“Bütün Ümidimiz Cömert Bir Uyan ”: On Dokuzuncu Yüzylda Bat Anadolu’da Os- manl Hristiyanlarnn Evanjelizasyonu Öz Bu makalenin konusu 1870 ve 1880’li yllarda American Board of Commis- sioners for Foreign Missions adl misyonerlik örgütünün Bat Türkiye Misyonu adl biriminin kapsamndaki Manisa ve zmir istasyonlarnda yürüttü ü faaliyetler ve bu bölgedeki Rum ve Ermenilere ncil’in mesajn ö retme çabalardr. Esas kaynaklar olarak Amerikal Protestan misyoner Marcellus Bowen’n 1874-1880 yllar arasn- da Manisa’dan Boston’daki ana merkeze ve Yunanistan kökenli Protestan misyoner George Constantine’in 1880-1889 yllar arasnda zmir’den Boston’a gönderdikleri mektuplar kullanlm tr. Bu birinci ahs anlatmlar olgular ve olaylar annda ve do rudan yorumladklar için çok zengin bir malzeme sunarlar. Bu çal ma, Ameri- kal misyonerlerin faaliyetlerini zmir’in çokkültürlü ve çokuluslu toplumuna uyar- lama çabalarn, bölgede ya ayan Rumlara ve Ermenilere vaaz verirken ya da onlara ibadet için seslenirken hangi dilin kullanlmas gerekti i konusundaki kanaatlerini ve gerekçelerini, Protestan misyonerlere muhalefet eden zmir’deki Rum Ortodoks yüksek rütbeli ruhbanlarnn ba vurdu u yollar ve dini kitap satma, okul ve kilise açma/ yapma eylemlerinin Osmanl yetkililerince hangi artlara ba land n ve yet- kililerin engelleriyle kar la tklarnda misyonerlerin hangi araclara ba vurduklarn incelemektedir. Anahtar kelimeler: zmir, Anadolu’da misyonerlik faaliyetleri, Ermeni ve Rum Pro- testanlar, mezhep/din de i tirme, on dokuzuncu yüzyl.

* Özye n Unversty.

, LV (  ),  -  “ALL WE HOPE IS A GENEROUS REVIVAL”

Introducton Smyrna/ zmr was the frst msson staton of the Amercan Board of Com- mssoners for Foregn Mssons n Ottoman Turkey.1 Yet the Brtsh Protestants’ arrval n the cty was earler. In 1815, two mssonares of the Anglcan Church Mssonary Socety came to zmr wth the ntenton of formng a Bble Socety. Wllam Jowett and James Connor founded a Bble Socety n zmr wth the full approval of the Greek Bshop. Ther goal was to further Chrstan educaton and mssonary endeavor. The two Amercan mssonares sent by the ABCFM Lev Parsons and Plny Fsk settled n zmr n 1820, and began learnng modern Greek from Neophytos Vamvas, the presdent of the College of Chos, a Greek clerc and ntellectual.2 In the ensung years, the Greek War of Independence encouraged the Amercan mssonares to undertake mssonary work among Greeks hopng that ndependence from Muslm yoke would be accompaned by a moral and sprtual rejuvenaton.3 In the 1830s, n collaboraton wth the Brtsh and Foregn Bble Socety, the Greek clerc and educator Vamvas, who had become Professor of Phlosophy at the Ionan Academy on the Brtsh- domnated sland of Corfu, translated the Holy Scrptures nto modern Greek.4 Furthermore, n ndependent Greece, the leadng statesmen showed nterest n the mssonares’ educatonal work because such nsttutons and nfrastructure were lackng n the aftermath of the ndependence. Hence, the frst generaton

I would lke to extend my sncere thanks to Ms. Ev Tramantza, Ms. Lza Vachtsevanou, and Ms. Stella Asder for helpng me to use ther archval records and collectons at Anatola College. The research trp for ths artcle was supported by Özye n Unversty. Chrs Royer, “Anglcansm n Smyrna ( -  ),” www.globalmssology.org. January , p. ; (Accessed on December , ). Plny Fsk and Alvan Bond, Memor of the Rev. Plny Fsk, A.M. Late Mssonary to Palestne (Boston: Crocker and Brewster, ), p. ; Pavlna Nasoutzk, 9 : - (Amercan vsons n Smyrna n the 9th century: The encounter of the Anglosaxon and the Greek thought), Athens: Esta, , p. . Joseph L. Grabll wrote that the young Greeks sent to Amherst and Yale Colleges by the mssonares, nfluenced some Amercans to vew the Greek War of Independence as a war between the cross and the crescent. Joseph L. Grabll, Protestant Dplomacy and the Near East. Mssonary Influence on Amercan Polcy, 80-9, (Unversty of Mnnesota Press,  ), p. . Georgos D. Metallnos, (Tradton and Estrangement) (Athens: Domos, [  ]), p. . See Rchard Clogg, “The Foundaton of the Smyrna Bble Socety ( ),” Mkrasatka Chronka, (  ), pp. - .

 MER H EROL of mssonares dealt manly wth the translaton and publshng of the Bble and relgous books, and establshng schools. By the end of the 1830s, as observed by Gerasmos Augustnos, the Protestant mssonares n zmr, besdes fnancng the charty schools that they had opened n zmr and neghborng towns, also were contnuously producng publcatons n Greek, ncludng the perodcal Apothk (Storehouse) or “Magazne of Useful Knowledge” whch became very popular.5 The Greeks of zmr were the most nfluental group n the cty thanks both to ther demographc and economc weght. here was a rapd process of Graec- zaton n the nneteenth century n zmr and along the Aegean shore, trggered by mgraton from the Kngdom of Greece, the Aegean archpelago, and the n- ner Anatolan provnces, as well as the hgh brth rate of the Greek Orthodox n the regon.6 Mssonares were not smple tools of Amercan foregn polcy, yet one should not fal to see that they largely shared the Amercan statesmen’s and dplomats’ ambtons of acqurng power and nfluence n the Ottoman Eastern Medterranean. Uygur Kocaba o lu has ponted to the close collaboraton be- tween commerce and mssonary work observng that the mssonares shaped the lfestyles and habts of the locals and prepared them as good customers.7 Therefore, ocean surmse that the zmran Greeks’ wealth and ther economcally and socally advantageous poston made them a partcularly mportant target populaton n the vew of the Amercan mssonares. In zmr, Danel Temple, Henry John van Lennep, and Elas Rggs engaged mssonary work among the Greeks untl 1844, the year when the ABCFM took the decson to stop workng among the Greeks. Henceforth, more emphass was gven to the Armenans of the cty. John B. Adger, Elas Rggs, and Rev. Joel

Gerasmos Augustnos, ““Enlightened” Christians and the “Oriental” Churches: Protestant Missions to the Greeks in Asia Minor, – ”, Journal of Modern Greek Studies, vol. , no. , October (  ), p. . Hervé Georgeln, “Armenan Inter-Communty Relatons n Late Ottoman Smyrna”, n Armenan Smyrna/ zmr. The Aegean Communtes, Rchard G. Hovannsan (ed.), UCLA Armenan Hstory and Culture Seres, Hstorc Armenan Ctes and Provnces, , (Cal- forna: Mazda Publshers, ), p. ; Vangelis C. Kechriotis, The Greeks of zmir at the end of the Empire. A Non-Muslim Ottoman Community Between Autonomy and Patriotism, Ph.D. Thess, (Unversty of Leden, ). Uygur Kocaba o lu, Kendi Belgeleriyle Anadolu’daki Amerika: 9. Yüzylda Osmanl mpara- torlu u’ndaki Amerikan Misyoner Okullar, (Istanbul: Arba,  ), pp. - .

 “ALL WE HOPE IS A GENEROUS REVIVAL”

S. Everett engaged n mssonary actvtes nto the 1850s.8 By 1853, an Arme- nan evangelcal church was formed n zmr and the frst Sabbath was held. The constructon of a small chapel was completed n 1858. The Amercan Protestant mssonares’ actvtes were not lmted to the cty of zmr; wth no less enthu- sasm they pursued ther evangelzng endeavors n the nearby towns of Akhsar (Thyatera) and Mansa. In the 1870s, due to ncreasng pressure from the natve churches n zmr, the Amercan Board transferred ts base n western Anatola to Mansa. It should be mentoned that the ABCFM organzed ts mssonary actvtes n Anatola n three major geographcal msson regons: the Western Turkey Msson, the Central Turkey Msson, and the Eastern Turkey Msson. Ths study focuses on the mssonary actvtes of the ABCFM n the 1870s and 1880s at Mansa and zmr statons operatng under the Western Turkey Msson. It s manly based on the letters of the mssonary Rev. Marcellus Bowen (1874- 1880) sent from Mansa to the headquarters of the ABCFM n Boston, and the letters of Rev. George Constantne (1880-1889) sent from zmr to the same destnaton. The Western Turkey Msson had sx other statons: Constantno- ple/ Istanbul, Bursa, Trabzon, Marsovan/ Merzfon, Caesarea/Kayser, and Svas. The Central Turkey Msson ncluded the statons of Antep, Mara , Adana, Urfa, and Hacn, and the Eastern Turkey Msson had statons n Erzurum, Btls, Van, Harput, and Mardn. Untl 1880, Mansa served as the center for the Amercan mssonary work n a vast regon whch contaned ctes and towns of varous szes, such as zmr, Ödem , Bayndr, Akhsar, Aydn, Ala ehr (Phladelpha), Kula, U ak, Afyonkarahsar, Isparta, Burdur, and Konya. In 1880, the central offce of the Western Turkey Msson was transferred back to zmr. Before hghlghtng some elements of the broader poltcal framework n the post-Reform Edct perod, and explorng the actvtes n the msson statons of Mansa and zmr n partcular, I would lke to provde some nformaton on the course of the developments that led to the recognton of the Protestant mllet by

See Dil en nce Erdo an, “Amerikal Protestan Misyonerlerinin Raporlarnda zmir stasyonu’nun Kurulu u ve Faaliyetleri ( -  ),” Karadeniz Ara trmalar, ( ), pp.  - ; Mehmet Ali Do an, “The Missionary Activities of Elias Riggs in zmir,” Inter- national Journal of Turcologia, V, ( ), pp. - ; Melike Tokay-Ünal, “Mid-nineteeth century New England Women in Evangelical Foreign Missions: Seraphina Haynes Everett, A Missionary Wife in the Ottoman Mission Field”, Turkish Historical Review ( ), and see Frank A. Stone, Academies for Anatolia. A Study of the Ratonale, Program, and Impact of the Educatonal Insttutons Sponsored by the Amercan Board n Turkey, 80-005, (San Francsco, Calforna: Caddo Gap Press, ), p.  .

 MER H EROL

the Ottoman sultan n 1850. In June 1846, Sultan Abdülmecd nterfered wth the Armenan patrarch’s persecutons aganst the converts to Protestantsm and bestowed government protecton to hs Armenan subjects who had embraced the Protestant fath. On 1 July 1846, the Armenan Evangelcal Church was founded n Istanbul/Pera wth a consttuton prepared wth the counsel and ad of the mssonares n the cty.9 Fnally, n 1850, the Ottoman Protestants were recognzed as a mllet by an mperal decree. After the Crmean War and the Reform Edct of 1856, the Ottoman ml- lets underwent sgnfcant changes related to ther organzaton and leadershp.10 Both n the Greek Orthodox and the Armenan Gregoran mllets, lay members of these communtes ganed power vs-à-vs the clergy and became actvely n- volved n matters, such as the electon of the patrarch, the admnstraton of the parshes, and educaton. These rsng mddle classes comprsng bureaucrats, entrepreneurs, merchants, physcans, and journalsts promoted a modernzed, secular educaton at ther communty schools. Though relgous nstructon con- tnued to be seen as an ndspensable component of the school currcula due to ts role n the constructon of relgous dentty, ecclesastcal nsttutons lost ther monopoly over the organzaton of educaton.11 Another manfestaton of ths competton was arguably the emergence of a crtcal dscourse regardng the tradtons of the church, lturgcal musc, devoton etc. and the gnorance and greed of the lower clergy.12 Protestant mssonares observed ths atttude, and often exaggerated t n ther accounts to justfy ther cause. Amercan evangelcal mssonares saw themselves as bearers of pure relgon whch stood n contrast to how they vewed the Greek and Armenan Churches. An Amercan mssonary provded justfcaton for what he saw as the hopeful state of hs feld, Mansa: “Dscontent and dsgust wth the natonal churches are undsgused”.13 On a smlar note, n hs book on hs long mssonary endeavor n Istanbul, Henry O.

