ecclesiological questions.19 Nonresistance was scriptural, theological, and ecclesiological questions.19 Nonresistance was fundamental to Anabaptism from the start because the original Anabaptists fundamental to Anabaptism from the start because the original Anabaptists refused state resources.20 In the case of Swiss Anabaptists who did not fit refused state resources.20 In the case of Swiss Anabaptists who did not fit the mold being described, who either strongly opposed paying interest and the mold being described, who either strongly opposed paying interest and tithes (Pfistermeyer), were not non-resistant (Hubmaier), or demonstrated tithes (Pfistermeyer), were not non-resistant (Hubmaier), or demonstrated signs of spiritualistic “enthusiasm” (as in St. Gallen), Yoder says these signs of spiritualistic “enthusiasm” (as in St. Gallen), Yoder says these individual instances are exceptions to the significant and surviving ecclesial individual instances are exceptions to the significant and surviving ecclesial unity created at Schleitheim.21 unity created at Schleitheim.21 The Afterword to the historical study fittingly returns to a central The Afterword to the historical study fittingly returns to a central theme of mid-century Mennonite historiography – “true Anabaptism” – but theme of mid-century Mennonite historiography – “true Anabaptism” – but now with a different answer than the one provided by Bender’s “Anabaptist now with a different answer than the one provided by Bender’s “Anabaptist Vision.” Vision.” . . . the course of our research has established that it is possible . . . the course of our research has established that it is possible to recognize a “true Anabaptism,” with its own pre-history and to recognize a “true Anabaptism,” with its own pre-history and its own organic development. . . . The Anabaptists who first its own organic development. . . . The Anabaptists who first introduced believers’ baptism, who established ordered church introduced believers’ baptism, who established ordered church communities, who held out despite persecution; the Anabaptists communities, who held out despite persecution; the Anabaptists who repeatedly engaged the reformers in dialogue, show who repeatedly engaged the reformers in dialogue, show themselves to be a unified group with definite boundaries. themselves to be a unified group with definite boundaries. . . . those Anabaptists who stood on the foundations of Zürich . . . those Anabaptists who stood on the foundations of Zürich and Schleitheim – although they were almost leaderless and and Schleitheim – although they were almost leaderless and continually exposed to the violent measures of the authorities continually exposed to the violent measures of the authorities – survived through the decades. In our opinion, they deserve to – survived through the decades. In our opinion, they deserve to be considered the “true Anabaptists. . . .”22 be considered the “true Anabaptists. . . .”22 “True Anabaptism,” then, was the sixteenth-century movement composed “True Anabaptism,” then, was the sixteenth-century movement composed of baptizers who developed Reformation insights organically through open of baptizers who developed Reformation insights organically through open dialogue with others, and who established ordered church communities with dialogue with others, and who established ordered church communities with visible boundaries capable of surviving even in the face of state persecution. visible boundaries capable of surviving even in the face of state persecution. This description of “true Anabaptism” provided key ecclesiological norms This description of “true Anabaptism” provided key ecclesiological norms for Yoder in subsequent historical writing as well as a heuristic tool for sorting for Yoder in subsequent historical writing as well as a heuristic tool for sorting through varieties of radical dissent in the sixteenth century in his writings through varieties of radical dissent in the sixteenth century in his writings of the 1960s and 1970s. By the early 1980s he disavowed the historical of the 1960s and 1970s. By the early 1980s he disavowed the historical search for a “normative” Anabaptism, as will be noted later, although in search for a “normative” Anabaptism, as will be noted later, although in his theological and ethical work he does disavow the ecclesial and ethical his theological and ethical work he does disavow the ecclesial and ethical categories that he had originally derived from normative Anabaptism. categories that he had originally derived from normative Anabaptism.  The Conrad Grebel Review  The Conrad Grebel Review

Reactions and Counter-reactions (1958 - 1975) Reactions and Counter-reactions (1958 - 1975) In the years immediately following his dissertation work, Yoder remained In the years immediately following his dissertation work, Yoder remained active in the field of Anabaptist history, publishing a series of writings drawing active in the field of Anabaptist history, publishing a series of writings drawing from and building on his earlier research.23 Two of these writings elicited from and building on his earlier research.23 Two of these writings elicited responses from scholars; in a third, Yoder engaged the work of others. In the responses from scholars; in a third, Yoder engaged the work of others. In the midst of this activity he also edited and translated source documents for the midst of this activity he also edited and translated source documents for the first volume of the Classics of the Radical Reformation series, The Legacy first volume of the Classics of the Radical Reformation series, The Legacy of Michael Sattler,24 and wrote voluminously in other disciplines as well. of Michael Sattler,24 and wrote voluminously in other disciplines as well. The scholarly apparatus in the Sattler translation volume reflects themes and The scholarly apparatus in the Sattler translation volume reflects themes and insights first encountered in Yoder’s dissertation; the Schleitheim Articles insights first encountered in Yoder’s dissertation; the Schleitheim Articles feature prominently in the dissertation and the source collection, and occupy feature prominently in the dissertation and the source collection, and occupy a central place in his empirical description of Anabaptism. a central place in his empirical description of Anabaptism.

The Turning Point of the Zwinglian Reformation The Turning Point of the Zwinglian Reformation Yoder’s dissertation developed the thesis that Zwingli had “turned” from Yoder’s dissertation developed the thesis that Zwingli had “turned” from an initial commitment to form an independent (believers’) church and an initial commitment to form an independent (believers’) church and accepted instead an alliance with the civil authorities to form a state church. accepted instead an alliance with the civil authorities to form a state church. Four years before publishing his dissertation but shortly after completing Four years before publishing his dissertation but shortly after completing it, Yoder published “The Turning Point in the Zwinglian Reformation” in it, Yoder published “The Turning Point in the Zwinglian Reformation” in the Mennonite Quarterly Review (April 1958), which sharply summarized the Mennonite Quarterly Review (April 1958), which sharply summarized the thesis of Zwingli’s “turn” without providing the nuance or detailed the thesis of Zwingli’s “turn” without providing the nuance or detailed documentation of his dissertation.25 documentation of his dissertation.25 It took most of a decade but Yoder’s “turning point” thesis generated It took most of a decade but Yoder’s “turning point” thesis generated a full-scale response by the Reformation historian Robert Walton, first a full-scale response by the Reformation historian Robert Walton, first in a monograph and then in a concentrated article also published in the in a monograph and then in a concentrated article also published in the Mennonite Quarterly Review.26 Walton’s central argument was that Zwingli Mennonite Quarterly Review.26 Walton’s central argument was that Zwingli had always thought “theocratically,” in terms of a state unified under one had always thought “theocratically,” in terms of a state unified under one church.27 In particular Walton challenged the contention that Zwingli had church.27 In particular Walton challenged the contention that Zwingli had ever intended a “clean break” from the state for his reformation; rather ever intended a “clean break” from the state for his reformation; rather Zwingli expressed himself in terms of a “gradual transformation within the Zwingli expressed himself in terms of a “gradual transformation within the existing institution.”28 existing institution.”28 Yoder replied the following year in the same journal, with an article Yoder replied the following year in the same journal, with an article that was actually an English translation and adaptation of one chapter in the that was actually an English translation and adaptation of one chapter in the second Gespräch volume that had just been published in German the year second Gespräch volume that had just been published in German the year before. Along with some adaptations in translating the original wording, before. Along with some adaptations in translating the original wording, Doing History with Theological Ethics in Mind  Doing History with Theological Ethics in Mind 

Yoder also inserted several pages of commentary directed to Walton’s Yoder also inserted several pages of commentary directed to Walton’s challenge.29 There it was clarified that the radical “turn” by Zwingli was challenge.29 There it was clarified that the radical “turn” by Zwingli was a mistaken reading of Yoder’s original intent. What he had meant was a mistaken reading of Yoder’s original intent. What he had meant was contained in the original German text, namely “how an inner contradiction contained in the original German text, namely “how an inner contradiction between two strands of Zwingli’s theological personality gradually comes between two strands of Zwingli’s theological personality gradually comes to the surface. One strand is the theocratic, which was always present. . . . to the surface. One strand is the theocratic, which was always present. . . . The second strand . . . speaks of sharing the sufferings of Christ. . . .”30 The second strand . . . speaks of sharing the sufferings of Christ. . . .”30 With this clarification the sharp edges of the disagreement were With this clarification the sharp edges of the disagreement were blunted, though significant differences remained in the interpretation of blunted, though significant differences remained in the interpretation of certain crucial, ambiguous documents (especially a key letter from Zwingli certain crucial, ambiguous documents (especially a key letter from Zwingli to Myconius, written in 1520): Zwingli’s “turn” was more of a “drift” or a to Myconius, written in 1520): Zwingli’s “turn” was more of a “drift” or a “slide” than a “sudden veering” from a free church to a theocratic position “slide” than a “sudden veering” from a free church to a theocratic position – an “evolution,” in short. The basic thesis, Yoder maintained, still remained – an “evolution,” in short. The basic thesis, Yoder maintained, still remained valid, once appropriate qualifiers were entered. valid, once appropriate qualifiers were entered.

The Crystallization Point of the Anabaptist Movement The Crystallization Point of the Anabaptist Movement The Schleitheim Articles played a central role in Yoder’s 1957 historical The Schleitheim Articles played a central role in Yoder’s 1957 historical work on Anabaptist beginnings: at Schleitheim the Anabaptist movement work on Anabaptist beginnings: at Schleitheim the Anabaptist movement received an “order” or “constitution” that allowed it to survive and flourish, received an “order” or “constitution” that allowed it to survive and flourish, with no dependence on civil power. In 1972 Yoder published an article with no dependence on civil power. In 1972 Yoder published an article in the Mennonitische Geschichtsblätter that extended the significance of in the Mennonitische Geschichtsblätter that extended the significance of Schleitheim by proposing that the Articles represented the “crystallization Schleitheim by proposing that the Articles represented the “crystallization point” of the movement.31 What was new in this thesis was the suggestion point” of the movement.31 What was new in this thesis was the suggestion that when Michael Sattler had been present in Strasbourg in 1526, in that when Michael Sattler had been present in Strasbourg in 1526, in dialogue with Bucer and Capito (documented in an extant letter from dialogue with Bucer and Capito (documented in an extant letter from Sattler to them), Sattler was harboring the hope that Anabaptism could be Sattler to them), Sattler was harboring the hope that Anabaptism could be implemented in Strasbourg itself, somewhat along the lines of the earlier implemented in Strasbourg itself, somewhat along the lines of the earlier Waldshut attempt. Only when Bucer and Capito refused to continue the Waldshut attempt. Only when Bucer and Capito refused to continue the dialogue were Sattler and the Zürich Anabaptists forced to separate from dialogue were Sattler and the Zürich Anabaptists forced to separate from the mainstream reform and create a binding “constitution” for themselves the mainstream reform and create a binding “constitution” for themselves (the Schleitheim Articles). They had nowhere else to turn, having now been (the Schleitheim Articles). They had nowhere else to turn, having now been rejected by all the reformers. rejected by all the reformers. The Schleitheim Articles, composed a few months after the Strasbourg The Schleitheim Articles, composed a few months after the Strasbourg episode, thus mark the true beginning of the Anabaptist movement, its episode, thus mark the true beginning of the Anabaptist movement, its “crystallization point,” because an “ecumenical point of no return” had been “crystallization point,” because an “ecumenical point of no return” had been 10 The Conrad Grebel Review 10 The Conrad Grebel Review reached. The final rejection of dialogue by the reformers led to unwilling reached. The final rejection of dialogue by the reformers led to unwilling separation for the Anabaptists. Furthermore, the “false brethren” rejected separation for the Anabaptists. Furthermore, the “false brethren” rejected in the Articles were Bucer, Capito, and other mainline reformers – not the in the Articles were Bucer, Capito, and other mainline reformers – not the baptizing libertines or spiritualists in St. Gallen or other places.32 At issue baptizing libertines or spiritualists in St. Gallen or other places.32 At issue here, then, was the question of how early Swiss Anabaptism had become here, then, was the question of how early Swiss Anabaptism had become separatist and how Schleitheim’s separatism was to be interpreted. separatist and how Schleitheim’s separatism was to be interpreted. The Reformation historian Klaus Deppermann of Freiburg replied in The Reformation historian Klaus Deppermann of Freiburg replied in an article the next year in the same journal.33 Deppermann could find no an article the next year in the same journal.33 Deppermann could find no evidence that Bucer and Capito had ever thought of Strasbourg in any other evidence that Bucer and Capito had ever thought of Strasbourg in any other terms than a small “corpus Christianum” in which citizens were at the same terms than a small “corpus Christianum” in which citizens were at the same time church members (i.e., Bucer and Capito never would have seriously time church members (i.e., Bucer and Capito never would have seriously entertained the notion of a believers’ church); he saw Sattler’s separatism as entertained the notion of a believers’ church); he saw Sattler’s separatism as fundamental to Sattler’s thought (and not a regrettable result of ecumenical fundamental to Sattler’s thought (and not a regrettable result of ecumenical rejection); and finally he suggested that the “false brothers” mentioned at rejection); and finally he suggested that the “false brothers” mentioned at Schleitheim were Anabaptist spiritualists, not Bucer and Capito. Schleitheim were Anabaptist spiritualists, not Bucer and Capito. This response elicited an exchange of letters between Yoder and This response elicited an exchange of letters between Yoder and Deppermann, published in the same issue of the journal.34 There is no Deppermann, published in the same issue of the journal.34 There is no evidence that either Yoder or Deppermann changed their minds as a result of evidence that either Yoder or Deppermann changed their minds as a result of this exchange; Yoder’s basic “crystallization” interpretation of the Strasbourg this exchange; Yoder’s basic “crystallization” interpretation of the Strasbourg episode and the nature of the Schleitheim Articles can still be read in the episode and the nature of the Schleitheim Articles can still be read in the critical apparatus of the translation volume The Legacy of Michael Sattler, critical apparatus of the translation volume The Legacy of Michael Sattler, also published in 1973 and still in print.35 also published in 1973 and still in print.35

Reply to ‘Anabaptists and the Sword’ Reply to ‘Anabaptists and the Sword’ A central conclusion to Yoder’s work on Anabaptist beginnings in Zürich was A central conclusion to Yoder’s work on Anabaptist beginnings in Zürich was that the principled nonresistance of the earliest Anabaptists was integrally that the principled nonresistance of the earliest Anabaptists was integrally related to their “free church” ecclesiology, just as Zwingli’s acceptance related to their “free church” ecclesiology, just as Zwingli’s acceptance of state violence in service of the church also irrevocably determined of state violence in service of the church also irrevocably determined his state-church ecclesiology. Schleitheim’s Article VI was the ultimate his state-church ecclesiology. Schleitheim’s Article VI was the ultimate statement of the Anabaptist position on the sword.36 By 1974 three works statement of the Anabaptist position on the sword.36 By 1974 three works had appeared that posed questions about the relationship of nonviolence to had appeared that posed questions about the relationship of nonviolence to the social order. 37 In “‘Anabaptists and the Sword’ Revisited: Systematic the social order. 37 In “‘Anabaptists and the Sword’ Revisited: Systematic Historiography and Undogmatic Nonresistants,”38 Yoder set out to address Historiography and Undogmatic Nonresistants,”38 Yoder set out to address all three, concentrating most of his attention on James Stayer’s recently- all three, concentrating most of his attention on James Stayer’s recently- published Anabaptists and the Sword. Stayer’s description and analysis was published Anabaptists and the Sword. Stayer’s description and analysis was Doing History with Theological Ethics in Mind 11 Doing History with Theological Ethics in Mind 11 a significant new addition to Anabaptist scholarship, all the more so for its a significant new addition to Anabaptist scholarship, all the more so for its careful reading and categorizing of Anabaptist sources from all regions of careful reading and categorizing of Anabaptist sources from all regions of Europe and all manner of baptizers. Europe and all manner of baptizers. At the outset of his review article Yoder stated he had no wish to At the outset of his review article Yoder stated he had no wish to examine the empirical data that he said, rather surprisingly, “have not been examine the empirical data that he said, rather surprisingly, “have not been very debatable for a century already.” Rather than debate the data, he would very debatable for a century already.” Rather than debate the data, he would take up the methodological question of “the way in which a prior theological take up the methodological question of “the way in which a prior theological and world view commitment enters into the capacity of the historian to and world view commitment enters into the capacity of the historian to make a meaningful unity out of the data he reads.”39 The classifications of make a meaningful unity out of the data he reads.”39 The classifications of nonresistance utilized by historians, he argued, pre-judge the possibilities of nonresistance utilized by historians, he argued, pre-judge the possibilities of Christian engagement with the state by imposing either a yes or a no answer Christian engagement with the state by imposing either a yes or a no answer to the question. He included Stayer’s panoramic study (with its categories to the question. He included Stayer’s panoramic study (with its categories such as separatist; apolitical; moderate apolitical; undogmatic nonresistant, such as separatist; apolitical; moderate apolitical; undogmatic nonresistant, etc.) as an example of such a pre-judged methodology. The “definitional etc.) as an example of such a pre-judged methodology. The “definitional dualism” of the historians Yoder reviews skews the data they examine by dualism” of the historians Yoder reviews skews the data they examine by predetermining the answer – although, according to him, Stayer’s “empirical predetermining the answer – although, according to him, Stayer’s “empirical approach” contains the most fruitful possibilities for “conversation.”40 approach” contains the most fruitful possibilities for “conversation.”40 Yoder’s answer to definitional dualism is subtitled “Reading through Yoder’s answer to definitional dualism is subtitled “Reading through a less dualist grid.” Yoder lists eight “logically possible positions which can a less dualist grid.” Yoder lists eight “logically possible positions which can be taken on the question of the sword in the context of reformation debates.” be taken on the question of the sword in the context of reformation debates.” It is the third of these positions that he favors, the one he identifies with It is the third of these positions that he favors, the one he identifies with Schleitheim’s Article VI. Schleitheim’s Article VI. It is possible to hold that two orders of preservation and It is possible to hold that two orders of preservation and redemption exist together under the same God. In one of them redemption exist together under the same God. In one of them the sword has no place, due to the normativeness of the work the sword has no place, due to the normativeness of the work of Jesus Christ, whereas in the other the sword has a limited of Jesus Christ, whereas in the other the sword has a limited legitimacy, which is tested precisely at the point of its ability to legitimacy, which is tested precisely at the point of its ability to keep itself within limits. The classic early Anabaptist statement keep itself within limits. The classic early Anabaptist statement of this position is that of Schleitheim VI: “The Sword is an of this position is that of Schleitheim VI: “The Sword is an ordering of God outside of the perfection of Christ.”41 ordering of God outside of the perfection of Christ.”41 Those who hold this position will be able “to condemn a given action in Those who hold this position will be able “to condemn a given action in principle, and yet . . . continue to consider those who persist in that action as principle, and yet . . . continue to consider those who persist in that action as Christians, albeit misguided ones, and thereby to continue conversing with Christians, albeit misguided ones, and thereby to continue conversing with them.”42 This position is “something new in the history of ideas,” namely them.”42 This position is “something new in the history of ideas,” namely 12 The Conrad Grebel Review 12 The Conrad Grebel Review a position that insists that “it should not be” yet “refuses to destroy the a position that insists that “it should not be” yet “refuses to destroy the adversary or to withdraw from the struggle.”43 adversary or to withdraw from the struggle.”43 The implicit conclusion to be drawn is that Schleitheim’s Article VI The implicit conclusion to be drawn is that Schleitheim’s Article VI held the key all along to a new, politically engaged (within the limits of the held the key all along to a new, politically engaged (within the limits of the possible), dialogical, nonviolent manner of structuring Christian relationships possible), dialogical, nonviolent manner of structuring Christian relationships that enables fraternal admonition within a believer’s church, ecumenical that enables fraternal admonition within a believer’s church, ecumenical conversation with other communions, and even “viable democracy.” conversation with other communions, and even “viable democracy.” Stayer did not publish a reply to Yoder’s review, although in the Stayer did not publish a reply to Yoder’s review, although in the summer of 1977 he did read a paper in response at a colloquium at which summer of 1977 he did read a paper in response at a colloquium at which Yoder was present and to which he responded informally.44 In that paper Yoder was present and to which he responded informally.44 In that paper Stayer moved the discussion away from “logically possible” positions, and Stayer moved the discussion away from “logically possible” positions, and asked whether the historical evidence concerning Sattler and Schleitheim asked whether the historical evidence concerning Sattler and Schleitheim actually fit the description assigned to Schleitheim by Yoder. He marshaled actually fit the description assigned to Schleitheim by Yoder. He marshaled textual evidence that Sattler repeatedly drove a wedge between the kingdom textual evidence that Sattler repeatedly drove a wedge between the kingdom of Christ and that of Satan (and Sattler clearly placed worldly power in the of Christ and that of Satan (and Sattler clearly placed worldly power in the realm of Satan). Stayer also affirmed the interpretation of Schleitheim as a realm of Satan). Stayer also affirmed the interpretation of Schleitheim as a dualist, separatist statement that cemented separation from worldly power by dualist, separatist statement that cemented separation from worldly power by condemning the world’s satanic origin and nature. Schleitheim did not leave condemning the world’s satanic origin and nature. Schleitheim did not leave the door open to constructive engagement with government as a “Christian” the door open to constructive engagement with government as a “Christian” entity but rather firmly closed it.45 Stayer granted there were Anabaptists entity but rather firmly closed it.45 Stayer granted there were Anabaptists who held views close to the one described by Yoder, but suggested that who held views close to the one described by Yoder, but suggested that in fact the more flexible, less dogmatic and less separatist position Yoder in fact the more flexible, less dogmatic and less separatist position Yoder wished to ascribe to Article VI actually came closest to the views of Hans wished to ascribe to Article VI actually came closest to the views of Hans Denck, the mystical Anabaptist.46 Denck, the mystical Anabaptist.46 In his early dissertation work Yoder had noted that “The questions In his early dissertation work Yoder had noted that “The questions of whether and how a civil authority should be considered Christian, and of whether and how a civil authority should be considered Christian, and whether and how the Christian should participate in state life, belong to whether and how the Christian should participate in state life, belong to theological ethics and not to dogmatic history.”47 In replying to Stayer’s theological ethics and not to dogmatic history.”47 In replying to Stayer’s empirical study on the sword in Anabaptism in 1974, when he wished to empirical study on the sword in Anabaptism in 1974, when he wished to address nonviolent Christian engagement with the state, Yoder constructed a address nonviolent Christian engagement with the state, Yoder constructed a methodological grid that revealed its natural home in theological ethics rather methodological grid that revealed its natural home in theological ethics rather than in empirical historical study. (In fact, Yoder’s scholarship had been than in empirical historical study. (In fact, Yoder’s scholarship had been developing away from historical studies towards Christian ethics even in developing away from historical studies towards Christian ethics even in 1957.) His engagement with Stayer failed to engage the vast array of sources 1957.) His engagement with Stayer failed to engage the vast array of sources and the new historical narrative Stayer had marshaled. His encounter with and the new historical narrative Stayer had marshaled. His encounter with Doing History with Theological Ethics in Mind 13 Doing History with Theological Ethics in Mind 13

Stayer’s early work on the sword would mark Yoder’s last direct published Stayer’s early work on the sword would mark Yoder’s last direct published engagement with Reformation scholars working in Anabaptist history. engagement with Reformation scholars working in Anabaptist history. The methodological divide now visible grew wider almost The methodological divide now visible grew wider almost immediately. Not only was Yoder strongly drawn in other directions – The immediately. Not only was Yoder strongly drawn in other directions – The Politics of Jesus had been published in 1972 and had been preceded by The Politics of Jesus had been published in 1972 and had been preceded by The Christian Witness to the State (1964), Nevertheless (1971), and The Original Christian Witness to the State (1964), Nevertheless (1971), and The Original Revolution: Essays on Christian Pacifism(1971) – but the field of Anabaptist Revolution: Essays on Christian Pacifism(1971) – but the field of Anabaptist history was undergoing a major methodological shift that brought to the history was undergoing a major methodological shift that brought to the forefront wide empirical research on the social, economic, and political forefront wide empirical research on the social, economic, and political contexts in which Anabaptism found expression. The historiographical contexts in which Anabaptism found expression. The historiographical details will not concern us here, but two publications indicate the depth and details will not concern us here, but two publications indicate the depth and significance of the methodological change now underway. significance of the methodological change now underway. In 1975 James Stayer, Werner O. Packull, and Klaus Deppermann In 1975 James Stayer, Werner O. Packull, and Klaus Deppermann published “From Monogenesis to Polygenesis.” This ground-breaking article published “From Monogenesis to Polygenesis.” This ground-breaking article announced a new approach to Anabaptist history based on detailed empirical announced a new approach to Anabaptist history based on detailed empirical studies of particular regions and persons, and drew new conclusions as studies of particular regions and persons, and drew new conclusions as a result.48 The historical question no longer was “What was the place of a result.48 The historical question no longer was “What was the place of origin of Anabaptism?” but rather “What were the places where Anabaptism origin of Anabaptism?” but rather “What were the places where Anabaptism originated”; no longer was it “Who was the intellectual father of Anabaptism originated”; no longer was it “Who was the intellectual father of Anabaptism who determined its essential character as a movement?” but “Who were who determined its essential character as a movement?” but “Who were the intellectual fathers of Anabaptism who determined the varieties of the intellectual fathers of Anabaptism who determined the varieties of Anabaptism?” One was to think no longer of a “normative Anabaptism” but Anabaptism?” One was to think no longer of a “normative Anabaptism” but of “Anabaptisms,” all with unique origins and characteristics, and none of of “Anabaptisms,” all with unique origins and characteristics, and none of them normative. them normative. Needless to say, Yoder’s early concentration on Zürich and Zwingli and Needless to say, Yoder’s early concentration on Zürich and Zwingli and the assumption that from this study the essential marks of “true Anabaptism” the assumption that from this study the essential marks of “true Anabaptism” could be identified ran counter to the method and results of the polygenesis could be identified ran counter to the method and results of the polygenesis historians and, increasingly, those of other historians working in the field, historians and, increasingly, those of other historians working in the field, most of whom had no denominational connections with the believers church most of whom had no denominational connections with the believers church tradition.49 One need only reference Yoder’s conclusions in 1957 to see that tradition.49 One need only reference Yoder’s conclusions in 1957 to see that the historiographical gulf was widening quickly.50 the historiographical gulf was widening quickly.50 The methodological exclamation point of this development was The methodological exclamation point of this development was contained in the papers of a symposium of scholars discussing “Problems of contained in the papers of a symposium of scholars discussing “Problems of Anabaptist History,” published in 1979 in the Mennonite Quarterly Review. Anabaptist History,” published in 1979 in the Mennonite Quarterly Review. The keynote essay by Hans-Jürgen Goertz, titled “History and Theology: A The keynote essay by Hans-Jürgen Goertz, titled “History and Theology: A Major Problem of Anabaptist Research Today,” celebrated what he saw as the Major Problem of Anabaptist Research Today,” celebrated what he saw as the 14 The Conrad Grebel Review 14 The Conrad Grebel Review demise of confessional history at the hands of the Marxist historian Gerhard demise of confessional history at the hands of the Marxist historian Gerhard Zschäbitz, the social historian Claus-Peter Clasen, and the intellectual Zschäbitz, the social historian Claus-Peter Clasen, and the intellectual historian James Stayer. historian James Stayer. It would appear at first glance that the work of Zschäbitz, It would appear at first glance that the work of Zschäbitz, Clasen and Stayer has negated the cherished conclusions Clasen and Stayer has negated the cherished conclusions of the free-church historiography on virtually all points: of the free-church historiography on virtually all points: the nonrevolutionary character of Anabaptism, its clearly the nonrevolutionary character of Anabaptism, its clearly voluntaristic ecclesiology, its essential unity, and its significance voluntaristic ecclesiology, its essential unity, and its significance for the emergence of the modern world.51 for the emergence of the modern world.51 There is a place for theology in the study of church history, Goertz conceded There is a place for theology in the study of church history, Goertz conceded eventually, but it must be subservient to history, methodologically speaking, eventually, but it must be subservient to history, methodologically speaking, and good history is independent of theological commitments. and good history is independent of theological commitments. The theologian can perhaps draw attention from his distinctive The theologian can perhaps draw attention from his distinctive perspective to problems which no one else would have noticed, but he must perspective to problems which no one else would have noticed, but he must do this in such a manner that his results can examined by everyone on the do this in such a manner that his results can examined by everyone on the basis of historical material. That very fact bars the way to a hermeneutical basis of historical material. That very fact bars the way to a hermeneutical primacy of theology in the study of church history.52 primacy of theology in the study of church history.52 Thus the “cooperative participation” of theologians and historians in Thus the “cooperative participation” of theologians and historians in the investigation of Anabaptism can and should happen, Goertz concluded the investigation of Anabaptism can and should happen, Goertz concluded — but with appropriate methodological limitations on the side of the — but with appropriate methodological limitations on the side of the theologians. theologians. Other participants in the symposium did not entirely echo Goertz’s Other participants in the symposium did not entirely echo Goertz’s views. Stayer, for example, said that Goertz seemed to be calling for the views. Stayer, for example, said that Goertz seemed to be calling for the “abject surrender” of church historians who had “distinctive religious “abject surrender” of church historians who had “distinctive religious viewpoints.” He concluded, “I doubt if such a surrender will take place and, viewpoints.” He concluded, “I doubt if such a surrender will take place and, in fact, I hope it does not.”53 Nevertheless, work in Anabaptist history in in fact, I hope it does not.”53 Nevertheless, work in Anabaptist history in the last quarter of the century was strongly colored by the approach not the last quarter of the century was strongly colored by the approach not only recommended by Goertz but already well underway as the dominant only recommended by Goertz but already well underway as the dominant methodology. methodology. The methodological sea change did not create the kind of environment The methodological sea change did not create the kind of environment hospitable to the approach Yoder had taken and continued to develop, and hospitable to the approach Yoder had taken and continued to develop, and his stronger interests lay in other fields in any case. Although the pioneering his stronger interests lay in other fields in any case. Although the pioneering “Polygenesis” article appeared in 1975, only seven years after the publication “Polygenesis” article appeared in 1975, only seven years after the publication of Yoder’s second volume of the Anabaptist-Reformed dialogues, Yoder did of Yoder’s second volume of the Anabaptist-Reformed dialogues, Yoder did not engage polygenesis historical scholarship even once in print – although not engage polygenesis historical scholarship even once in print – although Doing History with Theological Ethics in Mind 15 Doing History with Theological Ethics in Mind 15 he did modify his own teaching narratives in light of the new scholarship, he did modify his own teaching narratives in light of the new scholarship, as will be noted below. However, this lack of direct engagement with the as will be noted below. However, this lack of direct engagement with the subsequent scholarship—coming from a renowned debater, prolific writer, subsequent scholarship—coming from a renowned debater, prolific writer, and brilliant scholar who did his doctoral work in Anabaptist history— and brilliant scholar who did his doctoral work in Anabaptist history— speaks volumes. speaks volumes. Yoder’s answer to polygenesis historiography was perhaps written Yoder’s answer to polygenesis historiography was perhaps written before there even was such a historiography. In 1962 in the penultimate before there even was such a historiography. In 1962 in the penultimate footnote to his first published volume on the Anabaptists and Reformers in footnote to his first published volume on the Anabaptists and Reformers in Switzerland, Yoder wrote: “By pointing to the deep unity of all surviving Switzerland, Yoder wrote: “By pointing to the deep unity of all surviving Anabaptist groups, we are not claiming that they were all under one Anabaptist groups, we are not claiming that they were all under one organizational roof.” organizational roof.” There were also visible differences, for example, in their There were also visible differences, for example, in their teachings on the incarnation, in the sharpness of their practice teachings on the incarnation, in the sharpness of their practice of the ban, and regarding community of goods. . . . But this of the ban, and regarding community of goods. . . . But this was not our topic. These other streams may have helped to was not our topic. These other streams may have helped to form the ethics and the anthropology of Anabaptism, but they form the ethics and the anthropology of Anabaptism, but they do not explain baptism and the community-building power do not explain baptism and the community-building power of the Anabaptist message. They influenced the outer form of of the Anabaptist message. They influenced the outer form of Anabaptism, but we have Zürich to thank for an Anabaptism Anabaptism, but we have Zürich to thank for an Anabaptism that endured.54 that endured.54 “The Anabaptism that endured” became a polestar for all of Yoder’s historical “The Anabaptism that endured” became a polestar for all of Yoder’s historical work. From the start, the questions he was asking led him to seek the essential work. From the start, the questions he was asking led him to seek the essential theological unity of the Anabaptist movement (which he sought and found theological unity of the Anabaptist movement (which he sought and found in Zürich); that the “essential Anabaptism” had been appropriately identified in Zürich); that the “essential Anabaptism” had been appropriately identified was “proven” historically by the survival of communities that embraced was “proven” historically by the survival of communities that embraced the principles he had identified in the first Swiss Anabaptists. When Yoder the principles he had identified in the first Swiss Anabaptists. When Yoder extrapolated and “logically” extended the theological, ecclesiological, and extrapolated and “logically” extended the theological, ecclesiological, and ethical significance of the Anabaptist responses beyond what the Swiss ethical significance of the Anabaptist responses beyond what the Swiss Anabaptists actually said (as he explicitly does in the more systematic part of Anabaptists actually said (as he explicitly does in the more systematic part of his doctoral work – part II of Anabaptism and Reformation in Switzerland), his doctoral work – part II of Anabaptism and Reformation in Switzerland), this is not a betrayal of his methodology but a faithful carrying out of it this is not a betrayal of his methodology but a faithful carrying out of it and his privileged questions. This was a fact perhaps understood but not and his privileged questions. This was a fact perhaps understood but not appreciated by his historian critics. appreciated by his historian critics. Yoder’s earliest studies reveal history being done with theological Yoder’s earliest studies reveal history being done with theological ethics in mind, as the choice of source material reveals. The dialogues, after ethics in mind, as the choice of source material reveals. The dialogues, after 16 The Conrad Grebel Review 16 The Conrad Grebel Review all, were historical debates about biblical truth. Debate over such questions, all, were historical debates about biblical truth. Debate over such questions, Yoder believed, should continue to be the focus for committed church Yoder believed, should continue to be the focus for committed church historians and for the ecumenical discussions emerging in earnest at the historians and for the ecumenical discussions emerging in earnest at the time of his research and writing. He felt the ecumenical task was primary. time of his research and writing. He felt the ecumenical task was primary. For a Christian scholar to fail to direct questions of biblical truth to historical For a Christian scholar to fail to direct questions of biblical truth to historical sources that documented the “breaking points” leading to Christian division sources that documented the “breaking points” leading to Christian division would be irresponsible; it would be treating history as an “idle academic would be irresponsible; it would be treating history as an “idle academic recreation.”55 Such idle recreation could not have been farther from Yoder’s recreation.”55 Such idle recreation could not have been farther from Yoder’s approach to the historical material. approach to the historical material. Nevertheless, Yoder would still work in the historical idiom from time Nevertheless, Yoder would still work in the historical idiom from time to time, as we will note below. But in what would be an amazingly prolific to time, as we will note below. But in what would be an amazingly prolific publishing career, his historical work would occupy less and less space. He publishing career, his historical work would occupy less and less space. He never again published the results of concentrated sixteenth-century archival never again published the results of concentrated sixteenth-century archival and primary source work, although in 1957 he had projected an extension and primary source work, although in 1957 he had projected an extension of his Zürich research into Strasbourg.56 Such a study was never published; of his Zürich research into Strasbourg.56 Such a study was never published; perhaps the “crystallization point” article was part of such a study, begun perhaps the “crystallization point” article was part of such a study, begun but not completed. but not completed.

Radical Reformation Typology and Anabaptism (1974 and beyond) Radical Reformation Typology and Anabaptism (1974 and beyond) Although Yoder withdrew after 1974 from direct published engagement Although Yoder withdrew after 1974 from direct published engagement with academic historians doing research in Anabaptism, he did not abandon with academic historians doing research in Anabaptism, he did not abandon historical writing altogether.57 The audiences for which he composed historical writing altogether.57 The audiences for which he composed overviews of sixteenth-century dissent were primarily students and scholars overviews of sixteenth-century dissent were primarily students and scholars involved in church settings;58 his post-1974 historical writing was for involved in church settings;58 his post-1974 historical writing was for interaction primarily with those working in a Christian context and with interaction primarily with those working in a Christian context and with theological interests and commitments. theological interests and commitments. As early as 1957 Yoder was well aware of the great variety of sixteenth- As early as 1957 Yoder was well aware of the great variety of sixteenth- century Anabaptist views. The crucial questions in terms of historical century Anabaptist views. The crucial questions in terms of historical narrative were not the bare fact of diversity but how that diversity would be narrative were not the bare fact of diversity but how that diversity would be described and how differing views and actions would be explained. When he described and how differing views and actions would be explained. When he dealt with the wider panorama of Reformation dissent (both Anabaptist and dealt with the wider panorama of Reformation dissent (both Anabaptist and non-Anabaptist), he mirrored the typological “Radical Reformation” rubric non-Anabaptist), he mirrored the typological “Radical Reformation” rubric of George H. Williams59 and the similar “Left Wing of the Reformation” of George H. Williams59 and the similar “Left Wing of the Reformation” framework of Heinold Fast.60 Already in 1957 Williams’ typology of framework of Heinold Fast.60 Already in 1957 Williams’ typology of radical reforming positions had made a comfortable place for “evangelical radical reforming positions had made a comfortable place for “evangelical Doing History with Theological Ethics in Mind 17 Doing History with Theological Ethics in Mind 17

Anabaptists” within a wider, very diverse radical stream that included Anabaptists” within a wider, very diverse radical stream that included Karlstadt, Müntzer, Hut, Mathijs, and radical dissidents of all sorts. Karlstadt, Müntzer, Hut, Mathijs, and radical dissidents of all sorts. In a 1964 lecture (published in 1971), Yoder presented an abbreviated In a 1964 lecture (published in 1971), Yoder presented an abbreviated but revealing historiographical survey to assess the significance of the but revealing historiographical survey to assess the significance of the “recovery of the Anabaptist Vision”61 for a lecture audience comprising “recovery of the Anabaptist Vision”61 for a lecture audience comprising participants in a Students Services Summer Seminar at Elkhart, Indiana (not participants in a Students Services Summer Seminar at Elkhart, Indiana (not Reformation scholars). Making the point that the earlier hostile collective Reformation scholars). Making the point that the earlier hostile collective label of “fanatics” or “enthusiasts” (Schwärmer) had been superseded label of “fanatics” or “enthusiasts” (Schwärmer) had been superseded by European and North American scholarship, and that a wide diversity by European and North American scholarship, and that a wide diversity of Reformation dissent was now recognized, he listed twelve divisions of Reformation dissent was now recognized, he listed twelve divisions among Reformation dissidents, which were then grouped according to among Reformation dissidents, which were then grouped according to four major types: Non-Anabaptist dissenters (e.g., Karlstadt, Müntzer), four major types: Non-Anabaptist dissenters (e.g., Karlstadt, Müntzer), Fanatics (properly speaking), Anabaptists (“mainstream” Anabaptists), and Fanatics (properly speaking), Anabaptists (“mainstream” Anabaptists), and Antitrinitarians. The general approach in this early lecture mirrors that of Antitrinitarians. The general approach in this early lecture mirrors that of Williams, even if the categories do not correspond exactly. Williams, even if the categories do not correspond exactly. Among the “mainstream Anabaptists,” the group with which Yoder Among the “mainstream Anabaptists,” the group with which Yoder was primarily concerned, were included the Swiss Brethren, Menno Simons, was primarily concerned, were included the Swiss Brethren, Menno Simons, the “strong individual Anabaptists” (Denck, Hubmaier, Hut), the Hutterian the “strong individual Anabaptists” (Denck, Hubmaier, Hut), the Hutterian Brethren, and Pilgram Marpeck. Yoder found an “enormous breadth of Brethren, and Pilgram Marpeck. Yoder found an “enormous breadth of agreement between them,” and further subdivided the mainstream into the agreement between them,” and further subdivided the mainstream into the surviving groups of Mennonites, Swiss Brethren, and Hutterian Brethren.62 surviving groups of Mennonites, Swiss Brethren, and Hutterian Brethren.62 The identifying marks of this mainstream Anabaptism were noted (with The identifying marks of this mainstream Anabaptism were noted (with nuanced comment) as being the four primary marks of mainstream nuanced comment) as being the four primary marks of mainstream Anabaptist ecclesiology: a church that is visible, missionary, a brotherhood, Anabaptist ecclesiology: a church that is visible, missionary, a brotherhood, and led by the Word and the Spirit.63 Yoder concluded with an analysis of and led by the Word and the Spirit.63 Yoder concluded with an analysis of the “contemporary significance” of the Anabaptist Vision for the renewal of the “contemporary significance” of the Anabaptist Vision for the renewal of the Mennonite church. the Mennonite church. A more thorough and nuanced description of the broader sixteenth- A more thorough and nuanced description of the broader sixteenth- century “radical” scene was published in 1976 with a collection of Radical century “radical” scene was published in 1976 with a collection of Radical Reformation source documents, edited and introduced by Yoder, and Reformation source documents, edited and introduced by Yoder, and published in Spanish in Argentina in a politically charged atmosphere.64 published in Spanish in Argentina in a politically charged atmosphere.64 Textos Escogidos de la Reforma Radical was a reader based on the English Textos Escogidos de la Reforma Radical was a reader based on the English collection of George H. Williams and Angel Mergal, Spiritual and Anabaptist collection of George H. Williams and Angel Mergal, Spiritual and Anabaptist Writers, and the parallel collection of Heinold Fast, Der Linke Flügel der Writers, and the parallel collection of Heinold Fast, Der Linke Flügel der Reformation. In the general introduction Yoder explains that he favors the Reformation. In the general introduction Yoder explains that he favors the 18 The Conrad Grebel Review 18 The Conrad Grebel Review term “Radical Reformation” as a descriptive label for sixteenth-century term “Radical Reformation” as a descriptive label for sixteenth-century dissent because of the applicability of the double sense of the term “radical.” dissent because of the applicability of the double sense of the term “radical.” The dissenters were not only intent on “returning to the roots,” they also The dissenters were not only intent on “returning to the roots,” they also meant to renew the church in keeping with its apostolic roots.65 meant to renew the church in keeping with its apostolic roots.65 In spite of the acceptance of William’s basic typology and Radical In spite of the acceptance of William’s basic typology and Radical Reformation rubric, the historical narrative introducing this volume is an Reformation rubric, the historical narrative introducing this volume is an unusual combination of the panoramic, inclusive description of all manner unusual combination of the panoramic, inclusive description of all manner of radical reform, as pioneered by Williams, and interpolations that recall of radical reform, as pioneered by Williams, and interpolations that recall the descriptions of “true Anabaptism” sounded by Yoder in 1957. The Latin the descriptions of “true Anabaptism” sounded by Yoder in 1957. The Latin American context for which the introduction was written may have led American context for which the introduction was written may have led Yoder to shape the text in unusual ways. Yoder to shape the text in unusual ways. After a brief outline of four stages of early Reformation chronology After a brief outline of four stages of early Reformation chronology that identifies the emergence of radical reform in the period 1520-21, the that identifies the emergence of radical reform in the period 1520-21, the first of two historiographical outlines follows. The historiographical survey, first of two historiographical outlines follows. The historiographical survey, however, concerns only the origin and nature of Anabaptism rather than that however, concerns only the origin and nature of Anabaptism rather than that of the wider “radical reform” and concludes with a narrative firmly rooted of the wider “radical reform” and concludes with a narrative firmly rooted in Yoder’s 1957 conclusions. in Yoder’s 1957 conclusions. Today there is no longer any doubt that, in the strict sense, Today there is no longer any doubt that, in the strict sense, Anabaptism began in Zürich in 1525, in the very heart of the Anabaptism began in Zürich in 1525, in the very heart of the Zwinglian reform. It was led by disciples and collaborators of Zwinglian reform. It was led by disciples and collaborators of Zwingli who were disappointed by the slow pace of his official Zwingli who were disappointed by the slow pace of his official reform. . . . these “radical Zwinglians” respected Thomas reform. . . . these “radical Zwinglians” respected Thomas Müntzer because of his honest forthrightness [franqueza] but Müntzer because of his honest forthrightness [franqueza] but they were not in agreement with him on essential liturgical and they were not in agreement with him on essential liturgical and political points. political points. If Anabaptism was defined by such a Zwinglian stamp, how is the wide If Anabaptism was defined by such a Zwinglian stamp, how is the wide variety of baptizing dissent to be explained? variety of baptizing dissent to be explained? . . . in spite of being purely Zwinglian in its origins, Anabaptism . . . in spite of being purely Zwinglian in its origins, Anabaptism could very easily and quickly integrate people from very diverse could very easily and quickly integrate people from very diverse origins, thanks to its non-official nature, its lack of juridical bases origins, thanks to its non-official nature, its lack of juridical bases and its clandestine situation. These diverse people included little and its clandestine situation. These diverse people included little remnant groups of third-order Franciscans, Waldensians and remnant groups of third-order Franciscans, Waldensians and Moravian Brethren; mystical thinkers and ‘enthusiasts’ ready to Moravian Brethren; mystical thinkers and ‘enthusiasts’ ready to give themselves to any ecstatic current. Many of these people give themselves to any ecstatic current. Many of these people formally joined the baptizing movement for a time.66 formally joined the baptizing movement for a time.66 Doing History with Theological Ethics in Mind 19 Doing History with Theological Ethics in Mind 19

The Radical Reformation/Anabaptist narrative begins with dissent from The Radical Reformation/Anabaptist narrative begins with dissent from Luther but quickly passes through Zürich to emerge as Anabaptism, which Luther but quickly passes through Zürich to emerge as Anabaptism, which subsequently gathers up “non-Anabaptist” elements for a time. These subsequently gathers up “non-Anabaptist” elements for a time. These elements do not last and are not significant to the story, as is shown by the elements do not last and are not significant to the story, as is shown by the application of the heuristic principle of “true Anabaptism” (not named as application of the heuristic principle of “true Anabaptism” (not named as such here) that includes only those baptizers who founded visible, permanent such here) that includes only those baptizers who founded visible, permanent groups capable of surviving in the absence of political support. groups capable of surviving in the absence of political support. However, the introduction turns from a description of Anabaptism However, the introduction turns from a description of Anabaptism back to a description of five common characteristics of “Radical Reform” in back to a description of five common characteristics of “Radical Reform” in all of its inclusiveness: all of its inclusiveness: 1. A rejection of alliances with civil power (Thomas Müntzer is 1. A rejection of alliances with civil power (Thomas Müntzer is noted as an exception). noted as an exception). 2. Acceptance of suffering at the hands of those with power 2. Acceptance of suffering at the hands of those with power (Anabaptists like the Münsterites, who inflicted suffering, are (Anabaptists like the Münsterites, who inflicted suffering, are not mentioned). not mentioned). 3. Authenticity of personal faith, personal experience, and 3. Authenticity of personal faith, personal experience, and personal commitment. personal commitment. 4. A visible community, distinct from society in general (the 4. A visible community, distinct from society in general (the Spiritualists are not noted as exceptions here). Spiritualists are not noted as exceptions here). 5. A universal vision for mission (separatist groups are not 5. A universal vision for mission (separatist groups are not mentioned).67 mentioned).67 Yoder suggests this radical Christian expression is particularly relevant for Yoder suggests this radical Christian expression is particularly relevant for an Iberian culture “whose medieval Catholic era lasted until yesterday.” an Iberian culture “whose medieval Catholic era lasted until yesterday.” Within the limits of historical models, a Christocentric Protestantism that was Within the limits of historical models, a Christocentric Protestantism that was free, voluntary, missionary, communitarian, and capable of surviving and free, voluntary, missionary, communitarian, and capable of surviving and changing the world might well have something to say to the contemporary changing the world might well have something to say to the contemporary Latin American situation.68 Latin American situation.68 Throughout this introduction, Yoder moves effortlessly between Throughout this introduction, Yoder moves effortlessly between panoramic descriptions including all varieties of Reformation radicals to panoramic descriptions including all varieties of Reformation radicals to descriptions purporting to describe all radicals but bringing to mind the “true descriptions purporting to describe all radicals but bringing to mind the “true Anabaptists” of Zürich as in the description of Christocentric Protestantism Anabaptists” of Zürich as in the description of Christocentric Protestantism above. But not all the radicals included under Williams’ rubric can be matched above. But not all the radicals included under Williams’ rubric can be matched with the listed “common characteristics” of radical reform. A profile of with the listed “common characteristics” of radical reform. A profile of Thomas Müntzer, so beloved by the Marxist historiography of that era and a Thomas Müntzer, so beloved by the Marxist historiography of that era and a figure of considerable interest to liberation theologians of that time in Latin figure of considerable interest to liberation theologians of that time in Latin 20 The Conrad Grebel Review 20 The Conrad Grebel Review