 Leon Arpée, A Century of Armenan Protestantsm 84-94, (New York: The Armenan Mssonary Assocaton of Amerca,  ), pp. - . See Roderc H. Davson, Reform n the Ottoman Empre, 85-8 (Prnceton: Prnceton Unversty Press,  ). See Hars Exertzoglou, E 9 (National identity in Constantinople in the 9th century), (Athens: Nefeli,  ). See Merh Erol, Greek Orthodox Musc n Ottoman Istanbul: Naton and Communty n the Era of Reform (Bloomngton and Indanapols: Indana Unversty Press, ). Anatola College Archves (ACA), Papers of the ABCFM (ABCFM), Reel  , M. Bowen’s letter to Dr. Clark, Mansa  December .

 “ALL WE HOPE IS A GENEROUS REVIVAL”

Dwght observed that the Greek hgher clergy cared more about ther poltcal goals and tactcs than the sprtual needs of the people, and no powerful sermons were delvered at the cty’s Armenan churches.14 In addton to these tendences wthn the Ottoman Chrstan populatons, the Reform Edct of 1856 provded the Amercan mssonares wth an optmstc prospect for ther future work n the Empre. They perceved the promses of the sultan as a commtment to relgous lberty. In fact, they were not free at all to proselytze the Muslms and non-Muslms lvng n the Empre.15 Ottoman local authortes thoroughly nspected the prnted materals whch were dstrbuted or sold by foregners. Also, as was the case wth the Ottoman non-Muslms, foregn subjects were oblged to obtan a permt from the central government and the local authortes before constructng a church or openng a school. Nevertheless, n the era of modernzng reforms whch encompassed the legal and educatonal spheres, mssonares were able to spread ther actvtes to a broader geography and began to make both qualtatve and quanttatve mpact on the Ottoman populatons. Whenever they felt an obstacle on ther way, they appealed to the Brtsh or the Amercan consul, and through them remnded the Ottoman au- thortes of the sultan’s promse. Yet, t seems that after the Ottoman-Russan War of 1877-78, the Amercan mssonares’ optmsm was replaced by a mood of depresson and resentment. Henry O. Dwght’s letter to Boston dated 15 Octo- ber 1885 reportng hs thoughts on the Rumelan dspute reveals how the present Ottoman admnstraton was assessed by an Amercan mssonary:

The government has gone from bad to worse ever since the Russian war. The officials are more corrupt than ever. [ ] Such a set of men have no good to offer their country, and no sense of right to which foreigners may appeal. It is such men who have undertaken to crush out Christian Moslems, and to destroy Christian books and Christian schools, because they give Christians the advan- tage over Moslems in the struggle for power. They attack our schools and our books not merely because they are ours. But because they are of the elevating kind that teach man to think.

Henry Ots Dwght, Constantnople and Its Problems. Its Peoples, Customs, Relgons and Progress (New York: Flemng H. Revell Company,  ), pp. - . For the Ottoman state’s response to apostasy and what t saw as the denatonalzaton of ts subjects n the nneteenth century, see Selm Derngl, Converson and Apostasy n the Late Ottoman Empre (Cambrdge: Cambrdge Unversty Press, ). ACA, ABCFM, , Henry O. Dwght’s letter to Dr. Clark, Constantnople, October .

 MER H EROL

Gven the separatonst challenges and the legtmacy crss whch the state faced, the Hamdan regme (1876-1909) was especally cautous about avodng any sort of poltcal dssdence and mantanng the publc order.17 Accordngly, the mperal government regarded the Amercan mssonares and ther actvtes connected to preachng Chrstanty among the empre’s populatons as drect threats to one of the fundamentals of the state, Islam, and the peace and order of the socety.18 The schools run by the Amercan ctzens came under strct control. In 1887, the Amercan Board mssonares n the captal were nformed about a set of new regulatons concernng publc nstructon whch they consdered anx- ously. The proposed regulaton decreed that no foregner was allowed to carry on a school n the Empre, “wthout an mperal frman ssued n pursuance of the personal order of Hs Imperal Majesty, authorzng the openng of the school”.19 The mssonares objected to ths provson whch n ther vew was equvalent to the prohbton of foregn schools. They argued that the new regulaton would make t almost mpossble for an Amercan ctzen lvng n a dstant provnce of the empre, to provde the means and nfluence to secure the personal attenton of the sultan to hs proposal of openng a school. Wrtng n the name of hs colleagues, the mssonary Henry O. Dwght referred to the Hatt- Hümayun of 1856 by whch each communty was authorzed to carry on schools of sc- ence, arts and ndustry wthout the necessty of more specfc authorzaton. He clamed determnedly that the proposed regulaton was opposed to the prncple of relgous lberty whch was a part of the fundamental law of the Empre. Now t would be nterestng and frutful to turn to a mssonary feld outsde of the Ottoman captal, and observe both the dynamcs of a mssonary staton n the provnce and the challenges that the Amercan mssonares met there and how they dealt wth them.

The Mansa Feld In early 1874, the young mssonary Marcellus Bowen (mnster of a con- gregaton n Sprngfeld, New Jersey) and hs wfe Flora Bowen were apponted

Selm Derngl, “Legtmacy Structures n the Ottoman State: The Regn of Abdülhamd II ( -  )”, Internatonal Journal of Mddle East Studes, (  ), pp. - . Devrm Ümt, “The Amercan Protestant Mssonary Network n Ottoman Turkey, -  ”, Internatonal Journal of Humantes and Socal Scence, , ( ) ( ), p. .  ACA, ABCFM, , Henry O. Dwght’s letter to O. S. Straus, Envoy Extraordnary and Mnster Plenpotentary, Bble House, Constantnople,  December .

 “ALL WE HOPE IS A GENEROUS REVIVAL” by the Amercan Board to serve n Mansa and arrved at ther msson feld n June 1874. Bowen realzed the vastness of the feld he was responsble for, when he set on a lengthy tour nto the nteror n fall 1875. When he returned back to Mansa, he wrote to the headquarters n Boston to propose the establshment of a new, second center to provde for the places far away from Mansa at least untl the ralway extended to Konya. Accordng to hm, Isparta or Afyonkarahsar could serve as a second center.20 Yet, the Board turned a deaf ear to Bowen’s pro- posal about establshng a second base n western Anatola. Besdes strugglng to convnce the decson-makers at the Amercan Board about the needs of hs staton, the young mssonary also faced the challenges of the Ottoman local authortes regardng hs mssonary endeavors. As the ntal step of contactng the locals, typcally, the Amercan mssonares sent natve colporteurs to the towns at some dstance to dstrbute or sell Bbles and rel- gous tracts, and when they saw nterest among the locals, they sent preachers to them and formed evangelcal communtes. Konya was one of the towns, along wth Afyonkarahsar and Ak ehr, n whch the Armenans consttuted the larg- est Chrstan populaton. There, the mssonares and the natve colporteurs sold Bbles, relgous tracts, and Avedaper (“Good news brnger”)21 a weekly journal whch was publshed both n Armenan language and n Turksh n Armenan scrpt. As mentoned above, books and other prnted materals whch were sold n the Ottoman Empre by the Amercan mssonares had to go through govern- ment nspecton and the mssonares were oblged to have a permt to sell them. Despte recevng government authorzaton, n nteror towns the arrests of book agents and sezure of ther books were common.22 The followng epsode n Kon- ya reveals how, sometmes, the Amercan mssonares defed the local authortes and ressted ther decsons. Arguably, they were encouraged to do so at partcular moments when the Ottoman government was at bay dealng wth an nsurrecton n the Balkans or fghtng a war. As mentoned n M. Bowen’s letter to Boston headquarters dated 29 December 1875, they had been sellng books n Konya for several years. One day, the Governor wanted to see the book sellers, and hence

ACA, ABCFM,  , M. Bowen’s letter to Dr. Clark, Manssa [Mansa],  December . Avedaper was also publshed n Greco-Turksh and t had a chldren’s perodcal, too. See ACA, ABCFM, , A. Constantan’s letter to Rev. J. K. Greene, Ednburgh, June . ACA, ABCFM, , Henry O. Dwght’s letter to Dr. Clark, Constantnople, October . In hs letter, Dwght complaned that the government permt to prnt a book was not regarded as a permt for ts sale, thus renderng often the publcaton expenses futle, and pleaded that the Amercan Mnster n Istanbul should push for the redress of ths grevance.

 MER H EROL

Bowen sent the Armenan colporteur Sarks to the Governor for hs nqures. Sarks was nterrogated n front of a councl of notables who were surprsed that he sold books worth of 500 aspers for 5. Snce the Amercan mssonares had a permt to sell books, the ssue was not whether Sarks had a permt or not, but the local authortes were alarmed at the large amount of books and pamphlets sold. As a result, they requested from the colporteur a specal permt from Istanbul to sell hs books. Upon ths, Bowen mmedately nterfered and declared to the Governor and the notables n the councl that they would contnue sellng books untl the Amercan Mnster at Istanbul ssued an order forbddng t.23 In hs frst years as the head of the Mansa staton, Bowen often complaned n hs letters to Boston that the Amercan Board was not as generous to hs staton as t was to the other statons of the Western Turkey Msson. On 9 May 1878 he wrote pleadngly: “ Manssa feld s new although connected wth an old msson. We beg you not to place us n the same category wth Caesarea, Mar- sovan, and Broosa [Bursa]. Gve us the same opportuntes that have been gven them, and we may surely hope that the Lord’s arm wll reach all over Mansa feld also.”24 In Mansa, Bowen collaborated wth Phebe L. Cull, the drector of the grls’ school who had founded the school n 1871. It was not an easy task for Bowen to demonstrate to the Board that Mansa was a promsng feld despte be- ng new because among other parameters, the grls’ school had not acheved the expected success. In 1875, the number of students was so low that the mssonar- es thought of closng the school. As Bowen explaned, the Protestants n Mansa were too poor to send ther chldren to the school, and the non-Protestant parents ether feared persecuton or dd not pay for ther chldren when they could attend ther communty schools wthout payng.25 The low number of Greek students at Protestant schools seems to be a general phenomenon. To demonstrate ths further, I would lke to gve an example from another staton of the WTM, .e. the Bursa staton. At the mssonary school n Bursa, the low number of Greek students was compensated by acceptng Armenan students to the school. However, one of the major fnancal and organzatonal challenges whch awated the Amercan ms- sonares was to recrut teachers and staff who were able to nstruct the chldren of dfferent ethnctes n a regon n ther own natve languages. In 1881, the

ACA, ABCFM,  , M. Bowen’s letter to Dr. Clark, Mansa,  December . ACA, ABCFM,  , M. Bowen’s letter to Dr. Clark, Mansa,  May . ACA, ABCFM,  , M. Bowen’s letter to Dr. Clark, Mansa, February .

 “ALL WE HOPE IS A GENEROUS REVIVAL” woman mssonary Olve N. Twchell opened a school for grls n Bursa.26 Both Greek and Armenan grls enrolled n the school. Twchell knew Greek but not Armenan. Therefore, at frst she hestated to receve the Armenan students, but later she accepted them because ther parents were ready to pay full prce for board and tuton, coverng the salary of an Armenan teacher.27 However, gvng educaton n two dfferent languages created overload for both Twchell and her colleagues at the school. Several months later, Twchell asked for advce from the Board about keepng the Armenan grls n the school or not because the teachers and staff of the school dd not speak Armenan.28 Yet, ths was not an easy dec- son because as Twchell observed, the Armenans n Bursa had establshed ther churches and were more organzed, whereas t was not the case wth the Greeks and the number of the Greek students n the school was decreasng. Eventually, three years later at the Annual Meetng of the Western Turkey Msson, to remedy the local Greeks’ lack of nterest n the mssonares’ evangelcal message, t was proposed that a Greek evangelst be sent to the Bursa feld.29 When Bowen frst arrved n hs msson feld, he observed that except n zmr, Mansa, and Aydn, the Greeks, who consttuted the majorty of the Chrs- tan populaton, dd not speak Greek but Turksh.30 Snce the Armenans of the regon also spoke Turksh, n the nner parts of western Anatola, both of these groups could be reached va Turksh. Hence, n the newly burgeonng evangelcal communtes, the Armenans and the Greeks attended the same relgous servces held n Turksh. However, especally n the coastal parts of Asa Mnor, through- out the second half of the nneteenth century, the use of the Greek language was ncreasng among the Chrstan Orthodox populatons. Bowen propheszed that snce all throughout the regon the Greek chldren were taught Greek at ther communty schools, n ten years Turksh would be subordnate to Greek. Con- sequently, he emphatcally suggested n hs letters to Boston that the language of the mssonary work among the Greeks should be Greek. Hence, notng the necessty for havng Greek-speakng mssonares n Mansa staton, on 16 July 1875, Bowen wrote to the headquarters n Boston: “To myself falls the general

See ACA, ABCFM, , Olve N. Twchell’s letters from Bursa and Constantnople ( - ). ACA, ABCFM, , Olve N. Twchell’s letter to Dr. Clark, Broosa [Bursa], March . ACA, ABCFM, , Olve N. Twchell’s letter to Dr. Alden, Bursa, June .  ACA, ABCFM, , Olve N. Twchell’s letter to Dr. Clark, Bursa, October . ACA, ABCFM,  , M. Bowen’s letter to Dr. Clark, Mansa,  December .

 MER H EROL work of the staton, and the more mmedate oversght of our pastors and preach- ers who are all Armenans, usng the Turksh language. Ths s the condton of thngs wth us – Armenan preachers preachng n the Turksh language to con- gregatons whch are largely Greek n ther composton”.31 Ths brngs me to the topc of the language of theologcal nstructon for na- tve pastors and preachers. The Amercan Board followed the polcy of tranng them n ther own vernacular languages. In the 1870s, the Greek-speakng youth of the Mansa feld who wanted to receve further theologcal educaton were sent to Marsovan/Merzfon, to the only exstng relgous semnary close to the regon. Bowen beleved that the prospectve Greek helpers had to be educated n ther own place, rather than beng sent to the Theologcal Semnary n Marsovan/Mer- zfon whch was monopolzed by Armenan students and teachers.32 Several years later, the Greek-Amercan mssonary n zmr, George Constantne brought the same ssue to attenton: “There are three or four youths who are ready to be nstructed n Theology but would not go to Marsovan because there s no Greek speakng people. If we had had a strong man who could teach them Englsh and gve them ther theologcal educaton n Englsh and we help them n Greek and Turksh”.33 As keen observers of the peoples they were workng for, the Amercan mssonares were able to predct the consequences of lngustc and cultural df- ferences and alenaton. Natve helpers, teachers, and preachers were ndspensable to Amercan ms- sonary work. In 1878, a fresh graduate of the semnary at Merzfon was sent to Afyonkarahsar together wth hs wfe. There, ths young Armenan helper opened a school for boys attended by 40 students. The burgeonng Armenan Protestant communty n Afyonkarahsar had a local Armenan preacher named Hartoon Seyranan.34 However, the natve helpers had lttle say n the decson- makng regardng even the ssues whch drectly affected ther lves. For nstance,

ACA, ABCFM,  , M. Bowen’s letter to Dr. Clark, Mansa, July . ACA, ABCFM,  , M. Bowen’s letter to Dr. Clark, Mansa  December : “Marsovan seems to us unable to make suffcent provson for Greek students. You are aware, probably that Pastor Apostol of Demrdesh [Demrta ] spent a few months at Marsovan ths year. The result seems to have been to confrm the mpresson prevously entertaned by some, that the educaton of Greek students at Marsovan s mpractcable. The atmosphere there s Armenan, just as t ought to be for a healthy development, and just exactly as the atmo- sphere here s Greek, altho’ the one common language at both places s Turksh.” ACA, ABCFM, , G. Constantne’s letter to Dr. Clark, Smyrna, May . ACA, ABCFM,  , M. Bowen’s letter to Dr. Clark, Mansa,  May .

 “ALL WE HOPE IS A GENEROUS REVIVAL” the Amercan mssonares rotated the natve pastors as ther help was needed n other towns. In 1875, Pastor Nazar who had formerly been n Akhsar was sent to Aydn, Pastor Krkor who had been servng n zmr was sent to Akhsar, Pastor Hagop was shfted from Mansa to zmr, and Pastor Arstarchus who had been n Mara was sent to Mansa.35 Sometmes, the dfferences of vews between the Amercan mssonares on the ground and the natve pastors evolved nto severe conflcts. In early 1875, the young mssonary Mr. Baldwn and Pastor Hagop who had extensve experence wth the local Armenans were at odds to such an extent that M. Bowen reported ths to the headquarters of the Amercan Board.36 The senorty and experence of the Armenan pastor had won hm the great sym- pathy of hs congregaton.37 Ths confrmed a fact whch was already well-known by mssonares. Any mssonary had to gan the affecton and confdence of the natve brethren. In the late 1870s, along wth the theme of progress of the work n the nte- ror towns, n hs letters, Bowen frequently ponted to the flourshng and pos- tve clmate for the spread of Protestantsm n zmr, and sought to convnce the Amercan Board to allocate resources for the fundng of the mssonary work there.

zmr n the Mssonares’ Gaze Snce the eghteenth century, due to ts unque geographcal locaton, zmr connected the three major martme regons of the Ottoman Empre, namely North Afrca, the Black Sea and the Red Sea. The port of zmr not only com- manded a huge volume of trade wth the west, but t also unted the nteror wth the coast.38 zmr was a commercal hub wth wealthy and open-mnded nhabt- ants. It had a multethnc and multlngual populaton who adhered to numerous

ACA, ABCFM,  , M. Bowen’s letter to Dr. Clark, Mansa,  May . ACA, ABCFM,  , M. Bowen’s letter to Rev. Dr. Worcester, Mansa, Aprl . How old Mr. Baldwn was then s not clear but he was much younger than Pastor Hagop. To speculate, Marcellus Bowen was years old when he was sent to Mansa n ac- companed by hs wfe Flora Bowen. Elena Frangaks-Syrett, “Commerce n the Eastern Medterranean from the Eghteenth to the Early Twenteth Centures: The Cty-Port of zmr and Its Hnterland,” Internatonal Journal of Martme Hstory, X, (  ), p. . For the role of European outsders n the transformatons whch made Smyrna nto a unque Ottoman port cty, see Danel Goff- man, “ zmr: From Vllage to Colonal Port Cty,” n The Ottoman Cty between East and

 MER H EROL

confessons. The reactons of the Amercan mssonares, who found themselves n such an unexpected settng n a cty of the Orent, vared from dsapproval to wonder and amazement. As an example to dsapprobaton, Mara West, the Amercan mssonary and educator who came to zmr n 1876 to establsh a grls’ school made negatve comments on the zmrans’ pretentousness and stylshness. “Satan seemed to regn trumphant,” she wrote to the Board n Boston. “Smyrna s ndeed another Vanty Far; t worshps the goddess of pleasure and fashon and Pars s ts model.”39 Whereas Amanda S. Constantne, who came along wth her husband from Athens to engage preachng for the Greek-speakng populaton, found zmr as the perfect place for the success of the mssonary work:

This is a large city full of business; the various costumes, languages, religions, so mixed and yet so distinct, make one feel that he is really at the centre of an im- mense circumference of influence. If he may only proclaim the Gospel publicly here it may reach all along these lines of trade in every direction.

Indeed, the relatve openness of zmr’s socety, the free crculaton of Chrs- tan tracts and newspapers, zmr’s nhabtants’ good manners and hosptalty made t a place where Westerners/ Chrstan mssonares would feel safe and at home.41 In western Anatola, the Greeks and Armenans were the two major non- Muslm groups. The Orthodox Patrarchate n Istanbul tred to prevent Prot- estant mssonary actvty whch began to acqure converts among Orthodox Chrstans. In 1836, patrarch Grgoros VI ssued an encyclcal whch offcally accused the Protestant mssonares of dssemnatng ther own nterpretatons of the relgous dogmas, and banned the Orthodox Chrstans from sendng ther chldren to ther schools and readng ther Bble translatons and other prnted materal dstrbuted by them.42 Hence, n 1844 manly due to the ncreasng

West: Aleppo, zmr, and Istanbul, ed. by Edhem Eldem, Danel Goffman and Bruce Masters (Cambrdge: Cambrdge Unversty Press, ), pp. - .  Gles Mlton, Not to Be Served but to Serve. A Hstory of the Amercan College of Greece (Athens: Lvan Publshng Organzaton, ), p. . ACA, ABCFM, , Amanda S. Constantne’s letter to Dr. Clark, Smyrna, May . Davd H. Fnne, Poneers East: The Early Amercan Experence n the Mddle East, (Cam- brdge: Harvard Unversty Press,  ), p. . Kyrak Mamon, “ - (Struggles of the Ecumencal Patrarchate aganst the Mssonares)”, Mnymosn ,

 “ALL WE HOPE IS A GENEROUS REVIVAL” control and persecutons of the Orthodox Church, the Amercan Board ceased ts work among the Greeks, whereas t contnued among the Armenans. A few decades later n the 1870s, when Protestantsm began to fnd converts among the Greek Orthodox of the regon, mssonares sent by the Board faced the queston whether t was worth gettng ther hands on the Greek work agan. The head of the Mansa staton M. Bowen closely observed these two ethno-relgous groups and compared them n terms of beng potental recevers of ther messages. Fol- lowng a tour nto the nner parts of the Mansa feld, Bowen wrote: “It was easy to see that n pont of ntellectual actvty, the Greeks are wder awake than the Armenans. Ths s to be accounted for to some extent by the fact that the Greeks are n the majorty n pont of numbers, and as a consequence n pont of aggre- gate nfluence and wealth.”43 Hence, the head of the staton Bowen wrote repeatedly to the Amercan Board about the necessty of focusng on the Greeks of western Anatola, and even launchng a dstnct work among the Greeks n ther own language. He commented on what he saw as the nfluence of Athenan culture over the Greeks of zmr, and ther ntense ntellectual actvty and nterest n learnng letters and scences. Comparng them wth Armenans, he found Greeks to be more Western-orented culturally. Ths, however, dd not necessarly make them an deal, easly accessble group of to-be-converts. Bowen lamented that the Greeks of the regon were losng ther relgous fath n the grp of, on the one hand Greek natonalsm, and on the other “wrong” westernzaton: “The Greek s too ready to ape the Frenchman”.44 The ncreasng use of Greek among the Chrs- tan Orthodox populatons of Anatola was synonymous wth ncreasng Greek natonalsm n the vew of the mssonares. Accordng to them, the tme would come when the Greeks of Anatola would want ther ndependence and at the same tme would need a sprtual revval. The analogy s strkng n the mdst of the turmol n the Balkans: “Just as Bulgara needed ts msson, so wll Greek Anatola need ts msson.”45

(  - ), p. . See also Stavros Th. Anestds, “ : (Amercan mssonares n Asa Mnor: Bblographcal survey”, Delto Kentrou Mkrasatkon Spoudon, vol. ,  -  , pp. - . ACA, ABCFM,  , M. Bowen’s letter to Dr. Clark, Mansa,  December . ACA, ABCFM,  , M. Bowen’s letter to Dr. Clark, Mansa,  December . ACA, ABCFM,  , M. Bowen’s letter to Dr. Clark, Mansa, May .