America, would have elicited very different “radical” characteristics. Indeed, America, would have elicited very different “radical” characteristics. Indeed, given the charged political and religious context for which this material was given the charged political and religious context for which this material was written, it surely was not accidental that in the “analytical essay” that follows written, it surely was not accidental that in the “analytical essay” that follows careful attention is given both to the sixteenth-century “revolutionary” careful attention is given both to the sixteenth-century “revolutionary” option (attractive to liberation theologians) and the spiritualist option option (attractive to liberation theologians) and the spiritualist option (attractive to the growing Protestant Pentecostal movements). A third option (attractive to the growing Protestant Pentecostal movements). A third option was what Yoder now called “ecclesial Anabaptism” (rather than the earlier was what Yoder now called “ecclesial Anabaptism” (rather than the earlier “mainstream Anabaptism” or “true Anabaptism”) that grew out of radical “mainstream Anabaptism” or “true Anabaptism”) that grew out of radical Zwinglianism.69 Zwinglianism.69 The general introduction then moved to a relatively thorough The general introduction then moved to a relatively thorough description of the broader panorama of reformation dissent, at times echoing description of the broader panorama of reformation dissent, at times echoing Williams’ categories,70 with occasional narrative hints to contemporary Latin Williams’ categories,70 with occasional narrative hints to contemporary Latin Americans as to how best to make value choices among the options. Stronger Americans as to how best to make value choices among the options. Stronger conclusions came in an appendix71 that begins with a second, more detailed conclusions came in an appendix71 that begins with a second, more detailed survey of “sixteenth-century radical reform,” listing five historiographical survey of “sixteenth-century radical reform,” listing five historiographical stages: stages: 1. Official Protestant historiography. 1. Official Protestant historiography. 2. In-group historiography (Mennonite: Martyrs Mirror). 2. In-group historiography (Mennonite: Martyrs Mirror). 3. Scientific revision (U. Heberle and C. A. Cornelius, whose 3. Scientific revision (U. Heberle and C. A. Cornelius, whose work led to “a corrected understanding of the basic facts that work led to “a corrected understanding of the basic facts that has not changed.”). has not changed.”). 4. Mennonite and Believers’ Church historians (Horsch, Bender, 4. Mennonite and Believers’ Church historians (Horsch, Bender, who change little regarding the basic facts). who change little regarding the basic facts). 5. Ernst Bloch and neo-Marxist historiography, who favor 5. Ernst Bloch and neo-Marxist historiography, who favor Müntzer but ignore religious elements and groups like the Müntzer but ignore religious elements and groups like the Anabaptists.72 Anabaptists.72 Under the third period, which Yoder considered the most important for Under the third period, which Yoder considered the most important for establishing the “basic facts,” there is a further summary of thirteen different establishing the “basic facts,” there is a further summary of thirteen different strands of radicalism that closely parallels but does not exactly match the list strands of radicalism that closely parallels but does not exactly match the list provided in the 1964 lecture noted above. After Müntzer, the Peasants’ War, provided in the 1964 lecture noted above. After Müntzer, the Peasants’ War, and Karlstadt comes “Anabaptism proper” [el Anabaptismo propiamente and Karlstadt comes “Anabaptism proper” [el Anabaptismo propiamente dicho] described according to the pattern seen elsewhere for “mainline dicho] described according to the pattern seen elsewhere for “mainline Anabaptism.” Not included in Anabaptism proper are Hubmaier, Denck, Anabaptism.” Not included in Anabaptism proper are Hubmaier, Denck, Hut, the Stäbler, Hoffman, Mathijs, or the Antitrinitarians. After Münster, Hut, the Stäbler, Hoffman, Mathijs, or the Antitrinitarians. After Münster, the Melchiorite inheritance in the Netherlands was rejected and the northern the Melchiorite inheritance in the Netherlands was rejected and the northern Doing History with Theological Ethics in Mind 21 Doing History with Theological Ethics in Mind 21 baptizing movement regrouped under Menno Simons. Yoder concludes, baptizing movement regrouped under Menno Simons. Yoder concludes, In this way we may sum up the results of a century of research In this way we may sum up the results of a century of research in the manner of Heberle and Cornelius, which culminated with in the manner of Heberle and Cornelius, which culminated with the publication of the Täuferakten document series and with the the publication of the Täuferakten document series and with the work of other scholars like Fritz Blanke, Franklin H. Littell and work of other scholars like Fritz Blanke, Franklin H. Littell and George H. Williams.73 George H. Williams.73 Having presented again a wide panorama of radical persons and movements, Having presented again a wide panorama of radical persons and movements, refracted this time through a more explicitly “ecclesial Anabaptist” lens, refracted this time through a more explicitly “ecclesial Anabaptist” lens, the historiographical appendix concludes with a key section subtitled “the the historiographical appendix concludes with a key section subtitled “the Theological Contribution.” Theological Contribution.” Anyone attempting to interpret the broad range of the radical reform Anyone attempting to interpret the broad range of the radical reform has to begin by noting its extreme diversity, Yoder notes. Nevertheless, has to begin by noting its extreme diversity, Yoder notes. Nevertheless, “insofar as we are dealing with a movement, we must distinguish between “insofar as we are dealing with a movement, we must distinguish between organized communities capable of surviving, and radical individuals who organized communities capable of surviving, and radical individuals who are alone and without followers.” According to this criterion, the unsavory are alone and without followers.” According to this criterion, the unsavory Radical Reformation brew is distilled down to three movements of the same Radical Reformation brew is distilled down to three movements of the same type: the Mennonites, the Swiss Brethren, and the Hutterian Brethren. These type: the Mennonites, the Swiss Brethren, and the Hutterian Brethren. These groups have a distinctive theological contribution to make, in contrast to the groups have a distinctive theological contribution to make, in contrast to the mainline reform. mainline reform. 1. They form particular and visible communities which are 1. They form particular and visible communities which are voluntary, in which economic goods are shared. It is a missionary voluntary, in which economic goods are shared. It is a missionary community that is organized locally according to the “Rule of community that is organized locally according to the “Rule of Christ” (Matthew 18:15ff.). Christ” (Matthew 18:15ff.). 2. These groups have a distinctive biblical hermeneutic, marked 2. These groups have a distinctive biblical hermeneutic, marked by a Christocentric Reformation biblicism, an historical view by a Christocentric Reformation biblicism, an historical view of the Bible, a congregational and critical hermeneutic, open to of the Bible, a congregational and critical hermeneutic, open to new insights. new insights. 3. These groups renounce political power in support of the 3. These groups renounce political power in support of the church, and maintain the freedom of the church in the face of church, and maintain the freedom of the church in the face of the state. Conversely, they maintain the freedom of the state in the state. Conversely, they maintain the freedom of the state in face of the church, and call for liberation from violence. face of the church, and call for liberation from violence. Yoder concludes by noting that although only some of these Anabaptist Yoder concludes by noting that although only some of these Anabaptist marks have been universally accepted in the modern world, “at least we marks have been universally accepted in the modern world, “at least we cannot doubt the relevance of their history, their critique and their testimony cannot doubt the relevance of their history, their critique and their testimony of word and blood.”74 In the end, when theological meaning and significance of word and blood.”74 In the end, when theological meaning and significance 22 The Conrad Grebel Review 22 The Conrad Grebel Review needed to be extracted from the diverse history of Radical Reform, the only needed to be extracted from the diverse history of Radical Reform, the only groups who provided a “distinctive theological contribution” were groups groups who provided a “distinctive theological contribution” were groups who fit the mold of the “true Anabaptists.” who fit the mold of the “true Anabaptists.” The two writings surveyed above were drafted before the appearance The two writings surveyed above were drafted before the appearance of the influential revisionist (“polygenesis”) article by Stayer, Packull, and of the influential revisionist (“polygenesis”) article by Stayer, Packull, and Deppermann in 1975 discussed earlier. Consequently, they continue to reflect Deppermann in 1975 discussed earlier. Consequently, they continue to reflect the historiographical approach that appealed to “normative Anabaptism.” the historiographical approach that appealed to “normative Anabaptism.” Although no evidence exists of a direct response published by Yoder to Although no evidence exists of a direct response published by Yoder to the polygenesis thesis, a collection of lectures delivered at the Mennonite the polygenesis thesis, a collection of lectures delivered at the Mennonite Seminary in Elkhart, Indiana (last edited and published in 1983) indicates that Seminary in Elkhart, Indiana (last edited and published in 1983) indicates that he was abreast of the emerging historiography and significantly modified his he was abreast of the emerging historiography and significantly modified his narrative of Anabaptist beginnings and diversity in his teaching of seminary narrative of Anabaptist beginnings and diversity in his teaching of seminary students, in response to the new findings.75 students, in response to the new findings.75 The seminary course “Christian Attitudes to War, Peace, and The seminary course “Christian Attitudes to War, Peace, and Revolution” dealt with the Anabaptists in one chapter, and although that Revolution” dealt with the Anabaptists in one chapter, and although that chapter’s focus was nonviolence in Anabaptism, a narrative of Anabaptist chapter’s focus was nonviolence in Anabaptism, a narrative of Anabaptist beginnings and development was included of necessity.76 Notice that Yoder beginnings and development was included of necessity.76 Notice that Yoder was working with a modified narrative model comes early in the material: was working with a modified narrative model comes early in the material: “The Anabaptist movement of the 1520s was not a unity. The historian can’t “The Anabaptist movement of the 1520s was not a unity. The historian can’t talk about a unified Anabaptist position until after 1540, and then only on talk about a unified Anabaptist position until after 1540, and then only on certain questions, and only because people representing the other options certain questions, and only because people representing the other options were persecuted out of existence.”77 were persecuted out of existence.”77 Far from speaking of “true Anabaptism,” Yoder now accepts a broader Far from speaking of “true Anabaptism,” Yoder now accepts a broader historical definition as urged by the revisionist historians. historical definition as urged by the revisionist historians. An Anabaptist is someone who doesn’t baptize babies and An Anabaptist is someone who doesn’t baptize babies and does baptize adults. . . . So there were nonpacifist Anabaptists does baptize adults. . . . So there were nonpacifist Anabaptists who were genuine Anabaptists, in the sense that they were who were genuine Anabaptists, in the sense that they were baptized. . . . If water baptism received by an adult is the mark baptized. . . . If water baptism received by an adult is the mark then there were obviously violent Anabaptists.78 then there were obviously violent Anabaptists.78 The far-reaching implications of this broad definition are also accepted, The far-reaching implications of this broad definition are also accepted, including a questioning of the earlier heuristic measure of the “survival” of including a questioning of the earlier heuristic measure of the “survival” of a given group as a measure of true Anabaptism. a given group as a measure of true Anabaptism. There is no point in saying that one of these groups was There is no point in saying that one of these groups was legitimately Anabaptist and another wasn’t, since there is no legitimately Anabaptist and another wasn’t, since there is no Doing History with Theological Ethics in Mind 23 Doing History with Theological Ethics in Mind 23

other criterion [other than adult baptism] for the legitimacy other criterion [other than adult baptism] for the legitimacy of an Anabaptist. It is possible to say that the Swiss Brethren of an Anabaptist. It is possible to say that the Swiss Brethren movement had one kind of coherence. The Hutterite movement movement had one kind of coherence. The Hutterite movement had another kind of coherence. The Frisian Mennonite movement had another kind of coherence. The Frisian Mennonite movement had another kind of coherence. Those three movements went had another kind of coherence. Those three movements went on in time long enough that we can make of their coherence a on in time long enough that we can make of their coherence a standard, a ‘type,’ and say (after the fact) that other groups didn’t standard, a ‘type,’ and say (after the fact) that other groups didn’t fit that type. We can also record the fact that no other groups fit that type. We can also record the fact that no other groups survived beyond roughly 1540. Those who survived had come survived beyond roughly 1540. Those who survived had come to relatively similar positions on the sword. Yet that measure to relatively similar positions on the sword. Yet that measure of survival is of course a different criterion from whether they of survival is of course a different criterion from whether they were Anabaptists in the first place, or from whatever standards were Anabaptists in the first place, or from whatever standards we might use to decide whether we would like these Anabaptists we might use to decide whether we would like these Anabaptists better than those.79 better than those.79 In light of Yoder’s earlier historical writings these were significant In light of Yoder’s earlier historical writings these were significant concessions and modifications, demonstrating a real evolution in his concessions and modifications, demonstrating a real evolution in his conception of sixteenth-century Anabaptism.80 Of course, very many of conception of sixteenth-century Anabaptism.80 Of course, very many of Yoder’s earlier distinctive emphases remain in this lecture on nonviolence Yoder’s earlier distinctive emphases remain in this lecture on nonviolence and the Anabaptist tradition, as one would expect, but the historical narrative and the Anabaptist tradition, as one would expect, but the historical narrative has shifted in substantial ways.81 has shifted in substantial ways.81

Conclusion Conclusion By what measures can we assess John Howard Yoder’s work as an historian By what measures can we assess John Howard Yoder’s work as an historian of Anabaptism? First, the quality and thoroughness of Yoder’s investigation of Anabaptism? First, the quality and thoroughness of Yoder’s investigation into his chosen array of sources (the dialogues) cannot be disputed. Those into his chosen array of sources (the dialogues) cannot be disputed. Those who have wished to disagree with Yoder on the basis of alternative readings who have wished to disagree with Yoder on the basis of alternative readings of these particular sources have faced the daunting task of replicating his of these particular sources have faced the daunting task of replicating his original, painstakingly careful study in order to find fault with it. Nevertheless, original, painstakingly careful study in order to find fault with it. Nevertheless, significant challenges to Yoder’s historical work did appear, especially those significant challenges to Yoder’s historical work did appear, especially those arising in the last quarter of the twentieth century, as outlined above. arising in the last quarter of the twentieth century, as outlined above. Even a superficial intellectual biography of Yoder cannot help but Even a superficial intellectual biography of Yoder cannot help but note his uncanny ability to analyze data of all kinds and to find logical note his uncanny ability to analyze data of all kinds and to find logical patterns of meaning where others could not. When he looked at any field patterns of meaning where others could not. When he looked at any field of data, including empirical historical records, it seemed inevitable that of data, including empirical historical records, it seemed inevitable that the search for larger patterns of meaning was set in motion. The results the search for larger patterns of meaning was set in motion. The results 24 The Conrad Grebel Review 24 The Conrad Grebel Review usually were breathtakingly insightful, cutting across academic disciplines usually were breathtakingly insightful, cutting across academic disciplines with brilliant abandon. Nevertheless, in the case of the discipline of history, with brilliant abandon. Nevertheless, in the case of the discipline of history, for those academics whose task it remained to sift through original records for those academics whose task it remained to sift through original records and construct historical narratives, Yoder’s interpretive grids often were and construct historical narratives, Yoder’s interpretive grids often were not convincing. In spite of his careful work with the sources of Anabaptist not convincing. In spite of his careful work with the sources of Anabaptist beginnings in Switzerland, his methodology of choice for describing beginnings in Switzerland, his methodology of choice for describing Anabaptism was historical theology in search of the “essence” of the Anabaptism was historical theology in search of the “essence” of the movement; his manner of locating Anabaptism’s place in the wider field of movement; his manner of locating Anabaptism’s place in the wider field of Reformation history tended to the typological (also, essentialist) rather than Reformation history tended to the typological (also, essentialist) rather than to a descriptive historical narration that was highly empirical. This is not to to a descriptive historical narration that was highly empirical. This is not to say that either historical theology or typology are divorced from empirical say that either historical theology or typology are divorced from empirical evidence, but to say that these approaches rather quickly smooth over the evidence, but to say that these approaches rather quickly smooth over the rough edges and exceptions that closer adherence to empirical evidence rough edges and exceptions that closer adherence to empirical evidence invariably highlights. invariably highlights. It is strange but true that critiques of specific parts of Yoder’s early It is strange but true that critiques of specific parts of Yoder’s early historical investigations leave his work as a whole unchallenged. This is historical investigations leave his work as a whole unchallenged. This is because as a church historian committed to church renewal and ecumenical because as a church historian committed to church renewal and ecumenical dialogue, he was pressing the historical sources with theological, biblical, and dialogue, he was pressing the historical sources with theological, biblical, and ethical questions in mind: What does the Bible demand of us as Christians? ethical questions in mind: What does the Bible demand of us as Christians? How should the faithful church be ordered and constituted? How should the How should the faithful church be ordered and constituted? How should the faithful church relate to the state? Questions such as these not only were not faithful church relate to the state? Questions such as these not only were not asked but increasingly were ruled out of order by academic Reformation asked but increasingly were ruled out of order by academic Reformation historians. All the same, as his seminary lectures reveal, Yoder continued to historians. All the same, as his seminary lectures reveal, Yoder continued to learn from the revisionist historians and made some important modifications learn from the revisionist historians and made some important modifications to his own historical narratives as a result. to his own historical narratives as a result. When we read Yoder’s original historical work, it is as if the Swiss When we read Yoder’s original historical work, it is as if the Swiss Anabaptist-Reformed dialogues provided the door through which he could Anabaptist-Reformed dialogues provided the door through which he could pass, allowing him to explore the larger questions that gripped him and pass, allowing him to explore the larger questions that gripped him and stimulated his creative mind. The door as such―the historical work in its stimulated his creative mind. The door as such―the historical work in its own right—certainly mattered to him, but finally it mattered far less than the own right—certainly mattered to him, but finally it mattered far less than the wide panorama revealed after he had passed through that door and looked wide panorama revealed after he had passed through that door and looked beyond. Professional historians may have wished (and may still wish) to beyond. Professional historians may have wished (and may still wish) to argue about the size, shape, or location of this or that Anabaptist door—and argue about the size, shape, or location of this or that Anabaptist door—and even about the size and shape of the Anabaptist edifice itself—but all this even about the size and shape of the Anabaptist edifice itself—but all this ultimately had minimal impact on the systematic questions Yoder intended ultimately had minimal impact on the systematic questions Yoder intended to ask. To borrow a phrase he used frequently in debate, he was “asking a to ask. To borrow a phrase he used frequently in debate, he was “asking a Doing History with Theological Ethics in Mind 25 Doing History with Theological Ethics in Mind 25 different question” than were academic historians in the last quarter of the different question” than were academic historians in the last quarter of the twentieth century. twentieth century. The foundational questions driving Yoder’s historical study become The foundational questions driving Yoder’s historical study become the consistent focus of his later systematic work, as Neal Blough has noted: the consistent focus of his later systematic work, as Neal Blough has noted: How can the church be church if there is no possibility of true dialogue? Who How can the church be church if there is no possibility of true dialogue? Who held the more adequate position in the debates between Swiss Anabaptists held the more adequate position in the debates between Swiss Anabaptists and Reformed, in light of the Bible? How did each side understand what and Reformed, in light of the Bible? How did each side understand what it meant to be a Christian community? What model of church was more it meant to be a Christian community? What model of church was more faithful to Scripture? Historically considered, did the Zwinglian or the faithful to Scripture? Historically considered, did the Zwinglian or the Anabaptist attempts to be church in the world achieve the more faithful Anabaptist attempts to be church in the world achieve the more faithful result after four hundred years?82 These questions were matters of engaged result after four hundred years?82 These questions were matters of engaged faith commitment, as Yoder’s subsequent career clearly demonstrated. faith commitment, as Yoder’s subsequent career clearly demonstrated. The methodological debate continues over how the history of Christian The methodological debate continues over how the history of Christian movements should best be approached and written, in light of the various movements should best be approached and written, in light of the various ideological and religious commitments of the historians doing the work. ideological and religious commitments of the historians doing the work. As for the study of sixteenth-century reforming movements, the pendulum As for the study of sixteenth-century reforming movements, the pendulum seems to be swinging away from concentration on social, economic, and seems to be swinging away from concentration on social, economic, and political causation, to taking more seriously again the religious commitments political causation, to taking more seriously again the religious commitments of the actors as providing valid “historical” reasons for their actions.83 The of the actors as providing valid “historical” reasons for their actions.83 The academic environment has become friendlier now (perhaps temporarily) to academic environment has become friendlier now (perhaps temporarily) to the kinds of historical questions Yoder posed almost fifty years ago and to the kinds of historical questions Yoder posed almost fifty years ago and to his way of approaching them. his way of approaching them. Nevertheless, “using” history to speak to contemporary situations Nevertheless, “using” history to speak to contemporary situations – which all historians do to varying degrees when they construct narratives – which all historians do to varying degrees when they construct narratives – continues to pose the same difficult questions it always has. Yoder’s – continues to pose the same difficult questions it always has. Yoder’s evolving relationship with the changing discipline of radical Reformation evolving relationship with the changing discipline of radical Reformation history is partly a story of changing disciplinary canons to which Yoder history is partly a story of changing disciplinary canons to which Yoder refused to be bound. But more significantly in the light of the broader sweep refused to be bound. But more significantly in the light of the broader sweep of his intellectual biography, the story of his relationship to sixteenth-century of his intellectual biography, the story of his relationship to sixteenth-century historical study demonstrates the power of the historical past to stimulate historical study demonstrates the power of the historical past to stimulate and inform ground-breaking contemporary analysis and debate—in the and inform ground-breaking contemporary analysis and debate—in the hands of someone with unique intellectual gifts. Although Yoder withdrew hands of someone with unique intellectual gifts. Although Yoder withdrew from the field of Anabaptist history as such, it is manifestly true that his from the field of Anabaptist history as such, it is manifestly true that his historical work “helped twentieth-century theologians to take seriously the historical work “helped twentieth-century theologians to take seriously the theology of Anabaptism.”84 theology of Anabaptism.”84 26 The Conrad Grebel Review 26 The Conrad Grebel Review

Notes Notes

1 This article is an edited version of the previously-published “Editor’s Preface” to John 1 This article is an edited version of the previously-published “Editor’s Preface” to John Howard Yoder, Anabaptism and Reformation in Switzerland: An Historical and Theological Howard Yoder, Anabaptism and Reformation in Switzerland: An Historical and Theological Analysis of the Dialogues Between Anabaptists and Reformers (Kitchener, ON: Pandora Analysis of the Dialogues Between Anabaptists and Reformers (Kitchener, ON: Pandora Press, 2004). Press, 2004). 2 “One could argue that John Howard Yoder’s entire academic career was committed to 2 “One could argue that John Howard Yoder’s entire academic career was committed to communicating in broadly Christian terms what he learned through his studies of sixteenth- communicating in broadly Christian terms what he learned through his studies of sixteenth- century Anabaptism in the 1950s in Europe. It was through those studies that he came to the century Anabaptism in the 1950s in Europe. It was through those studies that he came to the central convictions that he would subsequently spend a lifetime articulating.” Mark Thiessen central convictions that he would subsequently spend a lifetime articulating.” Mark Thiessen Nation, John Howard Yoder: Mennonite Patience, Evangelical Witness, Catholic Convictions Nation, John Howard Yoder: Mennonite Patience, Evangelical Witness, Catholic Convictions (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2006), 31. For an overview of Yoder’s Basel studies, see ibid., 18, (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2006), 31. For an overview of Yoder’s Basel studies, see ibid., 18, nn. 69, 70. Also Neal Blough, “The Historical Roots of John Howard Yoder’s Theology,” in nn. 69, 70. Also Neal Blough, “The Historical Roots of John Howard Yoder’s Theology,” in Yoder, Anabaptism and Reformation, xli-lx. Yoder, Anabaptism and Reformation, xli-lx. 3 It was due to be published in 1959 but was delayed until 1962. John H. Yoder, Täufertum 3 It was due to be published in 1959 but was delayed until 1962. John H. Yoder, Täufertum und Reformation in der Schweiz, I. Die Gespräche zwischen Täufern und Reformatoren und Reformation in der Schweiz, I. Die Gespräche zwischen Täufern und Reformatoren 1523‑1538 (Karlsruhe: Mennonitischen Geschichtsverein, 1962). The delay is said to have 1523‑1538 (Karlsruhe: Mennonitischen Geschichtsverein, 1962). The delay is said to have been the result of “difficulties in printing and technical redaction,” 7. been the result of “difficulties in printing and technical redaction,” 7. 4 John H. Yoder, Täufertum und Reformation im Gespräch (Zürich: EVZ‑Verlag, 1968). 4 John H. Yoder, Täufertum und Reformation im Gespräch (Zürich: EVZ‑Verlag, 1968). 5 The tight links between the two publications are further revealed in the copious cross- 5 The tight links between the two publications are further revealed in the copious cross- referencing between the two works: anticipations of later, more systematic treatment are referencing between the two works: anticipations of later, more systematic treatment are noted in the first volume, and in the second, there are numerous pointers back to the historical noted in the first volume, and in the second, there are numerous pointers back to the historical work already done in the first. work already done in the first. 6 John Howard Yoder, Anabaptism and Reformation in Switzerland. 6 John Howard Yoder, Anabaptism and Reformation in Switzerland. 7 See Mark Thiessen Nation, A Comprehensive Bibliography of the Writings of John 7 See Mark Thiessen Nation, A Comprehensive Bibliography of the Writings of John Howard Yoder (Goshen, IN: Mennonite Historical Society, 1997), where the subject matter Howard Yoder (Goshen, IN: Mennonite Historical Society, 1997), where the subject matter of published and unpublished writings provides a barometer of Yoder’s shifting scholarly of published and unpublished writings provides a barometer of Yoder’s shifting scholarly interests. For a review in English of Yoder’s historical work see Mark Thiessen Nation, interests. For a review in English of Yoder’s historical work see Mark Thiessen Nation, “The Ecumenical Patience and Vocation of John Howard Yoder: A Study in Theological “The Ecumenical Patience and Vocation of John Howard Yoder: A Study in Theological Ethics,” PhD dissertation, Fuller Theological Seminary, June 2000, chapter 2 and idem, Ethics,” PhD dissertation, Fuller Theological Seminary, June 2000, chapter 2 and idem, John Howard Yoder: Mennonite Patience, Evangelical Witness, Catholic Convictions. For John Howard Yoder: Mennonite Patience, Evangelical Witness, Catholic Convictions. For a brief but incisive review of Yoder’s historical work (in German), see Hanspeter Jecker, a brief but incisive review of Yoder’s historical work (in German), see Hanspeter Jecker, “Annex: John H. Yoders Beitrag zur Erforschung der Täufergeschichte,” in Hanspeter Jecker, “Annex: John H. Yoders Beitrag zur Erforschung der Täufergeschichte,” in Hanspeter Jecker, ed. Jesus folgen in einer pluralistischen Welt: Impulse aus der Arbeit John Howard Yoders ed. Jesus folgen in einer pluralistischen Welt: Impulse aus der Arbeit John Howard Yoders (Weisenheim am Berg: Agape Verlag, 2001), 157-66. (Weisenheim am Berg: Agape Verlag, 2001), 157-66. 8 The original doctoral dissertation, completed and submitted in 1935 to the University of 8 The original doctoral dissertation, completed and submitted in 1935 to the University of Heidelberg, was published later as Harold S. Bender, Conrad Grebel, c. 1498-1526, the Heidelberg, was published later as Harold S. Bender, Conrad Grebel, c. 1498-1526, the Founder of the Swiss Brethren sometimes called Anabaptists (Scottdale, PA: Herald Press, Founder of the Swiss Brethren sometimes called Anabaptists (Scottdale, PA: Herald Press, 1950). 1950). 9 Harold Bender, “The Anabaptist Vision,” in Guy F. Hershberger, ed., The Recovery of the 9 Harold Bender, “The Anabaptist Vision,” in Guy F. Hershberger, ed., The Recovery of the Anabaptist Vision (Scottdale, PA: Herald Press, 1957), 42. Anabaptist Vision (Scottdale, PA: Herald Press, 1957), 42. 10 Ibid., 37. 10 Ibid., 37. 11 Harold Bender was Yoder’s teacher and inspired him to pursue Anabaptist studies. Nation, 11 Harold Bender was Yoder’s teacher and inspired him to pursue Anabaptist studies. Nation, Doing History with Theological Ethics in Mind 27 Doing History with Theological Ethics in Mind 27

John Howard Yoder, 32. John Howard Yoder, 32. 12 Yoder relied on the European studies by Heberle and Cornelius to confirm the Swiss origins 12 Yoder relied on the European studies by Heberle and Cornelius to confirm the Swiss origins of Anabaptism. Urban Heberle, “Die Anfänge des Anabaptismus in der Schweiz,” Jahrbuch of Anabaptism. Urban Heberle, “Die Anfänge des Anabaptismus in der Schweiz,” Jahrbuch für deutsche Theologie, III (1858), volume 2, 225-80; C. A. Cornelius, Geschichte des für deutsche Theologie, III (1858), volume 2, 225-80; C. A. Cornelius, Geschichte des Münsterischen Aufruhrs in 3 Büchern (not completed), 2 volumes (Leipzig, 1855-60). Münsterischen Aufruhrs in 3 Büchern (not completed), 2 volumes (Leipzig, 1855-60). 13 Yoder, Anabaptism and Reformation, 1-2. 13 Yoder, Anabaptism and Reformation, 1-2. 14 He argues, for example, that since Balthasar Hubmaier did not participate in the initial 14 He argues, for example, that since Balthasar Hubmaier did not participate in the initial debates with Zwingli, he was not part of key dialogical developments experienced by the debates with Zwingli, he was not part of key dialogical developments experienced by the inner Anabaptist circle. Hubmaier is thus a more marginal figure. inner Anabaptist circle. Hubmaier is thus a more marginal figure. 15 See Yoder, Anabaptism and Reformation, Part I, sections 1- 4; the point will be revisited 15 See Yoder, Anabaptism and Reformation, Part I, sections 1- 4; the point will be revisited throughout. “Even when [the Anabaptists] separated themselves from [Zwingli] and had throughout. “Even when [the Anabaptists] separated themselves from [Zwingli] and had to go another way, they could only go in the directions that he had already shown them: to go another way, they could only go in the directions that he had already shown them: discipleship as the formal principle of ethics, the local congregation where valid church discipleship as the formal principle of ethics, the local congregation where valid church action is located, the questioning of infant baptism; all of this they had from Zwingli.” Ibid., action is located, the questioning of infant baptism; all of this they had from Zwingli.” Ibid., 121. 121. 16 This is posed as a “formal question” in ibid., 122ff. “In 1520, Zwingli had visualized the 16 This is posed as a “formal question” in ibid., 122ff. “In 1520, Zwingli had visualized the church community as a persecuted minority, as sheep among wolves, and had described church community as a persecuted minority, as sheep among wolves, and had described following after Christ as the way of the cross for the few. At the end of 1523, the church following after Christ as the way of the cross for the few. At the end of 1523, the church community is no longer a minority, but is so fully identified with the people of Zürich that community is no longer a minority, but is so fully identified with the people of Zürich that it cannot occur to Zwingli that the authorities, who indeed do represent the people, are not it cannot occur to Zwingli that the authorities, who indeed do represent the people, are not responsible for church questions. The original concept of the church community must have responsible for church questions. The original concept of the church community must have changed. The Anabaptists had carried it further, made it more precise....” Ibid., 125. changed. The Anabaptists had carried it further, made it more precise....” Ibid., 125. 17 Dialogue emerged as a key ecclesiological concept for Yoder. This central theme is 17 Dialogue emerged as a key ecclesiological concept for Yoder. This central theme is summarized in ibid., 118-21. The sixteenth-century roots of that emphasis on dialogue can summarized in ibid., 118-21. The sixteenth-century roots of that emphasis on dialogue can be illustrated by two examples from this early historical work: “Only the Anabaptists, with be illustrated by two examples from this early historical work: “Only the Anabaptists, with their rejection of the government’s authority over the church, continued to be present in the their rejection of the government’s authority over the church, continued to be present in the Reformed areas as a continuing provocation to bring questions into dialogue.” Ibid., 115. Reformed areas as a continuing provocation to bring questions into dialogue.” Ibid., 115. “But even if the continued survival of the Anabaptist communities to the present earns them “But even if the continued survival of the Anabaptist communities to the present earns them a claim to be heard … their right to be heard really stems from their inexhaustible will to a claim to be heard … their right to be heard really stems from their inexhaustible will to dialogue.” Ibid., 136. dialogue.” Ibid., 136. 18 See ibid., section 14. Speaking of the “inner growth” of the Anabaptist movement, Yoder 18 See ibid., section 14. Speaking of the “inner growth” of the Anabaptist movement, Yoder writes, “The final level was achieved at Schleitheim in 1527, at which these different writes, “The final level was achieved at Schleitheim in 1527, at which these different questions united in a new understanding of the church community.” Ibid., 130. questions united in a new understanding of the church community.” Ibid., 130. 19 See ibid., 130-32. 19 See ibid., 130-32. 20 “The nonresistance that remained typical for Anabaptists and Mennonites in the later 20 “The nonresistance that remained typical for Anabaptists and Mennonites in the later decades and centuries was not the fruit of some development. It arose neither from exhaustion decades and centuries was not the fruit of some development. It arose neither from exhaustion or embarrassment. From the moment of its birth on, the essence and reason for the existence or embarrassment. From the moment of its birth on, the essence and reason for the existence of Swiss Anabaptism was its rejection of state resources.” Ibid., 132. of Swiss Anabaptism was its rejection of state resources.” Ibid., 132. 21 Hubmaier and Pfistermeyer are called “in-between figures”Zwischengestalten [ ] who 21 Hubmaier and Pfistermeyer are called “in-between figures”Zwischengestalten [ ] who didn’t fully agree with the Anabaptist view as expressed at Schleitheim. As for the St. Gallen didn’t fully agree with the Anabaptist view as expressed at Schleitheim. As for the St. Gallen enthusiasts, Yoder notes that Schleitheim provided the means to reject libertinism. Ibid., enthusiasts, Yoder notes that Schleitheim provided the means to reject libertinism. Ibid., 133. 133. 22 Ibid., 135-36. 22 Ibid., 135-36. 23 Some of the most important of these writings are: “The Turning Point in the Zwinglian 23 Some of the most important of these writings are: “The Turning Point in the Zwinglian 28 The Conrad Grebel Review 28 The Conrad Grebel Review

Reformation,” MQR 32 (April 1958): 128-40; “Balthasar Hubmaier and the Beginnings of Reformation,” MQR 32 (April 1958): 128-40; “Balthasar Hubmaier and the Beginnings of Swiss Anabaptism,” MQR 33 (Jan. 1959): 5-17; The Hermeneutics of the Anabaptists,” MQR Swiss Anabaptism,” MQR 33 (Jan. 1959): 5-17; The Hermeneutics of the Anabaptists,” MQR 41 (Oct. 1967): 291-308; “The Evolution of the Zwinglian Reformation,” MQR 43 (Jan. 41 (Oct. 1967): 291-308; “The Evolution of the Zwinglian Reformation,” MQR 43 (Jan. 1969): 95-122; “Der Kristallisationspunkt des Täufertums,” Mennonitische Geschichtsblätter 1969): 95-122; “Der Kristallisationspunkt des Täufertums,” Mennonitische Geschichtsblätter 24 (1972): 35-47; “‘Anabaptists and Sword’ Revisited: Systematic Historiography and 24 (1972): 35-47; “‘Anabaptists and Sword’ Revisited: Systematic Historiography and Undogmatic Nonresistants,” Zeitschrift für Kirchengeschichte 85.2 (1974): 126-39. See Undogmatic Nonresistants,” Zeitschrift für Kirchengeschichte 85.2 (1974): 126-39. See Nation, Comprehensive Bibliography, for an exhaustive list. Jecker, “Annex” (in this issue Nation, Comprehensive Bibliography, for an exhaustive list. Jecker, “Annex” (in this issue of CGR) lists 56 of Yoder’s most important historical writings, ranging from book reviews of CGR) lists 56 of Yoder’s most important historical writings, ranging from book reviews to books. to books. 24 (Scottdale, PA: Herald Press, 1973). 24 (Scottdale, PA: Herald Press, 1973). 25 In this article Yoder argues that Zwingli and Grebel were still in accord in October 1523 (a 25 In this article Yoder argues that Zwingli and Grebel were still in accord in October 1523 (a date at which other scholars had noted a rift between them), and that Zwingli’s “turn” came date at which other scholars had noted a rift between them), and that Zwingli’s “turn” came in December 1523, necessitating Grebel’s opposition. “By thus seeing the basic nature of in December 1523, necessitating Grebel’s opposition. “By thus seeing the basic nature of Zwingli’s shift in position we have at the same time found the crux of Grebel’s clash with Zwingli’s shift in position we have at the same time found the crux of Grebel’s clash with him.” Yoder, “The Turning Point,” 140. him.” Yoder, “The Turning Point,” 140. 26 Robert Walton, “Was There a Turning Point of the Zwinglian Reformation?,” MQR 42 (Jan. 26 Robert Walton, “Was There a Turning Point of the Zwinglian Reformation?,” MQR 42 (Jan. 1968): 45-56, based on Walton’s monograph Zwingli’s Theocracy (Toronto: University of 1968): 45-56, based on Walton’s monograph Zwingli’s Theocracy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1967). An abridged version of this printed debate is found in James M. Stayer Toronto Press, 1967). An abridged version of this printed debate is found in James M. Stayer and Werner O. Packull, trans. and eds., The Anabaptists and Thomas Müntzer, (Dubuque, and Werner O. Packull, trans. and eds., The Anabaptists and Thomas Müntzer, (Dubuque, IA; Toronto: Kendall/Hunt, 1980) 61-71. Hans Hillerbrand also published a brief critique: IA; Toronto: Kendall/Hunt, 1980) 61-71. Hans Hillerbrand also published a brief critique: “The ‘Turning Point’ of the Zwinglian Reformation: Review and Discussion,” MQR 39 (Oct. “The ‘Turning Point’ of the Zwinglian Reformation: Review and Discussion,” MQR 39 (Oct. 1965): 310-11. 1965): 310-11. 27 “There is ample evidence from Zwingli’s later career that he thought of Zürich as a unified 27 “There is ample evidence from Zwingli’s later career that he thought of Zürich as a unified Christian community.” Walton, “Was There a Turning Point?,” 50. Christian community.” Walton, “Was There a Turning Point?,” 50. 28 Ibid., 51. Walton concludes: “Yoder does Zwingli less than justice when he claims that 28 Ibid., 51. Walton concludes: “Yoder does Zwingli less than justice when he claims that Zwingli abandoned the church to assure unity in society. As Zwingli understood the problem Zwingli abandoned the church to assure unity in society. As Zwingli understood the problem church and society were one; to maintain the unity of the commonwealth was to defend the church and society were one; to maintain the unity of the commonwealth was to defend the church.” Ibid., 56. church.” Ibid., 56. 29 John H. Yoder, “The Evolution of the Zwinglian Reformation,” MQR 43 (Jan. 1969): 95- 29 John H. Yoder, “The Evolution of the Zwinglian Reformation,” MQR 43 (Jan. 1969): 95- 122. The material added to the dissertation original text is found from the first full paragraph 122. The material added to the dissertation original text is found from the first full paragraph of the MQR article, page 108 to the second full paragraph on page 113. of the MQR article, page 108 to the second full paragraph on page 113. 30 Ibid., 109-10. “If one looks back over the development that took place from October 1522 30 Ibid., 109-10. “If one looks back over the development that took place from October 1522 to the Summer of 1525, one does not get the impression of a ‘turning’ but more of an almost to the Summer of 1525, one does not get the impression of a ‘turning’ but more of an almost unconscious slide.” Ibid., 113. unconscious slide.” Ibid., 113. 31 “Der Kristallisationspunkt des Täufertums,” Mennonitische Geschichtsblätter 24 (1972): 31 “Der Kristallisationspunkt des Täufertums,” Mennonitische Geschichtsblätter 24 (1972): 35-47. 35-47. 32 In his dissertation, Yoder suggests that the Schleitheim criticism of the “false brothers” 32 In his dissertation, Yoder suggests that the Schleitheim criticism of the “false brothers” could have been a reference to the Appenzell “libertine” disturbances, as well as the kind could have been a reference to the Appenzell “libertine” disturbances, as well as the kind of “carnal freedom” implied by not breaking with Constantinian Christendom. See Yoder, of “carnal freedom” implied by not breaking with Constantinian Christendom. See Yoder, Anabaptism and Reformation, 70. In 1971 in a general overview of reformation dissenters, Anabaptism and Reformation, 70. In 1971 in a general overview of reformation dissenters, Yoder appears to attribute the Schleitheim meeting to “radicals of Eastern Switzerland”: Yoder appears to attribute the Schleitheim meeting to “radicals of Eastern Switzerland”: “It was probably the liberty taken by some representatives of this trend which led to the “It was probably the liberty taken by some representatives of this trend which led to the Schleitheim meeting with its concentration on responsible church order.” J. H. Yoder, “The Schleitheim meeting with its concentration on responsible church order.” J. H. Yoder, “The Recovery of the Anabaptist Vision,” Concern 18 (July 1971), 10. The Concern article was Recovery of the Anabaptist Vision,” Concern 18 (July 1971), 10. The Concern article was Doing History with Theological Ethics in Mind 29 Doing History with Theological Ethics in Mind 29 based on a lecture given in 1964; the “crystallization” thesis thus emerged in the eight-year based on a lecture given in 1964; the “crystallization” thesis thus emerged in the eight-year interval between that time and 1972. interval between that time and 1972. 33 Klaus Deppermann, “Die Strassburger Reformatoren und die Krise des oberdeutschen 33 Klaus Deppermann, “Die Strassburger Reformatoren und die Krise des oberdeutschen Täufertums im Jahre 1527,” Mennonitische Geschichtsblätter 25 (1973): 24-41. Täufertums im Jahre 1527,” Mennonitische Geschichtsblätter 25 (1973): 24-41. 34 “Ein Briefwechsel über die Bedeutung des Schleitheimer Bekenntnisses,” Mennonitische 34 “Ein Briefwechsel über die Bedeutung des Schleitheimer Bekenntnisses,” Mennonitische Geschichtsblätter 30 (1973): 42-52. As a young graduate student working on Michael Geschichtsblätter 30 (1973): 42-52. As a young graduate student working on Michael Sattler’s biography, it seemed to me that Deppermann had the stronger empirical arguments. Sattler’s biography, it seemed to me that Deppermann had the stronger empirical arguments. C. Arnold Snyder, The Life and Thought of Michael Sattler (Scottdale, PA: Herald Press, C. Arnold Snyder, The Life and Thought of Michael Sattler (Scottdale, PA: Herald Press, 1984), 89-95. 1984), 89-95. 35 See Yoder, Legacy, 26, note 48, and 27-29 for a restatement of the “crystallization” 35 See Yoder, Legacy, 26, note 48, and 27-29 for a restatement of the “crystallization” view. Yoder revisited the matter briefly in “The Burden and the Discipline of Evangelical view. Yoder revisited the matter briefly in “The Burden and the Discipline of Evangelical Revisionism,” in Nonviolent America: History Through the Eyes of Peace, ed. Louise Revisionism,” in Nonviolent America: History Through the Eyes of Peace, ed. Louise Hawkley and James C. Juhnke (North Newton, KS: Bethel College, 1993; second printing, Hawkley and James C. Juhnke (North Newton, KS: Bethel College, 1993; second printing, Kitchener, ON: Pandora Press, 2004), 23-25. Kitchener, ON: Pandora Press, 2004), 23-25. 36 “The final level was achieved at Schleitheim in 1527, at which these different questions 36 “The final level was achieved at Schleitheim in 1527, at which these different questions united in a new understanding of the church community.… The rejection of violence by the united in a new understanding of the church community.… The rejection of violence by the sword and the rejection of the oath were not only taken from various New Testament proof sword and the rejection of the oath were not only taken from various New Testament proof texts, but were also theologically supported.… From this base, Anabaptism could defy the texts, but were also theologically supported.… From this base, Anabaptism could defy the state church and finally do away with the fanatics.” Yoder, Anabaptism and Reformation, state church and finally do away with the fanatics.” Yoder, Anabaptism and Reformation, 130. 130. 37 The three works were Hans Hillerbrand, Die politische Ethik des Oberdeutschen Täufertums 37 The three works were Hans Hillerbrand, Die politische Ethik des Oberdeutschen Täufertums (Leiden/Köln, 1962), summarized as “The Anabaptist View of the State,” MQR 32 (April (Leiden/Köln, 1962), summarized as “The Anabaptist View of the State,” MQR 32 (April 1958): 83ff; Clarence Bauman, Gewaltlosigkeit im Täufertum (Leiden, 1968); James M. 1958): 83ff; Clarence Bauman, Gewaltlosigkeit im Täufertum (Leiden, 1968); James M. Stayer, Anabaptists and the Sword (Lawrence, KS: Coronado, 1972). Stayer, Anabaptists and the Sword (Lawrence, KS: Coronado, 1972). 38 “‘Anabaptists and Sword’ Revisited: Systematic Historiography and Undogmatic 38 “‘Anabaptists and Sword’ Revisited: Systematic Historiography and Undogmatic Nonresistants,” Zeitschrift für Kirchengeschichte 85.2 (1974): 126-39. Nonresistants,” Zeitschrift für Kirchengeschichte 85.2 (1974): 126-39. 39 Ibid., 126-27. Taking this tack is to assume a position on the slippery slope of historical 39 Ibid., 126-27. Taking this tack is to assume a position on the slippery slope of historical debate, of course, because those criticizing the methodological pre-dispositions of others debate, of course, because those criticizing the methodological pre-dispositions of others open their own methodological pre-dispositions to the same criticism. open their own methodological pre-dispositions to the same criticism. 40 Ibid., 130; 132. 40 Ibid., 130; 132. 41 Ibid., 135. 41 Ibid., 135. 42 Ibid., 137. 42 Ibid., 137. 43 Ibid., 138. 43 Ibid., 138. 44 James Stayer, “Anabaptist Nonresistance and the Rewriting of History: On the Changing 44 James Stayer, “Anabaptist Nonresistance and the Rewriting of History: On the Changing Historical Reputation of the Schleitheim Articles and the Four Hundred Fiftieth Anniversary Historical Reputation of the Schleitheim Articles and the Four Hundred Fiftieth Anniversary of Hans Denck’s ‘Concerning Genuine Love,” unpublished paper, June 1977. If Yoder of Hans Denck’s ‘Concerning Genuine Love,” unpublished paper, June 1977. If Yoder composed a written response, it appears not to be extant. composed a written response, it appears not to be extant. 45 “Systematic dualism and the conception of Satan as lord of the world are not inventions of 45 “Systematic dualism and the conception of Satan as lord of the world are not inventions of Robert Friedmann, they were Sattler’s own ideas.” Ibid.,13. “Although Yoder may have been Robert Friedmann, they were Sattler’s own ideas.” Ibid.,13. “Although Yoder may have been closer to the meaning of the New Testament in his discussion of the ‘powers,’ Friedmann’s closer to the meaning of the New Testament in his discussion of the ‘powers,’ Friedmann’s conception of two worlds, one of them ruled (with God’s permission) by Satan, ‘the prince of conception of two worlds, one of them ruled (with God’s permission) by Satan, ‘the prince of this world,’ is closer to the meaning of Michael Sattler.” Ibid., 14. My later work on Sattler this world,’ is closer to the meaning of Michael Sattler.” Ibid., 14. My later work on Sattler supported Stayer’s conclusion against Yoder’s: “With the Schleitheim Articles the Anabaptist supported Stayer’s conclusion against Yoder’s: “With the Schleitheim Articles the Anabaptist church becomes the faithful, pure, and separated body of Christ outside which there is no church becomes the faithful, pure, and separated body of Christ outside which there is no 30 The Conrad Grebel Review 30 The Conrad Grebel Review salvation.” Snyder, Life and Thought, 200. salvation.” Snyder, Life and Thought, 200. 46 Stayer, “Anabaptist Nonresistance,” 14. 46 Stayer, “Anabaptist Nonresistance,” 14. 47 Yoder, Anabaptism and Reformation, 265-66. 47 Yoder, Anabaptism and Reformation, 265-66. 48 James Stayer, Werner Packull, and Klaus Deppermann, “From Monogenesis to Polygenesis: 48 James Stayer, Werner Packull, and Klaus Deppermann, “From Monogenesis to Polygenesis: The Historical Discussion of Anabaptist Origins,” MQR 49 (April 1975): 83-122. The Historical Discussion of Anabaptist Origins,” MQR 49 (April 1975): 83-122. 49 Besides Stayer, Packull, and Deppermann, one must mention Martin Haas, who worked 49 Besides Stayer, Packull, and Deppermann, one must mention Martin Haas, who worked on social unrest in the Zürich area; Hans-Jürgen Goertz, who worked on Thomas Müntzer on social unrest in the Zürich area; Hans-Jürgen Goertz, who worked on Thomas Müntzer and increasingly focused on anticlericalism; Gottfried Seebass, who connected Hans Hut’s and increasingly focused on anticlericalism; Gottfried Seebass, who connected Hans Hut’s South German Anabaptism with Müntzer’s apocalyptic radicalism; Claus-Peter Clasen, who South German Anabaptism with Müntzer’s apocalyptic radicalism; Claus-Peter Clasen, who applied a social-historical approach to a huge range of Anabaptist sources; and Calvin Pater, applied a social-historical approach to a huge range of Anabaptist sources; and Calvin Pater, who identified Andreas Karlstadt as the “father” of the Swiss Anabaptists. Since the collapse who identified Andreas Karlstadt as the “father” of the Swiss Anabaptists. Since the collapse of the Berlin wall, it is easy to forget that serious and influential work was being done at this of the Berlin wall, it is easy to forget that serious and influential work was being done at this time by the Marxist scholars of East Germany, such as Gerhard Zschäbitz. time by the Marxist scholars of East Germany, such as Gerhard Zschäbitz. 50 See Yoder, Anabaptism and Reformation, Part I, §30, “The Zwinglian Origins of 50 See Yoder, Anabaptism and Reformation, Part I, §30, “The Zwinglian Origins of Anabaptism.” “Our presentation leaves hardly any room for doubt that the Anabaptists came Anabaptism.” “Our presentation leaves hardly any room for doubt that the Anabaptists came from Zwingli and can only be understood in Zwinglian terms.… It is no less obvious that from Zwingli and can only be understood in Zwinglian terms.… It is no less obvious that the Anabaptists cannot be understood as originating with Luther, either through Karlstadt or the Anabaptists cannot be understood as originating with Luther, either through Karlstadt or through Müntzer.” Ibid., 121-22. through Müntzer.” Ibid., 121-22. 51 Hans-Jürgen Goertz, “History and Theology: A Major Problem of Anabaptist Research 51 Hans-Jürgen Goertz, “History and Theology: A Major Problem of Anabaptist Research Today,” MQR 53 (July 1979): 184. Today,” MQR 53 (July 1979): 184. 52 Ibid., 186. 52 Ibid., 186. 53 James Stayer, “Let a Hundred Flowers Bloom and let a Hundred Schools of Thought 53 James Stayer, “Let a Hundred Flowers Bloom and let a Hundred Schools of Thought Contend,” MQR 53 (July 1979): 212. Contend,” MQR 53 (July 1979): 212. 54 Yoder, Anabaptism and Reformation, Part I, “Afterword,” note 5; italics mine. 54 Yoder, Anabaptism and Reformation, Part I, “Afterword,” note 5; italics mine. 55 In an article published in English summarizing his doctoral research findings, Yoder wrote, 55 In an article published in English summarizing his doctoral research findings, Yoder wrote, “If the study of church history is to have a real significance for the Christian church in our “If the study of church history is to have a real significance for the Christian church in our day, it must attach especial importance to the analysis of those ‘breaking points’ which have day, it must attach especial importance to the analysis of those ‘breaking points’ which have left Christians with a heritage of dividedness in faith and life. It is therefore no idle academic left Christians with a heritage of dividedness in faith and life. It is therefore no idle academic recreation when we seek to ascertain as exactly as possible just how and why this most recreation when we seek to ascertain as exactly as possible just how and why this most significant of all ‘breaking points’ within Protestantism [i.e. between Zwingli and the Swiss significant of all ‘breaking points’ within Protestantism [i.e. between Zwingli and the Swiss Anabaptists] came to be reached.” John Howard Yoder, “The Turning Point in the Zwinglian Anabaptists] came to be reached.” John Howard Yoder, “The Turning Point in the Zwinglian Reformation,” MQR (April 1958): 128-40; citation from 129. Reformation,” MQR (April 1958): 128-40; citation from 129. 56 See Yoder, Anabaptism and Reformation, 162. 56 See Yoder, Anabaptism and Reformation, 162. 57 Two publications dealing with Anabaptist history do not form a part of our survey below 57 Two publications dealing with Anabaptist history do not form a part of our survey below and should be noted: Yoder contributed the original drafts to chapters 2, 3 and 8 in An and should be noted: Yoder contributed the original drafts to chapters 2, 3 and 8 in An Introduction to Mennonite History, chapters subsequently edited and revised by Cornelius Introduction to Mennonite History, chapters subsequently edited and revised by Cornelius J. Dyck (Scottdale, PA: Herald Press, 1967). He also collaborated with Wayne Pipkin in the J. Dyck (Scottdale, PA: Herald Press, 1967). He also collaborated with Wayne Pipkin in the translation volume Balthasar Hubmaier: Theologian of Anabaptism (Scottdale, PA: Herald translation volume Balthasar Hubmaier: Theologian of Anabaptism (Scottdale, PA: Herald Press, 1989). The latter volume’s publication date is misleading. Work on the translation Press, 1989). The latter volume’s publication date is misleading. Work on the translation had been underway, intermittently, for “a good number of years,” as editor C. J. Dyck noted had been underway, intermittently, for “a good number of years,” as editor C. J. Dyck noted (page 12). (page 12). 58 For example, “The Believers’ Church Conferences in Historical Perspective,” MQR 65 58 For example, “The Believers’ Church Conferences in Historical Perspective,” MQR 65 (January 1991): 5-19. That Yoder changed “dialogue partners” is also noted by Jecker: “the (January 1991): 5-19. That Yoder changed “dialogue partners” is also noted by Jecker: “the audiences and dialogue partners of Yoder’s later work, increasingly and explicitly, are people audiences and dialogue partners of Yoder’s later work, increasingly and explicitly, are people Doing History with Theological Ethics in Mind 31 Doing History with Theological Ethics in Mind 31 both inside and outside a specific Anabaptist-Mennonite tradition who are struggling to be both inside and outside a specific Anabaptist-Mennonite tradition who are struggling to be faithful Christians and a faithful church in the modern world. They were interested primarily faithful Christians and a faithful church in the modern world. They were interested primarily in these issues [of faithfulness], not in the history or theology of Anabaptism.” Jecker, in these issues [of faithfulness], not in the history or theology of Anabaptism.” Jecker, “Annex” in this issue of CGR. “Annex” in this issue of CGR. 59 George H. Williams, The Radical Reformation (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1962); 59 George H. Williams, The Radical Reformation (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1962); typological classifications also in George H. Williams and Angel Mergal, eds.,Spiritual and typological classifications also in George H. Williams and Angel Mergal, eds.,Spiritual and Anabaptist Writers (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1957). Anabaptist Writers (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1957). 60 Heinold Fast, ed., Der Linke Flügel der Reformation (Bremen: Schünemann, 1962). 60 Heinold Fast, ed., Der Linke Flügel der Reformation (Bremen: Schünemann, 1962). 61 John H. Yoder, “The Recovery of the Anabaptist Vision,” Concern 18 (July 1971), 5-23. A 61 John H. Yoder, “The Recovery of the Anabaptist Vision,” Concern 18 (July 1971), 5-23. A brief survey that follows the same basic narrative pattern, with the specific addition of some brief survey that follows the same basic narrative pattern, with the specific addition of some individuals from Strasbourg, is “Les Origines de l’Anabaptisme au sein de la Réforme du individuals from Strasbourg, is “Les Origines de l’Anabaptisme au sein de la Réforme du XVIe siècle,” in Alfred Michiels, Les Anabaptistes des Vosges (Molsheim: Editions Jean- XVIe siècle,” in Alfred Michiels, Les Anabaptistes des Vosges (Molsheim: Editions Jean- Pierre Gyss, 1980), 15-23. Pierre Gyss, 1980), 15-23. 62 Ibid., 14. 62 Ibid., 14. 63 Ibid., 14-20. 63 Ibid., 14-20. 64 Textos Escogidos de la Reforma Radical, John H. Yoder, ed. (Buenos Aires: La Aurora, 64 Textos Escogidos de la Reforma Radical, John H. Yoder, ed. (Buenos Aires: La Aurora, 1976). 1976). 65 Ibid., 11. 65 Ibid., 11. 66 Ibid., 10-12; translated portions from page 12 (translation mine). 66 Ibid., 10-12; translated portions from page 12 (translation mine). 67 Ibid., 12-14. 67 Ibid., 12-14. 68 Ibid., 15. 68 Ibid., 15. 69 The “Analytical Essay” works through six categories: 1. From Luther to the Peasants’ 69 The “Analytical Essay” works through six categories: 1. From Luther to the Peasants’ War (including the non-baptizing radicals Strauss, Karlstadt and Müntzer); 2. Radical War (including the non-baptizing radicals Strauss, Karlstadt and Müntzer); 2. Radical Zwinglianism (recounting the details of Yoder’s doctoral work, concluding with Schleitheim); Zwinglianism (recounting the details of Yoder’s doctoral work, concluding with Schleitheim); 3. the Spiritualists (including a very perceptive analysis of the work of the Spirit in radical 3. the Spiritualists (including a very perceptive analysis of the work of the Spirit in radical reform); 4. the “enthusiasts” or fanatics (included here are Hut, Bader, Hoffman, Joris); 5. reform); 4. the “enthusiasts” or fanatics (included here are Hut, Bader, Hoffman, Joris); 5. Ecclesial Anabaptism; 6. Evangelical Humanism. Ecclesial Anabaptism; 6. Evangelical Humanism. 70 For example, the spiritualists are further subdivided into “evangelical,” “rationalist,” and 70 For example, the spiritualists are further subdivided into “evangelical,” “rationalist,” and “speculative” types. The “enthusiasts” are further subdivided into “patient” or “suffering” “speculative” types. The “enthusiasts” are further subdivided into “patient” or “suffering” enthusiasts, and “violent” or “revolutionary” enthusiasts. Yoder, unlike Williams, does not enthusiasts, and “violent” or “revolutionary” enthusiasts. Yoder, unlike Williams, does not utilize the categories of “contemplative Anabaptists” or “revolutionary Anabaptists.” The utilize the categories of “contemplative Anabaptists” or “revolutionary Anabaptists.” The only Anabaptists listed as such are the “ecclesial Anabaptists.” only Anabaptists listed as such are the “ecclesial Anabaptists.” 71 Ibid., 39-47. 71 Ibid., 39-47. 72 Ibid., 39-44. 72 Ibid., 39-44. 73 Ibid., 43 (translation mine). 73 Ibid., 43 (translation mine). 74 Ibid., 46 (translation mine). 74 Ibid., 46 (translation mine). 75 Christian Attitudes to War, Peace, and Revolution: A Companion to Bainton (Goshen: 75 Christian Attitudes to War, Peace, and Revolution: A Companion to Bainton (Goshen: Goshen Biblical Seminary, 1983), especially chapter 10, “Anabaptists in the Continental Goshen Biblical Seminary, 1983), especially chapter 10, “Anabaptists in the Continental Reformation,” 163-200. My thanks to Mark Thiessen Nation for directing me to this specific Reformation,” 163-200. My thanks to Mark Thiessen Nation for directing me to this specific source. source. 76 “Our interest will then be in the logic of that way in which, as there is concern for greater 76 “Our interest will then be in the logic of that way in which, as there is concern for greater faithfulness [to Scripture], the problem of the sword arises and moves to the center. We are faithfulness [to Scripture], the problem of the sword arises and moves to the center. We are more interested in the logic of how that happens than in the details of the story. Yet we have more interested in the logic of how that happens than in the details of the story. Yet we have to tell some of the story in order to see the logic working.” Ibid., 168. to tell some of the story in order to see the logic working.” Ibid., 168. 32 The Conrad Grebel Review 32 The Conrad Grebel Review

77 Ibid. 77 Ibid. 78 Ibid., 178-79, passim. 78 Ibid., 178-79, passim. 79 Ibid., 191. 79 Ibid., 191. 80 In this lecture Yoder also accepts the existence of “nonseparating congregationalist” 80 In this lecture Yoder also accepts the existence of “nonseparating congregationalist” Anabaptist villages in the Zürich area, who opposed the payment of tithes and tended Anabaptist villages in the Zürich area, who opposed the payment of tithes and tended toward acceptance of defensive violence. Ibid., 191-92. Hans Hut is not depicted as having toward acceptance of defensive violence. Ibid., 191-92. Hans Hut is not depicted as having “converted” to a full-fledged pacifist position, but rather as holding the sword in abeyance, “converted” to a full-fledged pacifist position, but rather as holding the sword in abeyance, until the second coming. Ibid., 193. James Stayer is said to be correct in wanting to increase until the second coming. Ibid., 193. James Stayer is said to be correct in wanting to increase the “variegation with which we read the story. He is also right in working against what he the “variegation with which we read the story. He is also right in working against what he takes to be a kind of apologetic self-protection on the part of Mennonite historians, who takes to be a kind of apologetic self-protection on the part of Mennonite historians, who affirm the centrality of the Schleitheim position without recognizing that it wasn’t typical at affirm the centrality of the Schleitheim position without recognizing that it wasn’t typical at the time.” Ibid., 199. the time.” Ibid., 199. 81 There remains an undeniable emphasis on the Protestant nature of the strand of Anabaptism 81 There remains an undeniable emphasis on the Protestant nature of the strand of Anabaptism Yoder privileges in this lecture, with non-Protestant streams entering in from “outside,” Yoder privileges in this lecture, with non-Protestant streams entering in from “outside,” particularly those carried by Denck, Hubmaier, and the visionaries. Ibid., 190. After stating particularly those carried by Denck, Hubmaier, and the visionaries. Ibid., 190. After stating appreciation for Stayer’s work on Anabaptists and the Sword, Yoder revisits his earlier appreciation for Stayer’s work on Anabaptists and the Sword, Yoder revisits his earlier critique, arguing that Stayer’s category of “Realpolitik” is anachronistic; he does not speak critique, arguing that Stayer’s category of “Realpolitik” is anachronistic; he does not speak to Stayer’s critique of his classification of Schleitheim as dialogically open rather than to Stayer’s critique of his classification of Schleitheim as dialogically open rather than separatist in principle. Ibid., 199. In this lecture Schleitheim continues to be described as separatist in principle. Ibid., 199. In this lecture Schleitheim continues to be described as dualistic in a closely nuanced way: “It is the tense missionary dualism representing in the dualistic in a closely nuanced way: “It is the tense missionary dualism representing in the midst of the world a position which the world cannot tolerate.… So this is a pragmatic, midst of the world a position which the world cannot tolerate.… So this is a pragmatic, biblical, occasionalistic separation.” Ibid., 193. biblical, occasionalistic separation.” Ibid., 193. 82 See Blough, “The Historical Roots,” in Yoder, Anabaptism and Reformation, xli-lx. 82 See Blough, “The Historical Roots,” in Yoder, Anabaptism and Reformation, xli-lx. 83 Three recent works that privilege religious factors in sixteenth-century historical narratives 83 Three recent works that privilege religious factors in sixteenth-century historical narratives are C. Arnold Snyder, Anabaptist History and Theology: An Introduction (Kitchener, are C. Arnold Snyder, Anabaptist History and Theology: An Introduction (Kitchener, ON: Pandora Press, 1995); Brad Gregory, Salvation at Stake (Cambridge, MA: Harvard ON: Pandora Press, 1995); Brad Gregory, Salvation at Stake (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999); and most recently Andrea Strübind, Eifriger als Zwingli: Die University Press, 1999); and most recently Andrea Strübind, Eifriger als Zwingli: Die frühe Täuferbewegung in der Schweiz (Berlin: Dincker & Humblot, 2003). For a recent and frühe Täuferbewegung in der Schweiz (Berlin: Dincker & Humblot, 2003). For a recent and perceptive historiographical review, see John D. Roth, “Recent Currents in the Historiography perceptive historiographical review, see John D. Roth, “Recent Currents in the Historiography of the Radical Reformation,” Church History 71.3 (September 2002): 523-35. of the Radical Reformation,” Church History 71.3 (September 2002): 523-35. 84 Blough, “The Historical Roots,” in Yoder, Anabaptism and Reformation, lviii. 84 Blough, “The Historical Roots,” in Yoder, Anabaptism and Reformation, lviii.