 MER H EROL

Nevertheless, t was among the Armenans of the Empre that the Protes- tant mssonares ganed sgnfcant amount of converts. The evangelzaton of the Armenans was facltated by the fact that a number of clergymen of the Armenan Apostolc Church wanted a reform n ther church and resorted to the ad of the Amercan mssonares n Istanbul. Despte severe persecuton attempts of the Armenan patrarch, n July 1846 an Armenan Evangelcal Church was formed n Istanbul. Keepng n mnd on the one hand, how the Protestant movement was ntated among the Ottoman Armenans and on the other, the Greek mddle classes’ ncreasng nterest n secular and western pat- terns of educaton and thought partcularly n zmr, we may say that Bowen’s comparson of the Armenans’ and the Greeks’ relgous and ntellectual quests was to the pont:

In the main, throughout our field, the Armenians are much more ready for re- ligious instruction than the Greeks. All see the wretchedness and worthlessness of their own churches, but the Armenian tendency seems to be towards a better church. The Greek tendency is in the direction of rationalism and infidelity.

The Amercan mssonares could not fully grasp the ethnc, lngustc, and cultural dversty of the dfferent Chrstan groups they met n the Ottoman Em- pre.47 In ther attempt to deal wth each of them effcently and be able to argue for ther needs and demands stated n ther letters to the center n Boston, they sought to defne ther dstnctve features and categorze these groups. After all, they had an ambton to create a Chrstan communty above ethnc pretensons. One of the means they used to accomplsh ths was to brng together Greeks, Armenans, and Turks n churches and schools they establshed.

ACA, ABCFM,  , M. Bowen’s letter to Dr. Clark, Mansa,  December . In hs study of the Amercan mssonares’ encounter wth the Arab world, Ussama Makds has ponted out that when they frst arrved n the Mddle East, the Amercan Protestant mssonares had no dea about the coexstence of dfferent relgons and ther mutual recognton. Referrng to the dversty of relgons n the regon and the falure of the Amercan mssonares’ project, Makds wrote: “ ths readng of the world fun- damentally contradcted the dea of a voluntary, conscous embrace of fath at the heart of Amercan Protestantsm”. Ussama Makds, Artllery of Heaven: Amercan Mssonares and the Faled Converson of the Mddle East, (Ithaca: Cornell Unversty Press, ), p. .

 “ALL WE HOPE IS A GENEROUS REVIVAL”

Schools and Prestge: An Amercan College n zmr Constanta Kskra has rghtly noted that the educatve and the phlanthrop- cal dmensons of the Amercan Board’s mssonary work became more success- ful n comparson to ts ablty to proselytze.48 The Board’s rch record of publ- catons n about 40 languages and dalects, and the longevty and the socal and cultural mpact of the schools opened by t demonstrate ts success n the feld of educaton and upbrngng. Uygur Kocaba o lu has observed the emergence of a dual structure n the Amercan mssonary educaton process, namely the evan- gelcal and the secular cursus. The frst one comprsed of the prmary school, sec- ondary school, and the theologcal school. Whereas, the secular cursus ncluded the prmary school, secondary school, and the college where the students receved a 4-year educaton.49 Kocaba o lu has nterpreted the achevements of the Amer- can mssonares as the vctory of secular educaton over relgous educaton, an unntended consequence so to say.50 Before I move on to the foundaton of an Amercan college n zmr, I would lke to draw attenton to the frst college for grls’ educaton establshed by the Amercans n Istanbul. Amercan mssonares pursued the goal of advancng grls’ hgher educaton n the Ottoman lands. Begnnng n the 1870s, they establshed grls’ schools wth outstandng educatonal standards n the major Ottoman ct- es. The frst such college-type school was nsttuted n 1872 n Istanbul wth the ntatve of the Woman’s Board of Mssons n Boston. The mssonares called ths grls’ school n Scutar/Üsküdar n Istanbul “The Home”.51 About two dec- ades later, the presdent of the school and ts Board of Trustees began to dscuss both the school’s name and the level of educaton whch t offered. In ther corre- spondence t was nqured whether the school would have the status of an Amer- can college, such as Smth or Wellesley College n Massachusetts, and whether

Constanta Kskra, “ Mssonary Herald. (The Perodcal Mssonary Herald. An Unmned Source for the Hstory of Asa Mnor Hellensm)”, Delto Kentrou Mkrasatkon Spoudon, (  -  ), p. .  Kocaba o lu, Kendi Belgeleriyle Anadolu’daki Amerika, p. . Ibd., p. . ACA, ABCFM, . See also Ercan Kaçmaz, “Mssonary Actvtes n the Lands of Ot- toman Turkey: The Emergence of Robert College and the Amercan College for Grls,” Turksh Studes - Internatonal Perodcal For The Languages, Lterature and Hstory of Turksh or Turkc, , ( ), pp. -  .

 MER H EROL

t would be approprate to rename t as for nstance “Constantnople College”.52 Soon, the namng ssue was fnalzed wth an assertve choce. The Presdent of the school Mary M. Patrck, n her letter to the Secretary of the Board of Trustees n Boston dated 4 October 1889, wrote that she was happy that the school would be named “Amercan College for Grls”, hence ndcatng “the natonalty of ts founders and supporters”.53 As n the Ottoman captal, also n zmr, prmary and secondary schools and especally college-level hgher nsttutons establshed by foregn natonals were the showcases of ther own countres’ prestge. Hence n 1879, the Amercan mssonares workng n the feld of zmr proposed to the Board the foundaton of an Amercan college-level school for boys and grls n zmr. Before proceed- ng wth the analyss of the Amercan mssonares’ vsons for an educatonal nsttuton n the 1880s zmr and how they negotated ther project wth the headquarters n Boston, let us see the Amercan Board’s precedng endeavors regardng the establshment of schools n zmr. In 1876, Mara A. West, a ms- sonary from Massachusetts, arrved n zmr to open a school for grls.54 It was not her frst tme n Ottoman Turkey; for 18 years she had lved n Istanbul and eastern Turkey, learned Armenan and taught at msson schools. After a break n the US, she was reapponted by the Amercan Board to the Western Turkey Msson. Mss West started a Bble class n Englsh and Armenan. In summer of 1878, she acqured a buldng n zmr’s Armenan quarter where she establshed her grls’ school. The majorty of the chldren were Armenan, but there were also Greeks, Englsh, Germans, Italans, and Turks. Mss West chose to name her school the Evangelcal Armenan School, and attempted to persuade Arme- nan mothers to educate ther daughters at her school. The school started wth 7 chldren the number of whch then rose to 30 and later to 50.55 Mss West rased funds for the Smyrna work n England. She establshed a venue on the quay for preachng the gospel whch came to be known as the ‘Coffee Room’ among the mssonares and the vstors. The Amercan Board was satsfed wth her work n zmr snce her school survved despte pressures from Ottoman authortes and

ACA, ABCFM, , Mary M. Patrck’s letter to Ms. Carre Borden, the Secretary of the Board of Trustees, Boston, Constantnople, September . ACA, ABCFM, , Mary M. Patrck’s letter to Ms. Carre Borden, the Secretary of the Board of Trustees, Boston, Constantnople, October . Sue S. Horner, “Amercan Female Mssonares n Europe -  ,” unpublshed paper. Mlton, Not to Be Served but to Serve, pp. - .

 “ALL WE HOPE IS A GENEROUS REVIVAL” the Orthodox clergy, and large audences were gatherng n the Coffee Room. Yet, begnnng n 1879, Mss West began to be crtczed by both the headquarters n Boston and the Mansa staton for the way she was dealng wth the fnancng of her work.56 In 1880, she left for Istanbul to contnue her work there. As Mss West’s further stay n zmr seemed doubtful, schemes for new edu- catonal nsttutons appeared. On 17 June 1879, the head of the Mansa staton Marcellus Bowen wrote to the Secretary of the Board suggestng the openng of a college n zmr whch would gve educaton n Englsh to Armenan and Greek boys and grls.57 In a later correspondence, Bowen stated that Mss West would have no offcal connecton wth the school, and that the school would be establshed and run by two Amercan lades preferably from Wellesley College n Massachusetts.58 Accordng to hm, both zmr’s Chrstans’ recent nterest n Protestantsm and the collaboratve atttude of the members of the Englsh com- munty towards the Amercan mssonares sgnaled a rpe moment for the future of the Amercan mssonary work n zmr. He wrote: “There s a demand n that large and flourshng cty for Protestant schools and more especally for Amercan Protestant Schools. I feel qute postve that a school conducted by competent Amercan teachers havng Englsh as ts bass, and takng a reasonable tuton mght receve a large patronage from Englsh as well as from Greek and Arme- nan communtes”.59 The proposed college would have a “drect and pronounced connecton” wth the msson, and along wth havng Englsh as ts language of nstructon t would also teach Armenan, Greek, and French. Notwthstandng that Bowen was envsagng a genune mssonary school whch would provde for the educaton of the poor chldren, the Amercan college he had n mnd was ex- pected to appeal to zmr’s westernzed and wealthy Chrstan famles. Elsewhere, he noted more than once: “The elaboraton of the scheme [of the college] would need to be wth much care, and wth specal regard to the character, tastes and wshes of Smyrnotes”.60 “Smyrna s a wealthy cty, an arstocratc cty, and whle

ACA, ABCFM,  , M. Bowen’s letter to Dr. Clark, Mansa, March . In hs letter to Dr. Clark dated Mansa March , Bowen announced that at last Mss West would resgn from her work n Smyrna. For the Amercan Collegate Insttute n Smyrna, see Bran Johnson, “Paths of Learnng: A Chroncle of the Amercan Collegate Insttute and Assocated Schools n zmr,” unpub- lshed paper, ( ). ACA, ABCFM,  , M. Bowen’s letter to Dr. Clark, Mansa, December .  ACA, ABCFM,  , M. Bowen’s letter to Dr. Clark, Mansa, June . ACA, ABCFM,  , M. Bowen’s letter to Dr. Clark, Mansa, October .

 MER H EROL we must not forget and are not forgettng the poor, s t rght for us to gnore the hgher classes? Such an enterprse as the one proposed would be lkely to ncrease our nfluence among all classes.”61 In the late 1870s, the young mssonares afflated wth the Western Tur- key Msson of the Amercan Board saw themselves as dfferent from the older generaton of mssonares who had set up the mssonary work n zmr about ffty years ago. Notwthstandng that they sometmes resorted to those senors’ advce, they beleved that they themselves would brng about an unprecedented revval of Protestantsm n western Anatola and that thers was the rght moment. Hence, the two new projects, namely the establshment of a boardng collegate school and the constructon of a new chapel n zmr – whch wll be nvestgated later - reflected the challenge that Bowen and hs fellow mssonares took up n competton wth both the older generaton of the ABCFM mssonares lke for nstance Henry Van Lennep, and the representatves of the other Protestant and non-Protestant natons. In one of hs letters, Bowen conveyed a sense of concern regardng the most recent mage of Protestantsm n zmr: “Up to wthn a very short tme ago, they found Protestantsm n Smyrna represented by a dsmal, nasty place, where a few people were supposed to assemble every week and hear a sermon. No school, no mssonary, nothng that could be called lfe”. The strong sense of rvalry wth other Westerners s revealng: “Schools have become a great power n ths land, and we Protestant workers cannot afford to be behnd others n ths respect.”62 Bowen sought to persuade the Prudental Commttee n Boston about the prospectve Amercan college by makng the pont that the exstng Protestant schools n zmr were ether not successful or remote from beng a real msson- ary school.63 He speculated postvely that snce the Brtsh school whch had

ACA, ABCFM,  , M. Bowen’s letter to Dr. Clark, Mansa, December . ACA, ABCFM,  , M. Bowen’s letter to Dr. Clark, Mansa, December . The Prudental Commttee, whch was an executve commttee under the drecton of the Board, was apponted durng the frst meetng of the ABCFM held n Farmngton, Con- nectcut, n September . See Mehmet Al Do an, “Amercan Board of Commssoners for Foregn Mssons (ABCFM) and “Nomnal Chrstans”: Elas Rggs ( -  ) and Amercan Mssonary Actvtes n the Ottoman Empre” Unpublshed PhD Thess, The Unversty of Utah, , p. . The Prudental Commttee, among other responsbltes, took decsons about openng new mssons, apponted and nstructed mssonares, and responded to the proposals of the mssonares on the ground regardng the openng of new schools and churches.