C. Arnold Snyder is a professor of History at Conrad Grebel University C. Arnold Snyder is a professor of History at Conrad Grebel University College in Waterloo, Ontario. College in Waterloo, Ontario. 77 Ibid. 77 Ibid. John Howard Yoder as Historian John Howard Yoder as Historian 78 Ibid., 178-79, passim. 78 Ibid., 178-79, passim. 79 Ibid., 191. 79 Ibid., 191. 80 In this lecture Yoder also accepts the existence of “nonseparating congregationalist” 80 In this lecture On Yoder Flushing also accepts the the Confessional existence of “nonseparating Rabbit congregationalist” On Flushing the Confessional Rabbit Anabaptist villages in the Zürich area, who opposed the payment of tithes and tended Anabaptist villages in the Zürich area, who opposed the payment of tithes and tended toward acceptance of defensive violence. Ibid., 191-92. Hans Hut is not depicted as having toward acceptanceOut of defensive of the violence. Socio-Ecclesial Ibid., 191-92. Hans Brushpile Hut is not depicted as having Out of the Socio-Ecclesial Brushpile “converted” to a full-fledged pacifist position, but rather as holding the sword in abeyance, “converted” to a full-fledged pacifist position, but rather as holding the sword in abeyance, until the second coming. Ibid., 193. James Stayer is said to be correct in wanting to increase until the second coming. Ibid., 193.Stephen James Stayer Dintaman is said to be correct in wanting to increase Stephen Dintaman the “variegation with which we read the story. He is also right in working against what he the “variegation with which we read the story. He is also right in working against what he takes to be a kind of apologetic self-protection on the part of Mennonite historians, who takes to be a kind of apologetic self-protection on the part of Mennonite historians, who affirm the centrality of the Schleitheim position without recognizing that it wasn’t typical at affirmTransitions the centrality of the Schleitheim position without recognizing that it wasn’t typical at Transitions the time.” Ibid., 199. theAfter time.” teaching Ibid., 199. and being a pastor in a North American Mennonite context After teaching and being a pastor in a North American Mennonite context 81 81 There remains an undeniable emphasis on the Protestant nature of the strand of Anabaptism for There fifteen remains years, an undeniable I am now emphasis teaching on the in Protestant a very naturedifferent of the setting. strand of I Anabaptism am going for fifteen years, I am now teaching in a very different setting. I am going Yoder privileges in this lecture, with non-Protestant streams entering in from “outside,” Yoder privileges in this lecture, with non-Protestant streams entering in from “outside,” particularly those carried by Denck, Hubmaier, and the visionaries. Ibid., 190. After stating particularlythrough the those kind carried of transitionalby Denck, Hubmaier, crisis thatand the teachers visionaries. experience Ibid., 190. whenAfter stating they through the kind of transitional crisis that teachers experience when they appreciation for Stayer’s work on Anabaptists and the Sword, Yoder revisits his earlier appreciationfind the for questions Stayer’s work they on Anabaptistshave a andready-made the Sword, stock Yoder revisits of answers his earlier for arenot find the questions they have a ready-made stock of answers for arenot critique, arguing that Stayer’s category of “Realpolitik” is anachronistic; he does not speak critique,being asked; arguing and that Stayer’sI am also category encountering of “Realpolitik” questions is anachronistic; for which he Idoes don’t not havespeak being asked; and I am also encountering questions for which I don’t have to Stayer’s critique of his classification of Schleitheim as dialogically open rather than toanswers Stayer’s somewhere critique of his on classification my hard drive. of ISchleitheim say that because as dialogically this paper open deals rather than answers somewhere on my hard drive. I say that because this paper deals separatist in principle. Ibid., 199. In this lecture Schleitheim continues to be described as separatist in principle. Ibid., 199. In this lecture Schleitheim continues to be described as dualistic in a closely nuanced way: “It is the tense missionary dualism representing in the dualisticprimarily in a with closely the nuanced impact way: John “It is Howard the tense Yoder’s missionary heritage dualism representing has had on in thethe primarily with the impact John Howard Yoder’s heritage has had on the midst of the world a position which the world cannot tolerate.… So this is a pragmatic, midstMennonite of the worldChurch a position and in which particular the world on cannotits theology tolerate.… of So peacemaking. this is a pragmatic, So, Mennonite Church and in particular on its theology of peacemaking. So, biblical, occasionalistic separation.” Ibid., 193. biblical,if I’m answering occasionalistic questions separation.” that Ibid., no 193.one is asking in this context, I ask your if I’m answering questions that no one is asking in this context, I ask your 82 See Blough, “The Historical Roots,” in Yoder, Anabaptism and Reformation, xli-lx. 82understanding See Blough, “The and Historical patience. Roots,” I should in Yoder, also Anabaptism add a wordand Reformation to those, xli-lx.for whom understanding and patience. I should also add a word to those for whom 83 83 Three recent works that privilege religious factors in sixteenth-century historical narratives English Three recent is not works their that native privilege language: religious tofactors “flush” in sixteenth-century an animal is historical to drive narratives it out of English is not their native language: to “flush” an animal is to drive it out of are C. Arnold Snyder, Anabaptist History and Theology: An Introduction (Kitchener, are C. Arnold Snyder, Anabaptist History and Theology: An Introduction (Kitchener, ON: Pandora Press, 1995); Brad Gregory, Salvation at Stake (Cambridge, MA: Harvard ON:hiding, Pandora usually Press, so 1995);it can Bradbe killed! Gregory, But Salvation my goal at Stakein flushing (Cambridge, the confessional MA: Harvard hiding, usually so it can be killed! But my goal in flushing the confessional University Press, 1999); and most recently Andrea Strübind, Eifriger als Zwingli: Die Universityrabbit out Press,of the 1999); socio-ecclesial and most recently brushpile Andrea is simply Strübind, to Eifriger see it, not als Zwingli:to harm Dieit. rabbit out of the socio-ecclesial brushpile is simply to see it, not to harm it. frühe Täuferbewegung in der Schweiz (Berlin: Dincker & Humblot, 2003). For a recent and frühe TäuferbewegungYoder is the inpivotal der Schweiz figure (Berlin: in a Dinckermajor transition& Humblot, that2003). has For taken a recent place and Yoder is the pivotal figure in a major transition that has taken place perceptive historiographical review, see John D. Roth, “Recent Currents in the Historiography perceptivein Mennonite historiographical theologies review, of peacemaking. see John D. Roth, In “Recent the first Currents half in theof theHistoriography twentieth in Mennonite theologies of peacemaking. In the first half of the twentieth of the Radical Reformation,” Church History 71.3 (September 2002): 523-35. of the Radical Reformation,” Church History 71.3 (September 2002): 523-35. 84 Blough, “The Historical Roots,” in Yoder, Anabaptism and Reformation, lviii. 84century, Blough, “The Mennonite Historical social Roots,” thinking in Yoder, Anabaptism was dominated and Reformation by a strictly, lviii. defined century, Mennonite social thinking was dominated by a strictly defined “two kingdoms” theology that can be traced back to the origins of the Swiss “two kingdoms” theology that can be traced back to the origins of the Swiss Anabaptists. The Schleitheim Confession of 1527 polarized the world into Anabaptists. The Schleitheim Confession of 1527 polarized the world into the “regenerate” and the “unregenerate,” the “children of light” and “the the “regenerate” and the “unregenerate,” the “children of light” and “the children of darkness.” The practice of Christian non-resistance was seen as children of darkness.” The practice of Christian non-resistance was seen as C. Arnold Snyder is a professor of History at Conrad Grebel University C.something Arnold Snyderpossible is only a professor within the of community History at Conradof faith. GrebelThe unregenerate University something possible only within the community of faith. The unregenerate College in Waterloo, Ontario. Collegeworld, however, in Waterloo, needed Ontario. the strong arm of “the sword” to preserve law and world, however, needed the strong arm of “the sword” to preserve law and order, and God had ordained the State to carry out this role. Mennonite order, and God had ordained the State to carry out this role. Mennonite theology interpreted church and world as two different mutually exclusive theology interpreted church and world as two different mutually exclusive orders, each with a fixed nature and function. The boundary between them was orders, each with a fixed nature and function. The boundary between them was clearly defined and largely impermeable. This two-kingdom dualism, while it clearly defined and largely impermeable. This two-kingdom dualism, while it 34 The Conrad Grebel Review 34 The Conrad Grebel Review did not bless state violence, nevertheless accepted that in a fallen world this is did not bless state violence, nevertheless accepted that in a fallen world this is the way things were and had to be. It was our business to be faithful disciples the way things were and had to be. It was our business to be faithful disciples of Jesus, not somehow to affect the way the world did its business. of Jesus, not somehow to affect the way the world did its business. From the beginning of his work and continuing with increasing From the beginning of his work and continuing with increasing subtlety and sophistication throughout it, Yoder developed a critique of this subtlety and sophistication throughout it, Yoder developed a critique of this reading of the two kingdoms and helped open the way for a more active reading of the two kingdoms and helped open the way for a more active engagement with the world.1 Some of the key steps he developed in building engagement with the world.1 Some of the key steps he developed in building a bridge to social engagement with the world are these: a bridge to social engagement with the world are these: (1) Yoder demonstrated that Jesus taught and called his disciples to (1) Yoder demonstrated that Jesus taught and called his disciples to practice a new kind of “politics,” a new way of ordering human relationships practice a new kind of “politics,” a new way of ordering human relationships (as opposed to just inaugurating a purely ‘spiritual’ kingdom). This new (as opposed to just inaugurating a purely ‘spiritual’ kingdom). This new politics dealt with the standard issues that all politics must address, such politics dealt with the standard issues that all politics must address, such as the nature and use of power, patterns of economic distribution and as the nature and use of power, patterns of economic distribution and consumption, self-defense, and how to handle social offenders. That this consumption, self-defense, and how to handle social offenders. That this politics is in a sense like all politics, yet of another order altogether, meant politics is in a sense like all politics, yet of another order altogether, meant that Jesus’ kingdom is a direct threat and challenge to the kingdoms of that Jesus’ kingdom is a direct threat and challenge to the kingdoms of Caesar. This is the thrust of Yoder’s The Politics of Jesus. Caesar. This is the thrust of Yoder’s The Politics of Jesus. (2) The church that is faithful to Jesus and takes him as its ethical (2) The church that is faithful to Jesus and takes him as its ethical norm, rather than accepting compromises with “realism” or seeking norm, rather than accepting compromises with “realism” or seeking positions of power from which to shape the social order, is a creative force positions of power from which to shape the social order, is a creative force in the world that can bring about real social change. The church functions in the world that can bring about real social change. The church functions as “salt” and “leaven.” Its influence is not just on the people it converts and as “salt” and “leaven.” Its influence is not just on the people it converts and brings into the Jesus way of life; it also ministers by generating creative brings into the Jesus way of life; it also ministers by generating creative new models of community life, ways of dealing with conflict, humanizing new models of community life, ways of dealing with conflict, humanizing enemies, and ministering to the needy. The larger social order, even if it does enemies, and ministering to the needy. The larger social order, even if it does not recognize the lordship of Jesus, can learn new creative social attitudes, not recognize the lordship of Jesus, can learn new creative social attitudes, practices, and patterns from the church. But Yoder remained adamant that practices, and patterns from the church. But Yoder remained adamant that the church can be a source of social creativity only if it remains faithful to the church can be a source of social creativity only if it remains faithful to Jesus and remains radically non-conformed to worldly standards of right Jesus and remains radically non-conformed to worldly standards of right and justice. Its social and spiritual distinctiveness is the precondition to its and justice. Its social and spiritual distinctiveness is the precondition to its “relevance,” not the obstacle to it. “relevance,” not the obstacle to it. (3) The state and the social order should not be seen as an ontologically (3) The state and the social order should not be seen as an ontologically fixed, God-ordained institutions but as a form of “ordering” that can evolve fixed, God-ordained institutions but as a form of “ordering” that can evolve and develop patterns for governance, ways of settling conflicts, and ways of and develop patterns for governance, ways of settling conflicts, and ways of dealing with offenders that are less violent and destructive. Yoder is not a dealing with offenders that are less violent and destructive. Yoder is not a Flushing the Confessional Rabbit 35 Flushing the Confessional Rabbit 35 social gospel idealist who thought the world could evolve into the kingdom. social gospel idealist who thought the world could evolve into the kingdom. But he believed that if Jesus is Lord, if the Redeemer is also the Creator, But he believed that if Jesus is Lord, if the Redeemer is also the Creator, then there can be times and places in which the way of Jesus contextually then there can be times and places in which the way of Jesus contextually modeled by the community of faith could “work” among people who do not modeled by the community of faith could “work” among people who do not necessarily confess Jesus’ name.2 necessarily confess Jesus’ name.2 Progressive, socially aware Mennonites eagerly traveled across the Progressive, socially aware Mennonites eagerly traveled across the bridge that Yoder built and took up the call to apply the way of Jesus to bridge that Yoder built and took up the call to apply the way of Jesus to society’s problems. Yoder’s Politics of Jesus became the bible of a new society’s problems. Yoder’s Politics of Jesus became the bible of a new activism that took the concrete economic patterns of Jubilee and Jesus’ activism that took the concrete economic patterns of Jubilee and Jesus’ commitment to absolute nonviolence and made them a kind of canon within commitment to absolute nonviolence and made them a kind of canon within the canon for Anabaptist social activism. But having traveled across the the canon for Anabaptist social activism. But having traveled across the bridge and moved from sectarian separatism to world engaging activism, bridge and moved from sectarian separatism to world engaging activism, it also became possible to burn the bridge. A strange reality of the current it also became possible to burn the bridge. A strange reality of the current generation of Mennonite social thinkers and peace activists is that while generation of Mennonite social thinkers and peace activists is that while Yoder’s significance is recognized and usually praised, his work, or at least his Yoder’s significance is recognized and usually praised, his work, or at least his work beyond The Politics of Jesus, is not widely read and discussed. Current work beyond The Politics of Jesus, is not widely read and discussed. Current social thinking in Mennonite colleges and social service programs is focused social thinking in Mennonite colleges and social service programs is focused primarily on social analysis, a commitment to working at social justice, and primarily on social analysis, a commitment to working at social justice, and highly developed, pioneering programs for teaching and practicing “conflict highly developed, pioneering programs for teaching and practicing “conflict transformation.” These all make a positive contribution. transformation.” These all make a positive contribution. What I lament is that these programs are often carried out with little What I lament is that these programs are often carried out with little attention to sustained theological reflection. After all, didn’t Yoder teach attention to sustained theological reflection. After all, didn’t Yoder teach us that the gospel is a social ethic? And as Anabaptists aren’t we more us that the gospel is a social ethic? And as Anabaptists aren’t we more committed to following Jesus than to metaphysical reflection on theological committed to following Jesus than to metaphysical reflection on theological doctrine? Nonviolent action directed to increasing peace and justice has doctrine? Nonviolent action directed to increasing peace and justice has become a kind of self-authenticating program that hardly needs theological become a kind of self-authenticating program that hardly needs theological rationales beyond “that’s what Jesus called us to do.” rationales beyond “that’s what Jesus called us to do.” While Yoder can hardly be blamed for being misread, the very subtlety While Yoder can hardly be blamed for being misread, the very subtlety of his thought lends itself to misunderstanding. In his own masterful way he of his thought lends itself to misunderstanding. In his own masterful way he always correlated confessional language with the concreteness of embodied always correlated confessional language with the concreteness of embodied discipleship. He was suspicious of theologies and theologians who treat discipleship. He was suspicious of theologies and theologians who treat theological issues as things-in-themselves that could be abstracted from, theological issues as things-in-themselves that could be abstracted from, and treated prior to, questions of discipleship and ecclesiology. Yoder’s and treated prior to, questions of discipleship and ecclesiology. Yoder’s insistence that the gospel is a social ethic, and that Jesus incarnated and insistence that the gospel is a social ethic, and that Jesus incarnated and calls his followers to incarnate a new politics in the world, is a central theme calls his followers to incarnate a new politics in the world, is a central theme 36 The Conrad Grebel Review 36 The Conrad Grebel Review throughout his work. The confession that Jesus is Lord lacks integrity and throughout his work. The confession that Jesus is Lord lacks integrity and meaning if not made by a community of disciples who in a visible, costly meaning if not made by a community of disciples who in a visible, costly way serve as a sign of the coming kingdom before “a watching world.”3 way serve as a sign of the coming kingdom before “a watching world.”3 Yoder had great respect for the work of Robert Friedmann, a late-in- Yoder had great respect for the work of Robert Friedmann, a late-in- life convert to Anabaptism who, in his major interpretation of the movement, life convert to Anabaptism who, in his major interpretation of the movement, referred to Anabaptists as having “an implicit theology” existentially referred to Anabaptists as having “an implicit theology” existentially expressed as discipleship.4 Granted that for Yoder the Christian’s confession expressed as discipleship.4 Granted that for Yoder the Christian’s confession of faith in Jesus has its habitat in a socially specific peoplehood, what I of faith in Jesus has its habitat in a socially specific peoplehood, what I would like to do in this paper is “flush the confessional rabbit out of the would like to do in this paper is “flush the confessional rabbit out of the socio-ecclesial brushpile.” I intend to show that the Christian confession of socio-ecclesial brushpile.” I intend to show that the Christian confession of faith in Jesus logically and ontologically precedes social ethics, and is the faith in Jesus logically and ontologically precedes social ethics, and is the animating power that gives it coherence and meaning. I am not doing this in animating power that gives it coherence and meaning. I am not doing this in order to capture the rabbit and put it in a cage called “systematic theology” order to capture the rabbit and put it in a cage called “systematic theology” or because the rabbit is the “kernel” and Yoder’s socio-ecclesiology is the or because the rabbit is the “kernel” and Yoder’s socio-ecclesiology is the “husk.” Rather, I am doing this for two reasons. The first is to show that it “husk.” Rather, I am doing this for two reasons. The first is to show that it is a significant misreading to believe Yoder is not serious about the form is a significant misreading to believe Yoder is not serious about the form and content of the Christian confession of faith. To take his social ethic and and content of the Christian confession of faith. To take his social ethic and run with it, without constantly showing how it is grounded in and is only run with it, without constantly showing how it is grounded in and is only possible and intelligible in the context of confession, seriously distorts his possible and intelligible in the context of confession, seriously distorts his theology and his ethic. The second reason is to recall that Yoder is not, and theology and his ethic. The second reason is to recall that Yoder is not, and did not claim or intend to be, addressing all aspects of the Christian faith and did not claim or intend to be, addressing all aspects of the Christian faith and life in his work. It was motivated by and focused on a particular interest in life in his work. It was motivated by and focused on a particular interest in doing “apologetics” for a certain kind of reading of Jesus and ecclesiology doing “apologetics” for a certain kind of reading of Jesus and ecclesiology within the context of ecumenical conversation. Yoder’s interests and agenda within the context of ecumenical conversation. Yoder’s interests and agenda left gaps and underdeveloped aspects of the faith, and these need to be left gaps and underdeveloped aspects of the faith, and these need to be augmented, balanced, or corrected if his theology is going to adequately augmented, balanced, or corrected if his theology is going to adequately serve the community of faith. serve the community of faith.

Witness, Eschatology, and Doxology Witness, Eschatology, and Doxology I want to do more than find places where Yoder makes his confession of I want to do more than find places where Yoder makes his confession of faith explicit. What is needed is to show that confession is structurally faith explicit. What is needed is to show that confession is structurally critical to how he thinks about ethics, and that his account of ethics becomes critical to how he thinks about ethics, and that his account of ethics becomes unintelligible if the behaviors he commends are transferred into another unintelligible if the behaviors he commends are transferred into another frame of reference. Thus I will look briefly at his account of witness, frame of reference. Thus I will look briefly at his account of witness, eschatology, and doxology. eschatology, and doxology. Flushing the Confessional Rabbit 37 Flushing the Confessional Rabbit 37

Yoder spent a lifetime dealing with the question of the efficacy of Yoder spent a lifetime dealing with the question of the efficacy of nonviolence. Early in his work he tended to accept the formula that “we nonviolence. Early in his work he tended to accept the formula that “we are called to be faithful, not effective.” Later he regarded this distinction as are called to be faithful, not effective.” Later he regarded this distinction as simplistic and limiting. In a number of essays and culminating in his Body simplistic and limiting. In a number of essays and culminating in his Body Politics, he argues that the faithful Christian community should develop Politics, he argues that the faithful Christian community should develop and practice a number of social practices, rooted in the gospel, that can be and practice a number of social practices, rooted in the gospel, that can be shared with the social order. Instead of beginning by assuming that “we are shared with the social order. Instead of beginning by assuming that “we are called to be faithful, not effective,” we should share these practices with “a called to be faithful, not effective,” we should share these practices with “a watching world” in the hope that it may find something useful and helpful in watching world” in the hope that it may find something useful and helpful in them.5 This is not an attempt to build a Christian social order or the kingdom them.5 This is not an attempt to build a Christian social order or the kingdom of God, but simply a gift of grace that the community wants to share. Yoder of God, but simply a gift of grace that the community wants to share. Yoder developed increasing confidence that kingdom patterns of living made sense developed increasing confidence that kingdom patterns of living made sense and were actually the way we were created to be. So we should not a priori and were actually the way we were created to be. So we should not a priori limit the possibilities for social change and adaptation in the world. Human limit the possibilities for social change and adaptation in the world. Human history has shown many instances in which the efficacy of nonviolence has history has shown many instances in which the efficacy of nonviolence has been demonstrated. been demonstrated. But even though this is a kind of developmental shift in his thought, But even though this is a kind of developmental shift in his thought, Yoder never abandoned the ideas that the reason for obedience to Jesus is not Yoder never abandoned the ideas that the reason for obedience to Jesus is not its social efficacy or that to be a Christian is to accept the vocation of bearing its social efficacy or that to be a Christian is to accept the vocation of bearing witness to the coming kingdom of God. In his early work, The Original witness to the coming kingdom of God. In his early work, The Original Revolution, he developed the idea of an ethic of “testimony.” Simply put, Revolution, he developed the idea of an ethic of “testimony.” Simply put, his rule for action is, how would this act bear witness to God’s redemptive his rule for action is, how would this act bear witness to God’s redemptive love? This theme of the Christian life as a form of witness to God’s love is love? This theme of the Christian life as a form of witness to God’s love is the key to Yoder’s reading of Christian ethics and, indeed, to his theological the key to Yoder’s reading of Christian ethics and, indeed, to his theological method. Yoder is a post-Kantian theologian who takes up the great questions method. Yoder is a post-Kantian theologian who takes up the great questions Kant bequeathed us in epistemology and axiology. Yoder answers both Kant bequeathed us in epistemology and axiology. Yoder answers both questions with the concept of “witness.” The posture of a witness, one who questions with the concept of “witness.” The posture of a witness, one who demonstrates the in-breaking rule of God and invites others to share in it, is demonstrates the in-breaking rule of God and invites others to share in it, is the only one he sees as consistent with the servant stance of Jesus. From this the only one he sees as consistent with the servant stance of Jesus. From this position he rejects foundationalist strategies for proving the truth of the faith position he rejects foundationalist strategies for proving the truth of the faith or for deriving moral rules from universally known absolutes. or for deriving moral rules from universally known absolutes. While developing an account of how Christian practices are While developing an account of how Christian practices are contextually shaped by the hermeneutical community and humbly shared contextually shaped by the hermeneutical community and humbly shared with whomever may benefit from them because they “work,” Yoder makes it with whomever may benefit from them because they “work,” Yoder makes it clear that within the community of faith deeds are made meaningful because clear that within the community of faith deeds are made meaningful because 38 The Conrad Grebel Review 38 The Conrad Grebel Review they “witness.” Perhaps the high point of this understanding of deeds and they “witness.” Perhaps the high point of this understanding of deeds and how they work is expressed in the essay “Discerning the Kingdom of God how they work is expressed in the essay “Discerning the Kingdom of God in the Struggles of the World.” Yoder writes: in the Struggles of the World.” Yoder writes: ‘Sign,’ rather than ‘instrument,’ describes more properly how ‘Sign,’ rather than ‘instrument,’ describes more properly how our words and deeds ‘work.’ We proclaim; our humanizing our words and deeds ‘work.’ We proclaim; our humanizing deeds signify. Others, or rather, Another will determine whether deeds signify. Others, or rather, Another will determine whether success or sacrifice better represents the Lamb’s lordship. (For success or sacrifice better represents the Lamb’s lordship. (For the Nations, 240) the Nations, 240) This emphasis, that deeds are signs rather than instruments, shows they This emphasis, that deeds are signs rather than instruments, shows they gain their meaning from a reality that is, rather from the results they might gain their meaning from a reality that is, rather from the results they might achieve. In “Christ, the Hope of the World,” Yoder explains that for us to be achieve. In “Christ, the Hope of the World,” Yoder explains that for us to be in the world as a sign is significant “Because that is the shape of the work in the world as a sign is significant “Because that is the shape of the work of Christ”: of Christ”: When Christians devote themselves to the care of the seriously When Christians devote themselves to the care of the seriously ill, of the mentally retarded, of the unproductive aged, the ill, of the mentally retarded, of the unproductive aged, the fruitfulness of this service cannot be measured by any statistical fruitfulness of this service cannot be measured by any statistical index of economic efficacy. Whether evaluated from the index of economic efficacy. Whether evaluated from the perspective of the individual or the society, the meaning of perspective of the individual or the society, the meaning of this deed is what it signifies, the reality for which it is the sign, this deed is what it signifies, the reality for which it is the sign, namely that this person is here to be a servant to his neighbor. namely that this person is here to be a servant to his neighbor. His presence and posture, not his productivity, are the referent His presence and posture, not his productivity, are the referent of the sign. (Royal Priesthood, 204) of the sign. (Royal Priesthood, 204) Yoder, while free to consider the utility of deeds, does not believe Christian Yoder, while free to consider the utility of deeds, does not believe Christian practices gain their meaning and truthfulness from their consequences. practices gain their meaning and truthfulness from their consequences. He consistently resists “a kind of creeping utilitarianism” (Royal He consistently resists “a kind of creeping utilitarianism” (Royal Priesthood, 124). His ethic resists being assimilated and validated within a Priesthood, 124). His ethic resists being assimilated and validated within a consequentialist framework for important theological reasons. consequentialist framework for important theological reasons. First and foremost, Yoder insists that the most fundamental First and foremost, Yoder insists that the most fundamental temptation for Christians is not violence but the desire to move history in temptation for Christians is not violence but the desire to move history in the way we think it should go. To witness to the Lamb’s victory is to give up the way we think it should go. To witness to the Lamb’s victory is to give up this need and desire to engineer the future, and instead to live by faith and this need and desire to engineer the future, and instead to live by faith and hope. This means Yoder cannot be simply classed among that noble group hope. This means Yoder cannot be simply classed among that noble group of philosophers, which includes Gandhi, who believe our means should of philosophers, which includes Gandhi, who believe our means should always be consistent with our desired ends. That is, if peace is the goal, always be consistent with our desired ends. That is, if peace is the goal, Flushing the Confessional Rabbit 39 Flushing the Confessional Rabbit 39 then that end is inconsistent with the use of violent means. Within Yoder’s then that end is inconsistent with the use of violent means. Within Yoder’s theological frame of reference the concept of means and ends does not apply. theological frame of reference the concept of means and ends does not apply. His comment that “Others, or rather, Another will determine whether success His comment that “Others, or rather, Another will determine whether success or sacrifice better represents the Lamb’s lordship” shows he operates with or sacrifice better represents the Lamb’s lordship” shows he operates with a strong sense of divine Providence. The way to show that we are indeed a strong sense of divine Providence. The way to show that we are indeed creatures and that God is indeed God is to leave the question of results in the creatures and that God is indeed God is to leave the question of results in the hands of God. Even to use nonviolent means to achieve desirable ends is an hands of God. Even to use nonviolent means to achieve desirable ends is an instance of “a polite form of demagoguery” (Royal Priesthood, 158). instance of “a polite form of demagoguery” (Royal Priesthood, 158). Second, Yoder returns in many different settings to discuss what Second, Yoder returns in many different settings to discuss what Reinhold Niebuhr called “the irony of history” (human control and Reinhold Niebuhr called “the irony of history” (human control and predictability are very limited, and campaigns or actions intended to produce predictability are very limited, and campaigns or actions intended to produce certain desirable consequences often achieve something very different from certain desirable consequences often achieve something very different from what was intended). An inherent limit in any consequentialist ethic is that “it what was intended). An inherent limit in any consequentialist ethic is that “it posits a degree of both actual analysis and ability to predict, to say nothing posits a degree of both actual analysis and ability to predict, to say nothing of ability to control, which are not, in fact, present in any important social of ability to control, which are not, in fact, present in any important social conflict. This is not simply a matter of ignorance due to the bluntness of conflict. This is not simply a matter of ignorance due to the bluntness of our present tools of observation, analysis, and prediction. . . . Rather it is our present tools of observation, analysis, and prediction. . . . Rather it is an intrinsic limitation of the very nature of our self-understanding as social an intrinsic limitation of the very nature of our self-understanding as social animals. . . .” (Royal Priesthood, 124). This case is not just a cause for animals. . . .” (Royal Priesthood, 124). This case is not just a cause for modesty about how effective we can be but a way of confessing we are modesty about how effective we can be but a way of confessing we are witnesses to, not actual agents of, redemption. Yoder really cannot be read witnesses to, not actual agents of, redemption. Yoder really cannot be read as an advocate for developing nonviolent techniques that move history as an advocate for developing nonviolent techniques that move history somehow closer to God’s reign of justice and peace – though he is often somehow closer to God’s reign of justice and peace – though he is often used to justify this approach. Our actions are signs, not instruments. used to justify this approach. Our actions are signs, not instruments. It might be argued – and is argued by some pacifists – that It might be argued – and is argued by some pacifists – that nonviolent techniques are available or can be found soon that nonviolent techniques are available or can be found soon that would be successful in defending anything worth defending would be successful in defending anything worth defending in any society. Then the feasibility of these techniques and in any society. Then the feasibility of these techniques and the promise of efficacy is presented as an argument within the the promise of efficacy is presented as an argument within the prudential frame of reference.... Such an argument, actually prudential frame of reference.... Such an argument, actually basing the rejection of violence on the promise of a better way or basing the rejection of violence on the promise of a better way or proving the relevance of pacifism on the grounds of the lessons proving the relevance of pacifism on the grounds of the lessons of history, would place in the prudential type of reasoning and of history, would place in the prudential type of reasoning and the historical type of analysis much greater faith than I can do. the historical type of analysis much greater faith than I can do. (Royal Priesthood, 216) (Royal Priesthood, 216) 40 The Conrad Grebel Review 40 The Conrad Grebel Review

Yoder’s discussion of witness focuses primarily on deeds pointing toward Yoder’s discussion of witness focuses primarily on deeds pointing toward the coming reign of God. But this is not opposed to verbal proclamation of the coming reign of God. But this is not opposed to verbal proclamation of the gospel. While one would not expect from Yoder a handbook on personal the gospel. While one would not expect from Yoder a handbook on personal soul winning, he clearly acknowledges the role of the evangelist in a couple soul winning, he clearly acknowledges the role of the evangelist in a couple of rather remarkable statements. One comes from his early essay, “Peace of rather remarkable statements. One comes from his early essay, “Peace Without Eschatology?”: Without Eschatology?”: Second, there is the call to the individual, including the Second, there is the call to the individual, including the statesman, to be reconciled with God. This is evangelism in the statesman, to be reconciled with God. This is evangelism in the strict contemporary sense and is a part of the peace witness. strict contemporary sense and is a part of the peace witness. Any social-minded concern that does not have this appeal to Any social-minded concern that does not have this appeal to personal commitment at its heart is either utopian or a polite personal commitment at its heart is either utopian or a polite form of demagoguery. (Royal Priesthood, 158) form of demagoguery. (Royal Priesthood, 158) Another telling comment comes from a much later work, “The Spirit of God Another telling comment comes from a much later work, “The Spirit of God and the Politics of Men”: and the Politics of Men”: We should give thanks for every believer whose personal calling We should give thanks for every believer whose personal calling is not to be an agent of direct social change, if that person’s is not to be an agent of direct social change, if that person’s genuine calling is to be a face-to-face evangelist, or to discharge genuine calling is to be a face-to-face evangelist, or to discharge any other distinct gift. (For the Nations, 235) any other distinct gift. (For the Nations, 235) To make things more complicated, this emphasis on deeds as witness and To make things more complicated, this emphasis on deeds as witness and signs does not mean it is never legitimate or important to think about results signs does not mean it is never legitimate or important to think about results and what works in a given social system and context. Yoder respects the and what works in a given social system and context. Yoder respects the social framework and frame of reference of those who do not confess Jesus. social framework and frame of reference of those who do not confess Jesus. If a given society has been brutalizing and humiliating its social offenders If a given society has been brutalizing and humiliating its social offenders for generations, and the church models a new way of dealing with offenders for generations, and the church models a new way of dealing with offenders that honors their humanity and seeks to restore them to human responsibility that honors their humanity and seeks to restore them to human responsibility and dignity, members of that society might at some point say, That seems to and dignity, members of that society might at some point say, That seems to work better than the way we’ve been doing it, let’s give it a try. They would work better than the way we’ve been doing it, let’s give it a try. They would adopt these new attitudes and practices because they seem to work better. adopt these new attitudes and practices because they seem to work better. They produce demonstrably good results that the society can recognize They produce demonstrably good results that the society can recognize within its own frame of reference and values. within its own frame of reference and values. But that utilitarian rationale for adopting more redemptive ways of But that utilitarian rationale for adopting more redemptive ways of dealing with offenders is not why the Christian community practices them. dealing with offenders is not why the Christian community practices them. That they work better is a secondary property. The Christian practices them That they work better is a secondary property. The Christian practices them because that’s how God has dealt with us in Jesus Christ. We share them because that’s how God has dealt with us in Jesus Christ. We share them Flushing the Confessional Rabbit 41 Flushing the Confessional Rabbit 41 with “a watching world” as an act of witness to the gospel of Christ. The with “a watching world” as an act of witness to the gospel of Christ. The society embraces these ways not because it believes Jesus is Lord but because society embraces these ways not because it believes Jesus is Lord but because they work better. This sensitivity to multiple and very different systems of they work better. This sensitivity to multiple and very different systems of validation is a part of Yoder’s subtle analytic genius that is sometimes lost validation is a part of Yoder’s subtle analytic genius that is sometimes lost by those whom Peter Dula has called “peace monists.”6 by those whom Peter Dula has called “peace monists.”6 Moral validation is derived from the imminent kingdom which Moral validation is derived from the imminent kingdom which Jesus announces, not from the righteous state of affairs our Jesus announces, not from the righteous state of affairs our actions promise to bring about. Moral being and behaving are actions promise to bring about. Moral being and behaving are primordially proclamation or celebration. Only derivatively primordially proclamation or celebration. Only derivatively are they debatable positions in value theory or efficacy. (Royal are they debatable positions in value theory or efficacy. (Royal Priesthood, 136) Priesthood, 136) Obviously, this discussion of witness has already anticipated the central Obviously, this discussion of witness has already anticipated the central role of eschatology in Yoder’s social thought. His gospel is focused on the role of eschatology in Yoder’s social thought. His gospel is focused on the Lamb’s victory, the triumph over the principalities and powers that Jesus Lamb’s victory, the triumph over the principalities and powers that Jesus won on the cross. It is this joyous confidence that, despite all appearances won on the cross. It is this joyous confidence that, despite all appearances to the contrary, the triumph of the kingdom of God is a certainty which to the contrary, the triumph of the kingdom of God is a certainty which defines and energizes Christian discipleship. It is the church’s transcendent defines and energizes Christian discipleship. It is the church’s transcendent hope that ultimately creates and sustains its social creativity. It is hope that hope that ultimately creates and sustains its social creativity. It is hope that enables it to give up control, which Yoder sees as the precondition to real enables it to give up control, which Yoder sees as the precondition to real social creativity; that enables it to take risks, empowers it to swim against social creativity; that enables it to take risks, empowers it to swim against the stream and maintain its distinctive prophetic voice in the world; and the stream and maintain its distinctive prophetic voice in the world; and enables it even to accept martyrdom, the ultimate form of inefficacy that in enables it even to accept martyrdom, the ultimate form of inefficacy that in the final analysis is powerful only because it participates in the victory of the the final analysis is powerful only because it participates in the victory of the Lamb. Yoder’s reading of Christian ethics is false if it is not true that Jesus Lamb. Yoder’s reading of Christian ethics is false if it is not true that Jesus was raised from the dead and is coming again. was raised from the dead and is coming again. Later in his work Yoder also introduced a theme that both encompasses Later in his work Yoder also introduced a theme that both encompasses and surpasses his emphasis on witness: the idea of deeds as “doxology.” and surpasses his emphasis on witness: the idea of deeds as “doxology.” One discussion of the role of doxology occurs in the essay “Are You the One One discussion of the role of doxology occurs in the essay “Are You the One Who is to Come?” under the stark sub-heading of “Not Engineering, but Who is to Come?” under the stark sub-heading of “Not Engineering, but Doxology.”7 The standard account of moral reasoning in Western thought, Doxology.”7 The standard account of moral reasoning in Western thought, Yoder suggests, has been how to get “from here to there.” What is the ideal Yoder suggests, has been how to get “from here to there.” What is the ideal society we want? What methods can bring it closer? Jesus’ novelty was not society we want? What methods can bring it closer? Jesus’ novelty was not that he had a new vision of social goodness or new methods for getting us that he had a new vision of social goodness or new methods for getting us there, but that he lifted up and celebrated the reign of YHWH over the whole there, but that he lifted up and celebrated the reign of YHWH over the whole creation. His life and ministry was a celebration and proclamation of what creation. His life and ministry was a celebration and proclamation of what is, not a method for getting where we want to be. is, not a method for getting where we want to be. 42 The Conrad Grebel Review 42 The Conrad Grebel Review

It is thus a profound misapprehension of the messianic moral It is thus a profound misapprehension of the messianic moral choice to think that in his rejection of violence, Jesus was led choice to think that in his rejection of violence, Jesus was led by methodological purism in moral choice, choosing to be an by methodological purism in moral choice, choosing to be an absolutist about the sacredness of life. It would be an equally absolutist about the sacredness of life. It would be an equally profound misapprehension to think that he was the world’s profound misapprehension to think that he was the world’s first Gandhian, calculating the prospects for a social victory as first Gandhian, calculating the prospects for a social victory as being in his particular circumstances greater for nonviolent that being in his particular circumstances greater for nonviolent that for violent tactics. Both of these interpretations of what Jesus for violent tactics. Both of these interpretations of what Jesus was doing as a social strategist follow the “standard account was doing as a social strategist follow the “standard account of social ethical discernment” that it is precisely the purpose of social ethical discernment” that it is precisely the purpose of all the prophets to free us from. Jesus’ acceptance of the of all the prophets to free us from. Jesus’ acceptance of the cross . . . was not, in the final analysis, a moral decision, but an cross . . . was not, in the final analysis, a moral decision, but an eschatological one. It was dictated by a different vision of where eschatological one. It was dictated by a different vision of where God is taking the world. Or, we may say it was an ontological God is taking the world. Or, we may say it was an ontological decision, dictated by a truer picture of what the world really is. decision, dictated by a truer picture of what the world really is. (For the Nations, 210) (For the Nations, 210) It is this doxological memory of the cross and resurrection of Jesus, and It is this doxological memory of the cross and resurrection of Jesus, and the anticipation of his coming reign, that creates the space in which the the anticipation of his coming reign, that creates the space in which the church can find an alternate consciousness and spirituality that gives rise church can find an alternate consciousness and spirituality that gives rise to an alternate way of living in the world. Yoder is not a theologian who to an alternate way of living in the world. Yoder is not a theologian who says first, “Get your doctrines intellectually correct,” and then, secondarily, says first, “Get your doctrines intellectually correct,” and then, secondarily, “Apply them to living.” But he does clearly affirm the ontological priority “Apply them to living.” But he does clearly affirm the ontological priority of doxology (singing the praises of God) to ethics (singing those praises in of doxology (singing the praises of God) to ethics (singing those praises in a contextually relevant political form). When Yoder writes pieces with titles a contextually relevant political form). When Yoder writes pieces with titles like “Gospel as Social Ethics,” one could expect to find a social gospel or like “Gospel as Social Ethics,” one could expect to find a social gospel or liberation theologian who gives ontological priority to action. But in Yoder’s liberation theologian who gives ontological priority to action. But in Yoder’s reading of the title, the emphasis and the content of the ethic is in the word reading of the title, the emphasis and the content of the ethic is in the word gospel. gospel.

Yoder’s “Skewed” Agenda Yoder’s “Skewed” Agenda I mentioned that Yoder does not seek to address all aspects of the Christian I mentioned that Yoder does not seek to address all aspects of the Christian faith and life. His particular mission was to give an account of a distinctive faith and life. His particular mission was to give an account of a distinctive kind of free church ecclesiology often dismissed by establishment churches kind of free church ecclesiology often dismissed by establishment churches as sectarian or politically irrelevant. He does this with unmatched subtlety as sectarian or politically irrelevant. He does this with unmatched subtlety and brilliance. But this focus on the church as an ethic, or as a politic, opens and brilliance. But this focus on the church as an ethic, or as a politic, opens Flushing the Confessional Rabbit 43 Flushing the Confessional Rabbit 43 him to a kind of reductionist reading that simply takes the behaviors of him to a kind of reductionist reading that simply takes the behaviors of the Christian community and makes them a kind of self-authenticating the Christian community and makes them a kind of self-authenticating social program. Yoder himself acknowledges that his interests “skew” his social program. Yoder himself acknowledges that his interests “skew” his discussions of the faith, as in this statement at the end of his “The Kingdom discussions of the faith, as in this statement at the end of his “The Kingdom as Social Ethic” under the sub-heading “Back to True North”: as Social Ethic” under the sub-heading “Back to True North”: The imperatives of dialogue with majority mentalities have The imperatives of dialogue with majority mentalities have skewed this description toward the problematics of weakness skewed this description toward the problematics of weakness and effectiveness. An authentic portrayal of “the peace church and effectiveness. An authentic portrayal of “the peace church vision” from the inside would have spoken more of worship and vision” from the inside would have spoken more of worship and servanthood, reconciliation and creativity, Gelassenheit and the servanthood, reconciliation and creativity, Gelassenheit and the Power of the Light, “heartfelt religion” and transforming hope, Power of the Light, “heartfelt religion” and transforming hope, and the person of Jesus Christ. But if this paper had been thus and the person of Jesus Christ. But if this paper had been thus affirmative then the reader would have wondered why any of affirmative then the reader would have wondered why any of that should be “sectarian.” (Priestly Kingdom, 101) that should be “sectarian.” (Priestly Kingdom, 101) This comment is downright revelatory – as though we have emerged from This comment is downright revelatory – as though we have emerged from the forest into a sun-drenched clearing. It’s as if the confessional rabbit just the forest into a sun-drenched clearing. It’s as if the confessional rabbit just came out of the socio-ecclesial brushpile and did a little dance! It could apply came out of the socio-ecclesial brushpile and did a little dance! It could apply to most of Yoder’s published works. An emphasis on apologetics, especially to most of Yoder’s published works. An emphasis on apologetics, especially apologetics for a distinctive kind of ecclesiology and ethics, leads Yoder to apologetics for a distinctive kind of ecclesiology and ethics, leads Yoder to develop explanatory categories for critical outsiders. The key term in the develop explanatory categories for critical outsiders. The key term in the quotation is in “an authentic portrayal of ‘the peace church vision’ from quotation is in “an authentic portrayal of ‘the peace church vision’ from the inside.” Here the stress is not on ethics and how we can best develop the inside.” Here the stress is not on ethics and how we can best develop strategies for influencing the outside world but on worship, praise, and the strategies for influencing the outside world but on worship, praise, and the person of Jesus. person of Jesus. The problem is that a sub-community within the Mennonite Church The problem is that a sub-community within the Mennonite Church has found its identity and reason for being in the socio-ethical apologetics has found its identity and reason for being in the socio-ethical apologetics that Yoder developed but has lost its connection to the language of faith. that Yoder developed but has lost its connection to the language of faith. How many social activists talk about “heartfelt religion and transforming How many social activists talk about “heartfelt religion and transforming hope, and the person of Jesus Christ”? Instead, the canonical language hope, and the person of Jesus Christ”? Instead, the canonical language has become Jubilee economics and a commitment to nonviolent means of has become Jubilee economics and a commitment to nonviolent means of achieving peace and justice in the world. Divorced from worship and the achieving peace and justice in the world. Divorced from worship and the celebration of salvation, the language of justice and peace takes on a different celebration of salvation, the language of justice and peace takes on a different grammar and meaning. Yoder’s apologetics program assumes there are grammar and meaning. Yoder’s apologetics program assumes there are communities in which the term “the person of Jesus” names an identifiable communities in which the term “the person of Jesus” names an identifiable and active reality, and people who are doing the hard inner work of learning and active reality, and people who are doing the hard inner work of learning 44 The Conrad Grebel Review 44 The Conrad Grebel Review

Gelassenheit. In short, it assumes too much. It is still a Christendom social Gelassenheit. In short, it assumes too much. It is still a Christendom social ecclesiology (defined vis-à-vis Christendom) that assumes that the language ecclesiology (defined vis-à-vis Christendom) that assumes that the language and experience of faith is a given, and needs to receive a prophetic ecclesial and experience of faith is a given, and needs to receive a prophetic ecclesial focus. focus. Let me illustrate, in perhaps a slightly exaggerated way, how this Let me illustrate, in perhaps a slightly exaggerated way, how this focusing on apologetics can lead to alienation from the subject matter of focusing on apologetics can lead to alienation from the subject matter of faith. In Body Politics (pages 14-27), Yoder creatively develops the idea that faith. In Body Politics (pages 14-27), Yoder creatively develops the idea that the Christian sharing of bread at the Lord’s table suggests and implies the the Christian sharing of bread at the Lord’s table suggests and implies the idea of sharing bread. So, one Christian practice that can be shared with the idea of sharing bread. So, one Christian practice that can be shared with the world is the idea of economic sharing. Good enough. But I can imagine that world is the idea of economic sharing. Good enough. But I can imagine that somewhere down the road we might start hearing sermons suggesting that somewhere down the road we might start hearing sermons suggesting that the reason Jesus broke and shared bread with his disciples was to teach them the reason Jesus broke and shared bread with his disciples was to teach them socialism. At this point the mysterious, distinctively Christian meaning of socialism. At this point the mysterious, distinctively Christian meaning of the event would be lost behind the social practice derived from it. the event would be lost behind the social practice derived from it. Yoder clarifies his priorities in a concluding comment at the end of Yoder clarifies his priorities in a concluding comment at the end of the above quoted section on doxology: the above quoted section on doxology: Our angle of entry into the issue would seem to indicate that the Our angle of entry into the issue would seem to indicate that the latter (knowing what God is doing) is prior because it was our latter (knowing what God is doing) is prior because it was our question. But certainly the former (that God is doing it) is prior. question. But certainly the former (that God is doing it) is prior. The fact that God is already doing in the world what God plans The fact that God is already doing in the world what God plans ultimately to do is certainly prior both in sequential logic and ultimately to do is certainly prior both in sequential logic and importance to the use we might make of that fact as a source of importance to the use we might make of that fact as a source of information and language to provide self-conscious guidance to information and language to provide self-conscious guidance to our sharing in the outgoing process. (Royal Priesthood, 126) our sharing in the outgoing process. (Royal Priesthood, 126) That is, it could appear that Yoder starts with ethics and what we should That is, it could appear that Yoder starts with ethics and what we should be doing; but in fact he is beginning with the reality that it is God who is be doing; but in fact he is beginning with the reality that it is God who is doing it. Yoder is thoroughly schooled in the theology of Karl Barth and is doing it. Yoder is thoroughly schooled in the theology of Karl Barth and is certainly aware of the danger of doing apologetics. The danger is that the certainly aware of the danger of doing apologetics. The danger is that the apologetic reasoning, intended as a secondary kind of explanatory reasoning apologetic reasoning, intended as a secondary kind of explanatory reasoning for those who do not share the language of faith, can instead become the for those who do not share the language of faith, can instead become the primary form of reasoning that the community of faith uses to explain itself primary form of reasoning that the community of faith uses to explain itself not just to the world but to itself. not just to the world but to itself. Flushing the Confessional Rabbit 45 Flushing the Confessional Rabbit 45

Additions, Amendments, and Corrections Additions, Amendments, and Corrections Acknowledging that Yoder’s agenda and interests “skew” his interpretation Acknowledging that Yoder’s agenda and interests “skew” his interpretation of the gospel, it is legitimate and helpful to ask how this imbalance could of the gospel, it is legitimate and helpful to ask how this imbalance could be supplemented, augmented, and corrected. What themes does Yoder leave be supplemented, augmented, and corrected. What themes does Yoder leave underdeveloped? underdeveloped?