 “ALL WE HOPE IS A GENEROUS REVIVAL” been servng for the educaton of the Englsh chldren faled, the Englsh famles would send ther chldren to the Amercans’ college.64 Interestngly perhaps, not only dd he celebrate the sympathy of the Englsh nhabtants of zmr to ther mssonary endeavor, but also he saw them as needng the Amercans’ nvgorat- ng relgous work due to ther moral nferorty. He wrote:

I know, our main object in coming to Turkey is not to look after the English. But anyone here on the ground, who sees and realizes the disastrous influence of these degenerated English people on missionary work, especially in these parts, cannot but recognize the importance of doing something incidentally, if possible, for these people also.

Contnung to crtcze the exstng Protestant schools of other natons, Bow- en referred to the so called “Deaconess School/ House” n Frank Quarter whch was establshed by a Lutheran movement based n Germany. The School was managed by nuns, and many Protestant famles n the cty were sendng ther daughters to t. He noted that the school dd not have an evangelcal nfluence snce t made no provson for the educaton of the poor chldren.66 Furthermore, Bowen was optmstc that zmr’s Armenans would support the educaton of ther chldren at the prospectve Amercan college. The schools whch the Amercan Board founded n Ottoman Turkey were ntended to be- come self-supportng n a short tme. Hence, regardng the college’s expenses Bowen foresaw a postve development: “We expect n the course of two or three years to releve the Board of all responsblty, as we feel confdent of a lberal patronage by the Armenans of Smyrna”.67 Indeed, from 1880 to 1884, when M. Bowen was the prncpal of the college (whch was the contnuaton of the school that had been establshed by Mss West), the school contnued to grow, and the three Amercan Board teachers were joned by Mss Mary Page, who spoke Greek, and Mss Agnes Lord, a graduate of Wellesley.68 After the retrement of M. Bowen n 1884, both the leadershp of the Smyrna/ zmr msson and the responsblty

Ibd. Bowen wrote that the founder and man supporter of the Brtsh school Mr. Perrn encouraged them about ther proposed college. George Perrn ( - ?) was an Englsh engneer who drected Smyrna-Cassaba ralway constructon. Ibd. Ibd. ACA, ABCFM,  , M. Bowen’s letter to Dr. Clark, Mansa, June . Mlton, Not to Be Served but to Serve, p. .

 MER H EROL of the college were taken over by Rev. Bartlett who expanded the nsttuton and provded separate buldngs for the educaton of boys and grls.

Preachng n the Heart of the Cty: A New Chapel n the Armenan Quarter In July 1878, the Amercan Board mssonares of Mansa staton proposed to the msson headquarters n Boston, the constructon of a new Protestant church n zmr sayng that the old chapel was remote from provdng for the needs of the ncreasng brethren.69 Thus, the head of the staton Marcellus Bowen suggested havng a new church on a man street at a locaton easly accessble by both Greeks and Armenans. In zmr, the Armenans’ demographc weght, thus ther nfluence, was less than that of the Greeks. As observed by Hervé George- ln, emgraton to other East Medterranean ctes such as Alexandra and mxed marrages wth the Greek Orthodox and Levantnes affected the Armenans of zmr demographcally and culturally.70 Nevertheless, everywhere n the Empre, the Armenans were more responsve than the Greeks to the call of the Protestant mssonares. Wthn a year after the foundaton of the Armenan Evangelcal Church n Istanbul n 1846, evangelcal churches were organzed by mssonares n zmt, Adapazar, and Trabzon, and n a short tme the number of ther mem- bers reached about 140.71 Also, by and large, throughout the nneteenth century the numbers of the Armenan students were hgher than the Greek students at the colleges and semnares establshed by the Amercan mssonares. On 2 October 1879, Bowen reported to the Board the purchase of a ground 45 feet (13.72 m) by 125 feet (38.1 meters) wth a large buldng at one end, cen- trally stuated wth an easy access to both the Greeks and the Armenans.72 The lot purchased by the Amercan mssonares was located n the Armenan Quarter n Basmane. Suggestng that the large house at one end of the lot be used as a

 ACA, ABCFM,  , M. Bowen’s letter to Dr. Clark, Smyrna, July . It seems that the dssatsfacton of the mssonares wth the exstng chapel dated to several years back. Mssonary Mss Mara West who founded a grls’ school n Smyrna had demanded the mprovement of the chapel. See ACA, ABCFM,  , M. Bowen’s letter to Dr. Clark, Con- stantnople, June . Georgeln, “Armenan Inter-Communty Relatons,” p. . Leon Arpée, A Century of Armenan Protestantsm 84-94 (New York: The Armenan Mssonary Assocaton of Amerca,  ), p. . ACA, ABCFM,  , M. Bowen’s letter to Dr. Clark, Mansa, October .

 “ALL WE HOPE IS A GENEROUS REVIVAL” boardng school, Bowen proposed the constructon of a chapel on the same plot for approxmately 300 people. However, the Board was reluctant to approve the buldng of a new chapel n zmr whch, accordng to Bowen’s estmate, would cost 2000 Turksh Lras. Upon ths, n hs subsequent letters, Bowen emphatcal- ly argued for the necessty of a new chapel n zmr and to strengthen hs poston, he clamed a revval of nterest among the Armenans and the Greeks towards the Protestant fath. He wrote: “Our Armenan work s more hopeful than t has ever been n that cty. Old Protestants are gettng happy and say “we begn to see the frut of 50 years labor”.”73 At the new chapel, as Bowen observed, the Gospel would be preached n four languages, Englsh, Greek, Armenan, and Turksh.74 In the meanwhle, a severe earthquake struck zmr n March 1881 and damaged the exstng buldng on the purchased lot. Then, Bowen wrote to the headquarters n Boston sayng that the buldng whch had been ntended for a boardng school was serously damaged, and suggested that t should be de- molshed and constructed from scratch. In the meanwhle, the Board fnally ap- proved the constructon of a new chapel on the lot. The buldng of the school began after recevng an offcal permt from the Muncpalty. At the same tme, the constructon of the new chapel also began. However, unlke n the case of the constructon of the school buldng, the constructon of the new chapel was suspended due to the requrements of the local Ottoman authortes. To llus- trate the process and condtons of church-buldng by foregn subjects n the post-Reform Edct perod, I would lke to gve an example from the Brtsh com- munty of zmr. In the 1820s and 30s, Brtsh merchants and Brtsh ralroad workers began buldng summer houses n Buca, a nearby dstrct outsde of zmr. The ncreas- ng Brtsh populaton necesstated the constructon of an Anglcan chapel whch was completed n 1835.75 The chapel was named as All Sants’ Chapel. Almost thrty years later, n Aprl 1864, the Brtsh communty wrote a petton to the Governor General of the Provnce of zmr to request the reconstructon of the Protestant chapel sayng that t was erected thrty years ago and at present was n such a bad condton that t was dangerous to gather n t to celebrate the relgous servce: “Those hghlghted, the apponted members of the Commttee n charge of the reconstructon of the Protestant Chapel located n the vllage of

ACA, ABCFM,  , M. Bowen’s letter to Dr. Clark, Mansa, February . ACA, ABCFM,  , M. Bowen’s letter to Dr. Clark, Mansa, March . Royer, “Anglcansm n Smyrna,” p. .

 MER H EROL

Bouja, have the honor of brngng to the knowledge of Your Excellence that ths Chapel whch has been elevated snce thrty years s menaced by beng runed today, and s n such a bad state that t s dangerous to gather n t to celebrate the Relgous Servce”.76 The communty demanded not only the reconstructon of the chapel on the same plot but also ts enlargement: “[ ]That ths Chapel s Twenty four archtect’s cubt n length, Twenty archtect’s cubt n wdth, and ten n heght. That they propose to reconstruct the abovementoned Chapel n the same place, but gvng t a length of Twenty Seven archtect’s cubt, a wdth of fourteen archtect’s cubt, a heght of twelve archtect’s cubt.”77 The permsson by the Sublme Porte dated 30 June 1864 ndcates that the Brtsh communty receved a postve answer for ts request n a couple of months. The reconstruc- ton and the enlargement of the Protestant chapel n Buca was approved on the grounds that the chapel n queston belonged to the Protestant mllet snce an- cent tmes, and that other mllets dd not have any relaton to or connecton wth t, and that t was not located n a Muslm neghborhood, and that the requested enlargement would be lmted to the space nsde the chapel’s courtyard, and that t was not the property of anyone nor was n the confnes of a knd of founda- ton, and that the enlargement of the church would not cause nconvenence n terms of place and localty, and that t would not cause any real harm to anyone. Fnally, the permt specfed that the length, wdth, and heght of the chapel be extended at a suffcent degree n proporton to the current populaton of the above-mentoned mllet: “[ ]zkr olunan klse mnelkadîm mllet- merkum- eye mahsus olub mlel- sarenn alâka ve medhal olmad  ve slam mahallesnde bulunmad  ve tevs hakknda lüzumu olan mahal dah klse- mezkûr havlusu derununda bulundu u ve kmsenn mülkü ve br gûne vakf dahlnde olmad  ve

Ba bakanlk Osmanl Ar v (BOA), râde Hariciye ( . HR.), /  , the petton of the Commttee for the reconstructon of the Protestant Chapel dated Smyrna, (day unspecfed) Aprl . The quotaton n orgnal: “Les soulgnés, nommés membres du Comté chargé de la reconstructon de la Chapelle Protestante, sse au vllage de Bouja, ont l’honneur de porter à la connassance de Votre Excéllence, que cette Chapelle élevée depus trente ans menace rune aujourd’hu, et se trouve dans un s mauvas état qu’l est dangereux de s’y réunr pour célébrer le Servce Relgeux”. The petton s sgned by James F. Hanson, F. (?) C. Blackler, J. F. Wolters (the Chaplan), John Fraser, and [?] J. A. Henry (Perry?). BOA, . HR., /  . Pc (“mmar ar n”) s translated as “archtect’s cubt”, and pc measures , cm. The quotaton n orgnal: “Que cette Chapelle mesure en longueur pcs Vngt quatre, en largeur pcs Vngt, et en hauteur dx. Qu’on se propose de reconstrure la dte Chapelle sur le même emplacement, mas en lu donnant une longueur de pcs Vngt Sept, une largeur de pcs quatorze, et une hauteur de pcs douze.”

 “ALL WE HOPE IS A GENEROUS REVIVAL” klse- mezkûrun ol-vechle tevsnde mahal ve mevk‘ce mahzuru ve kmesneye dah mazarrat- sahhes bulunmad  halde mllet- merkumenn nüfus- mevcu- desne nsbetle tûl ve arz ve kadd zra‘lar derece- kfayede olarak tevs‘an bna ve n as zmnnda ruhsat hav emr- al ‘tas [...]”.78 Hence, the above document suggests that permsson for the constructon of a new place of worshp was granted to a partcular communty as a result of that communty’s rght to practce ts own rte. In the case of the Amercan ms- sonares n zmr, probably, the Ottoman authortes dd not fal to see that they were attemptng at buldng a church wth the obvous am of dong relgous propaganda among the Chrstans of the place. Offcal documentaton n the Ottoman archves ndcates that church constructon by the Amercan Protestant mssonares was tred to be prevented by the local Rum communtes and the Pa- trarchate. In the summer of 1891, the Patrarchate ntervened and wrote a letter to the Mnstry of Justce and Sects to prevent the constructon of a church and a school n Burdur, n order to cast off the threat of proselytzaton.79 A few years later, the Greek Orthodox communty n Fatsa wrote a petton to the Mnstry of Justce and Sects complanng about the Protestants n the dstrct who construct- ed a buldng and converted t to church and school wthout offcal permsson.80 In 1894, n Ordu, the Greek Orthodox attacked the Protestant church on the grounds that t was too close to ther place of worshp. Ths protracted conflct resulted n the Protestants buldng a new church n the same neghborhood.81 Regardng the buldng of the Protestant church n zmr, the memorandum sent to the Mnstry of Justce on 3 September 1882 stated that the constructon of the Protestant church was suspended because the buldng of a new place of worshp was contngent on obtanng an mperal rescrpt.82 Eventually, n 1883,