The Role of Theology The Role of Theology Yoder is primarily a hermeneutical theologian. For him, the community is Yoder is primarily a hermeneutical theologian. For him, the community is formed by a constant re-appropriation of the biblical story. He does some formed by a constant re-appropriation of the biblical story. He does some very creative work on how the varied gifts of the Spirit function within very creative work on how the varied gifts of the Spirit function within the community of faith, empowering it to be a contextually sensitive the community of faith, empowering it to be a contextually sensitive hermeneutical organism.8 But he also takes the church’s doctrinal traditions hermeneutical organism.8 But he also takes the church’s doctrinal traditions with utmost seriousness; never committing himself dogmatically to accept with utmost seriousness; never committing himself dogmatically to accept them yet always patiently working to learn from them.9 There have been them yet always patiently working to learn from them.9 There have been many questions about what kind of theological reflection, or even if many questions about what kind of theological reflection, or even if systematic theological reflection, is compatible with Yoderianism. I suggest systematic theological reflection, is compatible with Yoderianism. I suggest that, though for Yoder the primary task of theology is hermeneutics, our that, though for Yoder the primary task of theology is hermeneutics, our discussion above could imply it might also have the task of investigating discussion above could imply it might also have the task of investigating and clarifying the ontological grounds of the practice of doxology. If the and clarifying the ontological grounds of the practice of doxology. If the recently emergent model of theological reflection developed by people like recently emergent model of theological reflection developed by people like James McClendon and Stanley Hauerwas is adopted, and theology is seen as James McClendon and Stanley Hauerwas is adopted, and theology is seen as reflection on distinctive Christian practices, then perhaps doxology should reflection on distinctive Christian practices, then perhaps doxology should be seen as a kind of master or defining Christian practice that calls forth be seen as a kind of master or defining Christian practice that calls forth theological thought. Making doxology a kind of master defining practice theological thought. Making doxology a kind of master defining practice would free theology from an overriding focus on ethics, an emphasis that would free theology from an overriding focus on ethics, an emphasis that I believe lends itself to “creeping utilitarianism.” It would be fun to begin I believe lends itself to “creeping utilitarianism.” It would be fun to begin theology with a question like Why are these people so happy? instead of theology with a question like Why are these people so happy? instead of always starting with Why are these people so good? always starting with Why are these people so good? If we recognize doxology as a defining practice of the community If we recognize doxology as a defining practice of the community of faith, then the set of practices we can “offer to a watching world” can of faith, then the set of practices we can “offer to a watching world” can be expanded. The practices Yoder develops are political practices which, be expanded. The practices Yoder develops are political practices which, though grounded in Christian community and its faith, can be shared in though grounded in Christian community and its faith, can be shared in the wider world. In addition to these we can also offer joy, hope, healing, the wider world. In addition to these we can also offer joy, hope, healing, and deliverance, and a conviction that life has meaning. Yoder’s reading and deliverance, and a conviction that life has meaning. Yoder’s reading is skewed toward structural aspects of the ordering of human life and is skewed toward structural aspects of the ordering of human life and 46 The Conrad Grebel Review 46 The Conrad Grebel Review inattentive to the spiritual aspects of human bondage and destructiveness. inattentive to the spiritual aspects of human bondage and destructiveness. Witness is grounded in ontological difference, and it would be a service Witness is grounded in ontological difference, and it would be a service to the world and to the church for theology to name that difference. For the to the world and to the church for theology to name that difference. For the practices of the faith to endure and have meaning they need intellectual practices of the faith to endure and have meaning they need intellectual self-consciousness—i.e., they need theology. To trust that this ontological self-consciousness—i.e., they need theology. To trust that this ontological difference can be taught and maintained only by participating in a distinctive difference can be taught and maintained only by participating in a distinctive set of social practices is a fallacy. set of social practices is a fallacy.

The Creative Power of Speech The Creative Power of Speech Yoder is fully aware of the importance and power of language. Speaking Yoder is fully aware of the importance and power of language. Speaking of the Holy Spirit’s work in building up the church, he writes that “The life of the Holy Spirit’s work in building up the church, he writes that “The life blood of that body is language” (Royal Priesthood, 139). However, he goes blood of that body is language” (Royal Priesthood, 139). However, he goes on to say that theologians are like antibodies in the bloodstream! When the on to say that theologians are like antibodies in the bloodstream! When the body is functioning well they have nothing to do, but when it is threatened by body is functioning well they have nothing to do, but when it is threatened by something alien and destructive they go to work. The theologian’s task is to something alien and destructive they go to work. The theologian’s task is to guard against the misuse of words. Yoder has a keen sense that new language guard against the misuse of words. Yoder has a keen sense that new language should be tested: not rejected because it is new or valued because it is old, should be tested: not rejected because it is new or valued because it is old, but tested to see whether it squares with scripture and expresses the faith but tested to see whether it squares with scripture and expresses the faith well in the contemporary context. In “The Hermeneutics of Peoplehood,” he well in the contemporary context. In “The Hermeneutics of Peoplehood,” he describes theologians as “agents of linguistic self-consciousness” (Priestly describes theologians as “agents of linguistic self-consciousness” (Priestly Kingdom, 32). Kingdom, 32). Interestingly, in his discussions of the gifts of Spirit and the very Interestingly, in his discussions of the gifts of Spirit and the very radical Pauline charismatic order he sees as the ideal for the church, Yoder radical Pauline charismatic order he sees as the ideal for the church, Yoder stresses that the role of didaskalos (teacher) is one with which very few stresses that the role of didaskalos (teacher) is one with which very few people should be entrusted. But this emphasis on the guardian role of the people should be entrusted. But this emphasis on the guardian role of the theologian—the person who watches over the flow of language—assumes theologian—the person who watches over the flow of language—assumes there is new language being generated all the time. It assumes there are poets, there is new language being generated all the time. It assumes there are poets, preachers, evangelists, and catechists who are imaginatively naming the in- preachers, evangelists, and catechists who are imaginatively naming the in- breaking reality of the kingdom in ways that convert people and energize breaking reality of the kingdom in ways that convert people and energize the community of faith. Yoder’s kind of moral and theological discernment the community of faith. Yoder’s kind of moral and theological discernment in and of itself cannot create and sustain faith. His focus on deeds as signs in and of itself cannot create and sustain faith. His focus on deeds as signs of the kingdom should not stressed at the expense of an equally necessary of the kingdom should not stressed at the expense of an equally necessary focus on the power of words to evoke new ways of seeing and being. Deeds focus on the power of words to evoke new ways of seeing and being. Deeds (or at least my own) are not so transparent that the world can just look at me (or at least my own) are not so transparent that the world can just look at me and see Jesus. We also need words that name, invite, challenge, and renew and see Jesus. We also need words that name, invite, challenge, and renew faith. Yoder does not help us much with the challenge of developing words faith. Yoder does not help us much with the challenge of developing words Flushing the Confessional Rabbit 47 Flushing the Confessional Rabbit 47 that make faith a possibility. Along with his kind of discernment we need to that make faith a possibility. Along with his kind of discernment we need to name the faith explicitly in evangelism, catechism, and worship. name the faith explicitly in evangelism, catechism, and worship.

A Place for the Heart A Place for the Heart I have suggested that Yoder’s use of the term “doxology” includes and I have suggested that Yoder’s use of the term “doxology” includes and surpasses his use of the term “witness.” Doxology surpasses witness partly surpasses his use of the term “witness.” Doxology surpasses witness partly because it clarifies that the deeds and words by which we confess our because it clarifies that the deeds and words by which we confess our faith must come from the heart, from the depths of the human spirit as it faith must come from the heart, from the depths of the human spirit as it experiences the Spirit of God. I believe Yoder does not adequately address experiences the Spirit of God. I believe Yoder does not adequately address what we might call human subjectivity. He is an ecclesial thinker, and that what we might call human subjectivity. He is an ecclesial thinker, and that is good and needed in our individualistic age. But we are also persons is good and needed in our individualistic age. But we are also persons in community, and for the person to be fully present in the community’s in community, and for the person to be fully present in the community’s praise of God we need a gospel that addresses us in the depths of our being. praise of God we need a gospel that addresses us in the depths of our being. Yoder does not adequately consider how the person hears, experiences, and Yoder does not adequately consider how the person hears, experiences, and appropriates the community’s language of faith. Granted, our witness is appropriates the community’s language of faith. Granted, our witness is social and ecclesial, but for believers to be fully present and engaged in that social and ecclesial, but for believers to be fully present and engaged in that witness they must be converted from the heart. We need what Yoder himself witness they must be converted from the heart. We need what Yoder himself called “heartfelt religion”! called “heartfelt religion”! When we listen to the doxologies of believers, particularly new ones, When we listen to the doxologies of believers, particularly new ones, we do indeed hear them singing “Worthy is the lamb that was slain.” But we do indeed hear them singing “Worthy is the lamb that was slain.” But we don’t hear them continue only with “and has created a new peoplehood we don’t hear them continue only with “and has created a new peoplehood that bears witness to Christ’s victory over the politics of the principalities that bears witness to Christ’s victory over the politics of the principalities and powers.” We also hear them sing to the victory of Christ over bondage and powers.” We also hear them sing to the victory of Christ over bondage to evil spirits, over addiction to drugs and alcohol, over guilt and shame, to evil spirits, over addiction to drugs and alcohol, over guilt and shame, and over a deep sense of meaninglessness. These songs too are signs of the and over a deep sense of meaninglessness. These songs too are signs of the coming kingdom. Yoder, like so many other insightful theologians, is aware coming kingdom. Yoder, like so many other insightful theologians, is aware of the danger of reducing the gospel to its subjective meaning. He rejects the of the danger of reducing the gospel to its subjective meaning. He rejects the widespread notion that religion deals with personal, not public, issues. He widespread notion that religion deals with personal, not public, issues. He is critical of those he calls “the Bultmanns and Grahams” and “the Peales is critical of those he calls “the Bultmanns and Grahams” and “the Peales and Robertses” who focus primarily or only on what the gospel means for and Robertses” who focus primarily or only on what the gospel means for the believing individual. But in doing so he marginalizes the subjective, the believing individual. But in doing so he marginalizes the subjective, experiential dimensions of the gospel in a way that is unnecessary and experiential dimensions of the gospel in a way that is unnecessary and unhelpful.10 He seems to say that the meaning of the gospel is structural and unhelpful.10 He seems to say that the meaning of the gospel is structural and political, and that any personal meaning it has is accidental and secondary. political, and that any personal meaning it has is accidental and secondary. This division is not true to a close reading of the gospels. Jesus announced This division is not true to a close reading of the gospels. Jesus announced 48 The Conrad Grebel Review 48 The Conrad Grebel Review the kingdom not only as a new way of dealing with power and structural the kingdom not only as a new way of dealing with power and structural relationships but as a power that healed and delivered people in bondage to relationships but as a power that healed and delivered people in bondage to deeply personal destructive powers.11 deeply personal destructive powers.11 We need language and theological reflection that names the way We need language and theological reflection that names the way people actually experience the in-breaking reign of God and come to people actually experience the in-breaking reign of God and come to appropriate and inhabit the biblical narrative of redemption through Jesus. If appropriate and inhabit the biblical narrative of redemption through Jesus. If a Yoderian language monitor is watching the discussion, we will not address a Yoderian language monitor is watching the discussion, we will not address this apart from how we learn faith by participating in a community defined this apart from how we learn faith by participating in a community defined by distinctive Christian practices. But the community of faith gains meaning by distinctive Christian practices. But the community of faith gains meaning and authority in people’s lives at least partly because it provides meaningful and authority in people’s lives at least partly because it provides meaningful maps for personal discovery and truthful self-awareness. maps for personal discovery and truthful self-awareness.

Conclusion Conclusion It is a misreading of Yoder to reduce his work to a program of social ethics. It is a misreading of Yoder to reduce his work to a program of social ethics. But the cure to peace and justice reductionism is to read more, not less, Yoder. But the cure to peace and justice reductionism is to read more, not less, Yoder. The structure and meaning of his social ethic is that ethics is an expression The structure and meaning of his social ethic is that ethics is an expression of the victory of God in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus. Having of the victory of God in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus. Having flushed the confessional rabbit out of its socio-ecclesial habitat, we may now flushed the confessional rabbit out of its socio-ecclesial habitat, we may now notice that by their very nature rabbits, especially Anabaptist-Mennonite notice that by their very nature rabbits, especially Anabaptist-Mennonite ones, are rather shy, nervous creatures when thus exposed. Decency requires ones, are rather shy, nervous creatures when thus exposed. Decency requires that we let the rabbit return to where it feels at home – in the set of practices that we let the rabbit return to where it feels at home – in the set of practices and behaviors we call church. and behaviors we call church.

Notes Notes 1 Yoder’s work is best read as having a dual argumentative focus. On the one hand, he is 1 Yoder’s work is best read as having a dual argumentative focus. On the one hand, he is arguing against Niebuhrian social realism and Troeltsch’s description of the “sect” type of arguing against Niebuhrian social realism and Troeltsch’s description of the “sect” type of church which establishment Protestants use to argue that a separatist community seeking to church which establishment Protestants use to argue that a separatist community seeking to consistently live out a Jesus ethic is socially irrelevant. On the other, he is arguing against consistently live out a Jesus ethic is socially irrelevant. On the other, he is arguing against Mennonites who accept this description of their social role. Mennonites who accept this description of their social role. 2 Yoder did not, however, abandon all forms of two-kingdom thinking. Following Karl Barth 2 Yoder did not, however, abandon all forms of two-kingdom thinking. Following Karl Barth he made a critical distinction between those who confess faith or recognize the lordship of he made a critical distinction between those who confess faith or recognize the lordship of Christ and those who do not. He consistently argued that the difference between confession Christ and those who do not. He consistently argued that the difference between confession and non-confession should be a constitutive element of a Christian social ethic. and non-confession should be a constitutive element of a Christian social ethic. 3 The phrase “a watching world” is from the subtitle of Yoder’s Body Politics: Five Practices 3 The phrase “a watching world” is from the subtitle of Yoder’s Body Politics: Five Practices of the Christian Community before the Watching World (Scottdale, PA; Waterloo, ON: Herald of the Christian Community before the Watching World (Scottdale, PA; Waterloo, ON: Herald Press, 2001). Press, 2001). Flushing the Confessional Rabbit 49 Flushing the Confessional Rabbit 49

4 The Theology of Anabaptism (Scottdale, PA: Herald Press, 2002 [1973]). 4 The Theology of Anabaptism (Scottdale, PA: Herald Press, 2002 [1973]). 5 Body Politics passim. Other Yoder references in this section are to his The Royal Priesthood: 5 Body Politics passim. Other Yoder references in this section are to his The Royal Priesthood: Essays Ecclesiological and Ecumenical (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1994) and to For the Essays Ecclesiological and Ecumenical (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1994) and to For the Nations: Essays Evangelical and Public (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1997). Nations: Essays Evangelical and Public (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1997). 6 “Pacifism After Babel: Does It Stretch or Will It Break?” Peter Dula, MA Thesis. Associated 6 “Pacifism After Babel: Does It Stretch or Will It Break?” Peter Dula, MA Thesis. Associated Mennonite Biblical Seminaries, January 1995. See especially 41-59. Mennonite Biblical Seminaries, January 1995. See especially 41-59. 7 For the Nations, 199-220. The specific section on “Not Engineering, but Doxology” is 7 For the Nations, 199-220. The specific section on “Not Engineering, but Doxology” is found on 209-15. found on 209-15. 8 Yoder’s discussion of the church as a hermeneutical community in the context of a Pauline 8 Yoder’s discussion of the church as a hermeneutical community in the context of a Pauline charismatic church order is developed in “The Hermeneutics of Peoplehood” in The Priestly charismatic church order is developed in “The Hermeneutics of Peoplehood” in The Priestly Kingdom: Social Ethics as Gospel (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1984). Kingdom: Social Ethics as Gospel (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1984). See especially 26-34. See especially 26-34. 9 Fortunately, an important set of lectures from one of Yoder’s seminary classes has recently 9 Fortunately, an important set of lectures from one of Yoder’s seminary classes has recently been published. Preface to Theology: Christology and Theological Method (Grand Rapids: been published. Preface to Theology: Christology and Theological Method (Grand Rapids: Brazos Press, 2002) is a sustained patient reading of the church’s theological heritage. It Brazos Press, 2002) is a sustained patient reading of the church’s theological heritage. It clearly shows Yoder is a confessional, theological thinker, not a neo-Kantian or utilitarian clearly shows Yoder is a confessional, theological thinker, not a neo-Kantian or utilitarian interested only in the ethical meaning of faith language. interested only in the ethical meaning of faith language. 10 The Original Revolution: Essays on Christian Pacifism (Scottdale, PA; Kitchener, ON: 10 The Original Revolution: Essays on Christian Pacifism (Scottdale, PA; Kitchener, ON: Herald Press, 1977), 31-32. Herald Press, 1977), 31-32. 11 I have dealt with this issue at length in “The Pastoral Significance of the Anabaptist Vision” 11 I have dealt with this issue at length in “The Pastoral Significance of the Anabaptist Vision” in Refocusing a Vision, (Goshen, IN: Mennonite Historical Society, 1995), 35-50. www. in Refocusing a Vision, (Goshen, IN: Mennonite Historical Society, 1995), 35-50. www. goshen.edu/mhl/Refocusing/DINTAMAN.htm. goshen.edu/mhl/Refocusing/DINTAMAN.htm.

Stephen Dintaman serves with Mennonite Mission Network as Chair of Stephen Dintaman serves with Mennonite Mission Network as Chair of the Theological Department at Lithuania Christian College, Klaipeda, the Theological Department at Lithuania Christian College, Klaipeda, Lithuania. This article is an edited version of a lecture presented at the Lithuania. This article is an edited version of a lecture presented at the International Baptist Theological Seminary in Prague, Czech Republic, in International Baptist Theological Seminary in Prague, Czech Republic, in June 2003. June 2003. John Howard Yoder as Historian John Howard Yoder as Historian

John Howard Yoder’s Contribution John Howard Yoder’s Contribution to Research on Anabaptist History to Research on Anabaptist History

Hanspeter Jecker Hanspeter Jecker

A Brief Overview of Yoder’s Publications on Anabaptist History1 A Brief Overview of Yoder’s Publications on Anabaptist History1 For this presentation I have compiled close to eighty titles of works by John For this presentation I have compiled close to eighty titles of works by John Howard Yoder, either dealing primarily with Anabaptist and Mennonite Howard Yoder, either dealing primarily with Anabaptist and Mennonite history and theology or directly related to this topic.2 My compilation is history and theology or directly related to this topic.2 My compilation is based primarily on Mark Thiessen Nation’s Comprehensive Bibliography of based primarily on Mark Thiessen Nation’s Comprehensive Bibliography of the Writings of John Howard Yoder, 1997, as well as some later additions and the Writings of John Howard Yoder, 1997, as well as some later additions and my own amendments. Below I list approximately sixty titles that I consider my own amendments. Below I list approximately sixty titles that I consider the most important of these works. These titles vary in length from several the most important of these works. These titles vary in length from several pages to entire books—the latter appear in bold italics. Works not listed here pages to entire books—the latter appear in bold italics. Works not listed here are, as a rule, short book reviews. are, as a rule, short book reviews. 1947 “The Swiss Mennonite Churches of Southern Wayne County,” 1947 “The Swiss Mennonite Churches of Southern Wayne County,” essay for Harold Bender’s “Mennonite History” course, Goshen essay for Harold Bender’s “Mennonite History” course, Goshen College College 1949 A series “What Would You Do If…?” published in The Youth’s 1949 A series “What Would You Do If…?” published in The Youth’s Christian Companion under the pseudonym “An Anabaptist” Christian Companion under the pseudonym “An Anabaptist” 1950 Translation and publication of Harold Bender’s “Anabaptist 1950 Translation and publication of Harold Bender’s “Anabaptist Vision” in French (with Marthe Ropp) Vision” in French (with Marthe Ropp) 1955 Several historical articles in Mennonite Encyclopedia, I: Baccarat, 1955 Several historical articles in Mennonite Encyclopedia, I: Baccarat, Bénaville, Bitscherland, Blanc-Rupt, Courgenay (5) [Hereafter Bénaville, Bitscherland, Blanc-Rupt, Courgenay (5) [Hereafter ME] ME] 1955 Publication of “Principes et Doctrines Mennonites,” with Pierre 1955 Publication of “Principes et Doctrines Mennonites,” with Pierre Widmer Widmer 1956 Other articles in ME II: Diesen, France (2) 1956 Other articles in ME II: Diesen, France (2) 1957 “The Prophetic Dissent of the Anabaptists,” in Hershberger, The 1957 “The Prophetic Dissent of the Anabaptists,” in Hershberger, The Recovery of the Anabaptist Vision Recovery of the Anabaptist Vision 1957 First specific book review in the field of Anabaptist History; Roger 1957 First specific book review in the field of Anabaptist History; Roger Ley, Kirchenzucht bei Zwingli Ley, Kirchenzucht bei Zwingli Yoder’s Contribution to Research on Anabaptist History 51 Yoder’s Contribution to Research on Anabaptist History 51

1958 “The Turning Point in the Zwinglian Reformation,” in MQR 32 1958 “The Turning Point in the Zwinglian Reformation,” in MQR 32 (April 1958) (April 1958) 1959 “Balthasar Hubmaier and the Beginnings of Swiss Anabaptism,” 1959 “Balthasar Hubmaier and the Beginnings of Swiss Anabaptism,” in MQR (Jan 1959) in MQR (Jan 1959) 1959 “How to Deal with Anabaptists: An Unpublished Letter of 1959 “How to Deal with Anabaptists: An Unpublished Letter of Heinrich Bullinger,” in MQR 33 (April 1959), with Heinold Fast Heinrich Bullinger,” in MQR 33 (April 1959), with Heinold Fast 1959 Articles in ME IV on Zofingen and Zwingli (2) 1959 Articles in ME IV on Zofingen and Zwingli (2) 1960 Review of Fritz Heyer, Kirchenbegriff der Schwärmer 1960 Review of Fritz Heyer, Kirchenbegriff der Schwärmer 1961 Translation of Verheyden, Anabaptism in Flanders, 1530-1650 1961 Translation of Verheyden, Anabaptism in Flanders, 1530-1650 – A Century of Struggle – A Century of Struggle 1961 Reviews of Siegfried Rother’s Die religiösen und geistlichen 1961 Reviews of Siegfried Rother’s Die religiösen und geistlichen Grundlagen der Politik Huldreych Zwinglis and Heinrich Schmid’s Grundlagen der Politik Huldreych Zwinglis and Heinrich Schmid’s Zwinglis Lehre von der göttlichen und menschlichen Gerechtigkeit Zwinglis Lehre von der göttlichen und menschlichen Gerechtigkeit (2) (2) 1962 Täufertum und Reformation im Gespräch (I) [Now translated: 1962 Täufertum und Reformation im Gespräch (I) [Now translated: Part I of Anabaptism and Reformation in Switzerland (Kitchener, Part I of Anabaptism and Reformation in Switzerland (Kitchener, ON: Pandora Press, 2004)] ON: Pandora Press, 2004)] 1962 “Von Göttlicher und Menschlicher Gerechtigkeit” in Zeitschrift für 1962 “Von Göttlicher und Menschlicher Gerechtigkeit” in Zeitschrift für Evangelische Ethik (Reply to W. Schweizer) Evangelische Ethik (Reply to W. Schweizer) 1967 “The Hermeneutics of the Anabaptists,” MQR 41 (Oct 1967) 1967 “The Hermeneutics of the Anabaptists,” MQR 41 (Oct 1967) 1967 Introduction to the chapters “Anabaptist Origins in Switzerland,” 1967 Introduction to the chapters “Anabaptist Origins in Switzerland,” “Persecution and Consolidation,” and “A Summary of the “Persecution and Consolidation,” and “A Summary of the Anabaptist Vision” in C.J. Dyck, An Introduction to Mennonite Anabaptist Vision” in C.J. Dyck, An Introduction to Mennonite History (also in later editions) (3) History (also in later editions) (3) 1968 Täufertum und Reformation im Gespräch (II) [Now translated: 1968 Täufertum und Reformation im Gespräch (II) [Now translated: Part II of Anabaptism and Reformation in Switzerland (Kitchener, Part II of Anabaptism and Reformation in Switzerland (Kitchener, ON: Pandora Press, 2004)] ON: Pandora Press, 2004)] 1968 Review of Fritz Schäufele, Das missionarische Bewusstsein und 1968 Review of Fritz Schäufele, Das missionarische Bewusstsein und Wirken der Täufer, MQR 42 (Jan 1968) Wirken der Täufer, MQR 42 (Jan 1968) 1969 “The Evolution of the Zwinglian Reformation,” MQR 43 (Jan 1969 “The Evolution of the Zwinglian Reformation,” MQR 43 (Jan 1969) 1969) 1969 “Conflict from the Perspective of Anabaptist History and 1969 “Conflict from the Perspective of Anabaptist History and Theology” (unpublished paper presented at Mennonite Graduate Theology” (unpublished paper presented at Mennonite Graduate Fellowship, Ithaca, NY) Fellowship, Ithaca, NY) 1970 “Anabaptist Vision and Mennonite Reality,” in Klassen, 1970 “Anabaptist Vision and Mennonite Reality,” in Klassen, Consultation on Anabaptist Mennonite Theology (Aspen) Consultation on Anabaptist Mennonite Theology (Aspen) 52 The Conrad Grebel Review 52 The Conrad Grebel Review

1971 “The Recovery of the Anabaptist Vision,” in Concern 18/1971 1971 “The Recovery of the Anabaptist Vision,” in Concern 18/1971 1972 “Der Kristallisationspunkt des Täufertums,” in Mennonitische 1972 “Der Kristallisationspunkt des Täufertums,” in Mennonitische Geschichtsblätter 24/1972 [Hereafter MGBl] Geschichtsblätter 24/1972 [Hereafter MGBl] 1973 The Legacy of Michael Sattler 1973 The Legacy of Michael Sattler 1973 “Briefwechsel über die Bedeutung des Schleitheimer 1973 “Briefwechsel über die Bedeutung des Schleitheimer Bekenntnisses,” in MGB1 30/1973 Bekenntnisses,” in MGB1 30/1973 1974 Review of James Stayer, Anabaptists and the Sword, in Church 1974 Review of James Stayer, Anabaptists and the Sword, in Church History 43 (June 1974) History 43 (June 1974) 1974 “Anabaptists and the Sword Revisited: Systematic Historiography 1974 “Anabaptists and the Sword Revisited: Systematic Historiography and Undogmatic Nonresistants,” in Zeitschrift für and Undogmatic Nonresistants,” in Zeitschrift für Kirchengeschichte 85.2/1974 Kirchengeschichte 85.2/1974 1975 “Foreword” to the new edition of Blanke, Brüder in Christo 1975 “Foreword” to the new edition of Blanke, Brüder in Christo (zum 450-Jahr-Jubiläum, hg. durch den Schweizerischen Verein (zum 450-Jahr-Jubiläum, hg. durch den Schweizerischen Verein für Täufergeschichte, [Zürich 1975]) für Täufergeschichte, [Zürich 1975]) 1975 “Anabaptism and History – Restitution and the Possibility of 1975 “Anabaptism and History – Restitution and the Possibility of Renewal,” in Goertz, Umstrittenes Täufertum Renewal,” in Goertz, Umstrittenes Täufertum 1976 Textos Escogidos de la Reforma Radical (Ed.) 1976 Textos Escogidos de la Reforma Radical (Ed.) 1976 “A la recherché du Bucer de l’histoire,” in Bulletin de la Société 1976 “A la recherché du Bucer de l’histoire,” in Bulletin de la Société de l’Histoire de Protestantisme de l’Histoire de Protestantisme 1977 “The Anabaptists,” in Dowley (Ed.), Eerdmans’ Handbook to the 1977 “The Anabaptists,” in Dowley (Ed.), Eerdmans’ Handbook to the History of Christianity History of Christianity 1977 The Schleitheim Confession (Ed./Translator) Pamphlet 1977 The Schleitheim Confession (Ed./Translator) Pamphlet 1977 “Introduction,” in Lienhard (Ed.), The Origins and Characteristics 1977 “Introduction,” in Lienhard (Ed.), The Origins and Characteristics of Anabaptism of Anabaptism 1977 “Les Frères Suisses,” in Liver (Ed.), Strasbourg au Coeur 1977 “Les Frères Suisses,” in Liver (Ed.), Strasbourg au Coeur Religieux du XVIe siècle Religieux du XVIe siècle 1977 “Martin Luther’s Forgotten Vision,” in The Other Side (April 1977 “Martin Luther’s Forgotten Vision,” in The Other Side (April 1977) 1977) 1978 “Quelques Anabaptistes Notoires,” in Rapp (Ed.), Grandes 1978 “Quelques Anabaptistes Notoires,” in Rapp (Ed.), Grandes Figures de l’Humanisme Alsacien Figures de l’Humanisme Alsacien 1978 “Radical Reformation Ethics in Ecumenical Perspective,” in 1978 “Radical Reformation Ethics in Ecumenical Perspective,” in Journal of Ecumenical Studies Journal of Ecumenical Studies 1978 “‘Spirit’ and the Varieties of Reformation Radicalism,” in Horst 1978 “‘Spirit’ and the Varieties of Reformation Radicalism,” in Horst (Ed.), De Geest in het geding (Ed.), De Geest in het geding Yoder’s Contribution to Research on Anabaptist History 53 Yoder’s Contribution to Research on Anabaptist History 53

1979 “The Enthusiasts and the Reformation,” in Moltmann/Küng (Ed.), 1979 “The Enthusiasts and the Reformation,” in Moltmann/Küng (Ed.), Conflicts About the Holy Spirit (in French: “Les illuminés et la Conflicts About the Holy Spirit (in French: “Les illuminés et la Réforme,” in Concilium 143/1979, 67-74). Réforme,” in Concilium 143/1979, 67-74). 1980 “Introduction: Les origins de l’anabaptisme au sein de la réforme 1980 “Introduction: Les origins de l’anabaptisme au sein de la réforme du XVIe siècle,” in Michiels, Les Anabaptistes des Vosges du XVIe siècle,” in Michiels, Les Anabaptistes des Vosges 1983 “Anabaptists in the Continental Reformation,” in Yoder, Christian 1983 “Anabaptists in the Continental Reformation,” in Yoder, Christian Attitudes to War, Peace and Revolution Attitudes to War, Peace and Revolution 1984 God’s Revolution: The Witness of Eberhard Arnold (Ed./ 1984 God’s Revolution: The Witness of Eberhard Arnold (Ed./ Translator, with Hutterian Society of Brothers) Translator, with Hutterian Society of Brothers) 1984 “The Hermeneutics of the Anabaptists,” in Swartley (Ed.), Essays 1984 “The Hermeneutics of the Anabaptists,” in Swartley (Ed.), Essays on Biblical Interpretation: Anabaptist-Mennonite Perspectives on Biblical Interpretation: Anabaptist-Mennonite Perspectives 1986 “Les troubles aux Pays-Bas dans le miroir strasbourgeois,” in 1986 “Les troubles aux Pays-Bas dans le miroir strasbourgeois,” in Horst (Ed.), The Dutch Dissenters Horst (Ed.), The Dutch Dissenters 1987 Review of McMaster, Land, Piety, Peoplehood: The Establishment 1987 Review of McMaster, Land, Piety, Peoplehood: The Establishment of Mennonite Communities in America, 1683-1790, in Journal of of Mennonite Communities in America, 1683-1790, in Journal of Church and State 29 (Winter 1987) Church and State 29 (Winter 1987) 1988 “The Anabaptist Shape of Liberation,” in Loewen (Ed.), Why I am 1988 “The Anabaptist Shape of Liberation,” in Loewen (Ed.), Why I am a Mennonite: Essays on Mennonite Identity a Mennonite: Essays on Mennonite Identity 1989 Balthasar Hubmaier–Theologian of Anabaptism (Ed./Translator, 1989 Balthasar Hubmaier–Theologian of Anabaptism (Ed./Translator, with Wayne Pipkin) with Wayne Pipkin) 1989 “The Historic Peace Churches: Heirs to the Radical Reformation,” 1989 “The Historic Peace Churches: Heirs to the Radical Reformation,” in Parker/Fraser (Ed.), Peace, War and God’s Justice in Parker/Fraser (Ed.), Peace, War and God’s Justice 1991 Review of Lavater (Ed.), Lebenn nach der Ler Jhesu, in MQR 65 1991 Review of Lavater (Ed.), Lebenn nach der Ler Jhesu, in MQR 65 (July 1991) (July 1991) 1992 “Christologie et dissidence au sein de la réforme zwinglienne,” in 1992 “Christologie et dissidence au sein de la réforme zwinglienne,” in Doré (Ed.), Jésus-Christ aux marges de la réforme Doré (Ed.), Jésus-Christ aux marges de la réforme 1993 “Swiss Anabaptism,” in Dyck, An Introduction to Mennonite 1993 “Swiss Anabaptism,” in Dyck, An Introduction to Mennonite History (3rd Edition) History (3rd Edition) 1995 “Primitivism in the Radical Reformation: Strengths and 1995 “Primitivism in the Radical Reformation: Strengths and Weaknesses,” in: Hughes (Ed.), The Primitive Church in the Weaknesses,” in: Hughes (Ed.), The Primitive Church in the Modern World Modern World 1995 Review of Liechty, Early Anabaptist Spirituality, in Church 1995 Review of Liechty, Early Anabaptist Spirituality, in Church History 64 (March 1995) History 64 (March 1995) 54 The Conrad Grebel Review 54 The Conrad Grebel Review

Observations and Conclusions Observations and Conclusions This list suggests that Yoder’s contributions to Anabaptist and Mennonite This list suggests that Yoder’s contributions to Anabaptist and Mennonite history are concentrated in the late 1950s and around 1975. Both high history are concentrated in the late 1950s and around 1975. Both high points of publication coincide with Yoder’s longer stays in Europe. This points of publication coincide with Yoder’s longer stays in Europe. This chronological concentration of publications would be even more visible if chronological concentration of publications would be even more visible if we were to consider not just the dates of publication but the time of writing. we were to consider not just the dates of publication but the time of writing. During his first stay in Europe Yoder was quite preoccupied with his Basel During his first stay in Europe Yoder was quite preoccupied with his Basel dissertation on the dialogues between Anabaptists and Reformers. This dissertation on the dialogues between Anabaptists and Reformers. This period of his life is usually referred to as the “hidden years,” during which period of his life is usually referred to as the “hidden years,” during which many of his convictions apparently took form.3 many of his convictions apparently took form.3 Yoder’s second extended trip to Europe took place in the mid- Yoder’s second extended trip to Europe took place in the mid- 1970s in the context of, among other things, events celebrating the 450th 1970s in the context of, among other things, events celebrating the 450th anniversary of Anabaptism (1525-1975). These circumstances gave Yoder anniversary of Anabaptism (1525-1975). These circumstances gave Yoder multiple opportunities to speak out on Anabaptist and Mennonite matters. multiple opportunities to speak out on Anabaptist and Mennonite matters. In relation to his well-known essay “Anabaptist Vision and Mennonite In relation to his well-known essay “Anabaptist Vision and Mennonite Reality,”4 one could say that when in Europe Yoder mainly did historical Reality,”4 one could say that when in Europe Yoder mainly did historical work to lay the foundation for his own interpretation of an “Anabaptist work to lay the foundation for his own interpretation of an “Anabaptist Vision,”5 while in North America he was concerned mostly with the conflict Vision,”5 while in North America he was concerned mostly with the conflict between Mennonite reality and the overarching religious and social realities between Mennonite reality and the overarching religious and social realities of his time. of his time. Yoder’s works on Anabaptist history are almost exclusively based on Yoder’s works on Anabaptist history are almost exclusively based on already published printed sources, with relatively few works dealing with already published printed sources, with relatively few works dealing with and elaborating on new historical material. However, bear in mind that some and elaborating on new historical material. However, bear in mind that some of the printed material Yoder used was very old, hardly accessible, and of the printed material Yoder used was very old, hardly accessible, and therefore rarely used. Nevertheless, even in his dissertation, probably his therefore rarely used. Nevertheless, even in his dissertation, probably his most important work on Anabaptism, the bibliography contains no section most important work on Anabaptism, the bibliography contains no section entitled “Unpublished works.” entitled “Unpublished works.” It is striking that Yoder, aside from his dissertation, published so few It is striking that Yoder, aside from his dissertation, published so few extensive, specifically Anabaptist works. Even such rare instances often extensive, specifically Anabaptist works. Even such rare instances often deal with ideas he had already touched upon in the dissertation (which was deal with ideas he had already touched upon in the dissertation (which was actually published relatively late). In this regard can be mentioned “The actually published relatively late). In this regard can be mentioned “The Turning Point in the Zwinglian Reformation” (1958), “Balthasar Hubmaier Turning Point in the Zwinglian Reformation” (1958), “Balthasar Hubmaier and the Beginnings of Swiss Anabaptism” (1959), “The Hermeneutics of the and the Beginnings of Swiss Anabaptism” (1959), “The Hermeneutics of the Anabaptists” (1967/1984), “The Evolution of the Zwinglian Reformation” Anabaptists” (1967/1984), “The Evolution of the Zwinglian Reformation” (1969), “Der Kristallisationspunkt des Täufertums” (1972) with the (1969), “Der Kristallisationspunkt des Täufertums” (1972) with the Yoder’s Contribution to Research on Anabaptist History 55 Yoder’s Contribution to Research on Anabaptist History 55 subsequent correspondence with Klaus Deppermann (1973), and debates subsequent correspondence with Klaus Deppermann (1973), and debates about James Stayer’s Anabaptists and the Sword (1974f). about James Stayer’s Anabaptists and the Sword (1974f). It is also interesting how relatively early this category of works comes It is also interesting how relatively early this category of works comes to an end. Yoder’s subsequent publications dealing with Anabaptist issues to an end. Yoder’s subsequent publications dealing with Anabaptist issues bear a much stronger theological emphasis (insofar as such a distinction bear a much stronger theological emphasis (insofar as such a distinction should or can be made at all). Or perhaps one should address this from should or can be made at all). Or perhaps one should address this from another angle: the audiences and dialogue partners of Yoder’s later work, another angle: the audiences and dialogue partners of Yoder’s later work, increasingly and explicitly, are people both inside and outside a specific increasingly and explicitly, are people both inside and outside a specific Anabaptist-Mennonite tradition who are struggling to be faithful Christians Anabaptist-Mennonite tradition who are struggling to be faithful Christians and a faithful church in the modern world. They were interested primarily in and a faithful church in the modern world. They were interested primarily in these issues, not in the history or theology of Anabaptism. these issues, not in the history or theology of Anabaptism. In light of the content of Yoder’s late-published dissertation, it is In light of the content of Yoder’s late-published dissertation, it is astonishing that contemporary response to it in professional circles remained astonishing that contemporary response to it in professional circles remained relatively modest. In my opinion, Yoder’s work deserves much more attention, relatively modest. In my opinion, Yoder’s work deserves much more attention, even today. There were in fact debates with Robert Walton about Zwingli even today. There were in fact debates with Robert Walton about Zwingli and with Klaus Deppermann about the importance of events at Schleitheim and with Klaus Deppermann about the importance of events at Schleitheim and Strasbourg in the early years of Anabaptism; and with James Stayer (and and Strasbourg in the early years of Anabaptism; and with James Stayer (and Hans-Jürgen Goertz and others) about violence in early Anabaptism, “true Hans-Jürgen Goertz and others) about violence in early Anabaptism, “true Anabaptism,” and “confessional historiography.” However, as far as Yoder’s Anabaptism,” and “confessional historiography.” However, as far as Yoder’s involvement is concerned, all of these discussions were soon ended. involvement is concerned, all of these discussions were soon ended. With the development of “revisionist” studies of Anabaptism, the With the development of “revisionist” studies of Anabaptism, the general interest shifted to other topics and authors. The “Bender school,” general interest shifted to other topics and authors. The “Bender school,” represented primarily by such publications as the Mennonite Quarterly represented primarily by such publications as the Mennonite Quarterly Review and the Mennonite Encyclopedia, was heavily criticized by Review and the Mennonite Encyclopedia, was heavily criticized by revisionist historians.6 It was accused of idealizing the Zürich Anabaptism revisionist historians.6 It was accused of idealizing the Zürich Anabaptism of Grebel and Mantz, which was viewed as the norm and original form of of Grebel and Mantz, which was viewed as the norm and original form of “true Anabaptism.” According to this understanding (of “true Anabaptism”), “true Anabaptism.” According to this understanding (of “true Anabaptism”), whatever from the outset did not fit a free church movement—peaceful, non- whatever from the outset did not fit a free church movement—peaceful, non- violent, separated from the world, ready to suffer, and strongly committed to violent, separated from the world, ready to suffer, and strongly committed to the Bible—was excluded as non-Anabaptist. the Bible—was excluded as non-Anabaptist. Yoder, in spite of his occasional in-house, exceptionally sharp Yoder, in spite of his occasional in-house, exceptionally sharp criticism of Bender—his long-time teacher and mentor—saw his own work criticism of Bender—his long-time teacher and mentor—saw his own work identified with the “Bender school” and carried away with it by the flow identified with the “Bender school” and carried away with it by the flow of debate.7 In part this was not fair, but it was also not entirely unjustified. of debate.7 In part this was not fair, but it was also not entirely unjustified. In my view, Yoder too generally and uncritically considered things to be In my view, Yoder too generally and uncritically considered things to be 56 The Conrad Grebel Review 56 The Conrad Grebel Review implemented in early Swiss Anabaptism that corresponded with his own implemented in early Swiss Anabaptism that corresponded with his own convictions about the core of the Gospel and his contemporary analysis of convictions about the core of the Gospel and his contemporary analysis of the demands of the hour. I have my doubts, and observe in the Anabaptism the demands of the hour. I have my doubts, and observe in the Anabaptism of the time many more shadows (weaknesses, limitations, open questions, of the time many more shadows (weaknesses, limitations, open questions, etc.) next to the striking light (strengths, virtues, definitive answers, etc.). etc.) next to the striking light (strengths, virtues, definitive answers, etc.). Yoder depicted this light impressively, and thus shaped and provided vision Yoder depicted this light impressively, and thus shaped and provided vision to whole generations. However, just like today, the shadows were already to whole generations. However, just like today, the shadows were already there in the sixteenth century. It would help us deal with our own shadows there in the sixteenth century. It would help us deal with our own shadows if we could see that shadows existed and persisted in the past, and how they if we could see that shadows existed and persisted in the past, and how they were, or were not, dealt with. were, or were not, dealt with. Yoder focused almost all his Anabaptist historical work on the Yoder focused almost all his Anabaptist historical work on the beginning years of Anabaptism, predominantly on the Swiss Brethren. With beginning years of Anabaptism, predominantly on the Swiss Brethren. With the start of Anabaptism comes the important main objective, for Yoder, of the start of Anabaptism comes the important main objective, for Yoder, of universal spiritual renewal through rediscovery of a messianic community, universal spiritual renewal through rediscovery of a messianic community, radical following of Jesus, devotion to nonviolence, and willingness radical following of Jesus, devotion to nonviolence, and willingness to suffer. What comes afterwards is for him a fall from the high ideal of to suffer. What comes afterwards is for him a fall from the high ideal of this “Anabaptist Vision” into the narrow-mindedness of a denominational this “Anabaptist Vision” into the narrow-mindedness of a denominational “Mennonite Reality.”8 “Mennonite Reality.”8 It is a pity, from the viewpoint of Anabaptist history, that Yoder did It is a pity, from the viewpoint of Anabaptist history, that Yoder did very minimal historical research on later developments, such as on the later very minimal historical research on later developments, such as on the later Swiss Brethren. First, I think the decline wasn’t so extensive. Some of Swiss Brethren. First, I think the decline wasn’t so extensive. Some of the early Anabaptist concerns that were so important for Yoder continued, the early Anabaptist concerns that were so important for Yoder continued, although often in a slightly modified form. Secondly, in the following years although often in a slightly modified form. Secondly, in the following years the Anabaptists dealt with how a second and third generation could live the Anabaptists dealt with how a second and third generation could live with the need for a complete spiritual renewal. Now, new questions had to with the need for a complete spiritual renewal. Now, new questions had to be answered: how faithfulness could be distinguished from stubbornness be answered: how faithfulness could be distinguished from stubbornness and assimilation, or when compromise deserved to be called laziness. and assimilation, or when compromise deserved to be called laziness. The challenge here was whether and to what extent, from the Anabaptist The challenge here was whether and to what extent, from the Anabaptist standpoint, a life of “second best solutions” could be lived faithfully. Another standpoint, a life of “second best solutions” could be lived faithfully. Another issue was how a life with repeated individual and community failures could issue was how a life with repeated individual and community failures could be lived in a hopeful, satisfying way. How, then, can and should we live be lived in a hopeful, satisfying way. How, then, can and should we live “between the times”? How can we live in the tension between “Anabaptist “between the times”? How can we live in the tension between “Anabaptist Vision” and “Mennonite Reality” (or more generally “human reality”)? All Vision” and “Mennonite Reality” (or more generally “human reality”)? All these questions are still pressing for us today, and I would like to have seen these questions are still pressing for us today, and I would like to have seen more extensive fundamental historical research by Yoder on them.9 more extensive fundamental historical research by Yoder on them.9 Yoder’s Contribution to Research on Anabaptist History 57 Yoder’s Contribution to Research on Anabaptist History 57

Running like a thread through Yoder’s works is a concern to Running like a thread through Yoder’s works is a concern to encourage and motivate people, both inside and outside their congregations encourage and motivate people, both inside and outside their congregations and linguistic areas, to become engaged with Anabaptist history and and linguistic areas, to become engaged with Anabaptist history and theology. Examples include Yoder’s translation and publication of Bender’s theology. Examples include Yoder’s translation and publication of Bender’s “Anabaptist Vision” in French (1950), and his francophone summary of “Anabaptist Vision” in French (1950), and his francophone summary of Anabaptist-Mennonite doctrine (1955). Equally important are his years- Anabaptist-Mennonite doctrine (1955). Equally important are his years- long work with different editions of C.J. Dyck’s Introduction to Mennonite long work with different editions of C.J. Dyck’s Introduction to Mennonite History (1967f) and his numerous editions and translations of various History (1967f) and his numerous editions and translations of various sources of Anabaptist history into English, French, and Spanish. Extremely sources of Anabaptist history into English, French, and Spanish. Extremely important and impossible to overestimate is the influence of Yoder’s important and impossible to overestimate is the influence of Yoder’s decades of teaching at different theological schools, the significant number decades of teaching at different theological schools, the significant number of lectures he gave, including many multiple-day Bible courses in local of lectures he gave, including many multiple-day Bible courses in local congregations, and numerous articles in church publications. Anabaptist congregations, and numerous articles in church publications. Anabaptist historical aspects were always either the central theme or incorporated historical aspects were always either the central theme or incorporated into these presentations. It is noteworthy that Yoder often gave significant into these presentations. It is noteworthy that Yoder often gave significant stimulus and encouragement to establishing Anabaptist historical societies, stimulus and encouragement to establishing Anabaptist historical societies, such as the Swiss Society for Anabaptist History in 1973. such as the Swiss Society for Anabaptist History in 1973. With the last title on my personal list of Yoder’s works (the review With the last title on my personal list of Yoder’s works (the review of Early Anabaptist Spirituality by Liechty), Yoder brought up a topic that of Early Anabaptist Spirituality by Liechty), Yoder brought up a topic that was then on everyone’s mind, spirituality. It would be very interesting to was then on everyone’s mind, spirituality. It would be very interesting to know more about the subject from him—if possible with reference to early know more about the subject from him—if possible with reference to early Anabaptist history. All the more so, since he has been accused of creating the Anabaptist history. All the more so, since he has been accused of creating the conditions for the loss of spirituality and personal faith within Mennonite conditions for the loss of spirituality and personal faith within Mennonite communities because of the direction of his research.10 communities because of the direction of his research.10 Yoder’s own historical and theological work was always closely Yoder’s own historical and theological work was always closely related to the places where he resided and the people with whom he felt related to the places where he resided and the people with whom he felt connected. This is illustrated even in the first title in my list, a church history connected. This is illustrated even in the first title in my list, a church history paper on “The Swiss Mennonite Churches of Southern Wayne County.” paper on “The Swiss Mennonite Churches of Southern Wayne County.” Long after Yoder left Europe, he could often be found in different churches Long after Yoder left Europe, he could often be found in different churches and conferences, teaching very specific topics. There we came to see some and conferences, teaching very specific topics. There we came to see some of his “love of Jesus and his congregation” that every now and then came of his “love of Jesus and his congregation” that every now and then came through in a stiff, emotionless way, but nevertheless was genuine and had through in a stiff, emotionless way, but nevertheless was genuine and had a longlasting impact. Many experienced their first formative encounters a longlasting impact. Many experienced their first formative encounters with him in such contexts. For them it meant the beginning of a path on with him in such contexts. For them it meant the beginning of a path on which Yoder for decades played the inspiring, motivating role of teaching which Yoder for decades played the inspiring, motivating role of teaching companion. companion. 58 The Conrad Grebel Review 58 The Conrad Grebel Review

Notes Notes

1 This article was published in Hanspeter Jecker, ed., Jesus folgen in einer pluralistischen Welt. 1 This article was published in Hanspeter Jecker, ed., Jesus folgen in einer pluralistischen Welt. Impulse aus der Arbeit John Howard Yoder (Weisenheim, 2001), 157-66. It was presented Impulse aus der Arbeit John Howard Yoder (Weisenheim, 2001), 157-66. It was presented first at a symposium held at the Bienenberg Theological Seminary, Liestal, Switzerland on first at a symposium held at the Bienenberg Theological Seminary, Liestal, Switzerland on September 10, 2000, as a short informal report, an addendum to Mark Thiessen Nation’s September 10, 2000, as a short informal report, an addendum to Mark Thiessen Nation’s bibliographical abstract. It has been slightly revised. On Yoder’s engagement with Anabaptist bibliographical abstract. It has been slightly revised. On Yoder’s engagement with Anabaptist history, refer to the second chapter in Thiessen Nation’s dissertation, “The Ecumenical history, refer to the second chapter in Thiessen Nation’s dissertation, “The Ecumenical Patience and Vocation of John Howard Yoder: A Study in Theological Ethics,” Fuller Patience and Vocation of John Howard Yoder: A Study in Theological Ethics,” Fuller Theological Seminary, Pasadena, CA, 2000. Theological Seminary, Pasadena, CA, 2000. 2 Mark Thiessen Nation, A Comprehensive Bibliography of the Writings of John Howard 2 Mark Thiessen Nation, A Comprehensive Bibliography of the Writings of John Howard Yoder (Goshen, IN: Mennonite Historical Society, 1997). Cf. the more detailed data on the Yoder (Goshen, IN: Mennonite Historical Society, 1997). Cf. the more detailed data on the separate works, which I mention here only if the work does not appear in Thiessen Nation. separate works, which I mention here only if the work does not appear in Thiessen Nation. 3 See also Stanley Hauerwas in The Wisdom of the Cross: Essays in Honor of John Howard 3 See also Stanley Hauerwas in The Wisdom of the Cross: Essays in Honor of John Howard Yoder (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1999), 397f. James Reimer also reports the formation Yoder (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1999), 397f. James Reimer also reports the formation of important steadfast convictions with longlasting impact in this busy time of Yoder’s life. of important steadfast convictions with longlasting impact in this busy time of Yoder’s life. However, he expresses himself much more critically: “Here was a man who seemed never to However, he expresses himself much more critically: “Here was a man who seemed never to have changed his mind.” CGR 16.2 (1998): 6. have changed his mind.” CGR 16.2 (1998): 6. 4 John Howard Yoder, “Anabaptist Vision and Mennonite Reality,” in J.J. Klassen (Ed.), 4 John Howard Yoder, “Anabaptist Vision and Mennonite Reality,” in J.J. Klassen (Ed.), Consultation on Anabaptist-Mennonite Theology: Papers Read at the 1969 Aspen Conference Consultation on Anabaptist-Mennonite Theology: Papers Read at the 1969 Aspen Conference (Fresno, CA: Council of Mennonite Seminaries, 1970), 1-46. (Fresno, CA: Council of Mennonite Seminaries, 1970), 1-46. 5 This does not contradict the fact that from the 1950s Yoder had actively worked at ecumenical 5 This does not contradict the fact that from the 1950s Yoder had actively worked at ecumenical dialogue, including his time in Europe. dialogue, including his time in Europe. 6 See a short historiographical survey in Hanspeter Jecker, Ketzer-Rebellen-Heilige. Das 6 See a short historiographical survey in Hanspeter Jecker, Ketzer-Rebellen-Heilige. Das Basler Täufertum von 1580-1700 (Basel, 1998), 20ff. Basler Täufertum von 1580-1700 (Basel, 1998), 20ff. 7 Compare the comprehensive bibliography by Albert N. Keim, Harold S. Bender 1897-1962 7 Compare the comprehensive bibliography by Albert N. Keim, Harold S. Bender 1897-1962 (Scottdale, PA; Waterloo, ON: Herald Press, 1998). (Scottdale, PA; Waterloo, ON: Herald Press, 1998). 8 Compare to Concern 18/1971, 22ff. 8 Compare to Concern 18/1971, 22ff. 9 Compare with John D. Roth, “Living Between the Times: ‘The Anabaptist Vision and 9 Compare with John D. Roth, “Living Between the Times: ‘The Anabaptist Vision and Mennonite Reality’ Revisited,” in MQR 69 (July 1995): 323-35. Mennonite Reality’ Revisited,” in MQR 69 (July 1995): 323-35. 10 E.g., Stephen Dintaman, “The Spiritual Poverty of the Anabaptist Vision” in CGR 10 10 E.g., Stephen Dintaman, “The Spiritual Poverty of the Anabaptist Vision” in CGR 10 (Spring 1992): 205-08, or “The Pastoral Significance of the Anabaptist Vision” in MQR 69 (Spring 1992): 205-08, or “The Pastoral Significance of the Anabaptist Vision” in MQR 69 (July 1995): 307-22. (July 1995): 307-22.