BOA, . HR., /  , the permt of the Sublme Porte dated Muharrem ( June ).  BOA, Dahlye Mektub Kalem (DH. MKT.),  / , the letter to the Provnce of Konya, dated Muharrem  ( August  ). BOA, Sadaret Mühimme Kalemi Evrak (A. MKT. MHM.), / , the petton to the Grand Vezrate dated  Zilkade ( May  ). BOA, Harcye Nezaret Syas (HR. SYS.), / , the translaton of the extract from the letter of Mr. Arnold, the Secretary of the Evangelcal Allance dated May  ; BOA, HR. SYS., / , the translaton of the extract from the letter of Mr. Arnold, the Secre- tary of the Evangelcal Allance dated June  . BOA, ura-y Devlet ( D.), / ,  evval  ( September ): “ zmir’de Amerikal ar Ma elos [Marcellus] Donik uhdesinde (crossed out: zmirde Debba hane

 MER H EROL a Protestant church belongng to the Amercans was erected on the plot whose superntendent (archtect) was George Perrn (b.1833) the prevously mentoned Englsh engneer who had a collaboratve relaton wth the Amercan msson- ares.83 In the followng years, the Amercan mssonares experenced problems wth the Ottoman authortes regardng ths church, and ultmately the custod- anshp of the church was passed on to the Scottsh Msson.84

The Graeczaton of the Evangelcal Work among the Greeks On the eve of the 1880s, the evangelzaton of the Greeks of Aegean slands and zmr became a topc of rvalry and controversy between the Western Tur- key Msson and the Athens-based Msson. Regardng the Greek work, Bowen harshly lamented the lethargy of the Western Turkey Msson and frmly wrote to the Secretary of the Board n Boston on 12 September 1878: “[ ] I wsh to say just a word or two about ths Greek queston. It s a convcton whch has grown stronger and stronger wth me, that Greek work ought to be n the hands of an- other Board (or Msson), wth ts center at Athens, not Constantnople. Western Turkey Msson has not heart for ths work”.85 In the meanwhle, the Athens (Greece) mssonares were workng on the slands close to the Asa Mnor coast, namely Mytlene and Chos. Ths caused a conflct wth the Western Turkey Ms- son whch objected to a separaton between the slands close to Turkey and the manland. In June 1879, at the meetng of the Western Turkey Msson, two representatves of the Greek msson at Athens Mr. Sampson (Thornton Rogers S.) and Mr. Kalopothakes argued that the nhabtants of those slands were largely

derununda bulunan) bulunan hane (crossed out: mukaddemce mekteb yaplm ve i bu mektebin müceddiden in as için daire-i belediyeden usule tevfikan ruhsat- resmi istihsa- liyle in aya bed’ edilmi ise de yaplan binann bir tarafnda) arsasna in asna müba eret olunmu olan Protestan kilisesi in a etdirilmekte bulundu u muahharen tahkik klnm ve ma’bed ihdas ve in asnn irade-i seniyyeye mütevakkf bulunmas cihetiyle in aat ta‘til etdirilmi olub[...]”. “Investgatng the Perrn famly from scraps of nformaton”, http://www.levantnehertage. com/test .htm.; (Accessed on January , ). The authors of ths testmony wrte that the Evangelcal Chrstendom crcular, by J. S. Phllps dated mentoned that the new Evangelcal church “belongng to the Amercans” had just been bult by George Perrn. “Investgatng the Perrn famly from scraps of nformaton”, http://www.levantnehertage. com/test .htm ACA, ABCFM,  , M. Bowen’s letter to Dr. Clark, Mansa, September .

 “ALL WE HOPE IS A GENEROUS REVIVAL”

Greek and all ther sympathes and yearnngs were toward Athens.86 Rejectng ther justfcaton, the head of the Mansa staton M. Bowen supported the pont that the Asa Mnor or Smyrna/ zmr msson had to be responsble for the nearby slands due to the fact that those slands had close economc and cultural con- nectons wth zmr and Mansa, and not wth Athens. Furthermore, Bowen sug- gested the submsson of the whole matter to the Prudental Commttee of the Amercan Board for adjustment wth the Southern Presbyteran Board. In the meantme, he used the Athenan “threat” aganst the headquarters n Boston to brng Rev. George Constantne, the Greek-speakng pastor and preacher whom he wanted to collaborate wth for the Greek work n zmr and ts vcnty. Bowen’s long negotatons wth the Board to get Rev. Constantne from Ath- ens and employ hm as ther assocate for the Greek work n zmr and ts nearby towns, gave ther fruts on 20 January 1881, the day when George Constantne and hs wfe arrved n zmr to settle there to engage mssonary work. Durng hs prevous, occasonal vsts to zmr, Constantne had been preachng at the Coffee Room on the quay. Hs permanent employment n the cty meant that he would preach, and hold relgous lectures and meetngs at several locatons. As soon as he arrved, Constantne began holdng servces n Greek on Sunday mornngs at the Dutch Chapel, prayer meetngs on Saturdays, and preachng on Thursday evenngs at the Evangelcal Hall, and holdng gatherngs at the Coffee Room / the “Rest”, the nformal meetng place at the quay whch Constantne chershed much because t allowed hm to engage prvate and personal conversa- tons wth people. On 11 March 1881, he wrote to the Secretary of the Amercan Board expressng hs enthusasm about the Hall whch would become the major venue of hs strrng sermons: My dear Dr. Clark,

I would just drop you a line concerning the work I have been occupied since my return to this city. I found a large Hall situated in the most central part where anybody comes either for a walk or for entertainment. The most popular caffés are close by. This Hall I found having a platform, a small antiroom while the walls were beautifully decorated with texts in various colors and all languages spoken here vis. Greek, Hebrew, Spanish, Italian, Armenian, French, English, Turkish. It has seats for person but more than can be accommodated.

ACA, ABCFM,  , M. Bowen and C. H. Brooks’ letter to Dr. Clark, Mansa, June .

 MER H EROL

We began services the first Sabbath after my arrival and so far we had more people than could be accommodated, we had also a good number of ladies. The audi- ence is composed of all classes. Learned and uneducated, rich and poor, young and old and the attention is all we can desire.

Almost two months after ther arrval, zmr was shaken by a severe earth- quake whch was followed by the plague and the drought. The Governor of Aydn Provnce Mdhat Pasha “proclamed a day of humlaton and prayer” and declared that “the earthquake, the drought and the were sent by God on ac- count of the people’s sns and each relgous body should confess and pray at a specfed place [ ]”.88 Rev. Constantne’s wfe Amanda S. Constantne’s letter to Dr. Clark n Boston reveals that the earthquake affected the zmrans deeply. The natural dsaster and ts nterpretaton as a punshment for sns had become “ordnary topcs of conversaton” among people. No doubt that ths was seen as an opportunty by the Protestant mssonares n the cty to further ther sprtual work to save souls. On Aprl 27, n addton to the prayers held at the Orthodox churches, the mssonares, too, held a servce for “all natons” at the Evangelcal Hall. They spoke n Englsh, Turksh, and Greek to a large audence, and as Rev. Constantne’s wfe observed, “the good Sprt was evdently present”. Constantne observed the people who came to hs sermons carefully and n hs letters to Boston he reported ther contrton regardng ther sns, ther acts of resttuton, and ther sncere efforts to understand the Bble.89 Clearly, for

ACA, ABCFM, , G. Constantne’s letter to Dr. Clark, Smyrna, March . ACA, ABCFM, , Amanda S. Constantne’s letter to Dr. Clark, Smyrna, May .  ACA, ABCFM, , G. Constantne’s letter to Dr. Clark, Smyrna, March : “Men are beginning to purchase the Bible and study God’s word with a view to know the way of eternal life”. ACA, ABCFM, , G. Constantne’s letter to Dr. Clark, Smyrna, May : “Some of the youths have begun a meeting among themselves where they spend an hour in singing and praying and reading the Bible. A large number of Bible have also been sold in connection with the services and some have gone among the want people in the city”. In the summer of , George Constantine spent about a month in Constantinople where he preached at the Dutch Chapel. He thus reported the enthusiasm of one of the male attendants at his sermon. ACA, ABCFM, , G. Constantine’s letter to Dr. Clark, Constantnople,  August : “An old man who often tried to enter but could not on account of the crowd at the door standing outside had heard many reflections, succeeded to enter the very last Sabbath and in going out declared to the crowd that he would shoot the first man who would speak against the service and furthermore he declared that he would give up years out of a life of years for the sake of such preaching”.

 “ALL WE HOPE IS A GENEROUS REVIVAL” hm, concern for one’s salvaton and acts of pentence ndcated one’s dspos- ton toward evangelcal fath whch could ultmately result n one’s converson to Protestantsm. In hs letters, there are mentons of men who qut drnkng, swear- ng, lyng, and cheatng.90 There are references even to converts who had been thnkng of commttng sucde, but havng attended the meetngs and sermons, abandoned the dea suggestng both the psychologcal and the sprtual transfor- maton of the person. Constantne’s presentaton of the converts was qute the opposte of how they were seen by the hgh clergy of the natve churches. Accord- ng to the latter, converts to Protestantsm were greedy people who changed ther fath n return for the money they receved from the mssonares. In Constan- tne’s letters, however, they appear as ndvduals who won ther long struggles aganst the cravngs of the flesh. He wrote:

One had been knowing the truth for years but only now could trust Christ. Another testified that for years was fighting against sins but conquered only now through Christ. For years, said another deceived myself that I was better than atheis[t] but now I hate my sins. Another said five months ago I was as a wild goat, but God’s Holy Spirit has tamed my heart.[...] Another ‘pray for me to overcome the shame in confessing Christ. Another that he may overcome the weakness of the flesh.

Constantne’s sermons were open to all classes and groups of people, and as a mssonary he certanly wanted the attenton of people of all socal classes. Yet, partcular groups such as (Englsh) salors92 or Greek workers come up n the let- ters as the audences of prayer meetngs. Also, regardng the converts there are ref- erences to people of humble socal postons, e.g. a talor or a cake-seller. As far as the Greeks of zmr were concerned, even though most of the converts belonged to lower socal classes, there were also merchants or busnessmen of varous scales who turned to Protestantsm.93 Based on the attendants of hs own sermons and

 ACA, ABCFM, , G. Constantne’s letter to Dr. Clark, Smyrna, June .  ACA, ABCFM, , G. Constantne’s letter to Dr. Clark, Smyrna, December .  The Englsh lades who owned the ‘Rest’ undertook mssonary work among the Englsh salors. See ACA, ABCFM, , G. Constantne’s letter to Rev. Judson Smth, Smyrna, /  December and G. Constantne’s letter to Dr. Clark, Smyrna, November . Also see ACA, ABCFM, , G. Constantne’s letter to Dr. Alden, Smyrna,  September .  A merchant from Alaçat attended one of the servces and was so much nfluenced by the sermon that on hs way back home, he dstrbuted relgous tracts on the boat. ACA, AB- CFM, , G. Constantne’s letter to Dr. Clark, Smyrna, May .

 MER H EROL

meetngs, Constantne reported about 20-30 converts to Protestantsm n and around zmr each year.94 The low number of the Greek converts was due to the strong opposton and persecuton of the Greek Orthodox Church and the fear of solaton and reprmand by one’s close socal crcle.95 Furthermore, as Constan- tne noted, the oblgaton of keepng the Sabbath, .e. not workng on Sundays consttuted an obstacle for the to-be-converts.96 The followng excerpt testfes to the frustratng slow pace of conversons and Constantne’s patent atttude toward the work n zmr: “The work s gong on very quetly? and naturally yet wth much encouragement. Some seem to see the necessty of leavng the Greek Church others do not and we pray for patence and grace to do what s rght and not go ahead of Provdence”.97 At the end of the year 1882, the Prudental Commttee’s decson to reduce the number of natve helpers and preachers n the Mansa- zmr regon sgnaled bad news for the recently employed Greek preacher n Mansa and the Greek helper n zmr. George Constantne lamented that ths would be a serous blow to the movement at a tme at whch nterest for ther work among the Greeks was ncreasng. Thus, n order to ntate “self-supported preachng among the Greeks”, he consulted wth the Amercan mssonares on the ground, and es- tablshed n January 1883 “The Greek Evangelcal Allance n Turkey” to secure “mutual sympathy and help” among the evangelcal Greeks n Turkey. In hs letter to Dr. Clark dated 6 February 1883, Constantne clearly desgnated the GEA’s relatonshp to the Amercan Board. The GEA would receve partal fnancal ad from the Amercan Board n order to support Greek preachers and teachers, and to mantan schools. He wrote:

 ACA, ABCFM, , G. Constantne’s letter to Dr. Clark, Smyrna, January : “Ff- teen persons durng the year have unted wth the Church whle fve more are watng for the next communon. It makes n all addtons”. Of course, the number of the people who attended the servces wthout jonng the Protestant Church was much hgher. Ibd.: “The Manssa servces have been attended by persons, the S. [Sunday] School by , the prayer meetngs by and the women’s meetngs by at an average”.  ACA, ABCFM, , G. Constantne’s letter to Dr. Clark, Smyrna, November : “We feel almost depressed as the people around in Sabbath after Sabbath listen most eagerly but after all, they would resist the truth and become worst than before.[...] The great trouble here now is the fear of the world. Many know the Truth and accept it yet are afraid to come out and openly confess it”.  ACA, ABCFM, , G. Constantne’s letter to Dr. Clark, Smyrna, December .  ACA, ABCFM, , G. Constantne’s letter to Dr. Clark, Smyrna, June .

 “ALL WE HOPE IS A GENEROUS REVIVAL”

The Alliance proposes to collect all the contributions of its members and un- dertake the support of Greek preachers as far as it is able. vis that the Gospel to the Greeks should be preached by the Greeks and through the Greeks or Greek funds, looking to the Am. Board as a beloved parent for sympathy, experiments and prayers; so there is a day on each week when the members of the Alliance should pray especially for both the Am. Board and the Alliance, on Sunday.

At the frst meetng of the GEA, George Constantne was elected Presdent and Treasurer, and George Kampouropoulos from Mansa ts Secretary. Constan- tne was hopng to collect contrbutons not only from the members of the evan- gelcal churches but also from those who, not necessarly beng a member of an evangelcal church, felt “an nterest n the pure preachng of the Gospel” and were wllng to contrbute on account of seeng ths as an entrely Greek enterprse. As George Constantne specfed, each member of the Allance would pay [?] to the Treasury and promse to contrbute weekly to ts objects. Every evangelcal Chrstan could become a member of the Allance, though the votng prvlege was lmted to the members of evangelcal churches, n order that the evangelcal character of the Allance would be secured.99 By the end of 1883, the GEA was able to support two preachers n Mansa and zmr, and one teacher and a school n zmr whch had 40-50 day pupls and two boarders.100 The Allance attached much mportance to the Greek work n Mansa and when the Amercan mssonary Mss Cull gave up her supervson over the school there, the Allance assumed ts care.101 In the followng years, the GEA extended ts supervson to the nearby towns of Bayndr and Aydn and mantaned preachers and schools there.102 On 9 September 1884, the frst ms- sonary sent by the GEA was on hs way to Isparta wth hs wfe and baby, a travel

 ACA, ABCFM, , G. Constantne’s letter to Dr. Clark, Smyrna, February .  ACA, ABCFM, , G. Constantne’s letter to Dr. Clark, Smyrna, February . ACA, ABCFM, , G. Constantne’s letter to Dr. Clark, Smyrna, November . The GEA pad for half of the salares of the Mansa pastor and the Greek preacher n Smyrna. Wth the ntatve of George Constantne, an evangelcal church was organzed n Mansa and a Greek pastor was ordaned. ACA, ABCFM, , G. Constantne’s letter to Dr. Clark, Smyrna, June : “The Manssa work s becomng more and more mportant and whle the School care at present s a lttle more than we have planned yet we have accepted t as from the Lord and are glad. It wll gve character to the Allance and encourage ts members who are tryng to do all they can.” ACA, ABCFM, , G. Constantne’s letter to Dr. Smth, Smyrna, March .

 MER H EROL

that would last four days on the tran and horses.103 Isparta had about 3,000- 4,000 Greeks and many Armenans whch made the place a promsng feld n the vew of the Protestant mssonares. A year later, however, the preacher sent by the GEA, who could preach both n Turksh and n Greek, began to meet severe measures aganst hs servce. The people who went to the servces were threatened, and an Anathema was read n the Churches aganst them, and consequently most of those who had become nterested, wthdrew.104 In January-February 1885, Rev. A. N. Somervlle of Glasgow vsted the Amercan Board’s mssonares n zmr, and held 60 relgous servces n the cty and the nearby towns of Bornova, Buca, Mansa, Akhsar, Sardn, Ala ehr, and Söke. The followng data from G. Constantne’s report ndcates the lngustc dstrbuton of Somervlle’s servces and of the Bbles dstrbuted. The Greeks’ nterest n comparson wth that of the Turksh-speakng Armenans, Turks, and Jews of the regon s remarkable. In zmr, Somervlle held 17 servces n Englsh, 11 n Greek, 9 n Turksh and Armenan, and 3 n Judeo-Spansh. In the vcnty, he held 7 servces n Englsh, 10 n Greek, 3 n Turksh. Constantne noted that 4 of these servces were for women especally, and 2 for chldren. The vstng preacher also dstrbuted Testaments; 200 n Greek, 116 n Turksh and Arme- nan, about 70 n Judeo-Spansh, n total 386 copes.105 Despte all efforts, the number of Greek converts to Protestantsm was n- creasng so slowly that the Prudental Commttee n Boston and some “preju- dced” mssonares began to crtcze George Constantne for hs methods, and accused hm of “laborng for reformaton nsde” [the Greek Church] rather than drawng the members of the Greek Church to ther Communon. Constantne defended hmself pontng out that the local Press was sayng just the opposte: “I am accused for drawng members of the Greek Church to our Communon and thus unchurch and dsnatonalze them accordng to that artcle [n the lo- cal newspaper]. A prest for the last sx months and a lay man before hm have

ACA, ABCFM, , G. Constantne’s letter to Dr. Alden, Smyrna,  September . ACA, ABCFM, , G. Constantne’s letter to Dr. Clark, Sparta (Isparta), Psda, Au- gust . In  , Dr. Bartlett and hs famly met smlar dffcultes and even worse volent reactons from the local Chrstans when he attempted at buldng a Protestant church and a school n Burdur. See Merh Erol, “Becomng Protestant: The Greek Ortho- dox Responses to Converson n Nneteenth Century Ottoman Anatola,” ADALYA, ( ), p. . ACA, ABCFM, , G. Constantne’s letter to Dr. Clark, Smyrna, [?] March .

 “ALL WE HOPE IS A GENEROUS REVIVAL” been preachng aganst me every Sunday [ ]”.106 On 8 May 1885, he wrote: “In an artcle under the head “The Wolves” I was abused wth no less than 19 vle epthets”. At the same tme, the Greek Orthodox clergy was warnng people to keep away from the Protestants. The new Archbshop of Smyrna107 called them the sons of the Devl whose end would be lke that of Judas, who for slver be- trayed hs master. In hs letter to Boston, Constantne wrote ndgnantly and trumphantly:

Our enemies have been so aroused as to form a Society called “Orthodoxia” who- se object will be to diminish and even destroy the influence of our preaching by employing able Preachers who will preach on Sundays and other public days at the Churches and Schools and little thinking that when the place is well supplied with gospel preaching we may go where there is none.

As the Protestant movement ganed somewhat momentum among the Greeks of zmr and ts vcnty after the formaton of the GEA, the Greek Ortho- dox clergy, as mentoned above, frst responded to t by appontng two preach- ers, one of whom would preach at the Cathedral on Sunday afternoons, and the other would tnerate preachng the Gospel.109 Later, the Greek Church turned to a systematc and btter opposton whch caused the wthdrawal of some of the nterested attendants of the servces.110 In March 1887, volent ncdents hap- pened n zmr.111 A Smyrnote Greek woman wth a preemnent socal status had converted to Protestantsm. Followng the appearance of an ntervew wth her n the local Press, the emotons went hgh and an Orthodox mob attacked the Protestant church, school, and Constantne’s house.112 G. Constantne thus narrated the epsode:

ACA, ABCFM, , G. Constantne’s letter to Dr. Clark, Smyrna, January . After Bshop Meletos of Smyrna ded n December , Bshop Basleos succeeded hm and was enthroned n hs new docese, Smyrna, n March . Basleos remaned the Archbshop of Smyrna untl hs death n  . Dmtros Stamatopoulos, “Basleos of Smyrna,” Encyclopaeda of the Hellenc World, Asa Mnor, http://www.ehw.gr/l.aspx- ?d= (Accessed on January , ). ACA, ABCFM, , G. Constantne’s letter to Dr. Alden, Smyrna, May .  ACA, ABCFM, , G. Constantne’s letter to Dr. Clark, Smyrna, November . ACA, ABCFM, , G. Constantne’s letter to Dr. Clark, Smyrna, December . Erol, “Becomng Protestant,” p. . G. Constantne referred to ths ntervew n hs letter to Dr. Clark, Smyrna, February .

 MER H EROL

Sunday the after the services at the Hall, a mob collected, shouted and became so turbulent that I was compelled to ask the aid of the Amer. Consul who gave it very promptly. The Hall is under English protection and has been closed. For seven years the Gospel of peace has been preached there and its future is proble- matic. The Pasha advised the English Consul to close it while the leaders of the trouble were left untouched during the following week though their names were in the hands of the Government.

However, the worse was to come the followng Sunday. Constantne wrote:

The following Sunday the th the mob collected around the Mission Church and abused some of the Armenians as they left the Church at ½ a.m. when we began our meeting the whole street was crowded with wild people breathing all menaces of threats. [ ] My wife being ill was not with me in church, but the messenger brought word that my house was besieged by the mob who for nearly two hours were smashing windows, trying to break open the door. [ ] The win- dows of our Church and the Girls’ School were the target for stones. The teachers and pupils were troubled in the streets and we all are now protected by guards. Through the vigorous efforts of our Consul the Government-at-Constantinople telegraphed to the Pasha here and the matter is being investigated. The excite- ment among all classes is very great and I have been cautioned several times that my life is in danger.

The whole ncdent and the closng of the Hall demoralzed Constantne a lot. Furthermore, hs wfe Amanda had a nervous breakdown durng the volent attacks at ther house and several months later, she passed away. Shortly after the ncdents n zmr, as Constantne reported, a denuncaton aganst the Protes- tants was read n all the churches n Mansa and the Bble colporteurs were facng much trouble n the streets.115 Nevertheless, what worred hm more was that the Western Turkey Msson put up at aucton “the Konak”, the headquarter buld- ng of the Amercan Board mssonares n Mansa, and the Greek bshop there was decded to purchase t, whch would mean, n Constantne’s vew, the end of the evangelcal Chrstans n Mansa.116 On 21 February 1887, Constantne

ACA, ABCFM, , G. Constantne’s letter to Dr. Clark, Smyrna, March . ACA, ABCFM, , G. Constantne’s letter to Dr. Clark, Smyrna, March . ACA, ABCFM, , G. Constantne’s letter to Dr. Clark, Smyrna, May . ACA, ABCFM, , G. Constantne’s letter to Dr. Clark, Smyrna, November : “[ ] the Greek Bshop there, hopes to accomplsh, what he has faled to do through the

 “ALL WE HOPE IS A GENEROUS REVIVAL” heralded the extendng scope of the Greek work undertaken by the Allance. He wrote: “The Greek work presents the greatest need for workers both here and at Constantnople as well as all along the coasts”.117 Thus, a year later, the Athenan evangelst was on hs way to the Black Sea town of Ordu, where the small evan- gelcal communty there, asked for a Greek preacher and collaboraton wth the Greek Evangelcal Allance.118 However, Constantne’s work n Turkey could not proceed very far; probably due to hs deteroratng health problems he left zmr for England where he ded n 1891.