Hanspeter Jecker is professor of Church History at the Bienenberg Hanspeter Jecker is professor of Church History at the Bienenberg Theological Seminary, Liestal, Switzerland. This article was translated by Theological Seminary, Liestal, Switzerland. This article was translated by Nikolai Penner. Nikolai Penner. Notes Notes John Howard Yoder as Historian John Howard Yoder as Historian

1 This article was published in Hanspeter Jecker, ed., Jesus folgen in einer pluralistischen Welt. 1 This article was published in Hanspeter Jecker, ed., Jesus folgen in einer pluralistischen Welt. Impulse aus der Arbeit John Howard Yoder (Weisenheim, 2001), 157-66. It was presented ImpulseWalking aus der Arbeit With John Yoder Howard Toward Yoder (Weisenheim, a Theological 2001), 157-66. Approach It was presented Walking With Yoder Toward a Theological Approach first at a symposium held at the Bienenberg Theological Seminary, Liestal, Switzerland on first at ato symposium the Automobile held at the Bienenberg from aTheological Mennonite Seminary, Perspective Liestal, Switzerland on to the Automobile from a Mennonite Perspective September 10, 2000, as a short informal report, an addendum to Mark Thiessen Nation’s September 10, 2000, as a short informal report, an addendum to Mark Thiessen Nation’s bibliographical abstract. It has been slightly revised. On Yoder’s engagement with Anabaptist bibliographical abstract. It has been slightly revised. On Yoder’s engagement with Anabaptist history, refer to the second chapter in Thiessen Nation’s dissertation, “The Ecumenical history, refer to the second chapterPaul in C. Thiessen Heidebrecht Nation’s dissertation, “The Ecumenical Paul C. Heidebrecht Patience and Vocation of John Howard Yoder: A Study in Theological Ethics,” Fuller Patience and Vocation of John Howard Yoder: A Study in Theological Ethics,” Fuller Theological Seminary, Pasadena, CA, 2000. Theological Seminary, Pasadena, CA, 2000. 2 2 Mark Thiessen Nation, A Comprehensive Bibliography of the Writings of John Howard For Mark many, Thiessen the word Nation, “Mennonite” A Comprehensive is synonymous Bibliography with of the “Old Writings Order of Mennonite”John Howard For many, the word “Mennonite” is synonymous with “Old Order Mennonite” Yoder (Goshen, IN: Mennonite Historical Society, 1997). Cf. the more detailed data on the Yoder (Goshen, IN: Mennonite Historical Society, 1997). Cf. the more detailed data on the separate works, which I mention here only if the work does not appear in Thiessen Nation. separateor “Amish.” works, It which connotes I mention a group here only of people if the work who does maintain not appear a uniquein Thiessen religiosity Nation. or “Amish.” It connotes a group of people who maintain a unique religiosity 3 See also Stanley Hauerwas in The Wisdom of the Cross: Essays in Honor of John Howard 3and See lifestyle,also Stanley most Hauerwas notable in The for Wisdom their of plain the Cross: dress Essays and in rejection Honor of John of modern Howard and lifestyle, most notable for their plain dress and rejection of modern Yoder (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1999), 397f. James Reimer also reports the formation Yoderconveniences; (Grand Rapids, at the MI: very Eerdmans, least, 1999), it might 397f. bring James to Reimer mind also a postcard reports the image formation of conveniences; at the very least, it might bring to mind a postcard image of of important steadfast convictions with longlasting impact in this busy time of Yoder’s life. ofa horseimportant and steadfast buggy. convictions In light of with this longlasting popular impactperception, in this busy it is time ironic of Yoder’s that most life. a horse and buggy. In light of this popular perception, it is ironic that most However, he expresses himself much more critically: “Here was a man who seemed never to However,members he of expresses Mennonite himself churches much more in critically: North America “Here was area man not who distinguishable seemed never to members of Mennonite churches in North America are not distinguishable have changed his mind.” CGR 16.2 (1998): 6. have changed his mind.” CGR 16.2 (1998): 6. 4 John Howard Yoder, “Anabaptist Vision and Mennonite Reality,” in J.J. Klassen (Ed.), 4from John mainstream Howard Yoder, society “Anabaptist merely Vision on the and basis Mennonite of the Reality,” technologies in J.J. Klassenthey utilize. (Ed.), from mainstream society merely on the basis of the technologies they utilize. Consultation on Anabaptist-Mennonite Theology: Papers Read at the 1969 Aspen Conference DespiteConsultation having on Anabaptist their own-Mennonite counter-cultural Theology: Papers legacy, Read perhaps at the 1969 best Aspen exemplified Conference Despite having their own counter-cultural legacy, perhaps best exemplified (Fresno, CA: Council of Mennonite Seminaries, 1970), 1-46. (Fresno,in their CA: pacifist Council of witness, Mennonite so-calledSeminaries, 1970), “modern” 1-46. Mennonite theological and in their pacifist witness, so-called “modern” Mennonite theological and 5 5 This does not contradict the fact that from the 1950s Yoder had actively worked at ecumenical ethical This does reflections not contradict havethe fact not that directlyfrom the 1950saddressed Yoder had the actively topic worked of technology. at ecumenical In ethical reflections have not directly addressed the topic of technology. In dialogue, including his time in Europe. dialogue, including his time in Europe. 6 See a short historiographical survey in Hanspeter Jecker, Ketzer-Rebellen-Heilige. Das 6my See view, a short it would historiographical be a mistake survey to in conclude Hanspeter that Jecker, this Ketzer lack -ofRebellen reflection-Heilige. means Das my view, it would be a mistake to conclude that this lack of reflection means Basler Täufertum von 1580-1700 (Basel, 1998), 20ff. thatBasler technology Täufertum von is 1580not of-1700 significance (Basel, 1998), for 20ff. the religious values of these same that technology is not of significance for the religious values of these same 7 Compare the comprehensive bibliography by Albert N. Keim, Harold S. Bender 1897-1962 7Mennonites. Compare the comprehensive bibliography by Albert N. Keim, Harold S. Bender 1897-1962 Mennonites. (Scottdale, PA; Waterloo, ON: Herald Press, 1998). (Scottdale,There PA; areWaterloo, a few ON: obvious Herald places Press, 1998). to look in order to begin to address this There are a few obvious places to look in order to begin to address this 8 8 Compare to Concern 18/1971, 22ff. gap Compare in Mennonite to Concern theological 18/1971, 22ff. discourse. For example, the word “technology” gap in Mennonite theological discourse. For example, the word “technology” 9 Compare with John D. Roth, “Living Between the Times: ‘The Anabaptist Vision and 9 Compare with John D. Roth, “Living Between the Times: ‘The Anabaptist Vision and Mennonite Reality’ Revisited,” in MQR 69 (July 1995): 323-35. Mennoniteis sprinkled Reality’ throughout Revisited,” a numberin MQR 69 of (July essays 1995): by 323-35. A. James Reimer as a result is sprinkled throughout a number of essays by A. James Reimer as a result 10 E.g., Stephen Dintaman, “The Spiritual Poverty of the Anabaptist Vision” in CGR 10 10of E.g., his Stephen interaction Dintaman, with “The philosophers Spiritual Poverty such as of the Hans Anabaptist Jonas Vision”and (especially) in CGR 10 of his interaction with philosophers such as Hans Jonas and (especially) (Spring 1992): 205-08, or “The Pastoral Significance of the Anabaptist Vision” in MQR 69 (SpringGeorge 1992): Grant. 205-08,1 Like or Grant, “The Pastoral however, Significance for Reimer of the the Anabaptist topic of Vision” technology in MQR 69is George Grant.1 Like Grant, however, for Reimer the topic of technology is (July 1995): 307-22. (Julyonly 1995):raised 307-22. as a symptom of an underlying intellectual problem; furthermore, only raised as a symptom of an underlying intellectual problem; furthermore, he is convinced that the theological resources necessary to address it are he is convinced that the theological resources necessary to address it are found outside the Mennonite tradition. Gordon D. Kaufman’s approach to found outside the Mennonite tradition. Gordon D. Kaufman’s approach to theology is clearly motivated by his concern over our capacity to destroy theology is clearly motivated by his concern over our capacity to destroy life on earth, a capacity made possible by recent weapons technology and life on earth, a capacity made possible by recent weapons technology and Hanspeter Jecker is professor of Church History at the Bienenberg Hanspeterwidespread Jecker industrialization. is professor2 For of Kaufman, Church the History solution at the to this Bienenberg problem widespread industrialization.2 For Kaufman, the solution to this problem Theological Seminary, Liestal, Switzerland. This article was translated by Theologicalis not found Seminary,in either theLiestal, Mennonite Switzerland. tradition This or article the return was totranslated a classical by is not found in either the Mennonite tradition or the return to a classical Nikolai Penner. Nikolaiworldview, Penner. but in the radical reconstruction of our understanding of God in worldview, but in the radical reconstruction of our understanding of God in light of our contemporary situation. light of our contemporary situation. 60 The Conrad Grebel Review 60 The Conrad Grebel Review

A final example of a possible starting place to address this gap for A final example of a possible starting place to address this gap for Mennonites is found in the recently published proceedings of a conference Mennonites is found in the recently published proceedings of a conference on the pressing topic of biotechnology. Held at Eastern Mennonite University on the pressing topic of biotechnology. Held at Eastern Mennonite University in the fall of 2003, this event included contributions from theologians such in the fall of 2003, this event included contributions from theologians such as Stanley Hauerwas, Joseph J. Kotva, and James C. Peterson in addition as Stanley Hauerwas, Joseph J. Kotva, and James C. Peterson in addition to contributions from scientists, nurses, doctors, and philosophers.3 While to contributions from scientists, nurses, doctors, and philosophers.3 While all the participants attempted to relate their reflections to the Anabaptist- all the participants attempted to relate their reflections to the Anabaptist- Mennonite tradition, the diversity of their perspectives confirms that much Mennonite tradition, the diversity of their perspectives confirms that much more work must be done to understand the implications of this tradition more work must be done to understand the implications of this tradition for the topic of technology. Nonetheless, it is a promising sign that these for the topic of technology. Nonetheless, it is a promising sign that these participants recognized their religious values had something to say about participants recognized their religious values had something to say about biotechnology.4 biotechnology.4 This essay seeks to demonstrate that the work of one of the most This essay seeks to demonstrate that the work of one of the most significant twentieth-century Mennonite theologians, John Howard significant twentieth-century Mennonite theologians, John Howard Yoder (1927-1997), is suggestive of a distinctive theological approach to Yoder (1927-1997), is suggestive of a distinctive theological approach to technology. I am not arguing that Yoder’s theology is the only way forward; technology. I am not arguing that Yoder’s theology is the only way forward; rather, I intend to show that resources available in the Mennonite tradition rather, I intend to show that resources available in the Mennonite tradition can be used to practice thinking theologically about technology. can be used to practice thinking theologically about technology.

Relating Yoder’s Theological Stance to Technology in General Relating Yoder’s Theological Stance to Technology in General Many have pointed out the fundamental coherence of the wide-ranging work Many have pointed out the fundamental coherence of the wide-ranging work of John Howard Yoder.5 One would suspect that someone whose thinking was of John Howard Yoder.5 One would suspect that someone whose thinking was so rigorous and consistent would have attempted a more systematic project, so rigorous and consistent would have attempted a more systematic project, but Yoder repeatedly disavowed “starting from scratch.” He concluded but Yoder repeatedly disavowed “starting from scratch.” He concluded his only book dedicated to formal theology with an explanation of why he his only book dedicated to formal theology with an explanation of why he avoided the issues normally dealt with in the prolegomena of systematic avoided the issues normally dealt with in the prolegomena of systematic theologies: “we do not begin with the fiction of starting from scratch with a theologies: “we do not begin with the fiction of starting from scratch with a blank mind that needs to be convinced. There are no blank minds.”6 And he blank mind that needs to be convinced. There are no blank minds.”6 And he introduced his last collection of essays with a similar comment: “One reason introduced his last collection of essays with a similar comment: “One reason I do not start from scratch to do a book on just one subject is that there is no I do not start from scratch to do a book on just one subject is that there is no scratch from which to start. Every theme is already awash in debate.”7 Yoder scratch from which to start. Every theme is already awash in debate.”7 Yoder rejected the foundationalist assumption so common in modern scholarship— rejected the foundationalist assumption so common in modern scholarship— that all knowledge should be built upon universally accepted categories of that all knowledge should be built upon universally accepted categories of reason and experience; he argued that there was no neutral or non-particular reason and experience; he argued that there was no neutral or non-particular place from which to begin. place from which to begin. Walking With Yoder . . . to the Automobile 61 Walking With Yoder . . . to the Automobile 61

Yet to call Yoder “anti-foundationalist” would be misleading. Indeed, Yet to call Yoder “anti-foundationalist” would be misleading. Indeed, he was skeptical not just of foundationalist methodology but of what he he was skeptical not just of foundationalist methodology but of what he called “methodologism”—all attempts to uncover the “first principles” called “methodologism”—all attempts to uncover the “first principles” that supposedly lie “before” or “beneath” a discussion.8 What then was his that supposedly lie “before” or “beneath” a discussion.8 What then was his alternative? The conclusion to Preface to Theology is instructive: “We have alternative? The conclusion to Preface to Theology is instructive: “We have not found that we needed for our purposes to set up any particular rules about not found that we needed for our purposes to set up any particular rules about logic. We just went ahead with the discussion in the community in which we logic. We just went ahead with the discussion in the community in which we found ourselves.”9 For Yoder this community was the church. His approach found ourselves.”9 For Yoder this community was the church. His approach to theology wasn’t bound together by a philosophy or methodology but by to theology wasn’t bound together by a philosophy or methodology but by his commitment to the church—to persons of every tribe and tongue, people his commitment to the church—to persons of every tribe and tongue, people and nation, who confess that Jesus is Lord. and nation, who confess that Jesus is Lord. Yoder’s writing was clearly consistent with his attitude toward Yoder’s writing was clearly consistent with his attitude toward methodology. Rather than constructing a timeless systematic theology, methodology. Rather than constructing a timeless systematic theology, Yoder assembled (or allowed others to assemble) anthologies, collections Yoder assembled (or allowed others to assemble) anthologies, collections of essays organized around particular themes.10 For him, like his sixteenth- of essays organized around particular themes.10 For him, like his sixteenth- century Anabaptist forebears, system building was “a rare privilege.” He century Anabaptist forebears, system building was “a rare privilege.” He argued that a theologian is “always ‘on the way’ because his or her first argued that a theologian is “always ‘on the way’ because his or her first duty is always to a present crisis of disobedience or opportunity.”11 He was duty is always to a present crisis of disobedience or opportunity.”11 He was certain that whatever overall coherence could be found in his work had less certain that whatever overall coherence could be found in his work had less to do with his own intellectual might than to the working of God’s spirit to do with his own intellectual might than to the working of God’s spirit through the various communities that had commissioned it. through the various communities that had commissioned it. Yoder’s corpus provides numerous examples of how his theological Yoder’s corpus provides numerous examples of how his theological “stance”12 could be applied by churches in specific cases. Indeed, he proposed “stance”12 could be applied by churches in specific cases. Indeed, he proposed that Christians accept a plurality of approaches, a general grammar of faith, that Christians accept a plurality of approaches, a general grammar of faith, rather than restricting themselves to one approach or another: “there is no rather than restricting themselves to one approach or another: “there is no obligation to reason in the same way on all subjects.… Instead of making obligation to reason in the same way on all subjects.… Instead of making the case for the priority of one style, what I have argued is thus that all of the case for the priority of one style, what I have argued is thus that all of them are needed, precisely because none of them may be dominant.”13 This them are needed, precisely because none of them may be dominant.”13 This stance has much in common with the biblical narrative and its “multiplicity stance has much in common with the biblical narrative and its “multiplicity of styles,” a “mixing and matching” of praise, prophecy, and blame rather of styles,” a “mixing and matching” of praise, prophecy, and blame rather than concern for one proper mode of discourse.14 However, while Yoder may than concern for one proper mode of discourse.14 However, while Yoder may have resisted the search for absolutes and the urge to systematize, he was not have resisted the search for absolutes and the urge to systematize, he was not resigned to relativism. Instead, his theology was characterized by patience; resigned to relativism. Instead, his theology was characterized by patience; he continued to advocate radical discipleship while recognizing that he could he continued to advocate radical discipleship while recognizing that he could never offer a final reading: “The key to the obedience of God’s people” as never offer a final reading: “The key to the obedience of God’s people” as 62 The Conrad Grebel Review 62 The Conrad Grebel Review one of his best known quotations puts it, “is not their effectiveness but their one of his best known quotations puts it, “is not their effectiveness but their patience.”15 One indication of his appreciation of this value was found in patience.”15 One indication of his appreciation of this value was found in his commitment to ecumenical conversation, a conversation that not only his commitment to ecumenical conversation, a conversation that not only showed respect for those who disagreed but remained vulnerable to their showed respect for those who disagreed but remained vulnerable to their insights. insights. The ongoing challenge for those interpreting and evaluating Yoder’s The ongoing challenge for those interpreting and evaluating Yoder’s work is to find ways to apply his thought to new contexts. What does his work is to find ways to apply his thought to new contexts. What does his stance suggest for the particular concerns of the church that he did not stance suggest for the particular concerns of the church that he did not address? In my view, given that we live in an age increasingly defined by the address? In my view, given that we live in an age increasingly defined by the opportunities and challenges of technology, those working in the tradition of opportunities and challenges of technology, those working in the tradition of Yoder need to practice thinking theologically about technology.16 I am not Yoder need to practice thinking theologically about technology.16 I am not under the illusion that a full-blown theology of technology can be mined under the illusion that a full-blown theology of technology can be mined from Yoder’s work or that he would have, or could have, provided answers from Yoder’s work or that he would have, or could have, provided answers before he was asked a question about technology. Nonetheless, by looking to before he was asked a question about technology. Nonetheless, by looking to Jacques Ellul, the well-known French sociologist and lay theologian, I think Jacques Ellul, the well-known French sociologist and lay theologian, I think we find one suggestion for how we might proceed to develop a theological we find one suggestion for how we might proceed to develop a theological approach to technology in general that is faithful to Yoder’s thought. approach to technology in general that is faithful to Yoder’s thought. Known principally for his critique of technological systems and Known principally for his critique of technological systems and ways of thinking,17 Ellul shares Yoder’s rejection of traditional disciplinary ways of thinking,17 Ellul shares Yoder’s rejection of traditional disciplinary boundaries and efforts to construct comprehensive systems of thought. The boundaries and efforts to construct comprehensive systems of thought. The most important connection, however, is their appropriation of the biblical most important connection, however, is their appropriation of the biblical concept of the “principalities and powers,” a connection pointed to by Yoder concept of the “principalities and powers,” a connection pointed to by Yoder himself18 and later highlighted by Marva Dawn.19 Both Ellul and Yoder himself18 and later highlighted by Marva Dawn.19 Both Ellul and Yoder reject modern attempts to demythologize the biblical worldview, choosing reject modern attempts to demythologize the biblical worldview, choosing instead to try to demythologize the contemporary world in order to expose instead to try to demythologize the contemporary world in order to expose the fallacy of modern myths that have too often gone unquestioned. It is the fallacy of modern myths that have too often gone unquestioned. It is thus not surprising that both would choose to embrace the principalities and thus not surprising that both would choose to embrace the principalities and powers language from the Pauline literature,20 language often explained powers language from the Pauline literature,20 language often explained away as part of an antiquated worldview. The reality of the powers and away as part of an antiquated worldview. The reality of the powers and Christ’s lordship over them is “the true situation of the world,” to use Ellul’s Christ’s lordship over them is “the true situation of the world,” to use Ellul’s words,21 or a “declaration of the nature of the cosmos,” to use Yoder’s.22 words,21 or a “declaration of the nature of the cosmos,” to use Yoder’s.22 Yoder’s fullest discussion of the powers is found in chapter eight Yoder’s fullest discussion of the powers is found in chapter eight (“Christ and Power”) of The Politics of Jesus. There he reviews the various (“Christ and Power”) of The Politics of Jesus. There he reviews the various ways “structure” is used in contemporary discourse, suggesting that this ways “structure” is used in contemporary discourse, suggesting that this provides an analogy to the biblical concept of the powers. “Structure” can provides an analogy to the biblical concept of the powers. “Structure” can Walking With Yoder . . . to the Automobile 63 Walking With Yoder . . . to the Automobile 63 refer to a physical artifact such as, for example, a bridge, but it also points refer to a physical artifact such as, for example, a bridge, but it also points to “the patterns or regularities that transcend or precede or condition the to “the patterns or regularities that transcend or precede or condition the individual phenomena we can immediately perceive.”23 “Structure” reminds individual phenomena we can immediately perceive.”23 “Structure” reminds us that a bridge is more than the sum of the cables and girders used to build us that a bridge is more than the sum of the cables and girders used to build it. In the same way the biblical concept of the powers enables us to perceive it. In the same way the biblical concept of the powers enables us to perceive this “more than the sum of” factor that, despite its profound significance, this “more than the sum of” factor that, despite its profound significance, has often remained nameless. has often remained nameless. Yoder contends that these powers were created by God and remain Yoder contends that these powers were created by God and remain under God’s sovereignty even though they have fallen. Indeed, society under God’s sovereignty even though they have fallen. Indeed, society would not be possible without order and structure, and so we “cannot live would not be possible without order and structure, and so we “cannot live without them.”24 Thus Yoder stresses the positive role of the powers in without them.”24 Thus Yoder stresses the positive role of the powers in human existence, valuing the order and regularity that they enable as part human existence, valuing the order and regularity that they enable as part of God’s good creation. Even in their fallen state they perform necessary of God’s good creation. Even in their fallen state they perform necessary functions; Yoder goes so far as to say that “tyranny is still better than chaos.”25 functions; Yoder goes so far as to say that “tyranny is still better than chaos.”25 However, he also stresses that instead of enabling freedom and love, these However, he also stresses that instead of enabling freedom and love, these powers have demanded our loyalty and enslaved us, so that we “cannot powers have demanded our loyalty and enslaved us, so that we “cannot live with them.”26 Bridges make travel easier, but they also favor particular live with them.”26 Bridges make travel easier, but they also favor particular modes of transportation and particular destinations over others. Yoder does modes of transportation and particular destinations over others. Yoder does not go any further in discussing the manifestations of these powers; instead not go any further in discussing the manifestations of these powers; instead he points to the social analysis of Jacques Ellul as an example of someone he points to the social analysis of Jacques Ellul as an example of someone who “thinks the most consistently within the framework of this approach.”27 who “thinks the most consistently within the framework of this approach.”27 This endorsement suggests that Yoder’s discussion of how the powers This endorsement suggests that Yoder’s discussion of how the powers are overcome will offer a suggestion for how the church should approach are overcome will offer a suggestion for how the church should approach particular manifestations of the powers that Ellul grapples with, particularly particular manifestations of the powers that Ellul grapples with, particularly technological systems and ways of thinking. technological systems and ways of thinking. Like Ellul, Yoder doesn’t believe that humans (or God) can simply Like Ellul, Yoder doesn’t believe that humans (or God) can simply get rid of the powers; after all, our subordination to them is what makes us get rid of the powers; after all, our subordination to them is what makes us human: human: If then God is going to save his creatures in their humanity, If then God is going to save his creatures in their humanity, the Powers cannot simply be destroyed or set aside or ignored. the Powers cannot simply be destroyed or set aside or ignored. Their sovereignty must be broken. This is what Jesus did, Their sovereignty must be broken. This is what Jesus did, concretely and historically, by living a genuinely free and concretely and historically, by living a genuinely free and human existence.28 human existence.28 Jesus, like all people, was subject to the powers, but he refused “to support Jesus, like all people, was subject to the powers, but he refused “to support them in their self-glorification” and thus refused the temptation of idolatry. them in their self-glorification” and thus refused the temptation of idolatry. 64 The Conrad Grebel Review 64 The Conrad Grebel Review

His willingness to give up his life to the powers manifest in the Roman His willingness to give up his life to the powers manifest in the Roman government and Jewish religious elite is a sign of this refusal: “Not even to government and Jewish religious elite is a sign of this refusal: “Not even to save his own life [would] he let himself be made a slave of these Powers.”29 save his own life [would] he let himself be made a slave of these Powers.”29 Jesus’ death was a victory over the powers, disarming and making a public Jesus’ death was a victory over the powers, disarming and making a public example of them by revealing their true nature. It is this victory that the example of them by revealing their true nature. It is this victory that the church proclaims by confessing that Jesus Christ is Lord. In Ellul’s words, church proclaims by confessing that Jesus Christ is Lord. In Ellul’s words, this victory “reveals another direction for life, another choice, namely, of this victory “reveals another direction for life, another choice, namely, of non-power.”30 non-power.”30 Yoder stresses that the church itself does not break the sovereignty Yoder stresses that the church itself does not break the sovereignty of the powers but “concentrates on not being seduced by them”; it is not of the powers but “concentrates on not being seduced by them”; it is not a matter of fighting the battle that Christ has already won.31 Thus Yoder’s a matter of fighting the battle that Christ has already won.31 Thus Yoder’s primary concern with the power of technology would be that the church primary concern with the power of technology would be that the church avoid being seduced by it. The seductiveness of technological systems and avoid being seduced by it. The seductiveness of technological systems and ways of thinking lies in their ability to blind us to their real power, to make ways of thinking lies in their ability to blind us to their real power, to make us think we are doing the “responsible” thing or solving worthy problems us think we are doing the “responsible” thing or solving worthy problems when we are actually placing our faith in something other than the power of when we are actually placing our faith in something other than the power of God. The “real power” or the “greater than the sum of” factor of our pursuit God. The “real power” or the “greater than the sum of” factor of our pursuit of technology is not readily apparent to us. of technology is not readily apparent to us. How can the church avoid this seduction? In Ellul’s writing one is How can the church avoid this seduction? In Ellul’s writing one is left wondering if it can. While technological systems and ways of thinking left wondering if it can. While technological systems and ways of thinking ultimately remain subordinate to Christ, Ellul regards them as autonomous ultimately remain subordinate to Christ, Ellul regards them as autonomous and thus any efforts to redirect or transform them will ultimately be futile. and thus any efforts to redirect or transform them will ultimately be futile. As a power, technology is fallen and can only be overcome or transcended, As a power, technology is fallen and can only be overcome or transcended, not redirected or transformed.32 Here Yoder would likely part ways with not redirected or transformed.32 Here Yoder would likely part ways with Ellul, and argue that instead of focusing on the possibility that individuals Ellul, and argue that instead of focusing on the possibility that individuals might avoid the seduction of technology through spiritual heroics, we might avoid the seduction of technology through spiritual heroics, we should focus on the possibility that a community might avoid that seduction should focus on the possibility that a community might avoid that seduction through concrete practices. Yoder more closely links the powers with human through concrete practices. Yoder more closely links the powers with human and social realities: and social realities: The Powers have been defeated not by some cosmic hocus-pocus The Powers have been defeated not by some cosmic hocus-pocus but by the concreteness of the cross; the impact of the cross upon but by the concreteness of the cross; the impact of the cross upon them is not the working of magical words nor the fulfillment them is not the working of magical words nor the fulfillment of a legal contract calling for the shedding of innocent blood, of a legal contract calling for the shedding of innocent blood, but the sovereign presence, within the structures of creaturely but the sovereign presence, within the structures of creaturely Walking With Yoder . . . to the Automobile 65 Walking With Yoder . . . to the Automobile 65

orderliness, of Jesus the kingly claimant and of the church who orderliness, of Jesus the kingly claimant and of the church who herself is a structure and a power in society.33 herself is a structure and a power in society.33 Not only does Yoder emphasize the positive role of the powers in human Not only does Yoder emphasize the positive role of the powers in human existence, he stresses that Jesus’ overcoming of their sovereignty was a existence, he stresses that Jesus’ overcoming of their sovereignty was a human and social act, not just a spiritual one. human and social act, not just a spiritual one. Indeed, far from advocating the sectarian withdrawal from culture or Indeed, far from advocating the sectarian withdrawal from culture or the spiritual transcendence of it, Yoder argues that the church, by focusing the spiritual transcendence of it, Yoder argues that the church, by focusing first on being the church, is capable of affecting the authentic transformation first on being the church, is capable of affecting the authentic transformation of its surrounding culture – and, I would add, its surrounding technology. of its surrounding culture – and, I would add, its surrounding technology. The key is that this transformation is not about re-building the world as The key is that this transformation is not about re-building the world as much as it is about building the church; not about the witness of the church much as it is about building the church; not about the witness of the church leading to social transformation in the world at large but about transforming leading to social transformation in the world at large but about transforming the world into the church.34 Yoder would agree with Ellul that efforts to the world into the church.34 Yoder would agree with Ellul that efforts to take responsibility for the direction of technology in general are futile, take responsibility for the direction of technology in general are futile, but he would also argue that this does not preclude the possibility that a but he would also argue that this does not preclude the possibility that a community might transform technology in the particular by following the community might transform technology in the particular by following the way of Jesus. For it is only the presence of an alternative power that makes way of Jesus. For it is only the presence of an alternative power that makes resisting the seduction of the fallen powers possible. Thus for Yoder the resisting the seduction of the fallen powers possible. Thus for Yoder the authentic transformation of technology is possible when it is subordinated authentic transformation of technology is possible when it is subordinated to the power of Christ and embodied in the church. to the power of Christ and embodied in the church. Yoder’s perspective on the autonomy of the powers is shaped by his Yoder’s perspective on the autonomy of the powers is shaped by his Anabaptist anthropology and its affirmation of the freedom of the will, but Anabaptist anthropology and its affirmation of the freedom of the will, but it is also consistent with his overall theological stance. Yoder approached it is also consistent with his overall theological stance. Yoder approached the powers of the world the same way he approached theological reflection: the powers of the world the same way he approached theological reflection: he started with the church, and was willing to be patient.35 Yet he would not he started with the church, and was willing to be patient.35 Yet he would not be content with a general strategy for resisting the seduction of the power be content with a general strategy for resisting the seduction of the power of technology and technological ways of thinking. Particular, concrete of technology and technological ways of thinking. Particular, concrete manifestations of the transformed power of technology are what would manifestations of the transformed power of technology are what would really matter for him. really matter for him.

The Automobile as a Test Case The Automobile as a Test Case Over the past century the automobile has become a significant force in the Over the past century the automobile has become a significant force in the economy, environment, and culture of industrialized nations. Because the economy, environment, and culture of industrialized nations. Because the development and use of this particular manifestation of technology is now development and use of this particular manifestation of technology is now pervasive and routine, it may not seem to be the most enthralling entry point pervasive and routine, it may not seem to be the most enthralling entry point 66 The Conrad Grebel Review 66 The Conrad Grebel Review into a discussion of the theological significance of technology. Indeed, into a discussion of the theological significance of technology. Indeed, historian Wesley Swanson has suggested that the study of “common cultural historian Wesley Swanson has suggested that the study of “common cultural artifacts” such as the automobile is “often clouded by over-familiarity and a artifacts” such as the automobile is “often clouded by over-familiarity and a lack of perspective.”36 Yet this is precisely why the automobile makes such lack of perspective.”36 Yet this is precisely why the automobile makes such a good case study. It is because the automobile is now mundane, because a good case study. It is because the automobile is now mundane, because the arguments extolling both its virtues and pitfalls are now mature, that an the arguments extolling both its virtues and pitfalls are now mature, that an examination of the issues involved can benefit greatly from the perspective examination of the issues involved can benefit greatly from the perspective offered by theological discourse. In addition, our intimate knowledge of a offered by theological discourse. In addition, our intimate knowledge of a familiar or mature technology has the potential to enrich further reflection familiar or mature technology has the potential to enrich further reflection on unfamiliar or new technologies.37 on unfamiliar or new technologies.37 Of course, the basic problem with any mature argument is that Of course, the basic problem with any mature argument is that positions become polarized and entrenched. Thus, not surprisingly, clarity positions become polarized and entrenched. Thus, not surprisingly, clarity is not what one finds when searching for an overarching assessment of the is not what one finds when searching for an overarching assessment of the automobile in contemporary culture. On one side, authors in environmental automobile in contemporary culture. On one side, authors in environmental science and political philosophy such as Julie Meaton and David Morrice science and political philosophy such as Julie Meaton and David Morrice provide helpful summaries of the litany of familiar social and technical provide helpful summaries of the litany of familiar social and technical problems, ranging from unsightly urban sprawl and the pain caused by problems, ranging from unsightly urban sprawl and the pain caused by accidents, to the unpleasant delays of traffic congestion and the unbelievable accidents, to the unpleasant delays of traffic congestion and the unbelievable scale at which nonrenewable resources are being converted into dangerous scale at which nonrenewable resources are being converted into dangerous pollutants.38 While many of us are sympathetic toward those arguing that the pollutants.38 While many of us are sympathetic toward those arguing that the use of the automobile should be restricted or at least reduced, we continue use of the automobile should be restricted or at least reduced, we continue to drive more and more.39 We are, according to critics of the automobile, not to drive more and more.39 We are, according to critics of the automobile, not being rational. being rational. On the other side, those defending the automobile agree that its status On the other side, those defending the automobile agree that its status has declined and that drivers are often seen to be a public nuisance. As has declined and that drivers are often seen to be a public nuisance. As columnist John Tierney recently wrote, “Americans still love to own their columnist John Tierney recently wrote, “Americans still love to own their cars, but they’re sick of everyone else’s.”40 However, in contrast to the cars, but they’re sick of everyone else’s.”40 However, in contrast to the suggestion of critics that a conspiracy of corporate interests is responsible suggestion of critics that a conspiracy of corporate interests is responsible for foisting the car on us, commentators such as Tierney suggest that liberal for foisting the car on us, commentators such as Tierney suggest that liberal intellectual elites are responsible for turning people against the car.41 To be intellectual elites are responsible for turning people against the car.41 To be sure, no advocates of driving more will deny the reality of the environmental sure, no advocates of driving more will deny the reality of the environmental problems caused by driving. However, they are convinced that these costs problems caused by driving. However, they are convinced that these costs will continue decreasing with the development of new technology, and will continue decreasing with the development of new technology, and that the benefits of the automobile have been under-valued. Critics of the that the benefits of the automobile have been under-valued. Critics of the automobile, they say, are not being rational. automobile, they say, are not being rational. Walking With Yoder . . . to the Automobile 67 Walking With Yoder . . . to the Automobile 67

The result of all this irrationality is that car enthusiasts and car The result of all this irrationality is that car enthusiasts and car critics end up shouting at a crowd who cannot hear them, a crowd that, critics end up shouting at a crowd who cannot hear them, a crowd that, to use Howard P. Segal’s apt term, has found a way to accommodate the to use Howard P. Segal’s apt term, has found a way to accommodate the automobile.42 For the most part, our culture has accepted this particular type automobile.42 For the most part, our culture has accepted this particular type of technology, whether it does so happily or grudgingly. In a word, we have of technology, whether it does so happily or grudgingly. In a word, we have been seduced by it. Whether we know it and resent being manipulated, or been seduced by it. Whether we know it and resent being manipulated, or whether we don’t know it and feel nothing but love, the automobile has whether we don’t know it and feel nothing but love, the automobile has seductively found its way into our lives. seductively found its way into our lives. The key for moving beyond this impasse toward a more helpful The key for moving beyond this impasse toward a more helpful overarching assessment of the automobile is to recognize that it is more than a overarching assessment of the automobile is to recognize that it is more than a scientific, economic, or political debate. In Swanson’s words, “To understand scientific, economic, or political debate. In Swanson’s words, “To understand the appeal and vital symbolic power of the automobile it is essential not to the appeal and vital symbolic power of the automobile it is essential not to view it as a transportation device.”43 Drivers will not necessarily give up view it as a transportation device.”43 Drivers will not necessarily give up their wheels on the basis of a more compelling cost-benefit analysis, or even their wheels on the basis of a more compelling cost-benefit analysis, or even when encouraged to do so by political policy. Nor will car critics endorse when encouraged to do so by political policy. Nor will car critics endorse new highway construction even if everyone drove hybrid vehicles. At its new highway construction even if everyone drove hybrid vehicles. At its core this impasse relates to differences over fundamental human values. core this impasse relates to differences over fundamental human values. One study of the automobile that moves beyond the realm of science, One study of the automobile that moves beyond the realm of science, economics, and politics is For the Love of the Automobile by Wolfgang economics, and politics is For the Love of the Automobile by Wolfgang Sachs.44 Sachs, who studied both sociology and theology, is a German Sachs.44 Sachs, who studied both sociology and theology, is a German professor currently working on globalization and sustainable development. professor currently working on globalization and sustainable development. He begins his book with the same question that other critics of the automobile He begins his book with the same question that other critics of the automobile find so vexing: find so vexing: The problem with the automobile today consists precisely in The problem with the automobile today consists precisely in the fact that the automobile is not a problem. Why, I asked the fact that the automobile is not a problem. Why, I asked myself, does the loyalty to automobiles remain so unassailable, myself, does the loyalty to automobiles remain so unassailable, even though everyone knows that cars already have their future even though everyone knows that cars already have their future behind them?45 behind them?45 Sachs’s reading of the development of the automobile in Germany is an Sachs’s reading of the development of the automobile in Germany is an attempt to show that it is a “morality play.”46 He demonstrates this alternative attempt to show that it is a “morality play.”46 He demonstrates this alternative view by discussing the motivation of the first drivers, all of whom were view by discussing the motivation of the first drivers, all of whom were elites and enthusiasts more concerned with social status and mastery of their elites and enthusiasts more concerned with social status and mastery of their environment than with mobility. Thus the “automobile sank its roots into environment than with mobility. Thus the “automobile sank its roots into society from the top down.”47 The rest of the book shows just how deep society from the top down.”47 The rest of the book shows just how deep these roots go, how the automobile itself became dependent on complex these roots go, how the automobile itself became dependent on complex 68 The Conrad Grebel Review 68 The Conrad Grebel Review technological systems and, more important, came to embody specific values. technological systems and, more important, came to embody specific values. Citing the often quoted phrase from Roland Barthes that the automobile Citing the often quoted phrase from Roland Barthes that the automobile is “the Gothic cathedral of modern times,” Sachs argues that just as “the is “the Gothic cathedral of modern times,” Sachs argues that just as “the cathedral is not merely a shelter, so the automobile is more than a means cathedral is not merely a shelter, so the automobile is more than a means of transport; automobiles are, indeed, the material representations of a of transport; automobiles are, indeed, the material representations of a culture.”48 I will discuss two of the values of this culture below. culture.”48 I will discuss two of the values of this culture below. Sachs’s discussion of the values embodied by the automobile Sachs’s discussion of the values embodied by the automobile comes in a section of chapters called “Desires.” The first of these he titles comes in a section of chapters called “Desires.” The first of these he titles “Independent as a Lord,” what I will call “the value of autonomy.” In contrast “Independent as a Lord,” what I will call “the value of autonomy.” In contrast to the railroad, which condemns us to passivity, the automobile requires our to the railroad, which condemns us to passivity, the automobile requires our active involvement. It requires that we choose when to depart and which active involvement. It requires that we choose when to depart and which route to take. American philosopher Loren Lomasky has expanded this point route to take. American philosopher Loren Lomasky has expanded this point in his essay “Autonomy and Automobility,”49 arguing that self-directedness in his essay “Autonomy and Automobility,”49 arguing that self-directedness or autonomy is a distinctively human trait and thus any technology that or autonomy is a distinctively human trait and thus any technology that enhances it is inherently good. In short, “automobile transport is good for enhances it is inherently good. In short, “automobile transport is good for people in virtue of its intrinsic features.”50 He is convinced that the ability people in virtue of its intrinsic features.”50 He is convinced that the ability of the automobile to enhance autonomy is rivaled only by the printing press of the automobile to enhance autonomy is rivaled only by the printing press and possibly the computer. and possibly the computer. Lomasky’s essay helps explain the irrational behavior of drivers. Lomasky’s essay helps explain the irrational behavior of drivers. People prefer driving to the bus, streetcar or train; they “vote with their People prefer driving to the bus, streetcar or train; they “vote with their tires”51 because the costs of driving do not outweigh the inherent value of tires”51 because the costs of driving do not outweigh the inherent value of autonomy, a value that the automobile’s critics have not fully considered. autonomy, a value that the automobile’s critics have not fully considered. The importance of this value is seen in the fact that drivers are willing to put The importance of this value is seen in the fact that drivers are willing to put up with such high economic and social costs. For example, if cars are valued up with such high economic and social costs. For example, if cars are valued strictly for their mobility, why do so many people endure spending so much strictly for their mobility, why do so many people endure spending so much time sitting in traffic jams during their daily commute? Autonomy is more time sitting in traffic jams during their daily commute? Autonomy is more about individual control than mobility, and driving allows people to regain about individual control than mobility, and driving allows people to regain control over their immediate environment. control over their immediate environment. Yet Lomasky’s essay is problematic. Although autonomy was valued Yet Lomasky’s essay is problematic. Although autonomy was valued long before the car came along, Sachs wonders to what extent this technology long before the car came along, Sachs wonders to what extent this technology allowed this particular value to increase in importance: allowed this particular value to increase in importance: Technology does not simply fall from the sky; rather, the Technology does not simply fall from the sky; rather, the aspirations of a society (or a class) combine with technical aspirations of a society (or a class) combine with technical possibility to inject a bit of culture into the design like a genetic possibility to inject a bit of culture into the design like a genetic code. Yet neither do lifestyle and desires emerge from the thin code. Yet neither do lifestyle and desires emerge from the thin Walking With Yoder . . . to the Automobile 69 Walking With Yoder . . . to the Automobile 69

air of culture; instead they coalesce around a given technology. air of culture; instead they coalesce around a given technology. A technological invention is often accompanied by cultural A technological invention is often accompanied by cultural creativity.52 creativity.52 Thus the value of autonomy has “coalesced” around the automobile, and the Thus the value of autonomy has “coalesced” around the automobile, and the automobile has allowed it to appear as if “natural.”53 To what extent, then, automobile has allowed it to appear as if “natural.”53 To what extent, then, has the premium Lomasky places on autonomy been influenced by the very has the premium Lomasky places on autonomy been influenced by the very technology he endorses because it complements this value? How far has technology he endorses because it complements this value? How far has the automobile contributed to a wave of “cultural creativity” characterized the automobile contributed to a wave of “cultural creativity” characterized by the valuing of autonomy and the flourishing of individualism? Sachs by the valuing of autonomy and the flourishing of individualism? Sachs suggests that independence or autonomy is a value embodied not only in suggests that independence or autonomy is a value embodied not only in automobiles but in all modern technology: “Technology fulfills the desire to automobiles but in all modern technology: “Technology fulfills the desire to leave behind burdensome social, spatial, or temporal ties and become one’s leave behind burdensome social, spatial, or temporal ties and become one’s own master.”54 own master.”54 For Sachs, the irony of this emphasis is that the more prevalent For Sachs, the irony of this emphasis is that the more prevalent automobiles became, the less autonomous the drivers became. Autonomy automobiles became, the less autonomous the drivers became. Autonomy is not lost because of traffic jams but because of dependence on the vast is not lost because of traffic jams but because of dependence on the vast technological systems that make driving possible: “Ultimately all these technological systems that make driving possible: “Ultimately all these ‘independence machines’ depend on streets and power lines, pipelines ‘independence machines’ depend on streets and power lines, pipelines and radio waves, which in turn bind the individual with multiple ties to and radio waves, which in turn bind the individual with multiple ties to industries, power plants, drilling rigs, and broadcast stations.” Every industries, power plants, drilling rigs, and broadcast stations.” Every “increment of freedom in our private lives” comes at the cost of greater “increment of freedom in our private lives” comes at the cost of greater dependence on others. Thus “we have metamorphosed once again from dependence on others. Thus “we have metamorphosed once again from drivers into passengers, even if self-propelled.”55 Put another way: “The drivers into passengers, even if self-propelled.”55 Put another way: “The desires of yesterday rain down on us as the compulsions of today.”56 desires of yesterday rain down on us as the compulsions of today.”56 The second value embodied by the automobile that Sachs discusses is The second value embodied by the automobile that Sachs discusses is “victorious speed.” Again, this is a value absorbed in the automobile’s early “victorious speed.” Again, this is a value absorbed in the automobile’s early days when the new invention was promoted through competitive races. days when the new invention was promoted through competitive races. Sachs suggests that the spectacle of car racing and the corresponding thrill Sachs suggests that the spectacle of car racing and the corresponding thrill of high-speed driving resulted in “nothing less than a new perception of of high-speed driving resulted in “nothing less than a new perception of reality”: reality”: . . . drawing on pleasure and superiority in the role of driver, by . . . drawing on pleasure and superiority in the role of driver, by teasing the limits of both the automobile and one’s own fate, teasing the limits of both the automobile and one’s own fate, so that the world, the tired, old world, flew by and an admiring so that the world, the tired, old world, flew by and an admiring gaze looked after.57 gaze looked after.57 70 The Conrad Grebel Review 70 The Conrad Grebel Review

Czech novelist Milan Kundera describes this reality in terms the enthusiast Czech novelist Milan Kundera describes this reality in terms the enthusiast understands best: “Speed is the form of ecstasy the technical revolution has understands best: “Speed is the form of ecstasy the technical revolution has bestowed on [humanity].”58 bestowed on [humanity].”58 It is not difficult to see how, as with autonomy, the value of speed is It is not difficult to see how, as with autonomy, the value of speed is embodied in numerous other examples of modern technology. Technology embodied in numerous other examples of modern technology. Technology is better when it is faster, whether it is the computer used to design the is better when it is faster, whether it is the computer used to design the car, the assembly line used to build it, the car itself when it accelerates to car, the assembly line used to build it, the car itself when it accelerates to pass a truck on a country road, or the pay-at-the-pump service station used pass a truck on a country road, or the pay-at-the-pump service station used to replenish the car with fuel. Speed, it turns out, is not only pleasurable to replenish the car with fuel. Speed, it turns out, is not only pleasurable because it is risky, it is pleasurable because it is efficient. In the words because it is risky, it is pleasurable because it is efficient. In the words of esteemed historian of technology Lewis Mumford, “There is only one of esteemed historian of technology Lewis Mumford, “There is only one efficient speed:faster .”59 efficient speed:faster .”59 Just as the value of autonomy was both embodied and encouraged Just as the value of autonomy was both embodied and encouraged by the automobile, so too was the value of speed. The transformation of the by the automobile, so too was the value of speed. The transformation of the tired, old world into the blur of a new world that makes our eyes water as tired, old world into the blur of a new world that makes our eyes water as it goes rushing by contributes to our assumption that history too is rushing it goes rushing by contributes to our assumption that history too is rushing forward, progressing in a straight line toward ever greater accomplishments. forward, progressing in a straight line toward ever greater accomplishments. Once again we find a certain irony here. As Kundera suggests, often speed Once again we find a certain irony here. As Kundera suggests, often speed is more about what we are rushing away from than what we are rushing to: is more about what we are rushing away from than what we are rushing to: “the degree of slowness is directly proportional to the intensity of memory; “the degree of slowness is directly proportional to the intensity of memory; the degree of speed is directly proportional to the intensity of forgetting.”60 the degree of speed is directly proportional to the intensity of forgetting.”60 Furthermore, the seduction of the value of speed is evident in how more Furthermore, the seduction of the value of speed is evident in how more time is lost than gained as the speed of travel increases. As Sachs points time is lost than gained as the speed of travel increases. As Sachs points out, instead of saving time, the automobile encourages us to travel farther: out, instead of saving time, the automobile encourages us to travel farther: “its powers of speed are cashed in not for less time on the road, but for “its powers of speed are cashed in not for less time on the road, but for longer routes.”61 Or, put even more strongly, “The masters of space and time longer routes.”61 Or, put even more strongly, “The masters of space and time awaken to find themselves slaves of distance and haste.”62 awaken to find themselves slaves of distance and haste.”62

Applying Yoder’s Stance to the Automobile Applying Yoder’s Stance to the Automobile The above discussion of the automobile was intended to demonstrate that The above discussion of the automobile was intended to demonstrate that the polarized and entrenched perspectives of enthusiasts and critics can the polarized and entrenched perspectives of enthusiasts and critics can be traced to a conflict over the values embodied and encouraged by this be traced to a conflict over the values embodied and encouraged by this particular technology. If this assessment is correct, then the starting place particular technology. If this assessment is correct, then the starting place for addressing this conflict needs to be on the level of values rather than for addressing this conflict needs to be on the level of values rather than science, economics, or politics. Our scientific research, economic policies, science, economics, or politics. Our scientific research, economic policies, Walking With Yoder . . . to the Automobile 71 Walking With Yoder . . . to the Automobile 71 and political action must be informed by an ethic, an ethic that for Christians and political action must be informed by an ethic, an ethic that for Christians must itself be informed by a theological vision. must itself be informed by a theological vision. How then could John Howard Yoder’s stance inform a theological How then could John Howard Yoder’s stance inform a theological approach to the automobile from a Mennonite perspective? There are approach to the automobile from a Mennonite perspective? There are several obvious points of connection with Sachs’s portrayal of the history of several obvious points of connection with Sachs’s portrayal of the history of the automobile. First, the automobile can be thought of as a manifestation of the automobile. First, the automobile can be thought of as a manifestation of the biblical concept of the principalities and powers as understood by Yoder. the biblical concept of the principalities and powers as understood by Yoder. The automobile is itself composed of numerous particular technologies and The automobile is itself composed of numerous particular technologies and depends on numerous others that form a complex technological system. depends on numerous others that form a complex technological system. This system, or structure, to use Yoder’s word, is more than the sum of its This system, or structure, to use Yoder’s word, is more than the sum of its particular technologies, for it embodies the values of the technological way particular technologies, for it embodies the values of the technological way of thinking that created it. Moreover, the automobile itself encourages and of thinking that created it. Moreover, the automobile itself encourages and extends this way of thinking, and thus we find ourselves being seduced by extends this way of thinking, and thus we find ourselves being seduced by its power. Like all the powers, the automobile is both evil and fallen – we its power. Like all the powers, the automobile is both evil and fallen – we (and the rest of creation) cannot live with it, and good and necessary – we (and the rest of creation) cannot live with it, and good and necessary – we cannot live without it. So, in Sachs’s words, “Even when we find ourselves cannot live without it. So, in Sachs’s words, “Even when we find ourselves up to our necks in harmful consequences, a kind of structural irresponsibility up to our necks in harmful consequences, a kind of structural irresponsibility blocks the necessary change of course.”63 blocks the necessary change of course.”63 For Yoder, the way past this blockage is to recognize that the powers For Yoder, the way past this blockage is to recognize that the powers have already been defeated and put in their place by the death of Jesus Christ. have already been defeated and put in their place by the death of Jesus Christ. As we have seen, for Yoder the authentic transformation of the powers, in this As we have seen, for Yoder the authentic transformation of the powers, in this case the power of the automobile, is possible when it is subordinated to the case the power of the automobile, is possible when it is subordinated to the power of Christ and embodied in the church. Of course, this transformation power of Christ and embodied in the church. Of course, this transformation involves much more than the physical artifact of the automobile itself, as if involves much more than the physical artifact of the automobile itself, as if the church could provide after-market kits capable of redeeming the vehicles the church could provide after-market kits capable of redeeming the vehicles in its parking lots. This transformation must touch the vast technological in its parking lots. This transformation must touch the vast technological system that automobiles are a part of, and, most important for this essay, it system that automobiles are a part of, and, most important for this essay, it must touch the values embodied and encouraged by the automobile. Indeed, must touch the values embodied and encouraged by the automobile. Indeed, the clash between Yoder’s theology and the technological way of thinking the clash between Yoder’s theology and the technological way of thinking embodied and encouraged by the automobile could not be starker. embodied and encouraged by the automobile could not be starker. This leads to a second obvious point of connection between Sachs This leads to a second obvious point of connection between Sachs and Yoder, their assessment of the value of autonomy. Yoder’s starting place and Yoder, their assessment of the value of autonomy. Yoder’s starting place for theological reflection as well as his ethical response to the powers, his for theological reflection as well as his ethical response to the powers, his commitment to the church, would lead him to question the importance that commitment to the church, would lead him to question the importance that thinkers like Lomasky place on the value of individual autonomy. In my thinkers like Lomasky place on the value of individual autonomy. In my 72 The Conrad Grebel Review 72 The Conrad Grebel Review view, Yoder would concur with Sachs that individual autonomy as manifest view, Yoder would concur with Sachs that individual autonomy as manifest in the automobile is ultimately illusionary. We are inevitably dependent upon in the automobile is ultimately illusionary. We are inevitably dependent upon a community, and technology both amplifies and obscures that dependence; a community, and technology both amplifies and obscures that dependence; as Sachs puts it, more than ever we are passengers, even if “self-propelled” as Sachs puts it, more than ever we are passengers, even if “self-propelled” ones. The critical point for Yoder is the nature or character of the community ones. The critical point for Yoder is the nature or character of the community that we depend on. Is it based upon impersonal, distant relationships mediated that we depend on. Is it based upon impersonal, distant relationships mediated by technology and motivated by necessity and economic self-interest, or is by technology and motivated by necessity and economic self-interest, or is it based upon personal, face-to-face relationships motivated by love and it based upon personal, face-to-face relationships motivated by love and the interests of others? Yoder’s theology clearly values the latter. Going the interests of others? Yoder’s theology clearly values the latter. Going beyond Sachs, his theology could be used to argue that, just as the church beyond Sachs, his theology could be used to argue that, just as the church by focusing on being the church can avoid the seduction of the powers in by focusing on being the church can avoid the seduction of the powers in general, it can also avoid the seduction of the value of autonomy embodied general, it can also avoid the seduction of the value of autonomy embodied and encouraged by the automobile in particular. Voluntary allegiance to the and encouraged by the automobile in particular. Voluntary allegiance to the church does not mean the end of our individuality; rather, it is a sign of our church does not mean the end of our individuality; rather, it is a sign of our recognition that individualism is both illusionary and destructive. recognition that individualism is both illusionary and destructive. A third obvious point of connection between Sachs and Yoder is their A third obvious point of connection between Sachs and Yoder is their assessment of the value of speed. Yoder would likely concur with Sachs and assessment of the value of speed. Yoder would likely concur with Sachs and Kundera that speed is risky not only because of the possibility of accidents Kundera that speed is risky not only because of the possibility of accidents but because of how it makes us forget. By extending the potential range of but because of how it makes us forget. By extending the potential range of travel, the increased speed of the automobile makes us forget what ties us to travel, the increased speed of the automobile makes us forget what ties us to a particular place. Further, going beyond Sachs now, speed makes us forget a particular place. Further, going beyond Sachs now, speed makes us forget that ultimately God is in control of history. Yoder’s theology reminds us that, that ultimately God is in control of history. Yoder’s theology reminds us that, despite the impressive scale and scope of technology, both it and we have despite the impressive scale and scope of technology, both it and we have limits. His theological stance, and his suggestion for how we can resist the limits. His theological stance, and his suggestion for how we can resist the seduction of the powers in general, is characterized by patience. The value seduction of the powers in general, is characterized by patience. The value of patience is obviously relevant for avoiding seduction by the value of of patience is obviously relevant for avoiding seduction by the value of speed embodied and encouraged by the automobile. This alternative value speed embodied and encouraged by the automobile. This alternative value encourages us be mindful of the working of God’s spirit in the world instead encourages us be mindful of the working of God’s spirit in the world instead of rushing in to make the world come out right. While cars encourage us of rushing in to make the world come out right. While cars encourage us to accelerate our efforts, Yoder encourages us to slow down. While they to accelerate our efforts, Yoder encourages us to slow down. While they urge us to throw caution to the wind, he urges us to be careful. And while urge us to throw caution to the wind, he urges us to be careful. And while they encourage us to stick our noses where they don’t belong, at times he they encourage us to stick our noses where they don’t belong, at times he encourages us to sit still and wait. Yoder’s values are not simply theological encourages us to sit still and wait. Yoder’s values are not simply theological principles; they are also practices. principles; they are also practices. Like his Anabaptist forebears, Yoder refuses to separate theology Like his Anabaptist forebears, Yoder refuses to separate theology from ethics, belief from practice, or thought from action. Thus he would from ethics, belief from practice, or thought from action. Thus he would Walking With Yoder . . . to the Automobile 73 Walking With Yoder . . . to the Automobile 73 disagree with many in the Christian tradition who assume that theology disagree with many in the Christian tradition who assume that theology is related to ethics in a hierarchical fashion. Following Yoder, I agree that is related to ethics in a hierarchical fashion. Following Yoder, I agree that ideally our beliefs should shape our practices, but the reality is that often ideally our beliefs should shape our practices, but the reality is that often they do not. Why do we ignore or forget what we believe, or allow our they do not. Why do we ignore or forget what we believe, or allow our beliefs to be twisted? As our study of one particular example of technology beliefs to be twisted? As our study of one particular example of technology indicates, I think it is because our practices end up shaping our beliefs. Thus indicates, I think it is because our practices end up shaping our beliefs. Thus I would argue that there are times when, in order to get our thinking right, I would argue that there are times when, in order to get our thinking right, we have to start acting in the right way. To put it another way, participating we have to start acting in the right way. To put it another way, participating in Christian practices shapes us into the kind of people who truly believe. in Christian practices shapes us into the kind of people who truly believe. Yet my discussion of the practices of commitment to the church and patience Yet my discussion of the practices of commitment to the church and patience has thus far been limited to generalities; thus I must now suggest a few has thus far been limited to generalities; thus I must now suggest a few particular forms these practices might take when applied to the automobile particular forms these practices might take when applied to the automobile in a congregational setting. This is by no means an exhaustive or exclusive in a congregational setting. This is by no means an exhaustive or exclusive list.64 list.64 To start with, I suggest that the value of commitment has implications To start with, I suggest that the value of commitment has implications for the ownership of automobiles. One reason the value of autonomy is for the ownership of automobiles. One reason the value of autonomy is magnified by automobiles is that they are most often at the disposal of a magnified by automobiles is that they are most often at the disposal of a single individual, a reality demonstrated by our language. If someone asked single individual, a reality demonstrated by our language. If someone asked me how I traveled to school today, they might expect me to say either that me how I traveled to school today, they might expect me to say either that I caught the bus or I drove my car. Recognizing that automobiles will often I caught the bus or I drove my car. Recognizing that automobiles will often be necessary for the foreseeable future, the value of autonomy could be be necessary for the foreseeable future, the value of autonomy could be diminished if the church was a place that made it possible for its members diminished if the church was a place that made it possible for its members to get by with less than one car per adult in every household. People within to get by with less than one car per adult in every household. People within households could be encouraged to find ways of sharing a car, but this households could be encouraged to find ways of sharing a car, but this could also extend beyond households to include other church members, or could also extend beyond households to include other church members, or participation in local car sharing co-operatives. There are certainly good participation in local car sharing co-operatives. There are certainly good economic and environmental reasons for pursing this path, but there is also economic and environmental reasons for pursing this path, but there is also the recognition that diminishing the importance of autonomy in deciding the recognition that diminishing the importance of autonomy in deciding how we travel from place to place will increase commitment to a particular how we travel from place to place will increase commitment to a particular community.65 community.65 Furthermore, the value of commitment also has implications for Furthermore, the value of commitment also has implications for how we value particular geographic places. One way a church could build how we value particular geographic places. One way a church could build commitment to a local community is if its members shared that community. commitment to a local community is if its members shared that community. Churches should encourage members to make living in close proximity Churches should encourage members to make living in close proximity to each other a priority, and should strive to build relationships with non- to each other a priority, and should strive to build relationships with non- 74 The Conrad Grebel Review 74 The Conrad Grebel Review members living in the neighborhood of the church. The idea that our church members living in the neighborhood of the church. The idea that our church would dictate where we buy a house seems even more counter-cultural than would dictate where we buy a house seems even more counter-cultural than the idea that it would encourage us to make do with fewer cars, but again the idea that it would encourage us to make do with fewer cars, but again we should see that our decisions on these matters are never about either we should see that our decisions on these matters are never about either asserting or giving up our individuality. We are simply choosing to commit asserting or giving up our individuality. We are simply choosing to commit ourselves to different types of community. ourselves to different types of community. Moving on to the value of patience, I suggest that here we find Moving on to the value of patience, I suggest that here we find implications for the practice of driving. Since failing to wear seatbelts and implications for the practice of driving. Since failing to wear seatbelts and speeding are, aside from alcohol impairment, the leading causes of traffic speeding are, aside from alcohol impairment, the leading causes of traffic fatalities, perhaps these implications are obvious.66 But patience implies fatalities, perhaps these implications are obvious.66 But patience implies much more than taking the time to buckle up, follow speed limits, and much more than taking the time to buckle up, follow speed limits, and contain our road rage. In what is quite possibly the only article focused contain our road rage. In what is quite possibly the only article focused on the automobile that has been published in a theological journal, John on the automobile that has been published in a theological journal, John Waterson notes that “to suggest that anyone was a sinful driver would in Waterson notes that “to suggest that anyone was a sinful driver would in general merely provoke amusement. Yet that is precisely what we all are general merely provoke amusement. Yet that is precisely what we all are from time to time.”67 Indeed, we are all guilty, at the very least, of a host from time to time.”67 Indeed, we are all guilty, at the very least, of a host of minor sins while behind the wheel, ranging from allowing ourselves to of minor sins while behind the wheel, ranging from allowing ourselves to be distracted by children bickering in the backseat to driving on too little be distracted by children bickering in the backseat to driving on too little sleep. We are all guilty of failing to take full responsibility for the “lethal sleep. We are all guilty of failing to take full responsibility for the “lethal weapon”68 at our disposal, and only thanks to luck, or perhaps the grace weapon”68 at our disposal, and only thanks to luck, or perhaps the grace of God, have we avoided facing frightening consequences for these minor of God, have we avoided facing frightening consequences for these minor sins. The church should be a place where bad habits are recognized and sins. The church should be a place where bad habits are recognized and confessed, and good habits are developed and nurtured, and this should confessed, and good habits are developed and nurtured, and this should certainly apply to driving. Indeed, a key characteristic of good drivers, as certainly apply to driving. Indeed, a key characteristic of good drivers, as Waterson points out, is humility: “first-class drivers [are] given to continual Waterson points out, is humility: “first-class drivers [are] given to continual searching examination of their own performance, with devoted striving to do searching examination of their own performance, with devoted striving to do better.”69 Humility or self-critique is closely related to the value of patience; better.”69 Humility or self-critique is closely related to the value of patience; it is hard to get one without the other. it is hard to get one without the other. Finally, the value of patience also has implications for how we relate Finally, the value of patience also has implications for how we relate to the automobiles we drive. Most of us have been taught to use or consume to the automobiles we drive. Most of us have been taught to use or consume technology with a “black box” mentality. We turn on our computer and technology with a “black box” mentality. We turn on our computer and expect to begin typing an essay, or, for in the case at hand, we turn the expect to begin typing an essay, or, for in the case at hand, we turn the ignition key in our car and expect it to go. Everything that occurs in between ignition key in our car and expect it to go. Everything that occurs in between the initial input and the desired result remains a mystery. Philosopher Albert the initial input and the desired result remains a mystery. Philosopher Albert Borgmann has suggested that this mentality is why technology leads to the Borgmann has suggested that this mentality is why technology leads to the Walking With Yoder . . . to the Automobile 75 Walking With Yoder . . . to the Automobile 75 separation of means and ends (or practices and beliefs) so characteristic of separation of means and ends (or practices and beliefs) so characteristic of modern life.70 His analysis of technology as a “device paradigm” is incisive, modern life.70 His analysis of technology as a “device paradigm” is incisive, and his urging a return to a more traditional life of engagement through and his urging a return to a more traditional life of engagement through “focal things and practices” is made even more compelling when applied “focal things and practices” is made even more compelling when applied to Yoder’s preferred starting point of the church.71 In my view, the value of to Yoder’s preferred starting point of the church.71 In my view, the value of patience makes the possibility of turning means into ends, for example, of patience makes the possibility of turning means into ends, for example, of transforming an automobile from a device into a thing, much more likely. transforming an automobile from a device into a thing, much more likely. One final suggestion, then, is that churches encourage their members to take One final suggestion, then, is that churches encourage their members to take the time to learn the basics of automobile technology – for example, how the time to learn the basics of automobile technology – for example, how engine performance impacts fuel consumption – in order to become more engine performance impacts fuel consumption – in order to become more aware of how their inputs while driving are translated into desired (as well as aware of how their inputs while driving are translated into desired (as well as undesired) ends. Again, there are good economic and environmental reasons undesired) ends. Again, there are good economic and environmental reasons for pursuing this path, but the larger aim is to nurture the re-connection of for pursuing this path, but the larger aim is to nurture the re-connection of practice and belief that the automobile’s seductive power has divided. practice and belief that the automobile’s seductive power has divided.

Conclusion Conclusion This essay has offered brief overviews of one contemporary Mennonite This essay has offered brief overviews of one contemporary Mennonite theologian, one particular technology, and the ethical implications of the theologian, one particular technology, and the ethical implications of the intersection of these two realms. The thesis I set out to demonstrate is that intersection of these two realms. The thesis I set out to demonstrate is that Yoder’s work not only is relevant for reflecting theologically on technology Yoder’s work not only is relevant for reflecting theologically on technology in general but, more important, has significant ethical implications for how in general but, more important, has significant ethical implications for how we approach particular technologies. The values of Yoder’s theology can we approach particular technologies. The values of Yoder’s theology can be translated into particular, concrete practices that will enable the church be translated into particular, concrete practices that will enable the church to resist the seduction of the power of the values embodied and encouraged to resist the seduction of the power of the values embodied and encouraged by the automobile. I have suggested four practices, but there are many by the automobile. I have suggested four practices, but there are many more. In leaving the impression that I have only scratched the surface of the more. In leaving the impression that I have only scratched the surface of the ways Yoder’s thought can be applied to the realm of technology, I hope to ways Yoder’s thought can be applied to the realm of technology, I hope to encourage further Mennonite reflection in this area. encourage further Mennonite reflection in this area.

Notes Notes

1 Cf. A. James Reimer, chapter one, “Theological Method, Modernity, and the Role of 1 Cf. A. James Reimer, chapter one, “Theological Method, Modernity, and the Role of Tradition,” and chapter four, “Transcendence, Social Justice, and Pluralism: Three Competing Tradition,” and chapter four, “Transcendence, Social Justice, and Pluralism: Three Competing Agendas in Contemporary Theology,” in Mennonites and Classical Theology: Dogmatic Agendas in Contemporary Theology,” in Mennonites and Classical Theology: Dogmatic Foundations for Christian Ethics (Kitchener, ON: Pandora Press, co-published with Herald Foundations for Christian Ethics (Kitchener, ON: Pandora Press, co-published with Herald Press, 2001). Press, 2001). 76 The Conrad Grebel Review 76 The Conrad Grebel Review

2 Cf. Gordon D. Kaufman, Theology for a Nuclear Age (Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 2 Cf. Gordon D. Kaufman, Theology for a Nuclear Age (Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1985), and In Face of Mystery: A Constructive Theology (Cambridge: Harvard University 1985), and In Face of Mystery: A Constructive Theology (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993). Press, 1993). 3 Roman J. Miller, Beryl H. Brubaker, and James C. Peterson, eds., Viewing New Creations 3 Roman J. Miller, Beryl H. Brubaker, and James C. Peterson, eds., Viewing New Creations with Anabaptist Eyes: Ethics of Biotechnology (Telford, PA: Cascadia Publishing House, co- with Anabaptist Eyes: Ethics of Biotechnology (Telford, PA: Cascadia Publishing House, co- published with Herald Press, 2005). published with Herald Press, 2005). 4 This diversity was highlighted by Conrad G. Brunk in his review of the conference – see 4 This diversity was highlighted by Conrad G. Brunk in his review of the conference – see “Biotechnology and the Future,” in Viewing New Creations with Anabaptist Eyes, 257-60. In “Biotechnology and the Future,” in Viewing New Creations with Anabaptist Eyes, 257-60. In his own work, Brunk has helpfully focused attention on how technology poses moral risks his own work, Brunk has helpfully focused attention on how technology poses moral risks in addition to the readily apparent environmental, economic, and social risks, a concern that in addition to the readily apparent environmental, economic, and social risks, a concern that this essay is intended to underline. See “The Biotechnology Vision: Insights from Anabaptist this essay is intended to underline. See “The Biotechnology Vision: Insights from Anabaptist Values,” in Viewing New Creations with Anabaptist Eyes, 106-21, as well as “Religion, Values,” in Viewing New Creations with Anabaptist Eyes, 106-21, as well as “Religion, Risk, and the Technological Society,” in The Twenty-First Century Confronts Its Gods: Risk, and the Technological Society,” in The Twenty-First Century Confronts Its Gods: Globalization, Technology, and War, ed. David J. Hawkin (Albany: State University of New Globalization, Technology, and War, ed. David J. Hawkin (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2004): 45-58. York Press, 2004): 45-58. 5 Cf. A. James Reimer, “Mennonites, Christ, and Culture: The Yoder Legacy,” The Conrad 5 Cf. A. James Reimer, “Mennonites, Christ, and Culture: The Yoder Legacy,” The Conrad Grebel Review 16.2 (Spring 1998): 5-14. My summary of Yoder in this section resonates Grebel Review 16.2 (Spring 1998): 5-14. My summary of Yoder in this section resonates with Harry Huebner’s extended treatment in “The Christian Life as Gift and Patience: Why with Harry Huebner’s extended treatment in “The Christian Life as Gift and Patience: Why Yoder Has Trouble with Method,” in A Mind Patient and Untamed: Assessing John Howard Yoder Has Trouble with Method,” in A Mind Patient and Untamed: Assessing John Howard Yoder’s Contributions to Theology, Ethics, and Peacemaking, ed. Ben C. Ollenburger and Yoder’s Contributions to Theology, Ethics, and Peacemaking, ed. Ben C. Ollenburger and Gayle Gerber Koontz (Telford, PA and Scottdale, PA: Cascadia Publishing House and Herald Gayle Gerber Koontz (Telford, PA and Scottdale, PA: Cascadia Publishing House and Herald Press, 2004): 23-38. Press, 2004): 23-38. 6 John Howard Yoder, Preface to Theology: Christology and Theological Method (Grand 6 John Howard Yoder, Preface to Theology: Christology and Theological Method (Grand Rapids: Brazos Press, 2002), 401. Rapids: Brazos Press, 2002), 401. 7 John Howard Yoder, For the Nations: Essays Public and Evangelical (Grand Rapids: 7 John Howard Yoder, For the Nations: Essays Public and Evangelical (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1997), 10. Eerdmans, 1997), 10. 8 John Howard Yoder, “Walk and Word: The Alternatives to Methodologism,” in Theology 8 John Howard Yoder, “Walk and Word: The Alternatives to Methodologism,” in Theology without Foundations: Religious Practice and the Future of Theological Truth, ed. Stanley without Foundations: Religious Practice and the Future of Theological Truth, ed. Stanley Hauerwas, Nancey Murphy, and Mark Nation (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1994), 77. Hauerwas, Nancey Murphy, and Mark Nation (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1994), 77. 9 Yoder, Preface to Theology, 401. 9 Yoder, Preface to Theology, 401. 10 Gerald Schlabach has highlighted this point in “Anthology in Lieu of System: John H. 10 Gerald Schlabach has highlighted this point in “Anthology in Lieu of System: John H. Yoder’s Ecumenical Conversations as Systematic Theology,” The Mennonite Quarterly Yoder’s Ecumenical Conversations as Systematic Theology,” The Mennonite Quarterly Review 71.2 (April 1997): 305-09. Review 71.2 (April 1997): 305-09. 11 John Howard Yoder, “Why Ecclesiology is Social Ethics,” in The Royal Priesthood: Essays 11 John Howard Yoder, “Why Ecclesiology is Social Ethics,” in The Royal Priesthood: Essays Ecclesiological and Ecumenical, ed. Michael G. Cartwright (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, Ecclesiological and Ecumenical, ed. Michael G. Cartwright (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1994), 121. 1994), 121. 12 Yoder recommended the use of the word “stance” rather than “system” to describe the 12 Yoder recommended the use of the word “stance” rather than “system” to describe the coherence of his writing. See For the Nations, 10. coherence of his writing. See For the Nations, 10. 13 Yoder, “Walk and Word,” 84-86. 13 Yoder, “Walk and Word,” 84-86. 14 Ibid., 88. 14 Ibid., 88. 15 John Howard Yoder, The Politics of Jesus: Vicit Agnus Noster, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: 15 John Howard Yoder, The Politics of Jesus: Vicit Agnus Noster, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1994), 232. See also Yoder, “‘Patience’ as Method in Moral Reasoning: Is an Eerdmans, 1994), 232. See also Yoder, “‘Patience’ as Method in Moral Reasoning: Is an Ethic of Discipleship ‘Absolute’?” in The Wisdom of the Cross: Essays in Honor of John Ethic of Discipleship ‘Absolute’?” in The Wisdom of the Cross: Essays in Honor of John Walking With Yoder . . . to the Automobile 77 Walking With Yoder . . . to the Automobile 77

Howard Yoder, ed. Stanley Hauerwas, Chris K. Huebner, Harry J. Huebner, and Mark Howard Yoder, ed. Stanley Hauerwas, Chris K. Huebner, Harry J. Huebner, and Mark Thiessen Nation (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999): 24-42. Thiessen Nation (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999): 24-42. 16 Following the suggestion of a leading contemporary philosopher of technology, Carl 16 Following the suggestion of a leading contemporary philosopher of technology, Carl Mitcham, I define technology rather simply and inclusively as “the making and using of Mitcham, I define technology rather simply and inclusively as “the making and using of artifacts.” See Thinking Through Technology: The Path Between Engineering and Philosophy artifacts.” See Thinking Through Technology: The Path Between Engineering and Philosophy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994), 1. However, it is also important to draw (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994), 1. However, it is also important to draw attention to the ways of thinking that gave rise to modern technology and to the complex attention to the ways of thinking that gave rise to modern technology and to the complex interactions between particular technologies. Thus in the paragraphs that follow I discuss not interactions between particular technologies. Thus in the paragraphs that follow I discuss not only the material manifestations of technology but the significance of technological ways of only the material manifestations of technology but the significance of technological ways of thinking and technological systems. thinking and technological systems. 17 The word “technology” in most English translations of Ellul’s work refers to la technique, 17 The word “technology” in most English translations of Ellul’s work refers to la technique, defined as thetotality “ of methods rationally arrived at and having absolute efficiency defined as thetotality “ of methods rationally arrived at and having absolute efficiency (for a given stage of development) in every field of human activity.” See the “Note to the (for a given stage of development) in every field of human activity.” See the “Note to the Reader” in the American edition of Ellul’s The Technological Society, trans. John Wilkenson Reader” in the American edition of Ellul’s The Technological Society, trans. John Wilkenson (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1964), xxv. In this essay my use of “technological ways of (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1964), xxv. In this essay my use of “technological ways of thinking” is shorthand for Ellul’s definition of la technique. In his later work Ellul became thinking” is shorthand for Ellul’s definition of la technique. In his later work Ellul became increasingly concerned with the impact of technological systems – the complex interactions increasingly concerned with the impact of technological systems – the complex interactions and dependencies necessitated by modern technology – and thus his critique does have and dependencies necessitated by modern technology – and thus his critique does have implications both for the material manifestations of technology and for the way of thinking implications both for the material manifestations of technology and for the way of thinking that led to them in the first place. Cf. Jacques Ellul,The Technological System, trans. Joachim that led to them in the first place. Cf. Jacques Ellul,The Technological System, trans. Joachim Neugroschel (New York: Continuum, 1980). Neugroschel (New York: Continuum, 1980). 18 Yoder, The Politics of Jesus, 157, and For the Nations, 35. 18 Yoder, The Politics of Jesus, 157, and For the Nations, 35. 19 Marva J. Dawn, “The Biblical Concept of ‘the Principalities and Powers’: John Yoder 19 Marva J. Dawn, “The Biblical Concept of ‘the Principalities and Powers’: John Yoder Points to Jacques Ellul,” in The Wisdom of the Cross, 168-86. While I share Dawn’s interest in Points to Jacques Ellul,” in The Wisdom of the Cross, 168-86. While I share Dawn’s interest in relating Yoder and Ellul, in this essay I approach this connection from the opposite direction: relating Yoder and Ellul, in this essay I approach this connection from the opposite direction: Ellul points Mennonites in search of a theology of technology to Yoder. Ellul points Mennonites in search of a theology of technology to Yoder. 20 Cf. Romans 8: 38-39, Ephesians 6:10-17, and Colossians 1: 15-17. 20 Cf. Romans 8: 38-39, Ephesians 6:10-17, and Colossians 1: 15-17. 21 Jacques Ellul, The Presence of the Kingdom, trans. Olive Wyon (New York: The Seabury 21 Jacques Ellul, The Presence of the Kingdom, trans. Olive Wyon (New York: The Seabury Press, 1967), 25. Press, 1967), 25. 22 Yoder, The Politics of Jesus, 157. 22 Yoder, The Politics of Jesus, 157. 23 Ibid., 138. 23 Ibid., 138. 24 Ibid., 143. 24 Ibid., 143. 25 Ibid., 151. 25 Ibid., 151. 26 Ibid., 143. 26 Ibid., 143. 27 Ibid., 157. 27 Ibid., 157. 28 Ibid., 147. 28 Ibid., 147. 29 Ibid., 148. 29 Ibid., 148. 30 Jacques Ellul, “Technology and the Gospel,” International Review of Mission 66.262 30 Jacques Ellul, “Technology and the Gospel,” International Review of Mission 66.262 (April 1977): 114. (April 1977): 114. 31 Yoder, The Politics of Jesus, 150. 31 Yoder, The Politics of Jesus, 150. 32 Ellul, The Technological Society, xxxiii. This emphasis on the autonomy of technological 32 Ellul, The Technological Society, xxxiii. This emphasis on the autonomy of technological systems and ways of thinking is undoubtedly the most controversial aspect of Ellul’s systems and ways of thinking is undoubtedly the most controversial aspect of Ellul’s sociological analysis. sociological analysis. 78 The Conrad Grebel Review 78 The Conrad Grebel Review

33 Yoder, The Politics of Jesus, 158. 33 Yoder, The Politics of Jesus, 158. 34 This reading of Yoder is shared by Chris K. Huebner in “Patience, Witness, and the Scattered 34 This reading of Yoder is shared by Chris K. Huebner in “Patience, Witness, and the Scattered Body of Christ: Yoder and Virilio on Knowledge, Politics, and Speed” in Ollenburger and Body of Christ: Yoder and Virilio on Knowledge, Politics, and Speed” in Ollenburger and Koontz, eds., A Mind Patient and Untamed, 56-74. Koontz, eds., A Mind Patient and Untamed, 56-74. 35 Yoder’s approach contrasts with, at one extreme, that of modern theologians preoccupied 35 Yoder’s approach contrasts with, at one extreme, that of modern theologians preoccupied with the search for the “right ‘handle’ by which one can ‘get a hold on’ the course of history with the search for the “right ‘handle’ by which one can ‘get a hold on’ the course of history and move it in the right direction” (The Politics of Jesus, 228). These theologians often end up and move it in the right direction” (The Politics of Jesus, 228). These theologians often end up at least appearing rather instrumental or, better yet, technological. They know their theology at least appearing rather instrumental or, better yet, technological. They know their theology is right when history is moving in the right direction. Yoder’s emphasis on patience reflects is right when history is moving in the right direction. Yoder’s emphasis on patience reflects his conviction that human agency is limited. At the other extreme his approach contrasts his conviction that human agency is limited. At the other extreme his approach contrasts with that of Christian millennialists or spiritualists (and to a lesser extent Ellul) who are with that of Christian millennialists or spiritualists (and to a lesser extent Ellul) who are preoccupied with getting out of the way as God steers the course of history to completion. preoccupied with getting out of the way as God steers the course of history to completion. By confining faith to other-worldly concerns, spiritualists often end up baptizing as God- By confining faith to other-worldly concerns, spiritualists often end up baptizing as God- ordained whatever the status quo happens to be. Yoder’s emphasis on the church reflects ordained whatever the status quo happens to be. Yoder’s emphasis on the church reflects his conviction that God’s spirit is at work in the world through the agency of transformed his conviction that God’s spirit is at work in the world through the agency of transformed individuals and institutions. individuals and institutions. 36 Wesley Swanson, “The Cult of the Automobile,” Epoche 18 (1983), 98. 36 Wesley Swanson, “The Cult of the Automobile,” Epoche 18 (1983), 98. 37 Carl D. Bowman makes a similar point in “Emerging Biotechnologies: A Historical 37 Carl D. Bowman makes a similar point in “Emerging Biotechnologies: A Historical Perspective,” in Viewing New Creations with Anabaptist Eyes. Perspective,” in Viewing New Creations with Anabaptist Eyes. 38 Julia Meaton and David Morrice, “The Ethics and Politics of Private Automobile Use,” 38 Julia Meaton and David Morrice, “The Ethics and Politics of Private Automobile Use,” Environmental Ethics 18.1 (Spring 1996): 39-54. Environmental Ethics 18.1 (Spring 1996): 39-54. 39 The total number of vehicle miles traveled annually in the United States increased steadily 39 The total number of vehicle miles traveled annually in the United States increased steadily from 2,296 billion in 1993 to 2,880 billion in 2003 (which translates into a total increase from 2,296 billion in 1993 to 2,880 billion in 2003 (which translates into a total increase of approximately 2,000 additional miles per year for every person in the U.S.). See the of approximately 2,000 additional miles per year for every person in the U.S.). See the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration’s “Traffic Safety Facts 2003 – Overview,” National Highway Traffic Safety Administration’s “Traffic Safety Facts 2003 – Overview,” 3, available online at: Accessed on 10 February 2006. The same data is not available on a national basis for pdf> Accessed on 10 February 2006. The same data is not available on a national basis for Canada, but it is safe to assume a similar trend. In Ontario, for example, the total number of Canada, but it is safe to assume a similar trend. In Ontario, for example, the total number of vehicle kilometers traveled annually increased steadily from 76 billion in 1993 to 117 billion vehicle kilometers traveled annually increased steadily from 76 billion in 1993 to 117 billion in 2003 (which translates into a total increase of approximately 2,500 km or 1,560 miles per in 2003 (which translates into a total increase of approximately 2,500 km or 1,560 miles per year for every person in the province). See Section 3 of the “Ontario Road Safety Annual year for every person in the province). See Section 3 of the “Ontario Road Safety Annual Report, 2003,” available online at: Accessed on 10 February 2006. chp3_03.htm#data_chp_3> Accessed on 10 February 2006. 40 John Tierney, “The Way We Drive Now: The Autonomist Manifesto (Or, How I Learned 40 John Tierney, “The Way We Drive Now: The Autonomist Manifesto (Or, How I Learned to Stop Worrying and love the Road): A Social, Moral and Environmental Case for Driving to Stop Worrying and love the Road): A Social, Moral and Environmental Case for Driving More,” New York Times Magazine (26 September 2004), 60. Tierney continues to publish More,” New York Times Magazine (26 September 2004), 60. Tierney continues to publish a steady stream of opinion pieces in a similar vein; cf. “Burn, Baby, Burn,” The New York a steady stream of opinion pieces in a similar vein; cf. “Burn, Baby, Burn,” The New York Times (7 February 2006), A21. Times (7 February 2006), A21. 41 Ibid., 65. 41 Ibid., 65. 42 Howard P. Segal, “The Automobile and the Prospect of an American Technological 42 Howard P. Segal, “The Automobile and the Prospect of an American Technological Plateau,” Soundings 65.1 (Spring 1982): 83. Italics added. Plateau,” Soundings 65.1 (Spring 1982): 83. Italics added. 43 Swanson, “The Cult of the Automobile,” 99. 43 Swanson, “The Cult of the Automobile,” 99. 44 Subtitled Looking Back into the History of Our Desires, trans. Don Reneau (Berkeley: 44 Subtitled Looking Back into the History of Our Desires, trans. Don Reneau (Berkeley: Walking With Yoder . . . to the Automobile 79 Walking With Yoder . . . to the Automobile 79

University of California Press, 1992). University of California Press, 1992). 45 Ibid., vii. 45 Ibid., vii. 46 Ibid., viii. 46 Ibid., viii. 47 Ibid., 36. 47 Ibid., 36. 48 Ibid., 91. 48 Ibid., 91. 49 Independent Review 2.1 (Summer 1997): 5-29. 49 Independent Review 2.1 (Summer 1997): 5-29. 50 Ibid., 6. 50 Ibid., 6. 51 Ibid. 51 Ibid. 52 Sachs, For the Love of the Automobile, 92. 52 Sachs, For the Love of the Automobile, 92. 53 Ibid., 98. 53 Ibid., 98. 54 Ibid., 100. 54 Ibid., 100. 55 Ibid., 101. 55 Ibid., 101. 56 Ibid., 208. 56 Ibid., 208. 57 Ibid., 111. 57 Ibid., 111. 58 Milan Kundera, Slowness, trans. Linda Asher (New York: HarperCollins, 1996), 2. 58 Milan Kundera, Slowness, trans. Linda Asher (New York: HarperCollins, 1996), 2. 59 Quoted in Sachs, For the Love of the Automobile, 120. 59 Quoted in Sachs, For the Love of the Automobile, 120. 60 Kundera, Slowness, 39. 60 Kundera, Slowness, 39. 61 Sachs, For the Love of the Automobile, 185. 61 Sachs, For the Love of the Automobile, 185. 62 Ibid., 187. 62 Ibid., 187. 63 Ibid., 207. 63 Ibid., 207. 64 I began this essay decrying the lack of Mennonite reflection on technology in general, and 64 I began this essay decrying the lack of Mennonite reflection on technology in general, and historian Marlene Epp has made a similar point regarding the automobile in particular. See historian Marlene Epp has made a similar point regarding the automobile in particular. See “Mennonites were silent about the automobile,” The Mennonite Reporter 20.8 (April 16, “Mennonites were silent about the automobile,” The Mennonite Reporter 20.8 (April 16, 1990): 7. However, Donald B. Kraybill’s bibliography for the entry under “Automobile” in 1990): 7. However, Donald B. Kraybill’s bibliography for the entry under “Automobile” in the Mennonite Encyclopedia vol. 5 (Scottdale, PA: Herald Press, 1989) notes several articles the Mennonite Encyclopedia vol. 5 (Scottdale, PA: Herald Press, 1989) notes several articles from church publications in the 1920s and 1930s that indicate some level of self-conscious from church publications in the 1920s and 1930s that indicate some level of self-conscious discernment regarding the acceptance of this form of technology. discernment regarding the acceptance of this form of technology. 65 Amish and Old Order Mennonite communities ban the ownership, not the use, of cars. Cf. 65 Amish and Old Order Mennonite communities ban the ownership, not the use, of cars. Cf. Donald B. Kraybill, The Riddle of Amish Culture, revised ed. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Donald B. Kraybill, The Riddle of Amish Culture, revised ed. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001), 219. University Press, 2001), 219. 66 While in the United States seatbelt use has increased and alcohol-related fatalities have 66 While in the United States seatbelt use has increased and alcohol-related fatalities have decreased since 1993, the percentage of fatal accidents in which excessive speed was a decreased since 1993, the percentage of fatal accidents in which excessive speed was a factor has actually increased over the same period. See the National Highway Traffic Safety factor has actually increased over the same period. See the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration’s “Traffic Safety Facts 2003 – Overview,” 3-7. Comparable national data is Administration’s “Traffic Safety Facts 2003 – Overview,” 3-7. Comparable national data is not available for Canada. not available for Canada. 67 John H.L. Waterson, “Religion and Road Safety,” Theology 64 (1961): 228. 67 John H.L. Waterson, “Religion and Road Safety,” Theology 64 (1961): 228. 68 Barbara Halton Stoops, “Driving as Christians,” Engage/Social Action 15 (1987), 20. 68 Barbara Halton Stoops, “Driving as Christians,” Engage/Social Action 15 (1987), 20. 69 Waterson, “Religion and Road Safety,” 229. 69 Waterson, “Religion and Road Safety,” 229. 70 Cf. “The Invisibility of Contemporary Culture” in Albert Borgmann, Power Failure: 70 Cf. “The Invisibility of Contemporary Culture” in Albert Borgmann, Power Failure: Christianity in the Culture of Technology (Grand Rapids: Brazos Press, 2003). Christianity in the Culture of Technology (Grand Rapids: Brazos Press, 2003). 71 Borgmann’s primary concern in his recent work is with the transformation of society. Cf. 71 Borgmann’s primary concern in his recent work is with the transformation of society. Cf. his discussion of “public celebrations” in Power Failure, 117-28. Marva J. Dawn helpfully his discussion of “public celebrations” in Power Failure, 117-28. Marva J. Dawn helpfully applies his concept of focal practices to the church in “How Can We Learn to Live the applies his concept of focal practices to the church in “How Can We Learn to Live the 80 The Conrad Grebel Review 80 The Conrad Grebel Review

Language of Focal Concerns,” of Unfettered Hope: A Call to Faithful Living in an Affluent Language of Focal Concerns,” of Unfettered Hope: A Call to Faithful Living in an Affluent Society (Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2003). While for Yoder the authentic Society (Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2003). While for Yoder the authentic transformation of technology would start with the church, he would never suggest it must be transformation of technology would start with the church, he would never suggest it must be confined to the church. Since the boundary between the church and the world is blurred in all confined to the church. Since the boundary between the church and the world is blurred in all sorts of ways, not the least of which is in the realm of technology, I think Yoder would support sorts of ways, not the least of which is in the realm of technology, I think Yoder would support translating the practices of the church into, for example, subsequent political advocacy for translating the practices of the church into, for example, subsequent political advocacy for greater access to public transportation, zoning changes, and more extensive driver training greater access to public transportation, zoning changes, and more extensive driver training requirements. For an illustration of this type of sequence, note how the “What Should the requirements. For an illustration of this type of sequence, note how the “What Should the Governor Drive?” campaign initiated by the Interfaith Climate and Energy Campaign followed Governor Drive?” campaign initiated by the Interfaith Climate and Energy Campaign followed the “What Would Jesus Drive?” campaign initiated by Evangelicals for Social Action and the “What Would Jesus Drive?” campaign initiated by Evangelicals for Social Action and the Evangelical Environmental Network, with its focus on educating congregations to see the Evangelical Environmental Network, with its focus on educating congregations to see that their transportation choices are moral choices. See the Michigan Interfaith Climate and that their transportation choices are moral choices. See the Michigan Interfaith Climate and Energy Campaign, “What Should the Governor Drive? Recommendations for Improving Energy Campaign, “What Should the Governor Drive? Recommendations for Improving the Fuel Economy of the State of Michigan’s Auto Fleet” (unpublished report, September the Fuel Economy of the State of Michigan’s Auto Fleet” (unpublished report, September 2003); and Ron Sider and Jim Ball, “What Would Jesus Drive? A Campaign Discussion 2003); and Ron Sider and Jim Ball, “What Would Jesus Drive? A Campaign Discussion Paper,” available at: Accessed on Paper,” available at: Accessed on 10 February 2006. 10 February 2006.

Paul C. Heidebrecht is a doctoral student in theological ethics at Marquette Paul C. Heidebrecht is a doctoral student in theological ethics at Marquette University in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. University in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Book Review 81 Book Review 81

John Howard Yoder, Anabaptism and Reformation in Switzerland: An John Howard Yoder, Anabaptism and Reformation in Switzerland: An Historical and Theological Analysis of the Dialogues Between Anabaptist Historical and Theological Analysis of the Dialogues Between Anabaptist and Reformers, edited by C. Arnold Snyder; translated by David Carl Stassen and Reformers, edited by C. Arnold Snyder; translated by David Carl Stassen and C. Arnold Snyder. Kitchener: Pandora Press, 2004. and C. Arnold Snyder. Kitchener: Pandora Press, 2004.

Two writings, a historical study that earned John Howard Yoder his doctoral Two writings, a historical study that earned John Howard Yoder his doctoral degree and a theological analysis of that study, previously published in degree and a theological analysis of that study, previously published in German in 1962 and 1968 respectively, are translated and brought together German in 1962 and 1968 respectively, are translated and brought together here as a single project in two parts. The translation reads well, and the brief here as a single project in two parts. The translation reads well, and the brief notes on translation are useful and clear. Those who want to cross-reference notes on translation are useful and clear. Those who want to cross-reference the English and German versions will be helped by the fact that both the the English and German versions will be helped by the fact that both the structure of numbered chapters and sections, and the note-numbering scheme structure of numbered chapters and sections, and the note-numbering scheme of Yoder’s original publications, have been reproduced here. of Yoder’s original publications, have been reproduced here. Included are two informative secondary essays. C. Arnold Snyder, Included are two informative secondary essays. C. Arnold Snyder, editor and co-translator (with David Stassen), deals in a Preface with Yoder editor and co-translator (with David Stassen), deals in a Preface with Yoder as historian, a focus largely ignored amidst discussions of Yoder’s theology as historian, a focus largely ignored amidst discussions of Yoder’s theology and ethics. This essay (appearing in slightly revised form in this issue of and ethics. This essay (appearing in slightly revised form in this issue of CGR) brings to view Yoder’s early approach to Anabaptist history, one that CGR) brings to view Yoder’s early approach to Anabaptist history, one that aligned with Harold Bender et al. regarding belief in a ‘true Anabaptism.’ aligned with Harold Bender et al. regarding belief in a ‘true Anabaptism.’ Snyder also shows that Yoder’s last direct, published engagement with Snyder also shows that Yoder’s last direct, published engagement with Reformation historians dealing with the Anabaptists was an encounter with Reformation historians dealing with the Anabaptists was an encounter with James Stayer’s early work on the sword. Yoder did not directly engage the James Stayer’s early work on the sword. Yoder did not directly engage the polygenesis scholarship of the mid-1970s but did modify his own narratives polygenesis scholarship of the mid-1970s but did modify his own narratives in light of the new scholarship; he accepted a broader historical definition in light of the new scholarship; he accepted a broader historical definition as urged by revisionist historians (xxv-xxvii) even as he turned his attention as urged by revisionist historians (xxv-xxvii) even as he turned his attention to biblical studies, theology, and ethics. So, while Yoder’s early historical to biblical studies, theology, and ethics. So, while Yoder’s early historical work was challenged to some extent, Snyder notes that “it is strange but work was challenged to some extent, Snyder notes that “it is strange but true that critiques of specific parts of [that] work seem to leave his work true that critiques of specific parts of [that] work seem to leave his work as a whole unchallenged” (xxxviii). This statement may not tell the whole as a whole unchallenged” (xxxviii). This statement may not tell the whole story, since Yoder’s work is challenged at various points but not often on story, since Yoder’s work is challenged at various points but not often on the basis of engagement with his early historical work, even though this the basis of engagement with his early historical work, even though this book makes it clear that many themes marking his later theological work are book makes it clear that many themes marking his later theological work are being developed in his historical analysis. being developed in his historical analysis. Neal Blough’s essay, “The Historical Roots of John Howard Yoder’s Neal Blough’s essay, “The Historical Roots of John Howard Yoder’s Theology,” documents the relationship between Yoder’s historical Theology,” documents the relationship between Yoder’s historical scholarship and the major theological themes he subsequently developed. scholarship and the major theological themes he subsequently developed. 82 The Conrad Grebel Review 82 The Conrad Grebel Review

Blough notes that for Yoder the doing of church history was a way of Blough notes that for Yoder the doing of church history was a way of entering ecumenical dialogue. Thus, for Yoder, being a church historian and entering ecumenical dialogue. Thus, for Yoder, being a church historian and being in dialogue were the same thing, as was doing theology and being being in dialogue were the same thing, as was doing theology and being in dialogue (xliii). Blough discusses emphases marking both Yoder’s early in dialogue (xliii). Blough discusses emphases marking both Yoder’s early historical work and later theological thought: the church as a place where historical work and later theological thought: the church as a place where the truth is sought and known; Christology and discipleship; Constantine the truth is sought and known; Christology and discipleship; Constantine and church history. and church history. The heart of this volume is Yoder’s two-part project. I was keenly The heart of this volume is Yoder’s two-part project. I was keenly interested in reading Yoder’s sustained historical work, since I have read interested in reading Yoder’s sustained historical work, since I have read mostly his theological, biblical, and ethical material. Yoder’s historical mostly his theological, biblical, and ethical material. Yoder’s historical analysis of the dialogues between Anabaptists and Reformers in Zurich analysis of the dialogues between Anabaptists and Reformers in Zurich from 1523 to 1538, for which he was awarded his doctorate, is a close from 1523 to 1538, for which he was awarded his doctorate, is a close reading of documents and a careful analysis bringing to light dimensions of reading of documents and a careful analysis bringing to light dimensions of the split between Zwingli and the Anabaptists that are important for Yoder’s the split between Zwingli and the Anabaptists that are important for Yoder’s subsequent work. Yoder sees in the dialogues not primarily a contention subsequent work. Yoder sees in the dialogues not primarily a contention over baptism but disputed understandings of the church community and its over baptism but disputed understandings of the church community and its relationship to the world. Many other historical issues could be mentioned, relationship to the world. Many other historical issues could be mentioned, such as the view of Anabaptists as children of Zwingli, his (Zwingli’s) such as the view of Anabaptists as children of Zwingli, his (Zwingli’s) notions of human and divine justice, and so on. notions of human and divine justice, and so on. Especially fascinating is Yoder’s extensive treatment of the Especially fascinating is Yoder’s extensive treatment of the techniques of the disputations. He contends that the form Anabaptism techniques of the disputations. He contends that the form Anabaptism takes is made visible in the course of the dialogues, a view which takes on takes is made visible in the course of the dialogues, a view which takes on more significance when we realize that he was then still looking for ‘true more significance when we realize that he was then still looking for ‘true Anabaptism.’ Yoder claims that the mechanics of the disputations, that the Anabaptism.’ Yoder claims that the mechanics of the disputations, that the Anabaptists called for them most of the time, and that recantation was a Anabaptists called for them most of the time, and that recantation was a real possibility (all of which he terms an “inexhaustible will to dialogue”) real possibility (all of which he terms an “inexhaustible will to dialogue”) demand a theological explanation, which he provides in the second part demand a theological explanation, which he provides in the second part of this book, a dogmatic-historical analysis of the dialogues. Here some of this book, a dogmatic-historical analysis of the dialogues. Here some of Yoder’s later theological work comes plainly into view. In extended of Yoder’s later theological work comes plainly into view. In extended discussions of Zwingli’s ‘ontological dualism,’ the rule of love, the authority discussions of Zwingli’s ‘ontological dualism,’ the rule of love, the authority of the church, hermeneutics, and ecclesiology, Yoder works out some of the of the church, hermeneutics, and ecclesiology, Yoder works out some of the material also on display especially in The Christian Witness to the State material also on display especially in The Christian Witness to the State (published in 1964, between the original publication of the two parts of (published in 1964, between the original publication of the two parts of this book) and The Politics of Jesus. We can see here Yoder’s intentional this book) and The Politics of Jesus. We can see here Yoder’s intentional oscillation between ‘for’ and ‘against’ language regarding the relationship oscillation between ‘for’ and ‘against’ language regarding the relationship Book Review 83 Book Review 83 of church and world, his exposing of false dualisms, and his criticism of the of church and world, his exposing of false dualisms, and his criticism of the ways people have found to avoid the ethic of Jesus. ways people have found to avoid the ethic of Jesus. Yoder’s sustained historical analysis and theological reflections Yoder’s sustained historical analysis and theological reflections evoke several reactions. There are instances within Yoder’s work where I evoke several reactions. There are instances within Yoder’s work where I have wished for the kind of sustained account shown here. Some of his have wished for the kind of sustained account shown here. Some of his statements come off as either sweeping conclusions or a lumping together statements come off as either sweeping conclusions or a lumping together of seemingly disparate figures or ideas. For example, it has been suggested of seemingly disparate figures or ideas. For example, it has been suggested that responsible historians can only cringe in the face of “crudities” found that responsible historians can only cringe in the face of “crudities” found in Yoder’s Royal Priesthood, where the ‘fall of the church’ is located “at in Yoder’s Royal Priesthood, where the ‘fall of the church’ is located “at the point of that fusion of church and society in which Constantine was the the point of that fusion of church and society in which Constantine was the architect, Eusebius the priest, Augustine the apologete, and the Crusades architect, Eusebius the priest, Augustine the apologete, and the Crusades and Inquisition the culmination” (89). In some of his work we see fuller and Inquisition the culmination” (89). In some of his work we see fuller treatments than this, but even there discussions often come in the form of treatments than this, but even there discussions often come in the form of class lectures (Preface to Theology, and Christian Attitudes to War, Peace and class lectures (Preface to Theology, and Christian Attitudes to War, Peace and Revolution: A Companion to Bainton, or material available online). Yoder Revolution: A Companion to Bainton, or material available online). Yoder evidently intended to do this kind of historical work, as when he promises evidently intended to do this kind of historical work, as when he promises a fuller text on Constantine and the fourth century in For the Nations (6); a fuller text on Constantine and the fourth century in For the Nations (6); reading this early book of his makes me wish he had done more of it. reading this early book of his makes me wish he had done more of it. Yet it seems to me that the biblical, theological, and ethical studies Yet it seems to me that the biblical, theological, and ethical studies that so occupied much of Yoder’s career were done not only to take up the that so occupied much of Yoder’s career were done not only to take up the themes that he uncovered in his historical work, but to continue the work themes that he uncovered in his historical work, but to continue the work of the church in the way it should be done—something he learned in his of the church in the way it should be done—something he learned in his historical study of the Anabaptists. Thus one might say Yoder the historian historical study of the Anabaptists. Thus one might say Yoder the historian is Yoder the theologian, trying to embody the very stance on display in those is Yoder the theologian, trying to embody the very stance on display in those disputations. In that case, his oft-repeated statement that he was a church disputations. In that case, his oft-repeated statement that he was a church historian working as an amateur biblical scholar, theologian, and ethicist historian working as an amateur biblical scholar, theologian, and ethicist should not be considered just a modest aside. It also means that Michael should not be considered just a modest aside. It also means that Michael Cartwright’s description of Yoder as ‘radically catholic,’ a moniker accepted Cartwright’s description of Yoder as ‘radically catholic,’ a moniker accepted by Yoder, or Craig Carter’s emphasis on Yoder’s debt to Barth, while by Yoder, or Craig Carter’s emphasis on Yoder’s debt to Barth, while accurate, should not distract us from appreciating Yoder’s indebtedness for accurate, should not distract us from appreciating Yoder’s indebtedness for substance and style to his Anabaptist forebears. substance and style to his Anabaptist forebears.