Concluson Ths artcle explored the Amercan Protestant mssonares’ endeavors to evangelze the Greek and Armenan populatons n Mansa, zmr, and the nearby towns of Ottoman Turkey n the 1870s and 1880s. The Protestant mssonar- es strved to draw the natve Armenans and Greeks to what they called true Chrstanty by holdng relgous servces, prayer meetngs, dstrbutng or sellng Bbles, and by provdng educatonal opportuntes for poor chldren. The major challenge to ther proselytzng efforts was the natve Chrstan churches’ oppos- ton. Another dffculty whch the ABCFM’s mssonares faced was the problem of provdng the feld wth mssonares who possessed the knowledge of dfferent vernacular languages. So, at places where t was possble, they offered relgous servces n the only shared language of the local Greeks and Armenans, n Turk- sh. Yet, ultmately due to the organzaton of the Ottoman non-Muslms n sepa- rate ethno-relgous groups (the mllets) and the ncreasng role of language n the formaton of natonal denttes n the nneteenth century, dstnct Armenan and Greek evangelcal churches were establshed. As confessed by several Board ms- sonares, the work among Greeks was dffcult. Whle the Amercan mssonares had to fnd extra means to tran and mantan Greek-speakng preachers for the Greek-speakng urban populatons, they could reach the Armenan populatons of Anatola va the natve Armenan helpers who preached n Turksh. Besdes,

persecutons of last sprng vs [?] to extermnate the Evangelcal Chrstans of Manssa by purchasng the Konak, he has decded to do t at any prce.[ ] The Konak has been the brth place and the home of the evangelcal work n Manssa, the past of a long msson and of many mssonares, and now the Mssonary has gone and the home s sold to the enemy. It breaks my heart to thnk of t.” ACA, ABCFM, , G. Constantne’s letter to Dr. Clark, Smyrna, February . ACA, ABCFM, , G. Constantne’s letter to Dr. Smth, Smyrna, Aprl .

 MER H EROL unlke n the Greek case, a Protestant movement had begun from wthn the na- tve Armenan Apostolc Church n the 1840s. Both the Greek Evangelcal Church of zmr and the Greek Evangelcal Al- lance (1883) based n zmr were establshed by the Greek-Amercan mssonary George Constantne who envsaged that the evangelzaton of Anatola’s Greeks had to be a Greek enterprse and advocated the tranng and recrutment of Greek helpers from among the locals of a place. In the 1870s and 80s, at frst the Amer- can Board’s mssonares and the Turksh-speakng Armenan preachers whom they recruted, and then the Greek Evangelcal Allance became the major forces of the evangelzaton of the Armenans and Greeks n Anatola. They establshed and mantaned preachng halls and schools, sent evangelst preachers and teach- ers to varous ctes and towns n Anatola and fnanced them. The Amercan Board engaged n mssonary work targetng the Greek Orthodox of Anatola partcularly n zmr, Mansa, Akhsar, Aydn, Ödem , Bayndr, Afyonkarahsar, Bursa, Adapazar, zmt, Kayser, Svas, Yozgat, Konya, Isparta, Burdur, Merzfon, Bafra, Samsun (Alaçam), Fatsa, Ordu, and Trabzon. By the end of the 1880s, the ncreasng numbers of male and female converts, especally those wth mportant socal postons caused excommuncatons by the Greek Orthodox Church and trggered preachng by Orthodox prests on Sundays n competton wth the Protestant mssonares.

Bblography Archval Documents ACA, Papers of the ABCFM (ABCFM), 533, 590, 600, 605. BOA, Dahlye Mektub Kalem (DH. MKT.), 97/4. BOA, Harcye Nezaret Syas (HR. SYS.), 1782/62. BOA, râde Harcye ( . HR.), 208/ 11983. BOA, Sadaret Mühmme Kalem Evrak (A. MKT. MHM.), 700/10. BOA, ura-y Devlet ( D.), 2457/33.

Publshed Works Anestds, Stavros Th.: “ : (Amercan Mssonares n Asa Mnor: Bblographcal Survey”, Delto Kentrou Mkrasatkon Spoudon, 11 (1995-1996), pp. 375-388.

 “ALL WE HOPE IS A GENEROUS REVIVAL”

Arpée, Leon: A Century of Armenan Protestantsm 16-16, New York: The Armenan Mssonary Assocaton of Amerca 1946. Augustnos, Gerasmos: ““Enlghtened” Chrstans and the “Orental” Churches: Protes- tant Mssons to the Greeks n Asa Mnor, 1820–1860”, Journal of Modern Greek Studes, 4, 2, October (1986), pp. 129-142. Clogg, Rchard: “The Foundaton of the Smyrna Bble Socety (1818)”, Mkrasatka Chronka, 14 (1970), pp. 31-49. Davson, Roderc H.: Reform n the Ottoman Empre, 85-8, Prnceton: Prnceton Unversty Press  . Derngl, Selm: “Legtmacy Structures n the Ottoman State: The Regn of Abdülhamd II ( -  )”, Internatonal Journal of Mddle East Studes, (  ), pp. - . Derngl, Selm: Converson and Apostasy n the Late Ottoman Empre, Cambrdge: Cam- brdge Unversty Press . Do an, Mehmet Al: “The Mssonary Actvtes of Elas Rggs n zmr”, Internatonal Journal of Turcologa, V, 10 (2010), pp. 23-43. Do an, Mehmet Al: Amercan Board of Commssoners for Foregn Mssons (ABCFM) and “Nomnal Chrstans”: Elas Rggs (11-11) and Amercan Mssonary Actvtes n the Ottoman Empre, (Unpublshed PhD Thess) The Unversty of Utah, 2013. Dwght, Henry Ots: Constantnople and Its Problems. Its Peoples, Customs, Relgons and Progress, New York: Flemng H. Revell Company 1901. Erdo an, Dl en nce: “Amerkal Protestan Msyonerlernn Raporlarnda zmr stasyonu’nun Kurulu u ve Faalyetler (1820-1900)”, Karadenz Ara trmalar, 33 (2012), pp. 97-108. Erol, Merh: “Becomng Protestant: The Greek Orthodox Responses to Converson n Nneteenth Century Ottoman Anatola”, ADALYA, 21 (2018), pp. 335-362. Erol, Merh: Greek Orthodox Musc n Ottoman Istanbul: Naton and Communty n the Era of Reform, Bloomngton and Indanapols: Indana Unversty Press 2015. Exertzoglou, Hars: E 1 (Natonal dentty n Constantnople n the 1th century), Athens: Nefel 1996. Fnne, Davd H.: Poneers East: The Early Amercan Experence n the Mddle East, Cam- brdge: Harvard Unversty Press 1967. Fsk, Plny and Bond, Alvan: Memor of the Rev. Plny Fsk, A.M. Late Mssonary to Pales- tne, Boston: Crocker and Brewster 1828. Frangaks-Syrett, Elena: “Commerce n the Eastern Medterranean from the Eghteenth to the Early Twenteth Centures: The Cty-Port of zmr and Its Hnterland”, Inter- natonal Journal of Martme Hstory, X, 2 (1998), pp. 125-154.

 MER H EROL

Georgeln, Hervé: “Armenan Inter-Communty Relatons n Late Ottoman Smyrna”, n Armenan Smyrna/ zmr. The Aegean Communtes, ed. by Rchard G. Hovannsan, UCLA Armenan Hstory and Culture Seres, Hstorc Armenan Ctes and Prov- nces,11, Calforna: Mazda Publshers 2012, pp. 177-190. Goffman, Danel: “ zmr: From Vllage to Colonal Port Cty”, n The Ottoman Cty between East and West: Aleppo, zmr, and Istanbul, ed. by Edhem Eldem, Danel Goffman, and Bruce Masters, Cambrdge: Cambrdge Unversty Press 1999, pp. 79-134. Grabll, Joseph L.: Protestant Dplomacy and the Near East. Mssonary Influence on Amer- can Polcy, 11-127, Unversty of Mnnesota Press 1971. Horner, Sue S.: “Amercan Female Mssonares n Europe 1830-1900”, unpublshed paper. “Investgatng the Perrn famly from scraps of nformaton”, http://www.levantnehertage. com/test .htm.; (Accessed on January , ). Johnson, Bran: “Paths of Learnng: A Chroncle of the Amercan Collegate Insttute and Assocated Schools n zmr”, unpublshed paper, . Kaçmaz, Ercan: “Mssonary Actvtes n the Lands of Ottoman Turkey: The Emergence of Robert College and the Amercan College for Grls”, Turksh Studes - Interna- tonal Perodcal For The Languages, Lterature and Hstory of Turksh or Turkc, 9, 7 (2014), pp. 379-395. Kechrots, Vangels C.: The Greeks of zmr at the end of the Empre. A Non-Muslm Ot- toman Communty Between Autonomy and Patrotsm, (Unpublshed Ph.D Thess), Unversty of Leden 2005. Kskra, Constanta: “ Mssonary Herald: (The Perodcal Mssonary Herald: An Unmned Source for the Hstory of Asa Mnor Hellensm)”, Delto Kentrou Mkra- satkon Spoudon, 11 (1995-1996), pp. 119-123. Kocaba o lu, Uygur: Kend Belgeleryle Anadolu’dak Amerka: 1. Yüzylda Osmanl mparatorlu u’ndak Amerkan Msyoner Okullar, Istanbul: Arba 1989. Makds Ussama: Artllery of Heaven: Amercan mssonares and the Faled Converson of the Mddle East, Ithaca: Cornell Unversty Press 2008. Mamon, Kyrak: “ (Struggles of the Ecumencal Patrarchate aganst the Mssonares)”, Mnymosn 8, (1980-81), pp. 179-212. Metallnos, Georgos D.: (Tradton and Estrangement), Ath- ens: Domos 2001[1986]. Mlton, Gles: Not to Be Served but to Serve. A Hstory of the Amercan College of Greece, Athens: Lvan Publshng Organzaton 2011.

 “ALL WE HOPE IS A GENEROUS REVIVAL”

Nasoutzk, Pavlna: 1 : (Amercan Vsons n Smyrna n the 1th Century: The Encounter of the Anglosaxon and the Greek Thought), Athens: Esta 2002. Royer, Chrs: “Anglcansm n Smyrna (1815-1923)”, www.globalmssology.org. (Accessed on December 16, 2018). Stamatopoulos, Dmtros: “Basleos of Smyrna”, Encyclopaeda of the Hellenc World, Asa Mnor, http://www.ehw.gr/l.aspx?d= (Accessed on January , ). Stone, Frank A.: Academes for Anatola. A Study of the Ratonale, Program, and Impact of the Educatonal Insttutons Sponsored by the Amercan Board n Turkey, 13-2, San Francsco, Calforna: Caddo Gap Press 2006. Tokay-Ünal, Melke: “Md-nneteenth century New England Women n Evangelcal For- egn Mssons: Seraphna Haynes Everett, A Mssonary Wfe n the Ottoman Ms- son Feld”, Turksh Hstorcal Revew, 8, 1 (2017). Ümt, Devrm: “The Amercan Protestant Mssonary Network n Ottoman Turkey, 1876-1914”, Internatonal Journal of Humantes and Socal Scence, 4, 6(1) (2014), pp.16-51.

Abstract Ths artcle examnes the Amercan Board of Commssoners for Foregn Mssons’ actvtes n the 1870s and 80s at the Mansa and Smyrna/ zmr statons n an attempt to evangelze Greeks and Armenans lvng n the regon. The man body of sources used n ths study are the letters of the mssonary Rev. Marcellus Bowen (1874-1880) sent from Mansa to the headquarters of the ABCFM n Boston, and the letters of Rev. George Constantne (1880-1889) sent from zmr to the same destnaton. These frst-person narratves provde us wth extremely rch materal, due to the fact that they comment on phenomena and events drectly and mmed- ately. Ths artcle nvestgates a varety of themes, such as the efforts of the Amercan mssonares to adapt ther mssonary work to Smyrna’s multcultural and multna- tonal socety; the mssonares’ decsons and arguments regardng whch language to use n ther preachngs or at relgous servces for the Greeks and Armenans of the regon; the means of persecuton or opposton employed by the Greek Orthodox hgh-ranked clergy n Smyrna/ zmr aganst the Protestant mssonares; and the con- dtons under whch foregners could sell relgous books or open / buld schools and churches n the Ottoman lands, and whch ntermedares the mssonares appealed to when they were challenged by the Ottoman authortes. Keywords: Smyrna/ zmr, Mssonary actvtes n Anatola, Armenan and Greek Protestants, Relgous Converson, Nneteenth Century.

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