Paul Doerksen, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario Paul Doerksen, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario 2005 BENJAMIN EBY LECTURE 2005 BENJAMIN EBY LECTURE

A Mennonite Novelist’s Journey (from) Home: A Mennonite Novelist’s Journey (from) Home: Ephraim Weber’s Encounters with S.F. Coffman Ephraim Weber’s Encounters with S.F. Coffman and Lucy Maud Montgomery and Lucy Maud Montgomery

Ephraim Weber Lucy Maud Montgomery Samuel F. Coffman Ephraim Weber Lucy Maud Montgomery Samuel F. Coffman (1870-1956) (1874-1942) (1872-1954) (1870-1956) (1874-1942) (1872-1954) Photo circa 1900 Photo 1908 Photo circa 1900 Photo circa 1900 Photo 1908 Photo circa 1900

Hildi Froese Tiessen Hildi Froese Tiessen

Introduction: Weber, Montgomery and “Aunt Rachel’s Nieces” Introduction: Weber, Montgomery and “Aunt Rachel’s Nieces” What follows is, in large measure, a respectful investigation into the life of a What follows is, in large measure, a respectful investigation into the life of a man who grew up among the Mennonites of Waterloo County, Ontario well man who grew up among the Mennonites of Waterloo County, Ontario well over a hundred years ago, but who found the Mennonites’ way of life not over a hundred years ago, but who found the Mennonites’ way of life not conducive to the realization of his deepest longing: to be a writer. Like so conducive to the realization of his deepest longing: to be a writer. Like so many writers – perhaps like most of us – Ephraim Weber occupied several many writers – perhaps like most of us – Ephraim Weber occupied several worlds and was comfortable in none. “I want nothing so much as to write,”1 worlds and was comfortable in none. “I want nothing so much as to write,”1

Photos of Weber and Montgomery: Archival and Special Collections, McLaughlin Photos of Weber and Montgomery: Archival and Special Collections, McLaughlin Library, University of Guelph. Photo of Coffman: Mennonite Archives of Ontario, Library, University of Guelph. Photo of Coffman: Mennonite Archives of Ontario, Conrad Grebel University College. Conrad Grebel University College. A Mennonite Novelist’s Journey (from) Home 85 A Mennonite Novelist’s Journey (from) Home 85

2005 BENJAMIN EBY LECTURE he wrote Lucy Maud2005 Montgomery BENJAMIN in 1903.EBY LAsECTURE we shall see, Weber would he wrote Lucy Maud Montgomery in 1903. As we shall see, Weber would leave the Mennonites in order to realize his longing to be a writer, and – leave the Mennonites in order to realize his longing to be a writer, and – A Mennonite Novelist’s Journey (from) Home: followingA the Mennonite pattern of the Novelist’s epics – he would Journey return, (from) finally, Home: to the place from following the pattern of the epics – he would return, finally, to the place from which he had begun and see it differently. He would absorb and confront his which he had begun and see it differently. He would absorb and confront his Ephraim Weber’s Encounters with S.F. Coffman heritageEphraim – gently enough Weber’s – in aEncounters novel: the great with work S.F. of hisCoffman life. Weber, the heritage – gently enough – in a novel: the great work of his life. Weber, the and Lucy Maud Montgomery great-grandson of Benjaminand Lucy Eby, Maud lived Montgomeryto be 86 years old, and throughout great-grandson of Benjamin Eby, lived to be 86 years old, and throughout his life he was, as his wife Annie Melrose remarked after his death, “ever his life he was, as his wife Annie Melrose remarked after his death, “ever the student.” “We are climbing the Alps of life,” he wrote when he was 27, the student.” “We are climbing the Alps of life,” he wrote when he was 27, eerily anticipating a lifetime replete with vocational disappointment. “We eerily anticipating a lifetime replete with vocational disappointment. “We mount and slip and fall and rise and fall and rise and mount and tremble.” mount and slip and fall and rise and fall and rise and mount and tremble.” But, he added, the “awful avalanche of adversity must not dismay us.”2 But, he added, the “awful avalanche of adversity must not dismay us.”2 I will begin by placing what I have to say into the context of my I will begin by placing what I have to say into the context of my own scholarly interests, which have been focused over the past several own scholarly interests, which have been focused over the past several decades on the emergence of a significant body of creative literature written decades on the emergence of a significant body of creative literature written by Mennonites in Canada. I have been interested, in particular, in two by Mennonites in Canada. I have been interested, in particular, in two things: the often uneasy relationship between the Mennonite writer and his things: the often uneasy relationship between the Mennonite writer and his or her community, as one affects the other; and the impact that Mennonite or her community, as one affects the other; and the impact that Mennonite literature has had on the construction of Mennonite identity in our time. literature has had on the construction of Mennonite identity in our time. I am interested in how Mennonite writers respond to their communities, I am interested in how Mennonite writers respond to their communities, and their communities to them; and in the fact that writers of Mennonite and their communities to them; and in the fact that writers of Mennonite heritage – whether they embrace or reject the communities that nurtured heritage – whether they embrace or reject the communities that nurtured them – contribute, in any case, to the construction/our conception of “the them – contribute, in any case, to the construction/our conception of “the Hildi Froese Tiessen Mennonite” both within theHildi Mennonite Froese communityTiessen and without. Nowhere Mennonite” both within the Mennonite community and without. Nowhere are all these dynamics more evident than with respect to the recent are all these dynamics more evident than with respect to the recent Introduction: Weber, Montgomery and “Aunt Rachel’s Nieces” Introduction:(conflicted) reception Weber, Montgomeryof Miriam Toews’ and “Auntnovel A Rachel’s Complicated Nieces” Kindness,3 (conflicted) reception of Miriam Toews’ novel A Complicated Kindness,3 What follows is, in large measure, a respectful investigation into the life of a Whatabout followsa disenchanted is, in large teenager measure, appalled a respectful at what investigation it means to be into Mennonite the life of in a about a disenchanted teenager appalled at what it means to be Mennonite in man who grew up among the Mennonites of Waterloo County, Ontario well manher small who grewMennonite up among prairie the town. Mennonites of Waterloo County, Ontario well her small Mennonite prairie town. over a hundred years ago, but who found the Mennonites’ way of life not over a hundred years ago, but who found the Mennonites’ way of life not conducive to the realization of his deepest longing: to be a writer. Like so conducive to the realization of *his deepest* * longing: to be a writer. Like so * * * many writers – perhaps like most of us – Ephraim Weber occupied several many writers – perhaps like most of us – Ephraim Weber occupied several worlds and was comfortable in none. “I want nothing so much as to write,”1 worldsStories andmake was us comfortable real, Rudy Wiebe in none. has “I remarked. want nothing This so investigation much as to write,” hinges1 Stories make us real, Rudy Wiebe has remarked. This investigation hinges on the discovery in Canada’s national archives of a story – a narrative in on the discovery in Canada’s national archives of a story – a narrative in fiction – about Mennonites who lived in or around Kitchener, Ontario, in the fiction – about Mennonites who lived in or around Kitchener, Ontario, in the early years of the last century. In June 1937 – two years after Ephraim Weber early years of the last century. In June 1937 – two years after Ephraim Weber had begun to write his novel about Mennonites – Lucy Maud Montgomery had begun to write his novel about Mennonites – Lucy Maud Montgomery wrote to him one of her wide-ranging, lengthy letters (in this case, some wrote to him one of her wide-ranging, lengthy letters (in this case, some 86 The Conrad Grebel Review 86 The Conrad Grebel Review thirty hand-written pages). Montgomery and Weber had been writing to each thirty hand-written pages). Montgomery and Weber had been writing to each other for over three decades. She ended her letter with a breathless question: other for over three decades. She ended her letter with a breathless question: “Have you read ‘Gone With the Wind ’!!!” In the body of her letter were “Have you read ‘Gone With the Wind ’!!!” In the body of her letter were comments on the immortality of the soul (on which Weber had delivered comments on the immortality of the soul (on which Weber had delivered a sermon in his Saskatchewan church) and on other things, including the a sermon in his Saskatchewan church) and on other things, including the recent abdication of King Edward VIII, who, Montgomery declared, had recent abdication of King Edward VIII, who, Montgomery declared, had expressed “senile folly” when he threw away “the crown of the greatest expressed “senile folly” when he threw away “the crown of the greatest empire the world has ever seen . . . for the sake of a middle aged double empire the world has ever seen . . . for the sake of a middle aged double divorcee!!” Edward VIII, she told Weber in exasperation, ought to have divorcee!!” Edward VIII, she told Weber in exasperation, ought to have “his royal bottom soundly spanked.”4 Among these scattered bits of gossip “his royal bottom soundly spanked.”4 Among these scattered bits of gossip and opinion was her response to Weber’s latest letter to her of some seven and opinion was her response to Weber’s latest letter to her of some seven months before: “You were, when you wrote me, writing a novelette called months before: “You were, when you wrote me, writing a novelette called “Aunt Rachel’s Will,” she observed. “Is it finished? As you outlined it, it “Aunt Rachel’s Will,” she observed. “Is it finished? As you outlined it, it sounded like an ‘awfully good’ idea and something quite new – a rare thing sounded like an ‘awfully good’ idea and something quite new – a rare thing nowadays when almost everything has been written about and almost every nowadays when almost everything has been written about and almost every situation exploited.”5 The novel to which she refers – later called “Aunt situation exploited.”5 The novel to which she refers – later called “Aunt Rachel’s Nieces” – lies at the heart of this investigation. Rachel’s Nieces” – lies at the heart of this investigation. The journey I’m about to map began some fifteen years ago, when The journey I’m about to map began some fifteen years ago, when Paul Tiessen and I stumbled upon a collection of letters in the National Paul Tiessen and I stumbled upon a collection of letters in the National Archives in Ottawa – letters between the celebrity Canadian author of Anne Archives in Ottawa – letters between the celebrity Canadian author of Anne of Green Gables, Lucy Maud Montgomery, and an Alberta homesteader of Green Gables, Lucy Maud Montgomery, and an Alberta homesteader named Ephraim Weber, who had spent the first twenty-six years of his life named Ephraim Weber, who had spent the first twenty-six years of his life among the Mennonites of Kitchener (then known as Berlin). We became among the Mennonites of Kitchener (then known as Berlin). We became aware in Ottawa of other, related collections of letters in the National aware in Ottawa of other, related collections of letters in the National Archives – letters between Weber and two of his other correspondents (he Archives – letters between Weber and two of his other correspondents (he had as many as thirty-two at a time): letters to Leslie Staebler, an old high had as many as thirty-two at a time): letters to Leslie Staebler, an old high school friend, who would intermittently keep Weber apprised of cultural school friend, who would intermittently keep Weber apprised of cultural developments in his home town (mostly of music and theater events); and developments in his home town (mostly of music and theater events); and letters to and from Wilfrid Eggleston, once a student of Weber’s and later a letters to and from Wilfrid Eggleston, once a student of Weber’s and later a distinguished Canadian man of letters. We discovered to our great delight as distinguished Canadian man of letters. We discovered to our great delight as scholars of Mennonite literature that these collections of letters from Weber scholars of Mennonite literature that these collections of letters from Weber to Staebler and between Weber and Eggleston – as well as from Montgomery to Staebler and between Weber and Eggleston – as well as from Montgomery to Weber – contained recurrent references to the novel Weber had begun to to Weber – contained recurrent references to the novel Weber had begun to write in 1935: a “yarn,” as he called it, set in the environs of Kitchener, write in 1935: a “yarn,” as he called it, set in the environs of Kitchener, about three sisters whose acting out against their Mennonite congregation’s about three sisters whose acting out against their Mennonite congregation’s A Mennonite Novelist’s Journey (from) Home 87 A Mennonite Novelist’s Journey (from) Home 87 rules regarding dress and deportment threatened to lead to a church split. rules regarding dress and deportment threatened to lead to a church split. In his letters, especially those to Eggleston and Staebler, Weber In his letters, especially those to Eggleston and Staebler, Weber documented his progress while writing this novel, which had a plot strangely documented his progress while writing this novel, which had a plot strangely evocative of an historical controversy concerning Mennonite women’s evocative of an historical controversy concerning Mennonite women’s compulsory wearing of the bonnet in the early decades of the century – a compulsory wearing of the bonnet in the early decades of the century – a controversy that in 1924 led to a split in Kitchener’s First Mennonite Church controversy that in 1924 led to a split in Kitchener’s First Mennonite Church (where some of Weber’s relatives still attended). Disagreement about what (where some of Weber’s relatives still attended). Disagreement about what women in the Mennonite church should wear – especially upon their heads women in the Mennonite church should wear – especially upon their heads – plays a central role in Weber’s novel, as it did in the “Old” Mennonite – plays a central role in Weber’s novel, as it did in the “Old” Mennonite world in which Weber had once lived. I cannot explore the subject of world in which Weber had once lived. I cannot explore the subject of nonconformity in dress here, but I will invoke the words of Melvin nonconformity in dress here, but I will invoke the words of Melvin Gingerich, who observed in his study of the history of Mennonite costume, Gingerich, who observed in his study of the history of Mennonite costume, that “between 1865 and 1950 in the district and general conferences of the that “between 1865 and 1950 in the district and general conferences of the ‘Old’ Mennonite Church, the name widely used for the branch of the church ‘Old’ Mennonite Church, the name widely used for the branch of the church established in America in the late seventeenth century [the branch of the established in America in the late seventeenth century [the branch of the church under discussion here], no [fewer] than 230 resolutions were passed church under discussion here], no [fewer] than 230 resolutions were passed on nonconformity in dress, more than on any other subject.”6 on nonconformity in dress, more than on any other subject.”6 The controversial material of Weber’s novel is surely interesting, but The controversial material of Weber’s novel is surely interesting, but the very existence of the work is itself worthy of attention, as anyone who the very existence of the work is itself worthy of attention, as anyone who has followed the emergence of Mennonite literature in Canada over the has followed the emergence of Mennonite literature in Canada over the past few decades would agree. Prominent in the front lines of the current past few decades would agree. Prominent in the front lines of the current onslaught of Mennonite literary talent – indeed, on the foreground of English onslaught of Mennonite literary talent – indeed, on the foreground of English literature in Canada – are Mennonite writers like Sandra Birdsell and Rudy literature in Canada – are Mennonite writers like Sandra Birdsell and Rudy Wiebe and David Bergen, who was awarded the Scotiabank Giller Prize Wiebe and David Bergen, who was awarded the Scotiabank Giller Prize for fiction in 2005,7 and, of course, Miriam Toews, who won the Governor for fiction in 2005,7 and, of course, Miriam Toews, who won the Governor General’s Award for fiction in 2004. It has for some time been generally General’s Award for fiction in 2004. It has for some time been generally acknowledged that Mennonite literature in English in Canada began with acknowledged that Mennonite literature in English in Canada began with Rudy Wiebe’s Peace Shall Destroy Many in 1962,8 so Paul and I were Rudy Wiebe’s Peace Shall Destroy Many in 1962,8 so Paul and I were enthralled when we happened upon the references to Ephraim Weber’s work enthralled when we happened upon the references to Ephraim Weber’s work of fiction from a quarter of a century before Wiebe. Here was a Mennonite of fiction from a quarter of a century before Wiebe. Here was a Mennonite writer who predated the parade of Mennonite writers who had published writer who predated the parade of Mennonite writers who had published scores of volumes of fiction and poetry over the past few decades – and scores of volumes of fiction and poetry over the past few decades – and remarkably often to national acclaim. remarkably often to national acclaim. The only trouble was that the novel about which Weber’s letters had The only trouble was that the novel about which Weber’s letters had so much to say was nowhere to be found. Driven by curiosity and a sense of so much to say was nowhere to be found. Driven by curiosity and a sense of 88 The Conrad Grebel Review 88 The Conrad Grebel Review intrigue, we looked everywhere for it. We pressed the people at the National intrigue, we looked everywhere for it. We pressed the people at the National Archives to search for it, thinking it might have gone missing in their miles Archives to search for it, thinking it might have gone missing in their miles of shelves; we wrote letters of inquiry to newspapers across the country, and of shelves; we wrote letters of inquiry to newspapers across the country, and received among the responses some that were modestly useful, some mildly received among the responses some that were modestly useful, some mildly bizarre. Finally we located and visited those of Weber’s friends who were bizarre. Finally we located and visited those of Weber’s friends who were still alive – all to no avail. After years of searching we were surprised and still alive – all to no avail. After years of searching we were surprised and elated when a copy of the novel surfaced. We quickly realized that we had elated when a copy of the novel surfaced. We quickly realized that we had unwittingly been within perhaps twenty feet of the manuscript some years unwittingly been within perhaps twenty feet of the manuscript some years before. before. The charming novel that Weber modestly and affectionately referred The charming novel that Weber modestly and affectionately referred to as a “yarn” about three Mennonite sisters “on the border between to as a “yarn” about three Mennonite sisters “on the border between Mennonitism and the world” (May 29, 1937)9 was given several names Mennonitism and the world” (May 29, 1937)9 was given several names by him before he settled on “Aunt Rachel’s Nieces.” He told his literary by him before he settled on “Aunt Rachel’s Nieces.” He told his literary friends about his new work soon after he began to write it. To Leslie friends about his new work soon after he began to write it. To Leslie Staebler he wrote in June 1936 that he had “spent countless weeks on a Staebler he wrote in June 1936 that he had “spent countless weeks on a yarn about three Mennonite maids,” and went on to describe how it just kept yarn about three Mennonite maids,” and went on to describe how it just kept growing. “The story is stretching out to novel length,” he wrote Staebler a growing. “The story is stretching out to novel length,” he wrote Staebler a few months later, “and is probably on the primrose path to the everlasting few months later, “and is probably on the primrose path to the everlasting bonfire. However, the scribbling thereof makes the days short and keeps me bonfire. However, the scribbling thereof makes the days short and keeps me from reading myself stupid.”10 To Wilfrid Eggleston he explained that “It’s from reading myself stupid.”10 To Wilfrid Eggleston he explained that “It’s a creation of the L.M. Montgomery type, of course: character continuity a creation of the L.M. Montgomery type, of course: character continuity and atmosphere, &c. . . . Of one thing I’m sure,” he remarked, inimitably, and atmosphere, &c. . . . Of one thing I’m sure,” he remarked, inimitably, “it is good practice.” After briefly outlining the plot, he ventured: “To my “it is good practice.” After briefly outlining the plot, he ventured: “To my knowledge nobody has done this sort of thing.”11 Weber’s novel, a playful knowledge nobody has done this sort of thing.”11 Weber’s novel, a playful portrait of three sisters who struggle to be allowed to express their love for portrait of three sisters who struggle to be allowed to express their love for the arts in the context of powerful forces in their community, the members of the arts in the context of powerful forces in their community, the members of which would rather they submitted quietly to church discipline (especially which would rather they submitted quietly to church discipline (especially as it pertained to dress), begins like this: as it pertained to dress), begins like this: Lucinda, Luanna, and Luella were the only ones of her forty Lucinda, Luanna, and Luella were the only ones of her forty nieces and nephews that Aunt Rachel had succeeded in naming nieces and nephews that Aunt Rachel had succeeded in naming permanently. She loved to name them in pairs and sets. A permanently. She loved to name them in pairs and sets. A number of times she had tried to have a Mary and a Martha in number of times she had tried to have a Mary and a Martha in at least one of the families of the “Freindschaft”; but the parents at least one of the families of the “Freindschaft”; but the parents and relatives, knowing the Bible rather well, would unfailingly and relatives, knowing the Bible rather well, would unfailingly object that nobody could foretell which one would develop into object that nobody could foretell which one would develop into A Mennonite Novelist’s Journey (from) Home 89 A Mennonite Novelist’s Journey (from) Home 89

Mary, and which into Martha. A Mary named Martha, and a Mary, and which into Martha. A Mary named Martha, and a Martha named Mary, – “Ach, how stupid that would be,” cried Martha named Mary, – “Ach, how stupid that would be,” cried Aunt Selina. Aunt Selina. So the maiden aunt and the eldest member of a family of nine So the maiden aunt and the eldest member of a family of nine felt sweetly gratified when she had completed the building up of felt sweetly gratified when she had completed the building up of a set of Lu’s in her youngest sister’s family. The babies were not a set of Lu’s in her youngest sister’s family. The babies were not baptized with these names – Mennonites do not baptize infants; baptized with these names – Mennonites do not baptize infants; but the names were recorded in fancy letters in the family Bible, but the names were recorded in fancy letters in the family Bible, as well as in the books of the registrar of births. To all this the as well as in the books of the registrar of births. To all this the matronly aunt had attended with prompt devotion.12 matronly aunt had attended with prompt devotion.12 As much as Weber’s novel is central to my interests here, it is not the As much as Weber’s novel is central to my interests here, it is not the primary subject of this inquiry (I dealt with it in detail in my Edna Staebler primary subject of this inquiry (I dealt with it in detail in my Edna Staebler Fellows Lecture at the Joseph Schneider Haus Museum in March 2006).13 Fellows Lecture at the Joseph Schneider Haus Museum in March 2006).13 The question I was attempting to answer, when I carried on my research for The question I was attempting to answer, when I carried on my research for this essay, was: who was the author of this work of fiction – this man Weber, this essay, was: who was the author of this work of fiction – this man Weber, who grew up among the Mennonites of Waterloo County, later homesteaded who grew up among the Mennonites of Waterloo County, later homesteaded with his family in the frontier Mennonite settlements in Alberta (then known with his family in the frontier Mennonite settlements in Alberta (then known as the Northwest, for Alberta didn’t become a province until 1905), wrote as the Northwest, for Alberta didn’t become a province until 1905), wrote letters to Lucy Maud Montgomery for nearly forty years, longed achingly letters to Lucy Maud Montgomery for nearly forty years, longed achingly to participate in the broader literary worlds of his day, and eventually to participate in the broader literary worlds of his day, and eventually came to write this work of fiction which, he confided to Staebler, he feared came to write this work of fiction which, he confided to Staebler, he feared might offend the “old-school Mennonites”?14 What might knowledge of might offend the “old-school Mennonites”?14 What might knowledge of him contribute to our understanding of Mennonite literature in general him contribute to our understanding of Mennonite literature in general – and especially to our consideration of one of its dominant themes: the – and especially to our consideration of one of its dominant themes: the relationship between the writer and his community? This paper is thus a relationship between the writer and his community? This paper is thus a kind of meta-exercise. That is, it reveals something about the subject of kind of meta-exercise. That is, it reveals something about the subject of investigation, Ephraim Weber, and something about the trail of research that investigation, Ephraim Weber, and something about the trail of research that allowed me to discover who he was. allowed me to discover who he was.

* * * * * * So obscure a man as Ephraim Weber may have escaped attention in an earlier So obscure a man as Ephraim Weber may have escaped attention in an earlier era. But current scholarly conditions have made room for an investigation era. But current scholarly conditions have made room for an investigation of the life and work of this minor Mennonite literary figure, and I have of the life and work of this minor Mennonite literary figure, and I have invoked many of these conditions in the course of my work. They include invoked many of these conditions in the course of my work. They include 90 The Conrad Grebel Review 90 The Conrad Grebel Review such things as the thoughtful attention given over the past few decades such things as the thoughtful attention given over the past few decades to the very notion of minor literatures – such as the Jewish, West Indian, to the very notion of minor literatures – such as the Jewish, West Indian, Chinese, South Asian, or Mennonite traditions within Canadian literature. Chinese, South Asian, or Mennonite traditions within Canadian literature. Current scholarship in the humanities demonstrates a formidable interest in Current scholarship in the humanities demonstrates a formidable interest in life-writing (diaries, journals, letters such as those that inform much of my life-writing (diaries, journals, letters such as those that inform much of my work); it invokes a new respect for the history of print culture in general (the work); it invokes a new respect for the history of print culture in general (the first volumes of the encyclopedia of print culture in Canada, which contain first volumes of the encyclopedia of print culture in Canada, which contain a brief chapter on the early print culture of the Mennonites, have just been a brief chapter on the early print culture of the Mennonites, have just been published).15 published).15 The scholarly ethos that informs this work invites fresh inquiries into The scholarly ethos that informs this work invites fresh inquiries into the very nature and function of archives (where it becomes ever clearer that the very nature and function of archives (where it becomes ever clearer that we have both gathered and repressed much of our history); and it provokes we have both gathered and repressed much of our history); and it provokes intellectual curiosity among critical theorists about the sphere of “everyday intellectual curiosity among critical theorists about the sphere of “everyday life” – the “hidden and oft-suppressed”16 details and banal daily gestures life” – the “hidden and oft-suppressed”16 details and banal daily gestures by which people live17 – those things that are “‘left over’, and hence of by which people live17 – those things that are “‘left over’, and hence of little consequence in relation to such ‘superior’ pursuits” as politics, history, little consequence in relation to such ‘superior’ pursuits” as politics, history, science, or theology. All these approaches to how scholars in the humanities science, or theology. All these approaches to how scholars in the humanities are able to read the products of culture have encouraged our taking a close- are able to read the products of culture have encouraged our taking a close- up view of people and events we might once have overlooked. All these up view of people and events we might once have overlooked. All these scholarly conditions have contributed to the intellectual ground upon which scholarly conditions have contributed to the intellectual ground upon which stands the investigation I am documenting here. stands the investigation I am documenting here.

* * * * * * Ephraim Weber was by no means, when we first encountered him in the Ephraim Weber was by no means, when we first encountered him in the National Archives, completely unknown. His friend Wilfrid Eggleston had National Archives, completely unknown. His friend Wilfrid Eggleston had written extensively about him in his autobiography entitled While I Still written extensively about him in his autobiography entitled While I Still Remember18 and elsewhere. Montgomery scholars like Muriel Millen19 Remember18 and elsewhere. Montgomery scholars like Muriel Millen19 or biographers like Mollie Gillen20 acknowledged Weber’s existence too or biographers like Mollie Gillen20 acknowledged Weber’s existence too – and often drew heavily in their own work from the archival Montgomery/ – and often drew heavily in their own work from the archival Montgomery/ Weber correspondence – all the while sweeping Weber aside as a rather Weber correspondence – all the while sweeping Weber aside as a rather unsophisticated person who, by his own admission, didn’t read a word of unsophisticated person who, by his own admission, didn’t read a word of English until he was twelve years old. (These same Montgomery scholars English until he was twelve years old. (These same Montgomery scholars neglect to mention that in spite of his modest beginnings on a southwestern neglect to mention that in spite of his modest beginnings on a southwestern Ontario farm, Weber would later just miss completing a PhD in German Ontario farm, Weber would later just miss completing a PhD in German literature at the University of Chicago after winning two gold medals literature at the University of Chicago after winning two gold medals A Mennonite Novelist’s Journey (from) Home 91 A Mennonite Novelist’s Journey (from) Home 91 in graduate studies at Queen’s.) Paul Tiessen and I wrote several pieces in graduate studies at Queen’s.) Paul Tiessen and I wrote several pieces documenting the epistolary relationship between Weber and Montgomery,21 documenting the epistolary relationship between Weber and Montgomery,21 but the questions I found most compelling throughout our research remained but the questions I found most compelling throughout our research remained unanswered: who was Weber in the context of Waterloo County’s “Mennonite unanswered: who was Weber in the context of Waterloo County’s “Mennonite Country”? In what sense was he a Mennonite? What was the nature of Country”? In what sense was he a Mennonite? What was the nature of his religious education, that he and Montgomery and later he and others of his religious education, that he and Montgomery and later he and others of his correspondents should comment so broadly on religious matters? What his correspondents should comment so broadly on religious matters? What compelled him to construct, decades after leaving the Mennonites of both compelled him to construct, decades after leaving the Mennonites of both Berlin/Kitchener and Alberta, a novel concerning three young women’s Berlin/Kitchener and Alberta, a novel concerning three young women’s struggle to express themselves artistically in a Mennonite congregation in struggle to express themselves artistically in a Mennonite congregation in his hometown? And what place might his novel have in the literature of the his hometown? And what place might his novel have in the literature of the Mennonites of Canada? Mennonites of Canada?

* * * * * * In 1937 Weber predicted that if ever he were to “gain any moonish fame,” it In 1937 Weber predicted that if ever he were to “gain any moonish fame,” it would be because he had become a “satellite” orbiting “around the greater would be because he had become a “satellite” orbiting “around the greater heavenly bodies of Eggleston and Montgomery.”22 He was to live another heavenly bodies of Eggleston and Montgomery.”22 He was to live another nineteen years after he made this remark; and four years after his sudden nineteen years after he made this remark; and four years after his sudden death by heart failure in 1956, it would seem that his prediction began to death by heart failure in 1956, it would seem that his prediction began to come true. It was then – in 1960 – that Toronto’s Ryerson Press first published come true. It was then – in 1960 – that Toronto’s Ryerson Press first published Eggleston’s The Green Gables Letters, an edition of Montgomery’s early Eggleston’s The Green Gables Letters, an edition of Montgomery’s early letters to Weber,23 letters that crossed the continent from Prince Edward letters to Weber,23 letters that crossed the continent from Prince Edward Island to the Alberta plains and back between 1905 and 1909. In 1905 Island to the Alberta plains and back between 1905 and 1909. In 1905 Montgomery and Weber had both been aspiring writers, each with a modest Montgomery and Weber had both been aspiring writers, each with a modest claim to success; by 1909 she was the international celebrity author of claim to success; by 1909 she was the international celebrity author of Anne of Green Gables,24 and he was, well, still an aspiring writer (when he Anne of Green Gables,24 and he was, well, still an aspiring writer (when he wasn’t occupied as a wrangler or census-taker in the homestead territories wasn’t occupied as a wrangler or census-taker in the homestead territories of Alberta). Montgomery remained and remains a star in the international of Alberta). Montgomery remained and remains a star in the international literary heavens, and Weber, as he predicted, would appear to have gained a literary heavens, and Weber, as he predicted, would appear to have gained a slight bit of literary recognition because of his association with her. slight bit of literary recognition because of his association with her. But this essay is not solely concerned with Weber’s relationship with But this essay is not solely concerned with Weber’s relationship with Montgomery either – a relationship that, to be sure, drew our attention to Montgomery either – a relationship that, to be sure, drew our attention to Weber in the first place. For it was Weber we were interested in from the Weber in the first place. For it was Weber we were interested in from the start, this native of Kitchener, this late-nineteenth-century Mennonite with start, this native of Kitchener, this late-nineteenth-century Mennonite with an irrepressible longing to be a writer. So we began a search in earnest, an irrepressible longing to be a writer. So we began a search in earnest, 92 The Conrad Grebel Review 92 The Conrad Grebel Review not for Ephraim Weber, warmly favored correspondent of Lucy Maud not for Ephraim Weber, warmly favored correspondent of Lucy Maud Montgomery, but for Ephraim Weber, Mennonite writer. And the place to Montgomery, but for Ephraim Weber, Mennonite writer. And the place to begin appeared to be a U.S.-based Mennonite periodical called the Young begin appeared to be a U.S.-based Mennonite periodical called the Young People’s Paper, where Weber was known to have published in the earliest People’s Paper, where Weber was known to have published in the earliest days of his writing career. days of his writing career.

Weber and the Young People’s Paper Weber and the Young People’s Paper The Young People’s Paper was published by the Mennonite Publishing The Young People’s Paper was published by the Mennonite Publishing Company in Elkhart, Indiana between 1894 and 1906, and was one Company in Elkhart, Indiana between 1894 and 1906, and was one of several initiatives of the prominent nineteenth-century Mennonite of several initiatives of the prominent nineteenth-century Mennonite bishop and evangelist John Fretz Funk. Funk had, in 1864, founded the bishop and evangelist John Fretz Funk. Funk had, in 1864, founded the internationally distributed newspaper Herald of Truth (the first newspaper of internationally distributed newspaper Herald of Truth (the first newspaper of the Mennonites of North America). Funk was committed to revitalizing the the Mennonites of North America). Funk was committed to revitalizing the Mennonite church, and, indeed, had a long career as an extremely influential Mennonite church, and, indeed, had a long career as an extremely influential “reformulator of the Mennonite identity,” as Rod Sawatsky has put it. In “reformulator of the Mennonite identity,” as Rod Sawatsky has put it. In fact, as Sawatsky has remarked, the changes in the Mennonite sensibility fact, as Sawatsky has remarked, the changes in the Mennonite sensibility “spawned largely through the efforts of John [Fretz] Funk” are now read as “spawned largely through the efforts of John [Fretz] Funk” are now read as the great “‘Mennonite awakening.’”25 the great “‘Mennonite awakening.’”25 A quick look at the history of the Young People’s Paper reveals that A quick look at the history of the Young People’s Paper reveals that Ephraim Weber was one of a stable of men listed as contributing editors Ephraim Weber was one of a stable of men listed as contributing editors over the paper’s twelve-year run. As such, he served alongside prominent over the paper’s twelve-year run. As such, he served alongside prominent American Mennonites, indeed alongside some of the most influential figures American Mennonites, indeed alongside some of the most influential figures in the history of the Mennonite Church in North America over the past in the history of the Mennonite Church in North America over the past century, ambitious men who “did much to mold the thought and activities century, ambitious men who “did much to mold the thought and activities of the church during an important period of awakening and expansion into of the church during an important period of awakening and expansion into organized church-wide activities.”26 These men gave shape to what we now organized church-wide activities.”26 These men gave shape to what we now identify as “the Sunday school, mutual aid, publishing, missions, education, identify as “the Sunday school, mutual aid, publishing, missions, education, historical interpretation, peace work and relief work” of the Mennonite historical interpretation, peace work and relief work” of the Mennonite church.27 As a regular contributor to and contributing editor of the Young church.27 As a regular contributor to and contributing editor of the Young People’s Paper, Weber was in effect swept up among the most influential People’s Paper, Weber was in effect swept up among the most influential configuration of leaders in the Mennonite church of his day. configuration of leaders in the Mennonite church of his day. The Young People’s Paper began in 1894 as an eight-page publication The Young People’s Paper began in 1894 as an eight-page publication released bi-weekly. Reflecting on the paper at the end of its eleventh year, released bi-weekly. Reflecting on the paper at the end of its eleventh year, Bishop Funk described it as one “that will not teach the Young Christian Bishop Funk described it as one “that will not teach the Young Christian to be worldly – and follow all the vanity and follies of the world, but to be to be worldly – and follow all the vanity and follies of the world, but to be A Mennonite Novelist’s Journey (from) Home 93 A Mennonite Novelist’s Journey (from) Home 93 humble and pure. . .”. 28 For this paper Weber, in the closing years of the humble and pure. . .”. 28 For this paper Weber, in the closing years of the century, wrote over 175 pieces, including poems, collections of aphorisms, century, wrote over 175 pieces, including poems, collections of aphorisms, and prose reflections of varying lengths – some just a paragraph long, others and prose reflections of varying lengths – some just a paragraph long, others longer. His first contribution appeared in February 1896. He was then 26 longer. His first contribution appeared in February 1896. He was then 26 years old and about to move from Berlin to the territory around Didsbury in years old and about to move from Berlin to the territory around Didsbury in the Northwest. It was there (in what is now southern Alberta) that Weber’s the Northwest. It was there (in what is now southern Alberta) that Weber’s family, under the leadership of his maternal grandfather Jacob Y. Shantz, had family, under the leadership of his maternal grandfather Jacob Y. Shantz, had begun to homestead barely two years before. For this first column Weber begun to homestead barely two years before. For this first column Weber took on an admonishing tone. He addressed his readers directly: “You have took on an admonishing tone. He addressed his readers directly: “You have been working industriously all day and come home tired,” he wrote. “After been working industriously all day and come home tired,” he wrote. “After tea you feel somewhat refreshed. Picking up a paper to read, you notice in tea you feel somewhat refreshed. Picking up a paper to read, you notice in some prominent place a poem. Now, this time stop and read it.”29 Invoking some prominent place a poem. Now, this time stop and read it.”29 Invoking some of the language he would later use in his letters to Montgomery, to some of the language he would later use in his letters to Montgomery, to whom he would declare that poetry was “the human soul’s magic come out whom he would declare that poetry was “the human soul’s magic come out to sun itself in the grace of language,”30 he said in this article that poetry to sun itself in the grace of language,”30 he said in this article that poetry “tends to make us better. It lifts us up out of the mire. It makes life beautiful. “tends to make us better. It lifts us up out of the mire. It makes life beautiful. It nourishes the better nature of a man. . . .” People smothered by the cares of It nourishes the better nature of a man. . . .” People smothered by the cares of life need “aesthetic culture,” he remarked, and the “poverty of the Philistine” life need “aesthetic culture,” he remarked, and the “poverty of the Philistine” is pitiable. “Then form the habit of perusing one poem in your paper,” he is pitiable. “Then form the habit of perusing one poem in your paper,” he urged his readers, observing that it will give them “intellectual development urged his readers, observing that it will give them “intellectual development and soul culture. . .”. 31 and soul culture. . .”. 31 Weber would write 13 pieces in all for publication in the Young Weber would write 13 pieces in all for publication in the Young People’s Paper in 1896, 44 in 1897, 39 in 1898, 38 in 1899, 32 in 1900, and People’s Paper in 1896, 44 in 1897, 39 in 1898, 38 in 1899, 32 in 1900, and 9 in 1901. Beginning in March 1902, he would write the first of at least 11 9 in 1901. Beginning in March 1902, he would write the first of at least 11 letters that year to Montgomery; eight months later, in December, he would letters that year to Montgomery; eight months later, in December, he would move to Philadelphia to pursue his literary fortune – as a guest of Miriam move to Philadelphia to pursue his literary fortune – as a guest of Miriam Zieber, a woman who advertised in the Young People’s Paper her expertise Zieber, a woman who advertised in the Young People’s Paper her expertise in shaping literary careers (and, incidentally, the person who first suggested in shaping literary careers (and, incidentally, the person who first suggested to Weber that he write to Montgomery, whose poetry he had so admired). to Weber that he write to Montgomery, whose poetry he had so admired). Weber would leave Zieber and Philadelphia some ten months later, Weber would leave Zieber and Philadelphia some ten months later, deeply disappointed in his inability to accomplish what he had set out to do. deeply disappointed in his inability to accomplish what he had set out to do. In May 1904, after a sojourn with another literary friend in New Hampshire, In May 1904, after a sojourn with another literary friend in New Hampshire, and then a short visit with old friends in Berlin, he would return to Didsbury, and then a short visit with old friends in Berlin, he would return to Didsbury, from where he would re-establish himself on the prairie and write to from where he would re-establish himself on the prairie and write to Montgomery: “I had the grip for a week, and now except for blistered hands, Montgomery: “I had the grip for a week, and now except for blistered hands, 94 The Conrad Grebel Review 94 The Conrad Grebel Review blistered feet, twitching muscles, aching bones, lame back, gnawing hunger, blistered feet, twitching muscles, aching bones, lame back, gnawing hunger, weariness, homesickness for civilization – I feel first rate. I’m just back from weariness, homesickness for civilization – I feel first rate. I’m just back from a chase after the cattle. I’ve been plowing, painting rooms, and milking.”32 a chase after the cattle. I’ve been plowing, painting rooms, and milking.”32 He would spend another five sometimes nondescript, sometimes wild and He would spend another five sometimes nondescript, sometimes wild and woolly years as a homesteader, before embarking on what for him would woolly years as a homesteader, before embarking on what for him would become a soul-destroying career as a teacher in small prairie towns. become a soul-destroying career as a teacher in small prairie towns. Teaching would remain a curse for Weber. It was how he made his Teaching would remain a curse for Weber. It was how he made his living, but it was also, he believed, an activity that consumed all his energies living, but it was also, he believed, an activity that consumed all his energies and destroyed his soul. “[W]e have to educate the bum, the dandy, the and destroyed his soul. “[W]e have to educate the bum, the dandy, the athlete, the moron, and the pair in puppy love,” he complained to Eggleston, athlete, the moron, and the pair in puppy love,” he complained to Eggleston, revealing his failure to see much good in the next generation. The only revealing his failure to see much good in the next generation. The only thing more intolerable than his lackluster and unambitious students were thing more intolerable than his lackluster and unambitious students were the members of the small town school boards, whose children he taught the members of the small town school boards, whose children he taught and – more often than not – refused to advance. These parents drove him and – more often than not – refused to advance. These parents drove him to declare: “God made the country, man made the city, and the devil made to declare: “God made the country, man made the city, and the devil made the small town.”33 But I’m getting a wee bit ahead of myself. Let’s return the small town.”33 But I’m getting a wee bit ahead of myself. Let’s return to the younger Weber, the Young People’s Paper, and the years before to the younger Weber, the Young People’s Paper, and the years before Montgomery. Montgomery. The sensibility that would lie at the heart of Weber’s later fiction was The sensibility that would lie at the heart of Weber’s later fiction was readily discernable in much of his work for the Young People’s Paper. Here, readily discernable in much of his work for the Young People’s Paper. Here, in April 1897, he celebrated the imagination and what he called “the inner in April 1897, he celebrated the imagination and what he called “the inner man”: “Oh the inner man wants sustenance!” he wrote. “Let him out, let man”: “Oh the inner man wants sustenance!” he wrote. “Let him out, let him out!” “Open your clay door. The imagination is the key.” Invoking a him out!” “Open your clay door. The imagination is the key.” Invoking a lifelong antipathy towards doctrines and creeds, he criticized preachers for lifelong antipathy towards doctrines and creeds, he criticized preachers for failing to recognize the power of imaginative thought: “when they discourse failing to recognize the power of imaginative thought: “when they discourse on the crucifixion,” he wrote, “on the mysteries of grace. . ., on the soul’s on the crucifixion,” he wrote, “on the mysteries of grace. . ., on the soul’s communion with its Author, on the Judgement day, on the joys of heaven, communion with its Author, on the Judgement day, on the joys of heaven, [they] would make more impression on their hearers if they wrought more [they] would make more impression on their hearers if they wrought more sanctified imagination into it and less theology.”34 sanctified imagination into it and less theology.”34 Not a casual contrarian, Weber nevertheless passionately expressed Not a casual contrarian, Weber nevertheless passionately expressed his belief that there was much wrong with the world and so we should his belief that there was much wrong with the world and so we should celebrate those who dare both to think independently and to demand change. celebrate those who dare both to think independently and to demand change. “If men were as dwarfed and deformed physically as they are intellectually, “If men were as dwarfed and deformed physically as they are intellectually, morally, emotionally, aesthetically and spiritually, what hideous things morally, emotionally, aesthetically and spiritually, what hideous things many of them would be,” he declared. It is thanks to “the fault-finding many of them would be,” he declared. It is thanks to “the fault-finding A Mennonite Novelist’s Journey (from) Home 95 A Mennonite Novelist’s Journey (from) Home 95

Emerson that we have a nobler morality; thanks to the fault-finding Ruskin Emerson that we have a nobler morality; thanks to the fault-finding Ruskin that we can use our eyes when we walk the verdant paths of nature and visit that we can use our eyes when we walk the verdant paths of nature and visit the art gallery; thanks to the fault-finding Luther for the popular orthodoxy the art gallery; thanks to the fault-finding Luther for the popular orthodoxy of justification by faith; blessed be the fault-finding Jesus of Nazareth for a of justification by faith; blessed be the fault-finding Jesus of Nazareth for a new Christianity. All reformers are fault-finders.”35 new Christianity. All reformers are fault-finders.”35 Weber’s disposition as a regular contributor to the Young People’s Paper Weber’s disposition as a regular contributor to the Young People’s Paper was mostly pious and scripture-bound; his voice was literary, passionate, was mostly pious and scripture-bound; his voice was literary, passionate, cajoling. In 1897, the year the paper carried more of his contributions than cajoling. In 1897, the year the paper carried more of his contributions than any other, his subject matter ranged from devotion and hard work to worldly any other, his subject matter ranged from devotion and hard work to worldly ambition and the love of Mammon. Among other things, he addressed such ambition and the love of Mammon. Among other things, he addressed such subjects as temperance and testimonies, service, and forgiveness. In the subjects as temperance and testimonies, service, and forgiveness. In the three years following, he deliberated on prayer, temptation, God’s promises, three years following, he deliberated on prayer, temptation, God’s promises, hospitality, personal growth, independent thought, moral courage, friendship, hospitality, personal growth, independent thought, moral courage, friendship, patriotism, bettering the world, recreation, education, the supernatural, the patriotism, bettering the world, recreation, education, the supernatural, the happy home, the Christian’s use of time, penitence, humility, duty, honoring happy home, the Christian’s use of time, penitence, humility, duty, honoring the Lord’s day, the art of letter writing, and Christian zeal. the Lord’s day, the art of letter writing, and Christian zeal.

Weber in the Archives Weber in the Archives The articles Weber contributed to the Young People’s Paper during the years The articles Weber contributed to the Young People’s Paper during the years he began to find himself as a writer reveal he was complexly aware of, and he began to find himself as a writer reveal he was complexly aware of, and largely in step with, the religious sensibility of the Mennonites of his day. largely in step with, the religious sensibility of the Mennonites of his day. After examining what he published there, I wondered what else I might After examining what he published there, I wondered what else I might learn about him. To Leslie Staebler he had written from Alberta, in 1902, “I learn about him. To Leslie Staebler he had written from Alberta, in 1902, “I have two or three very nice literary correspondents, to whom I write many a have two or three very nice literary correspondents, to whom I write many a lonely hour and thus enjoy myself exquisitely.”36 Is it possible, I wondered, lonely hour and thus enjoy myself exquisitely.”36 Is it possible, I wondered, that Weber had carried on a correspondence with one or more of his fellow that Weber had carried on a correspondence with one or more of his fellow contributing editors of the Young People’s Paper? Or might any of these contributing editors of the Young People’s Paper? Or might any of these other editors have referred to him in their letters to each other? other editors have referred to him in their letters to each other? Realizing that many of his collaborators were prominent enough that Realizing that many of his collaborators were prominent enough that the archives of the Mennonite church in both Canada and the U.S. would the archives of the Mennonite church in both Canada and the U.S. would likely have laid claim to their literary estates, I sent a student in search of likely have laid claim to their literary estates, I sent a student in search of Weber in the Mennonite Archives of Ontario at Conrad Grebel University Weber in the Mennonite Archives of Ontario at Conrad Grebel University College. Where to begin to look? I decided to start with the lists of names that College. Where to begin to look? I decided to start with the lists of names that appeared alongside Weber’s on the masthead of the Young People’s Paper: appeared alongside Weber’s on the masthead of the Young People’s Paper: the other men on the editorial team – Steiner, Hostetler, and Coffman,37 for the other men on the editorial team – Steiner, Hostetler, and Coffman,37 for example. example. 96 The Conrad Grebel Review 96 The Conrad Grebel Review

We did find an item of interest: a brief typed letter from Hostetler, We did find an item of interest: a brief typed letter from Hostetler, written on the stationery of the Mennonite Evangelizing and Benevolent written on the stationery of the Mennonite Evangelizing and Benevolent Board in Elkhart, Indiana (these men loved their lavish letterheads). It was Board in Elkhart, Indiana (these men loved their lavish letterheads). It was addressed to S.F. Coffman and dated April 4, 1901.38 It read, in part: “We are addressed to S.F. Coffman and dated April 4, 1901.38 It read, in part: “We are glad to hear of the encouraging work in the Northwest. If you see Ephraim glad to hear of the encouraging work in the Northwest. If you see Ephraim Weber give him my very best regards.” Wow! This line in a letter to Coffman, Weber give him my very best regards.” Wow! This line in a letter to Coffman, who would later become so prominent a Mennonite churchman in Ontario. who would later become so prominent a Mennonite churchman in Ontario. It wasn’t much but it was certainly something. Then it became even more It wasn’t much but it was certainly something. Then it became even more interesting. The letter was addressed to Weber in Okotoks, Alberta. The interesting. The letter was addressed to Weber in Okotoks, Alberta. The single and handsome twenty-eight-year-old Coffman had been ordained by single and handsome twenty-eight-year-old Coffman had been ordained by Bishop Funk in his early twenties, and would shortly become one of the most Bishop Funk in his early twenties, and would shortly become one of the most highly regarded and beloved bishops among the Mennonites in Ontario. And highly regarded and beloved bishops among the Mennonites in Ontario. And here he was in Alberta, while Weber was there (Coffman had been seconded here he was in Alberta, while Weber was there (Coffman had been seconded by the Waterloo bishops to travel to Alberta – the Northwest – in 1901, to by the Waterloo bishops to travel to Alberta – the Northwest – in 1901, to help Mennonite settlers organize themselves into congregations). help Mennonite settlers organize themselves into congregations). I poked around a bit more, and was intrigued to discover that the I poked around a bit more, and was intrigued to discover that the Mennonite Archives of Ontario holds a substantial S.F. Coffman collection Mennonite Archives of Ontario holds a substantial S.F. Coffman collection that includes not only his daily journal of 190139 but also his 1901 letters that includes not only his daily journal of 190139 but also his 1901 letters from Alberta to his Indiana fiancée, Ella Mann. So I proceeded to sift through from Alberta to his Indiana fiancée, Ella Mann. So I proceeded to sift through the files. (Among the fascinating things I found there was a large number the files. (Among the fascinating things I found there was a large number of letters to the dashing young Coffman from so many of the young women of letters to the dashing young Coffman from so many of the young women he encountered in his ministry – “I’ll send you my picture if you send me he encountered in his ministry – “I’ll send you my picture if you send me yours. . .”).40 yours. . .”).40

Coffman in the Northwest Coffman in the Northwest Coffman began to pack for his trip west on February 9, 1901. He left Toronto Coffman began to pack for his trip west on February 9, 1901. He left Toronto by Canadian Pacific Railway on February 19 and arrived in Calgary on the by Canadian Pacific Railway on February 19 and arrived in Calgary on the 23rd. By March 6 he had traveled to Carstairs,41 and on Saturday, March 23rd. By March 6 he had traveled to Carstairs,41 and on Saturday, March 9, he wrote: “Brother Steckle wanted to go over to Andrew Weber’s to get 9, he wrote: “Brother Steckle wanted to go over to Andrew Weber’s to get oats for feed. He drove over with the wagon, and I went along with him. oats for feed. He drove over with the wagon, and I went along with him. We staid there for dinner. They have the best fixed up place I have seen We staid there for dinner. They have the best fixed up place I have seen yet. They have been here about seven years. Their two sons, Ephraim & yet. They have been here about seven years. Their two sons, Ephraim & Manassseh, have places near home.”42 Manassseh, have places near home.”42 I had to fight not to get drawn into the western adventures of the I had to fight not to get drawn into the western adventures of the young Coffman as he narrated them in his diary. I was particularly interested young Coffman as he narrated them in his diary. I was particularly interested A Mennonite Novelist’s Journey (from) Home 97 A Mennonite Novelist’s Journey (from) Home 97 in his reflections on how he spent his leisure time, sketching in pen and ink, or in his reflections on how he spent his leisure time, sketching in pen and ink, or writing poetry and hymns. It appeared to me that the two poets Coffman and writing poetry and hymns. It appeared to me that the two poets Coffman and Weber had the potential to be what Montgomery would call “kindred spirits.” Weber had the potential to be what Montgomery would call “kindred spirits.” In fact Coffman’s reflections suggest that Weber made quite an impression In fact Coffman’s reflections suggest that Weber made quite an impression on him. “I have met Ephraim Weber,” he wrote to Ella on April 16. “He is a on him. “I have met Ephraim Weber,” he wrote to Ella on April 16. “He is a young man yet. But he has a very wide awake appearance and seems to be young man yet. But he has a very wide awake appearance and seems to be a very fine young man.”43 (Weber was actually two years Coffman’s senior.) a very fine young man.”43 (Weber was actually two years Coffman’s senior.) The familiarity between the two men implied in these remarks is sustained The familiarity between the two men implied in these remarks is sustained in later letters to Ella, where Coffman refers to other members of the Weber in later letters to Ella, where Coffman refers to other members of the Weber family as “Ephraim’s father” or “Ephraim’s brother.” family as “Ephraim’s father” or “Ephraim’s brother.” Weber and Coffman apparently spoke often. Among the Weber and Coffman apparently spoke often. Among the conversations Coffman carried on with various members of the community, conversations Coffman carried on with various members of the community, he recorded the substance of very few. His journal entry for Friday, July 12 he recorded the substance of very few. His journal entry for Friday, July 12 was an exception: “This afternoon I rode back to Ephraim Weber’s, had a was an exception: “This afternoon I rode back to Ephraim Weber’s, had a visit there, went to Bro Henry Weber’s and staid there tonight. Ephraim visit there, went to Bro Henry Weber’s and staid there tonight. Ephraim called too in the evening. Had a very pleasant visit talking of God’s use of called too in the evening. Had a very pleasant visit talking of God’s use of natural laws in the great changes, miraculous visitations of God upon the natural laws in the great changes, miraculous visitations of God upon the earth.” As if continuing the dialogue in his own mind, Coffman added: “God earth.” As if continuing the dialogue in his own mind, Coffman added: “God cannot go beyond His laws.”44 cannot go beyond His laws.”44 Coffman’s journals reveal something of the texture of that time and Coffman’s journals reveal something of the texture of that time and place. Serving as an itinerant bishop, Coffman moved constantly from home place. Serving as an itinerant bishop, Coffman moved constantly from home to home, always engaged with the people around him, invariably busy, to home, always engaged with the people around him, invariably busy, trying to be helpful. When he wasn’t giving the Mennonite homesteaders trying to be helpful. When he wasn’t giving the Mennonite homesteaders shaves and haircuts, he was fixing the pipes of their organs or repairing shaves and haircuts, he was fixing the pipes of their organs or repairing their sewing machines. He attempted to shoot owls and prairie hens (he their sewing machines. He attempted to shoot owls and prairie hens (he never seemed to get very good at that), collected buffalo bones (he took never seemed to get very good at that), collected buffalo bones (he took several specimens back east with him, including a vertebra, out of which several specimens back east with him, including a vertebra, out of which he had made an inkwell), and gathered wild flowers – the greatest of his he had made an inkwell), and gathered wild flowers – the greatest of his passions – and then identified, pressed, and mounted them for a collection passions – and then identified, pressed, and mounted them for a collection that numbered upwards of 160 species by the time he left the territory on that numbered upwards of 160 species by the time he left the territory on November 11, 1901. November 11, 1901. References to encounters with Weber are scattered throughout References to encounters with Weber are scattered throughout Coffman’s diary and letters of 1901. On April 9 Coffman wrote, “Ephraim Coffman’s diary and letters of 1901. On April 9 Coffman wrote, “Ephraim Weber is not at home. [H]e is out taking the census for this district.”45 On May Weber is not at home. [H]e is out taking the census for this district.”45 On May 4 the inevitable: “Ephraim Weber’s father is a second cousin to us. Brother 4 the inevitable: “Ephraim Weber’s father is a second cousin to us. Brother 98 The Conrad Grebel Review 98 The Conrad Grebel Review

Andrew Weber’s (Ephraim’s father) Grandfather and my Grandmother Andrew Weber’s (Ephraim’s father) Grandfather and my Grandmother Coffman were brother and sister.”46 On May 11: “Rode up to the field where Coffman were brother and sister.”46 On May 11: “Rode up to the field where the men were working. Then called on Ephraim Weber’s for a little while. the men were working. Then called on Ephraim Weber’s for a little while. He has a very pleasant home.”47 On July 13, Coffman “went over to Brother He has a very pleasant home.”47 On July 13, Coffman “went over to Brother Andrew Weber’s” (Ephraim’s father). “Had a talk regarding the building of Andrew Weber’s” (Ephraim’s father). “Had a talk regarding the building of a meeting-house. He thinks it ought to be built 30 x 50. This may be a bit a meeting-house. He thinks it ought to be built 30 x 50. This may be a bit too large.”48 July 21: “I taught the Bible class. Ephraim Weber was present too large.”48 July 21: “I taught the Bible class. Ephraim Weber was present today.”49 August 19: “rode over to Bro Henry Weber’s. Met Ephraim today.”49 August 19: “rode over to Bro Henry Weber’s. Met Ephraim there again and had a pleasant visit. . .” .50 September 10: “Adjusted the there again and had a pleasant visit. . .” .50 September 10: “Adjusted the hair spring in Bro Weber’s alarm clock so that it may be regulated again. hair spring in Bro Weber’s alarm clock so that it may be regulated again. Ephraim Weber came with some cattle he had been hunting. He staid all Ephraim Weber came with some cattle he had been hunting. He staid all night. Had a long talk.”51 night. Had a long talk.”51 On Sunday, September 15 Coffman wrote about helping the new On Sunday, September 15 Coffman wrote about helping the new congregation at Carstairs to choose its minister and deacon by the lot. On congregation at Carstairs to choose its minister and deacon by the lot. On September 24, Ephraim’s brother Manasseh was present when Coffman September 24, Ephraim’s brother Manasseh was present when Coffman “[w]rote out a certificate of ordination.”52 By late fall, Coffman, the itinerant “[w]rote out a certificate of ordination.”52 By late fall, Coffman, the itinerant bishop, was making his last rounds of the Alberta settlement and saying his bishop, was making his last rounds of the Alberta settlement and saying his good-byes. He missed saying farewell to Ephraim’s father Andrew, who good-byes. He missed saying farewell to Ephraim’s father Andrew, who was “away threshing at the Honsburgers,” but managed to catch Ephraim was “away threshing at the Honsburgers,” but managed to catch Ephraim on November 8: “Called at Ephraim Weber’s too,” he recorded, and then on November 8: “Called at Ephraim Weber’s too,” he recorded, and then hinting at their similar sensibilities and common interests, added, “Got my hinting at their similar sensibilities and common interests, added, “Got my magazines there.”53 magazines there.”53 Three days later, on November 11, Coffman was gone. He had spent Three days later, on November 11, Coffman was gone. He had spent nine months in Alberta while Weber was there – months during which Weber nine months in Alberta while Weber was there – months during which Weber would see his last nine articles appear in the Young People’s Paper. Within would see his last nine articles appear in the Young People’s Paper. Within five days of leaving the Northwest, Coffman was re-united with friends five days of leaving the Northwest, Coffman was re-united with friends – and specifically with Ella Mann – in Indiana, where he dropped in at the – and specifically with Ella Mann – in Indiana, where he dropped in at the Mennonite Publishing Company and, as he recorded in his diary, “saw Bro Mennonite Publishing Company and, as he recorded in his diary, “saw Bro Funk.” The next day he taught Sunday School and preached. “Bro J.F. Funk Funk.” The next day he taught Sunday School and preached. “Bro J.F. Funk was present,” he recorded.54 Later that week he and Ella were married. was present,” he recorded.54 Later that week he and Ella were married.

Weber’s Restlessness Weber’s Restlessness In the months during which Coffman and Weber overlapped in Alberta, In the months during which Coffman and Weber overlapped in Alberta, Weber was growing restless as a writer and beginning to register an Weber was growing restless as a writer and beginning to register an increasing spiritual hunger that, he would later remark to Leslie Staebler, he increasing spiritual hunger that, he would later remark to Leslie Staebler, he A Mennonite Novelist’s Journey (from) Home 99 A Mennonite Novelist’s Journey (from) Home 99 was never able to satisfy – “this universal cry from the center of the heart was never able to satisfy – “this universal cry from the center of the heart for an unchangeable, substantial Something, not to be found in all the wide for an unchangeable, substantial Something, not to be found in all the wide world of material things.”55 In his own published reflections in the Young world of material things.”55 In his own published reflections in the Young People’s Paper he emphasized Christ as the Bread of Life, but sometimes People’s Paper he emphasized Christ as the Bread of Life, but sometimes his remarks seem little more than hollow platitudes alongside his passionate his remarks seem little more than hollow platitudes alongside his passionate yearning after “fare for the soul!”56 yearning after “fare for the soul!”56 It is unlikely that Weber and Coffman remained in communication It is unlikely that Weber and Coffman remained in communication after Coffman left Alberta in 1901 (I’ve found no evidence of it). Decades after Coffman left Alberta in 1901 (I’ve found no evidence of it). Decades later, in the summer of 1935, Weber decided on the spur of the moment to later, in the summer of 1935, Weber decided on the spur of the moment to attend a Mennonite general conference in Kitchener, as a means, he reflected attend a Mennonite general conference in Kitchener, as a means, he reflected later, “of studying Mennonitism anew, in its latter-day aspects.”57 At the later, “of studying Mennonitism anew, in its latter-day aspects.”57 At the conference he was approached by someone who invited him to consider conference he was approached by someone who invited him to consider writing a cultural history of the Mennonites. It may have been Coffman writing a cultural history of the Mennonites. It may have been Coffman who extended the invitation, for he was very active at that conference, as who extended the invitation, for he was very active at that conference, as his diary reveals, and as Chair of the Historical Committee he was uniquely his diary reveals, and as Chair of the Historical Committee he was uniquely poised to make such a gesture. It was this invitation that prompted Weber poised to make such a gesture. It was this invitation that prompted Weber to embark on the cultural reflections that would become his novel “Aunt to embark on the cultural reflections that would become his novel “Aunt Rachel’s Nieces” instead. Rachel’s Nieces” instead.

Weber and the Mennonites Weber and the Mennonites My search for Weber’s “Mennonitism” was richly rewarded in the My search for Weber’s “Mennonitism” was richly rewarded in the Mennonite Archives of Ontario, the S.F. Coffman collection in particular. A Mennonite Archives of Ontario, the S.F. Coffman collection in particular. A visit to the Mennonite Church Archives USA in Goshen, Indiana, where the visit to the Mennonite Church Archives USA in Goshen, Indiana, where the John F. Funk collection occupies the largest swath of shelves, offered other John F. Funk collection occupies the largest swath of shelves, offered other resources, especially some that cast light on the wider Mennonite world resources, especially some that cast light on the wider Mennonite world into which Weber – as contributing editor of Funk’s publishing enterprise into which Weber – as contributing editor of Funk’s publishing enterprise the Young People’s Paper – had inadvertently inserted himself. Here my the Young People’s Paper – had inadvertently inserted himself. Here my search for information on Weber the Mennonite began much as my search search for information on Weber the Mennonite began much as my search in the Mennonite Archives of Ontario had begun. And once more it was in the Mennonite Archives of Ontario had begun. And once more it was C.K. Hostetler (who edited the Young People’s Paper for most of the time C.K. Hostetler (who edited the Young People’s Paper for most of the time Weber served as contributing editor) who led to the most interesting of my Weber served as contributing editor) who led to the most interesting of my discoveries. Among the Hostetler papers was a neatly written four-page discoveries. Among the Hostetler papers was a neatly written four-page letter that began “Dear friend” and was signed “Sincerely and fraternally, letter that began “Dear friend” and was signed “Sincerely and fraternally, Ephraim Weber.” Dated December 29, 1898, from Didsbury, Alberta, it was Ephraim Weber.” Dated December 29, 1898, from Didsbury, Alberta, it was clearly a response to Hostetler’s request for a sort of spiritual autobiography. clearly a response to Hostetler’s request for a sort of spiritual autobiography. 100 The Conrad Grebel Review 100 The Conrad Grebel Review

Much of Weber’s candid self-description, which he wrote then with the Much of Weber’s candid self-description, which he wrote then with the understanding that it was not for publication, bears quoting: understanding that it was not for publication, bears quoting: I grew up in a beautiful farm home on Lancaster St. near Berlin, I grew up in a beautiful farm home on Lancaster St. near Berlin, Ont. I loved farming ere I was in my teens even. . . . I attended Ont. I loved farming ere I was in my teens even. . . . I attended school at Bridgeport, a near village, where I had many trials and school at Bridgeport, a near village, where I had many trials and tears – as all timid boys have at school; I learned slowly the first tears – as all timid boys have at school; I learned slowly the first five years. After that I got over my extreme bashfulness and five years. After that I got over my extreme bashfulness and made faster progress. But after I was twelve I had to work on the made faster progress. But after I was twelve I had to work on the farm in the summer, only attending the five winter months. One farm in the summer, only attending the five winter months. One winter I worked in the Berlin Button Works, which employment winter I worked in the Berlin Button Works, which employment was uncongenial to me. Most Winters I went to school again was uncongenial to me. Most Winters I went to school again and kept on until July. When I passed entrance to High School I and kept on until July. When I passed entrance to High School I had now discovered a new kingdom, whose winding highways had now discovered a new kingdom, whose winding highways lured me on and on. . . . lured me on and on. . . . Weber relates his substantial trials with high school – issues of confidence, Weber relates his substantial trials with high school – issues of confidence, issues related to health. He continues: issues related to health. He continues: Then I went to Model School, passed and taught a public Then I went to Model School, passed and taught a public school, and in six months my dilapidated nerves gave out. I quit school, and in six months my dilapidated nerves gave out. I quit teaching and left for the Sanitarium, Battle Creek, Mich. where I teaching and left for the Sanitarium, Battle Creek, Mich. where I sojourned four expensive months, with no improvement. A few sojourned four expensive months, with no improvement. A few months after leaving Battle Creek, I immigrated to our balmy months after leaving Battle Creek, I immigrated to our balmy Alberta, hoping simple life and easy open air work would in Alberta, hoping simple life and easy open air work would in a few years have at least a [salutary] effect on me. So it has a few years have at least a [salutary] effect on me. So it has proved, only slower than even my little faith had made me proved, only slower than even my little faith had made me expect. I am here thirty-three months. expect. I am here thirty-three months...... I work about 200 days a year on our several farms. The I work about 200 days a year on our several farms. The remaining hundred I retire to my “literary den”, which is simply remaining hundred I retire to my “literary den”, which is simply my brother’s unoccupied, sod-roofed log shack. But a “snug my brother’s unoccupied, sod-roofed log shack. But a “snug little kingdom” it is. little kingdom” it is. Weber proceeds to describe how, as a bachelor, he has served as “cook, Weber proceeds to describe how, as a bachelor, he has served as “cook, dairymaid [‘the merchants pronounced (his) butter “splendid”’], washwoman, dairymaid [‘the merchants pronounced (his) butter “splendid”’], washwoman, mistress and servant.” Remarking that his people have a church and a Sunday mistress and servant.” Remarking that his people have a church and a Sunday A Mennonite Novelist’s Journey (from) Home 101 A Mennonite Novelist’s Journey (from) Home 101

School, and that they struggle with apathy, he observes: School, and that they struggle with apathy, he observes: As a rule new countries are not interested in intellectual and As a rule new countries are not interested in intellectual and spiritual striving, and our colony is no exception. I have been spiritual striving, and our colony is no exception. I have been teaching for ten years in S.S. – ever since my conversion, which teaching for ten years in S.S. – ever since my conversion, which took place among the pine stumps on the lovely Lancaster farm took place among the pine stumps on the lovely Lancaster farm as I was plowing with an ox-team. as I was plowing with an ox-team. “I was twenty-eight in November,” he reports. “I should soon be old enough “I was twenty-eight in November,” he reports. “I should soon be old enough to know what my life-work is to be, should I not?” he asks provocatively, to know what my life-work is to be, should I not?” he asks provocatively, and then goes on: and then goes on: You will already have conjectured what I do in my “den”. Here You will already have conjectured what I do in my “den”. Here the hours pass quickly and sweetly in utter uninterruptedness. the hours pass quickly and sweetly in utter uninterruptedness. I read, reread, write, rewrite and criticize other men’s writings, I read, reread, write, rewrite and criticize other men’s writings, with a view of disciplining my mind into clear thinking. My with a view of disciplining my mind into clear thinking. My purpose is to chisel my thick head into an essayist’s. It is only purpose is to chisel my thick head into an essayist’s. It is only several months since I gave up the notion of re-entering the several months since I gave up the notion of re-entering the ranks of the pedagogues and came to a definite conclusion to ranks of the pedagogues and came to a definite conclusion to prepare myself for writing.58 prepare myself for writing.58 Five years later, when his engagement with the Young People’s Five years later, when his engagement with the Young People’s Paper had come to an end, and just three months after S.F. Coffman had Paper had come to an end, and just three months after S.F. Coffman had returned to Ontario, Weber would write a first letter to Leslie Staebler, his returned to Ontario, Weber would write a first letter to Leslie Staebler, his old friend from Berlin High School. The world he knew on the Alberta old friend from Berlin High School. The world he knew on the Alberta plains, he remarked in February 1902, had grown “painfully leathery and plains, he remarked in February 1902, had grown “painfully leathery and metallic.”59 Still, he had decided “to continue” in his “den” until November. metallic.”59 Still, he had decided “to continue” in his “den” until November. “My solitude has not oppressed me quite so much lately,” he wrote. “This “My solitude has not oppressed me quite so much lately,” he wrote. “This morning, for instance, the sun without and the ‘sun within’ and the unworldly morning, for instance, the sun without and the ‘sun within’ and the unworldly quiet make an ideal Indian summer in this retreat of mine. I can read and quiet make an ideal Indian summer in this retreat of mine. I can read and think and exult in here as I cannot do elsewhere.”60 think and exult in here as I cannot do elsewhere.”60 A month later he would write his first letter to Lucy Maud Montgomery, A month later he would write his first letter to Lucy Maud Montgomery, dated March 12, 1902, and confess that he had not been productive as a dated March 12, 1902, and confess that he had not been productive as a writer but had “dabbled off and on at composition for ever so long a time.”61 writer but had “dabbled off and on at composition for ever so long a time.”61 Buoyed by her engaged response to his first letter, he wrote her again the day Buoyed by her engaged response to his first letter, he wrote her again the day her first letter arrived. She had inquired about his literary work. “Ah me,” her first letter arrived. She had inquired about his literary work. “Ah me,” he replied, “‘tis ‘the pitifulest infinitesimal fraction of a product.’” But he he replied, “‘tis ‘the pitifulest infinitesimal fraction of a product.’” But he had produced it in God’s name. He used “to send short poems and articles had produced it in God’s name. He used “to send short poems and articles 102 The Conrad Grebel Review 102 The Conrad Grebel Review to Young People’s Paper, Elkhart, Ind. for a dollar each,” he told her, but to Young People’s Paper, Elkhart, Ind. for a dollar each,” he told her, but one day an Alberta wind caught up his “unprotected periodicals, goldenly one day an Alberta wind caught up his “unprotected periodicals, goldenly laden with gems from [his] pen,” and carried them “into the wilderness.” laden with gems from [his] pen,” and carried them “into the wilderness.” He had never “been zealous enough for [his] lost brain children to organize He had never “been zealous enough for [his] lost brain children to organize a search party.” He conjectured playfully that “Probably some of the poems a search party.” He conjectured playfully that “Probably some of the poems are holding sweet communion with the wild roses, at whose prickly feet I are holding sweet communion with the wild roses, at whose prickly feet I hope they have by this time settled to rest from their flighty ways.”62 hope they have by this time settled to rest from their flighty ways.”62 The disappearance of Weber’s saved-up issues of the Young People’s The disappearance of Weber’s saved-up issues of the Young People’s Paper – so poignantly described in this poetic flourish – takes on particular Paper – so poignantly described in this poetic flourish – takes on particular significance when one considers it in light of his move, during 1902, away significance when one considers it in light of his move, during 1902, away from so much of what had defined his identity. In his letters to Montgomery, from so much of what had defined his identity. In his letters to Montgomery, his voice takes on a tenor markedly different from the pious, admonishing his voice takes on a tenor markedly different from the pious, admonishing tone of his writing for Elkhart only months before. He wrote at least tone of his writing for Elkhart only months before. He wrote at least eleven letters to her before the end of 1902. In their flurry of letters, he eleven letters to her before the end of 1902. In their flurry of letters, he and Montgomery tested their interests and sensibilities with each other, and and Montgomery tested their interests and sensibilities with each other, and found they had much in common, including their metaphysical absorption found they had much in common, including their metaphysical absorption of nature. He had recently given himself up to the night, he said. “I was the of nature. He had recently given himself up to the night, he said. “I was the night and the chinook and the grass and the horizon and the wild roses and night and the chinook and the grass and the horizon and the wild roses and Wordsworth and the frogs,” he wrote. “I don’t know how to talk about it. I Wordsworth and the frogs,” he wrote. “I don’t know how to talk about it. I was infinitely refreshed.”63 was infinitely refreshed.”63 By December 1902 Weber had moved to Philadelphia “to widen [his] By December 1902 Weber had moved to Philadelphia “to widen [his] life,” to expand, as he called it, his “narrow existence.”64 In Montgomery life,” to expand, as he called it, his “narrow existence.”64 In Montgomery he had found, earlier that year, someone with whom he could test what it he had found, earlier that year, someone with whom he could test what it might mean to be a writer. And what it might mean to be a Mennonite – and might mean to be a writer. And what it might mean to be a Mennonite – and what it might mean NOT to be a Mennonite. It was in his fourth letter to what it might mean NOT to be a Mennonite. It was in his fourth letter to her, written on May 10, 1902, that he had confessed he was “brought up a her, written on May 10, 1902, that he had confessed he was “brought up a Mennonite.” He asked her, “Have you ever heard of Mennonites?”65 Mennonite.” He asked her, “Have you ever heard of Mennonites?”65 In his letter to Montgomery of June 6, Weber conflated religion and In his letter to Montgomery of June 6, Weber conflated religion and poetry, declaring that the more he thought “over God and life and nature and poetry, declaring that the more he thought “over God and life and nature and salvation and everything, the deeper and more missionful” did this art of salvation and everything, the deeper and more missionful” did this art of poetry they shared seem to be. He continued, “It is a serious and profound poetry they shared seem to be. He continued, “It is a serious and profound undertaking to reach into the flying chaos of thought and emotion and bring undertaking to reach into the flying chaos of thought and emotion and bring out into black-and-white a hint of the Infinite, for whom mortals are thirsting out into black-and-white a hint of the Infinite, for whom mortals are thirsting so. Isn’t this, dear friend, what we’re trying to do? To me, God is a poet, and so. Isn’t this, dear friend, what we’re trying to do? To me, God is a poet, and there is no poetry in which He is not.”66 there is no poetry in which He is not.”66 A Mennonite Novelist’s Journey (from) Home 103 A Mennonite Novelist’s Journey (from) Home 103

Weber’s early letters to Montgomery both effected and documented Weber’s early letters to Montgomery both effected and documented his movement away from the Mennonite community. He confided to her his movement away from the Mennonite community. He confided to her that he sensed another world opening up for him. He thought many of the that he sensed another world opening up for him. He thought many of the “old ways and creeds” were obsolescent, and declared that he was not living “old ways and creeds” were obsolescent, and declared that he was not living the kind of life he would want to, that he was “in a transition stage from the kind of life he would want to, that he was “in a transition stage from the old to the new.”67 In September he was more specific about what this the old to the new.”67 In September he was more specific about what this transition might entail, and – implicitly invoking his devotional writing for transition might entail, and – implicitly invoking his devotional writing for the Young People’s Paper in the years just past – he declared that “[I] shan’t the Young People’s Paper in the years just past – he declared that “[I] shan’t do any more Sunday schooly, preachy, wishy-washy, willy-nilly writing.”68 do any more Sunday schooly, preachy, wishy-washy, willy-nilly writing.”68 Religious problems were of special interest to him, he told Montgomery in Religious problems were of special interest to him, he told Montgomery in October, because he was “in a transition from the old thought and creed to October, because he was “in a transition from the old thought and creed to some new and undefined life.”69 “To save my soul,” he told her in January some new and undefined life.”69 “To save my soul,” he told her in January 1903, he couldn’t “settle down into any ready made faith.”70 He had taught 1903, he couldn’t “settle down into any ready made faith.”70 He had taught a Bible class for fourteen years and knew the Bible extremely well, but he a Bible class for fourteen years and knew the Bible extremely well, but he had begun to re-think what he now called the “wonder-book.” He declared had begun to re-think what he now called the “wonder-book.” He declared that the Bible is fine as “literary pabulum” and “all gold” as “a book of that the Bible is fine as “literary pabulum” and “all gold” as “a book of altruism and ethics.” It is “greatest of all literature” and “an inspired record altruism and ethics.” It is “greatest of all literature” and “an inspired record of revelation and a means of spiritual salvation,” he acknowledged. Yet he of revelation and a means of spiritual salvation,” he acknowledged. Yet he wondered “how much of it [was] final and absolute truth.”71 wondered “how much of it [was] final and absolute truth.”71 During the earliest months of his association with Montgomery, Weber During the earliest months of his association with Montgomery, Weber questioned the formal assumptions that had created the framework of his questioned the formal assumptions that had created the framework of his Mennonite faith. By December 1903, realizing that the culture into which Mennonite faith. By December 1903, realizing that the culture into which he was born offered him no entry – indeed blocked his path – relative to the he was born offered him no entry – indeed blocked his path – relative to the literary world he longed to inhabit, he stepped away from the Mennonites: literary world he longed to inhabit, he stepped away from the Mennonites: “What an advantage [you’ve had] to be born into reading!” he exclaimed “What an advantage [you’ve had] to be born into reading!” he exclaimed to Montgomery. “I had to grind and chisel myself into it. Our [people] to Montgomery. “I had to grind and chisel myself into it. Our [people] are not at all for intellect and culture. My parents have never heard of are not at all for intellect and culture. My parents have never heard of Shakespeare.”72 On another occasion he wrote: “I didn’t read anything until Shakespeare.”72 On another occasion he wrote: “I didn’t read anything until I was an adult. Such was my heredity and environment, and to this day I I was an adult. Such was my heredity and environment, and to this day I suffer from it.”73 suffer from it.”73 Yet it was to his Mennonite world that Weber returned some thirty Yet it was to his Mennonite world that Weber returned some thirty years later – now with the distance of someone who had been gone from years later – now with the distance of someone who had been gone from home a long time, and with a gentle sense of irony mixed with unmediated home a long time, and with a gentle sense of irony mixed with unmediated affection for most of those he had left behind. It was then – after so long affection for most of those he had left behind. It was then – after so long an absence – that he recognized the potential for fiction of the Mennonite an absence – that he recognized the potential for fiction of the Mennonite 104 The Conrad Grebel Review 104 The Conrad Grebel Review world he had once known and, wondering where this recognition would world he had once known and, wondering where this recognition would lead, he began to write the story-ette that would not stay short and that lead, he began to write the story-ette that would not stay short and that became “Aunt Rachel’s Nieces.” became “Aunt Rachel’s Nieces.” About this novel – the great work of his life – he would much later About this novel – the great work of his life – he would much later remark to Eggleston: “The Mennonite reader may find it interesting but remark to Eggleston: “The Mennonite reader may find it interesting but Mennonites are poor readers!! However, ‘tis writ, . . . . What . . . value Mennonites are poor readers!! However, ‘tis writ, . . . . What . . . value it may have I’m not in a position to know.”74 In 1945 he would recall the it may have I’m not in a position to know.”74 In 1945 he would recall the novel he had sent to several publishers around the time he had completed novel he had sent to several publishers around the time he had completed it, but not since 1938: “Reread some of it lately and was surprised how it, but not since 1938: “Reread some of it lately and was surprised how interesting I found it. But the Dickens of it,” he added, “ is that it takes an interesting I found it. But the Dickens of it,” he added, “ is that it takes an educated Mennonite or ex-Mennonite to feel the interest, and there aren’t educated Mennonite or ex-Mennonite to feel the interest, and there aren’t many such.”75 many such.”75 Ephraim Weber’s conflicted relationship with the world of his Ephraim Weber’s conflicted relationship with the world of his ancestors is familiar enough among Mennonite authors. As seems to be the ancestors is familiar enough among Mennonite authors. As seems to be the case with writers – both among Mennonites and in other literary communities case with writers – both among Mennonites and in other literary communities – he carried his ancestors with him long after he thought he had left them – he carried his ancestors with him long after he thought he had left them behind. In 1946 Weber wrote about his life’s ambitions to Eggleston: “I will behind. In 1946 Weber wrote about his life’s ambitions to Eggleston: “I will strive, I will practice, till I’ve worn out my corporal functions totally; then strive, I will practice, till I’ve worn out my corporal functions totally; then I’ll yearn, yearn, yearn, till the dark is too chilly and the silence too mighty; I’ll yearn, yearn, yearn, till the dark is too chilly and the silence too mighty; then I’ll distill into an essence or evaporate into a fragrance – but not, never, then I’ll distill into an essence or evaporate into a fragrance – but not, never, yield to extinction.”76 yield to extinction.”76 I won’t speculate here on the degree to which my investigations I won’t speculate here on the degree to which my investigations into Weber’s life – or the planned publication of his novel, “Aunt Rachel’s into Weber’s life – or the planned publication of his novel, “Aunt Rachel’s Nieces” – might rescue Weber from extinction.77 But I will observe, finally, Nieces” – might rescue Weber from extinction.77 But I will observe, finally, that the investigative search that allowed me to see something of who this that the investigative search that allowed me to see something of who this man was and how he occupied various landscapes of Canadian culture man was and how he occupied various landscapes of Canadian culture and the ethos of the Mennonites of his day has comprised – for me – an and the ethos of the Mennonites of his day has comprised – for me – an extraordinarily exciting journey. extraordinarily exciting journey.

I would like to thank Paul Tiessen of Wilfrid Laurier University, whose I would like to thank Paul Tiessen of Wilfrid Laurier University, whose collaboration richly informs all my work related to Ephraim Weber, and collaboration richly informs all my work related to Ephraim Weber, and Ana Milanovic for her meticulous research on archival texts related to this Ana Milanovic for her meticulous research on archival texts related to this project. Archivists Anne Goddard of Library and Archives Canada, Dennis project. Archivists Anne Goddard of Library and Archives Canada, Dennis Stoesz of Mennonite Church USA/Goshen Archives, and Sam Steiner of Stoesz of Mennonite Church USA/Goshen Archives, and Sam Steiner of the Mennonite Archives of Ontario at Conrad Grebel University College the Mennonite Archives of Ontario at Conrad Grebel University College A Mennonite Novelist’s Journey (from) Home 105 A Mennonite Novelist’s Journey (from) Home 105 world he had once known and, wondering where this recognition would worldoffered he invaluable had once assistance. known and, This wondering work was where made this possible recognition by funding would offered invaluable assistance. This work was made possible by funding lead, he began to write the story-ette that would not stay short and that lead,from the he beganProvince to of write Ontario/University the story-ette that of Waterloo would not “Ontario stay short Work and Study that from the Province of Ontario/University of Waterloo “Ontario Work Study became “Aunt Rachel’s Nieces.” becameProgram” “Aunt (OWSP), Rachel’s and theNieces.” Faculty Research Grants Fund of Conrad Grebel Program” (OWSP), and the Faculty Research Grants Fund of Conrad Grebel About this novel – the great work of his life – he would much later UniversityAbout College. this novel I greatly – the appreciate great work having of his been life given– he wouldthe opportunity much later to University College. I greatly appreciate having been given the opportunity to remark to Eggleston: “The Mennonite reader may find it interesting but remarkpresent this to Eggleston: work in a public “The Mennoniteforum, in Conrad reader Grebel may find University it interesting College’s but present this work in a public forum, in Conrad Grebel University College’s Mennonites are poor readers!! However, ‘tis writ, . . . . What . . . value MennonitesBenjamin Eby are Lecture poor readers!!series. However, ‘tis writ, . . . . What . . . value Benjamin Eby Lecture series. it may have I’m not in a position to know.”74 In 1945 he would recall the it may have I’m not in a position to know.”74 In 1945 he would recall the novel he had sent to several publishers around the time he had completed novel he had sent to several publishers around the time he had completed it, but not since 1938: “Reread some of it lately and was surprised how it,Notes but not since 1938: “Reread some of it lately and was surprised how Notes interesting I found it. But the Dickens of it,” he added, “ is that it takes an interesting I found it. But the Dickens of it,” he added, “ is that it takes an educated Mennonite or ex-Mennonite to feel the interest, and there aren’t educated1 Ephraim Weber, Mennonite in Wilfrid or Eggleston, ex-Mennonite “A-precis to [ca. feel 1959].” the Unpublishedinterest, and precis there of Ephraim aren’t 1 Ephraim Weber, in Wilfrid Eggleston, “A-precis [ca. 1959].” Unpublished precis of Ephraim many such.”75 manyWeber’s such.” unpublished75 letters to L.M. Montgomery, 1902-04. MG 30 D282 (now R4882-5- Weber’s unpublished letters to L.M. Montgomery, 1902-04. MG 30 D282 (now R4882-5- 2-E). Wilfrid Eggleston Papers, Library and Archives Canada, Ottawa, 22. [Abbreviated as 2-E). Wilfrid Eggleston Papers, Library and Archives Canada, Ottawa, 22. [Abbreviated as Ephraim Weber’s conflicted relationship with the world of his A-precis]Ephraim Weber’s conflicted relationship with the world of his A-precis] ancestors is familiar enough among Mennonite authors. As seems to be the ancestors2 Ephraim Weber, is familiar “Excelsior!” enough Young among People’s Mennonite Paper (June authors. 5, 1897): As 91. seems [Abbreviated to be the as 2 Ephraim Weber, “Excelsior!” Young People’s Paper (June 5, 1897): 91. [Abbreviated as case with writers – both among Mennonites and in other literary communities caseYPP] with writers – both among Mennonites and in other literary communities YPP] – he carried his ancestors with him long after he thought he had left them –3 Miriam he carried Toews, his A Complicated ancestors withKindness him (Toronto: long after Knopf, he 2004).thought he had left them 3 Miriam Toews, A Complicated Kindness (Toronto: Knopf, 2004). 4 4 behind. In 1946 Weber wrote about his life’s ambitions to Eggleston: “I will behind. Lucy Maud In 1946 Montgomery, Weber wrote After Greenabout Gables: his life’s L.M. ambitions Montgomery’s to Eggleston: Letters to Ephraim“I will Lucy Maud Montgomery, After Green Gables: L.M. Montgomery’s Letters to Ephraim Weber, 1916-1941. Ed. Hildi Froese Tiessen and Paul Gerard Tiessen (Toronto: University of Weber, 1916-1941. Ed. Hildi Froese Tiessen and Paul Gerard Tiessen (Toronto: University of strive, I will practice, till I’ve worn out my corporal functions totally; then strive,Toronto IPress, will 2006), practice, 237. [Abbreviatedtill I’ve worn as AGG]out my corporal functions totally; then Toronto Press, 2006), 237. [Abbreviated as AGG] I’ll yearn, yearn, yearn, till the dark is too chilly and the silence too mighty; I’ll5 AGG yearn,, 235. yearn, yearn, till the dark is too chilly and the silence too mighty; 5 AGG, 235. then I’ll distill into an essence or evaporate into a fragrance – but not, never, then6 Melvin I’ll Gingerich, distill into A Historyan essence of Mennonite or evaporate Costume. into Mimeographed a fragrance manuscript – but not, [1964?], never, 6 Melvin Gingerich, A History of Mennonite Costume. Mimeographed manuscript [1964?], yield to extinction.”76 yield6. to extinction.”76 6. 7 David Bergen, The Time in Between (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 2005). 7 David Bergen, The Time in Between (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 2005). I won’t speculate here on the degree to which my investigations 8 Rudy Wiebe,I won’t Peace speculate Shall Destroy here Many on the(Toronto: degree McClelland to which & Stewart, my investigations 1962). 8 Rudy Wiebe, Peace Shall Destroy Many (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1962). into Weber’s life – or the planned publication of his novel, “Aunt Rachel’s into9 Ephraim Weber’s Weber, life Letter – or to Wilfridthe planned Eggleston, publication May 29, 1937. of hisMG novel,30 D282 “Aunt (now R4882-5-2- Rachel’s 9 Ephraim Weber, Letter to Wilfrid Eggleston, May 29, 1937. MG 30 D282 (now R4882-5-2- Nieces” – might rescue Weber from extinction.77 But I will observe, finally, Nieces”E), volume – 33-34. might Wilfrid rescue Eggleston Weber Fonds.from extinction.Weber-Eggleston77 But Letters, I will Library observe, and Archivesfinally, E), volume 33-34. Wilfrid Eggleston Fonds. Weber-Eggleston Letters, Library and Archives that the investigative search that allowed me to see something of who this thatCanada), the Ottawa.investigative [Abbreviated search as EWthat-WE allowed Letters] me to see something of who this Canada), Ottawa. [Abbreviated as EW-WE Letters] 10 10 man was and how he occupied various landscapes of Canadian culture man Ephraim was Weber, and howEphraim he Weber’s occupied Letters various Home, 1902 landscapes-1955: Letters of Canadianfrom Ephraim culture Weber Ephraim Weber, Ephraim Weber’s Letters Home, 1902-1955: Letters from Ephraim Weber to Leslie Staebler of Waterloo County. Ed. Hildi Froese Tiessen and Paul Gerard Tiessen to Leslie Staebler of Waterloo County. Ed. Hildi Froese Tiessen and Paul Gerard Tiessen and the ethos of the Mennonites of his day has comprised – for me – an and(Waterloo, the ethos ON: MLR of the Editions Mennonites Canada, 1996), of his 70. day [Abbreviated has comprised as EWLH] – for me – an (Waterloo, ON: MLR Editions Canada, 1996), 70. [Abbreviated as EWLH] extraordinarily exciting journey. extraordinarily11 EW-WE Letters, excitingOctober 18, journey. 1936. 11 EW-WE Letters, October 18, 1936. 12 Ephraim Weber, “Aunt Rachel’s Nieces,” Unpublished novel. MG 30 D282 (now R4882- 12 Ephraim Weber, “Aunt Rachel’s Nieces,” Unpublished novel. MG 30 D282 (now R4882- I would like to thank Paul Tiessen of Wilfrid Laurier University, whose I5-2-E), would volume like 42. to Wilfrid thank Eggleston Paul Tiessen Fonds. ofLibrary Wilfrid and Archives Laurier Canada, University, Ottawa, whose 1. For 5-2-E), volume 42. Wilfrid Eggleston Fonds. Library and Archives Canada, Ottawa, 1. For permission to publish the words of Ephraim Weber, I am grateful to Abraham Kidd and permission to publish the words of Ephraim Weber, I am grateful to Abraham Kidd and collaboration richly informs all my work related to Ephraim Weber, and collaborationMargaret Melrose richlyKidd. informs all my work related to Ephraim Weber, and Margaret Melrose Kidd. Ana Milanovic for her meticulous research on archival texts related to this Ana13 As Milanovic 2005 Edna for Staebler her meticulous Research Fellow research at the on Joseph archival Schneider texts Haus related Museum to this in 13 As 2005 Edna Staebler Research Fellow at the Joseph Schneider Haus Museum in project. Archivists Anne Goddard of Library and Archives Canada, Dennis project.Kitchener, Archivists Ontario, I presented Anne Goddard a lecture ofentitled Library “The and Story Archives of a Novel: Canada, How We Dennis Found Kitchener, Ontario, I presented a lecture entitled “The Story of a Novel: How We Found Stoesz of Mennonite Church USA/Goshen Archives, and Sam Steiner of StoeszEphraim ofWeber’s Mennonite Three Mennonite Church Maids.”USA/Goshen The lecture, Archives, conceived and as Sam an introduction Steiner of to Ephraim Weber’s Three Mennonite Maids.” The lecture, conceived as an introduction to the Mennonite Archives of Ontario at Conrad Grebel University College theWeber’s Mennonite novel, will Archives soon be available of Ontario in the Josephat Conrad Schneider Grebel Haus MuseumUniversity series. College Weber’s novel, will soon be available in the Joseph Schneider Haus Museum series. 14 EWLH, 71. 14 EWLH, 71. 106 The Conrad Grebel Review 106 The Conrad Grebel Review

15 I refer here to History of the Book in Canada. Volume1: Beginnings to 1840. Ed. Patricia 15 I refer here to History of the Book in Canada. Volume1: Beginnings to 1840. Ed. Patricia Lockhart Fleming, Gilles Gallichan, and Yvan Lamonde (Toronto: University of Toronto Lockhart Fleming, Gilles Gallichan, and Yvan Lamonde (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2004) and History of the Book in Canada. Volume 2: 1840-1918. Ed. Yvan Lamonde, Press, 2004) and History of the Book in Canada. Volume 2: 1840-1918. Ed. Yvan Lamonde, Patricia Lockhart Fleming, and Fiona A. Black (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, Patricia Lockhart Fleming, and Fiona A. Black (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2005). 2005). 16 Michael E. Gardiner, Critiques of Everyday Life (New York: Routledge, 2000), 2. 16 Michael E. Gardiner, Critiques of Everyday Life (New York: Routledge, 2000), 2. 17 See Henri Lefebvre, Critique of Everyday Life. Vol. 2: Foundations for a Sociology of the 17 See Henri Lefebvre, Critique of Everyday Life. Vol. 2: Foundations for a Sociology of the Everyday. Trans. John Moore (London: Verso, 2002). Everyday. Trans. John Moore (London: Verso, 2002). 18 Wilfrid Eggleston, While I Still Remember: A Personal Record (Toronto: Ryerson Press, 18 Wilfrid Eggleston, While I Still Remember: A Personal Record (Toronto: Ryerson Press, 1968). 1968). 19 Muriel Millen, “Who Was Ephraim Weber?,” Queen’s Quarterly (Summer 1961): 333-36. 19 Muriel Millen, “Who Was Ephraim Weber?,” Queen’s Quarterly (Summer 1961): 333-36. 20 Mollie Gillen, The Wheel of Things: A Biography of L.M. Montgomery, Author of ‘Anne of 20 Mollie Gillen, The Wheel of Things: A Biography of L.M. Montgomery, Author of ‘Anne of Green Gables’ (London: Harrap, 1975). Green Gables’ (London: Harrap, 1975). 21 See Hildi Froese Tiessen and Paul Tiessen, “Lucy Maud Montgomery’s Ephraim Weber 21 See Hildi Froese Tiessen and Paul Tiessen, “Lucy Maud Montgomery’s Ephraim Weber (1870-1956): ‘a slight degree of literary recognition.’” Journal of Mennonite Studies (1993): (1870-1956): ‘a slight degree of literary recognition.’” Journal of Mennonite Studies (1993): 43-54; and “Epistolary Performance: Writing Mr. Weber,” in The Intimate Life of L.M. 43-54; and “Epistolary Performance: Writing Mr. Weber,” in The Intimate Life of L.M. Montgomery, ed. Irene Gammel (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2004), 222-38. See Montgomery, ed. Irene Gammel (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2004), 222-38. See also our Introductions to EWLH and AGG. also our Introductions to EWLH and AGG. 22 EW-WE Letters, November 15, 1937. 22 EW-WE Letters, November 15, 1937. 23 Lucy Maud Montgomery, The Green Gables Letters: From L.M. Montgomery to Ephraim 23 Lucy Maud Montgomery, The Green Gables Letters: From L.M. Montgomery to Ephraim Weber, 1905-1909. Ed. Wilfrid Eggleston (Ottawa: Borealis Press, 2001). [Abbreviated as Weber, 1905-1909. Ed. Wilfrid Eggleston (Ottawa: Borealis Press, 2001). [Abbreviated as GGL] GGL] 24 Lucy Maud Montgomery, Anne of Green Gables (Boston: L.C. Page, 1908). 24 Lucy Maud Montgomery, Anne of Green Gables (Boston: L.C. Page, 1908). 25 Rodney Sawatsky, History and Ideology: American Mennonite Identity Definition through 25 Rodney Sawatsky, History and Ideology: American Mennonite Identity Definition through History (Kitchener, ON: Pandora Press, 2005), 33-34. History (Kitchener, ON: Pandora Press, 2005), 33-34. 26 “Daniel Henry Bender,” The Mennonite Encyclopedia, Vol. 1 (Scottdale, PA: Mennonite 26 “Daniel Henry Bender,” The Mennonite Encyclopedia, Vol. 1 (Scottdale, PA: Mennonite Publishing House, 1959), 273. Publishing House, 1959), 273. 27 Leonard Gross, “The Doctrinal Era of the Mennonite Church, ” MQR (January 1986): 83. 27 Leonard Gross, “The Doctrinal Era of the Mennonite Church, ” MQR (January 1986): 83. 28 John F. Funk, “Close of Volume XI [of YPP],” in John F. Funk Collection (Hist. Mss. 1-1- 28 John F. Funk, “Close of Volume XI [of YPP],” in John F. Funk Collection (Hist. Mss. 1-1- 10 John F. Funk 101/13 “H[erald] O[f] T[ruth] articles” – about Periodicals Young People’s 10 John F. Funk 101/13 “H[erald] O[f] T[ruth] articles” – about Periodicals Young People’s Paper),” Mennonite Church USA Archives, Goshen, Indiana (MCA-G). Paper),” Mennonite Church USA Archives, Goshen, Indiana (MCA-G). 29 Ephraim Weber, “Read the Poem,” YPP (February 1, 1896): 18. 29 Ephraim Weber, “Read the Poem,” YPP (February 1, 1896): 18. 30 GGL, 8. 30 GGL, 8. 31 Ephraim Weber, “Read the Poem,”18. 31 Ephraim Weber, “Read the Poem,”18. 32 GGL, 20. 32 GGL, 20. 33 EW-WE Letters, August 10, 1925. 33 EW-WE Letters, August 10, 1925. 34 Ephraim Weber, “The Imagination in Devotion,” YPP (April 10, 1897): 58. 34 Ephraim Weber, “The Imagination in Devotion,” YPP (April 10, 1897): 58. 35 Ephraim Weber, “The Craving for Growth,” YPP (April 24, 1897): 67. 35 Ephraim Weber, “The Craving for Growth,” YPP (April 24, 1897): 67. 36 GGL, 14. 36 GGL, 14. 37 Menno S. Steiner, C.K. Hostetler, and Samuel F. Coffman. 37 Menno S. Steiner, C.K. Hostetler, and Samuel F. Coffman. 38 Letter from C.K. Hostetler to S.F. Coffman, April 4, 1901. Hist. Mss. 1.1.1.2.9, S. F. 38 Letter from C.K. Hostetler to S.F. Coffman, April 4, 1901. Hist. Mss. 1.1.1.2.9, S. F. Coffman Fonds, CK Hostetler letters. Mennonite Archives of Ontario, Conrad Grebel Coffman Fonds, CK Hostetler letters. Mennonite Archives of Ontario, Conrad Grebel University College, Waterloo, Ontario. University College, Waterloo, Ontario. A Mennonite Novelist’s Journey (from) Home 107 A Mennonite Novelist’s Journey (from) Home 107

39 I refer to Coffman’s diary interchangeably as “diary” and “journal.” 39 I refer to Coffman’s diary interchangeably as “diary” and “journal.” 40 The Samuel F. Coffman collection at the Mennonite Archives of Ontario includes a series of 40 The Samuel F. Coffman collection at the Mennonite Archives of Ontario includes a series of friendly letters written to Coffman from women during his bachelor years: Elsie K. Bender, friendly letters written to Coffman from women during his bachelor years: Elsie K. Bender, Alice Bearss, Ida Bergey, M. Elizabeth Brown, Mary Brubacher, Alda Culp, Mary Denlinger, Alice Bearss, Ida Bergey, M. Elizabeth Brown, Mary Brubacher, Alda Culp, Mary Denlinger, Sarah Funk, Celesta Hartzler, Lucetta High, Barbara Kratz, Berta Lehman, Lizzie Minnich, Sarah Funk, Celesta Hartzler, Lucetta High, Barbara Kratz, Berta Lehman, Lizzie Minnich, Debbie Moyer, Louida Nahrgang, Saloma Rittenhouse, Valerie Rittenhouse, Anna Schact, Debbie Moyer, Louida Nahrgang, Saloma Rittenhouse, Valerie Rittenhouse, Anna Schact, Barbara Sherk, Rebecca & Sarah Sherk, Linda Shantz, Saphrona Sievenpiper, Mollie Snyder, Barbara Sherk, Rebecca & Sarah Sherk, Linda Shantz, Saphrona Sievenpiper, Mollie Snyder, Sarah Wismer, Bertha Zook, Lena Zook. Sarah Wismer, Bertha Zook, Lena Zook. 41 Samuel F. Coffman, “Diary 1901.” March 6. Hist. Mss. 1.1.2.1.4.26., in the Samuel F. 41 Samuel F. Coffman, “Diary 1901.” March 6. Hist. Mss. 1.1.2.1.4.26., in the Samuel F. Coffman Family Fonds, Mennonite Archives of Ontario. [Abbreviated as 1901 Diary.] Coffman Family Fonds, Mennonite Archives of Ontario. [Abbreviated as 1901 Diary.] 42 1901 Diary, March 9. 42 1901 Diary, March 9. 43 Samuel F. Coffman. Letter to Ella Mann, April 16, 1901, in the Samuel F. Coffman Family 43 Samuel F. Coffman. Letter to Ella Mann, April 16, 1901, in the Samuel F. Coffman Family Fonds, “Letters to Ella Mann,” Hist. Mss. 1.1.1.1.3.2. Mennonite Archives of Ontario. Fonds, “Letters to Ella Mann,” Hist. Mss. 1.1.1.1.3.2. Mennonite Archives of Ontario. [Abbreviated as Letters] [Abbreviated as Letters] 44 1901 Diary, July 12. 44 1901 Diary, July 12. 45 1901 Diary, April 9. 45 1901 Diary, April 9. 46 Letters, May 4, 1901. 46 Letters, May 4, 1901. 47 1901 Diary, May 11. 47 1901 Diary, May 11. 48 1901 Diary, July 13. 48 1901 Diary, July 13. 49 1901 Diary, July 21. 49 1901 Diary, July 21. 50 1901 Diary, August 19. 50 1901 Diary, August 19. 51 1901 Diary, September 10. 51 1901 Diary, September 10. 52 1901 Diary, September 24. 52 1901 Diary, September 24. 53 1901 Diary, November 8. 53 1901 Diary, November 8. 54 1901 Diary, November 17. 54 1901 Diary, November 17. 55 Ephraim Weber, “The Bread of Life,” YPP (February 11, 1901): 11. 55 Ephraim Weber, “The Bread of Life,” YPP (February 11, 1901): 11. 56 Ibid. 56 Ibid. 57 EWLH, 63. 57 EWLH, 63. 58 Ephraim Weber, Letter to C.K. Hostetler, December 29, 1898, John F. Funk Collection 58 Ephraim Weber, Letter to C.K. Hostetler, December 29, 1898, John F. Funk Collection (Hist. Mss. 1-1-2 John F. Funk Correspondence and Papers). Box 116 (Green) Biographical (Hist. Mss. 1-1-2 John F. Funk Correspondence and Papers). Box 116 (Green) Biographical sketches - Ephraim Weber. Mennonite Church USA Archives, Goshen, Indiana (MCA-G). sketches - Ephraim Weber. Mennonite Church USA Archives, Goshen, Indiana (MCA-G). 59 EWLH, 5. 59 EWLH, 5. 60 EWLH, 6. 60 EWLH, 6. 61 A-precis, 1. 61 A-precis, 1. 62 A-precis, 2-3. 62 A-precis, 2-3. 63 GGL, 16. 63 GGL, 16. 64 A-precis, 32. 64 A-precis, 32. 65 A-precis, 5. 65 A-precis, 5. 66 A-precis, 7-8. 66 A-precis, 7-8. 67 A-precis,11. 67 A-precis,11. 68 A-precis,12. 68 A-precis,12. 69 A-precis,13. 69 A-precis,13. 70 A-precis,16. 70 A-precis,16. 108 The Conrad Grebel Review 108 The Conrad Grebel Review

71 A-precis, 21. 71 A-precis, 21. 72 A-precis, 28. 72 A-precis, 28. 73 Ephraim Weber, quoted in GGL, 9. 73 Ephraim Weber, quoted in GGL, 9. 74 EW-WE Letters, November 4, 1937. 74 EW-WE Letters, November 4, 1937. 75 EW-WE Letters, February 28, 1945. 75 EW-WE Letters, February 28, 1945. 76 EW-WE Letters, September 5, 1946. 76 EW-WE Letters, September 5, 1946. 77 Paul Tiessen and I are preparing the novel for publication. 77 Paul Tiessen and I are preparing the novel for publication.

Hildi Froese Tiessen is a professor of English and Peace and Conflict Studies Hildi Froese Tiessen is a professor of English and Peace and Conflict Studies at Conrad Grebel University College in Waterloo, Ontario. at Conrad Grebel University College in Waterloo, Ontario.

Benjamin Eby Lectureship Benjamin Eby Lectureship

Benjamin Eby (1785-1853) typified, and possibly inaugurated, Mennonite Benjamin Eby (1785-1853) typified, and possibly inaugurated, Mennonite culture in Upper Canada. He and his wife Mary arrived in Waterloo County culture in Upper Canada. He and his wife Mary arrived in Waterloo County from Pennsylvania in 1807. By 1812 he was ordained bishop, and in 1815 from Pennsylvania in 1807. By 1812 he was ordained bishop, and in 1815 he was overseeing construction of the area’s first schoolhouse. He provided he was overseeing construction of the area’s first schoolhouse. He provided outstanding leadership in the church and in education throughout his life. outstanding leadership in the church and in education throughout his life. The Benjamin Eby Lectureship, established at Conrad Grebel University The Benjamin Eby Lectureship, established at Conrad Grebel University College in the 1980s, offers faculty members an opportunity to share research College in the 1980s, offers faculty members an opportunity to share research and reflections with the broader College and University community. and reflections with the broader College and University community. C A L L F O R P A P E R S C A L L F O R P A P E R S Myth and Reality of Anabaptist/Mennonite Women Myth and Reality of Anabaptist/Mennonite Women Circa 1525-1900 in Continental Europe Circa 1525-1900 in Continental Europe

CONFERENCE 30-31 AUGUST 2007 CONFERENCE 30-31 AUGUST 2007 Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam

The research on women and religious dissent so far has focused upon The research on women and religious dissent so far has focused upon questions like these: Why were women attracted to religious dissent? What questions like these: Why were women attracted to religious dissent? What positions were open to women in religious movements like Anabaptism, positions were open to women in religious movements like Anabaptism, Calvinism, and Lutheranism? What about equality and patriarchalism in Calvinism, and Lutheranism? What about equality and patriarchalism in these new communities? The goal of this conference is to offer another these new communities? The goal of this conference is to offer another focus, with a comparative, contextual, critical, and multidisciplinary scope. focus, with a comparative, contextual, critical, and multidisciplinary scope. We propose a new approach: ‘imagology’. Imagology concerns the study We propose a new approach: ‘imagology’. Imagology concerns the study of representations, stereotypes, and traditions of self image. Imagologists of representations, stereotypes, and traditions of self image. Imagologists question the objective information value of “images,” study the structural and question the objective information value of “images,” study the structural and biased presuppositions behind these images and stereotypes, and show the biased presuppositions behind these images and stereotypes, and show the consequences of these beliefs in history and historiography. The conference consequences of these beliefs in history and historiography. The conference will focus on the images and stereotypes of Anabaptist/Mennonite women will focus on the images and stereotypes of Anabaptist/Mennonite women in documents and in historiography; the development of these images and in documents and in historiography; the development of these images and stereotypes; the differences between the various images and stereotypes; stereotypes; the differences between the various images and stereotypes; and how to interpret them in the proper cultural, intellectual, social, and/or and how to interpret them in the proper cultural, intellectual, social, and/or church historical settings. church historical settings.

Papers delivered at the conference will be published in English. Papers delivered at the conference will be published in English.

Please send / e-mail paper proposals (max. 200 words) before 15 Feb. 2007 to: Please send / e-mail paper proposals (max. 200 words) before 15 Feb. 2007 to: Dr. Mirjam van Veen, Theologische Faculteit, Vrije Universiteit, Dr. Mirjam van Veen, Theologische Faculteit, Vrije Universiteit, De Boelelaan 1105, 1081 HV AMSTERDAM, The Netherlands. De Boelelaan 1105, 1081 HV AMSTERDAM, The Netherlands. E-mail: [email protected]. E-mail: [email protected].

For more information on content and conditions, visit For more information on content and conditions, visit http://www.godgeleerdheid.vu.nl/english/index.cfm. http://www.godgeleerdheid.vu.nl/english/index.cfm.