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THE GENETIC CLASSIFICATION OF WUNGU: IMPLICATIONS FOR BANTU HISTORICAL LINGUISTICS by TIM ROTH A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS in THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES LINGUISTICS We accept this thesis as conforming to the required standard ............................................................................... Jamin Pelkey, PhD; Thesis Supervisor ................................................................................ Keith Snider, PhD; Second Reader .............................................................................. Helen Eaton, PhD; Third Reader TRINITY WESTERN UNIVERSITY May 16, 2011 © Tim Roth ii Abstract This study sets out to revise Fourshey’s (2002) hypothesis regarding the historical classification of Wungu (Bantu F.25) as a daughter language of Proto-Mbeya. The corpus languages in this study are all Bantu (part of the Niger-Congo phylum) and are located in East Africa (specifically Tanzania, Zambia and Malawi). I claim instead that Wungu belongs to an older branch of Proto-Mwika. Wungu subsequently came into extended contact with Mbeya languages, namely Nyiha and specific Safwa dialects (Songwe and Guruha). The analysis is supported by a wide variety of evidences: lexical evidence, known patterns of language contact, geographical considerations, sociolinguistic evidence, and historical data. Most importantly, however, certain phonological and morphological innovations—*k-lenition and perfect spirantization in particular—cast at a certain time depth rule out the possibility of Wungu as a daughter language of Proto- Mbeya. iii Acknowledgements A project of this magnitude could never be accomplished in isolation, and I owe a debt of gratitude to many people. First, I would like to thank my committee members, Jamin Pelkey, Keith Snider and Helen Eaton. Jamin Pelkey is my thesis supervisor, and I cannot put into words how much I have learned from him and how much this thesis is a result of his teaching and mentorship. Keith Snider introduced me to historical and comparative linguistics, and provided valuable comments on the draft. Helen Eaton’s knowledge of the Mbeya languages is invaluable, and her willingness to answer flurries of e-mail questions is much appreciated. I am also indebted to Oliver Stegen, my SIL consultant mentor who sparked a passion for Bantu linguistics and provided helpful comments on the draft. I am also grateful to the faculty and staff at the Canada Institute of Linguistics, as well as members of the SIL Uganda-Tanzania Branch. My thanks to Holly Higgins and Johnny Walker, who provided a listening ear and encouragement throughout. Finally, I would like to thank my wife, Jeana and daughter, Micaiah. Jeana, thank you for the sacrifices you have made so that this project could be made into a reality. Thank you for putting up with the late nights and weekends spent working. Thank you for your companionship and encouragement through the process of writing and editing. Thank you for all you did to sustain our family and keep the home running in my absence. This thesis is as much yours as it is mine. S.D.G. iv Further Acknowledgements Language Resource Persons during field research conducted in August 2010 in Rukwa/Katavi Region, Tanzania Asanteni sana watu hawa wote— Language Group Name Galla Velonika Selemani Kanoni Galla Joseph Simoni Kahensa Galla Bakari Nsokolo Myulla Galla Ally R Maganga Galla Mwajuma Mrisho Konongo Gozberth John Kazikwisha Konongo Raymund Milambo Konongo Stephano A. Magili Konongo Gaudensia Msabaha Konongo Esta John Luwila Fortunata Jelemi Shulla Luwila Martin John Karibihi Luwila Gaudens Jozefu Kasele Luwila Sabina Januwari Kayegele Luwila Mashaka John Kalilo Pimbwe Leokadiz Kipeta Pimbwe Jofre Athumani Chai Pimbwe Vitusi Sefu Pimbwe Sabas Adolfu Ngubilwa Pimbwe Yusta Joseph Pimbwe Alfred Andrea Baraka Pimbwe Elias John Mayobela Pimbwe Belenadetha Nsalamba Rungwa Julius Mnulu Rungwa Dismasi Kaswiza Rungwa Fransisco Stephane Sanane Rungwa Hilda Hilary Nswima Rungwa Flavia Kisanko Tongwe Swedi Amani v List of Figures and Tables Figures Figure 1.1: Internal classification hypothesis for Corridor languages as Stammbaum diagram 7 Figure 1.2: Tree diagram representing Fourshey’s (2002) subclassification proposal 24 Figure 3.1: Sample network demonstrating competing splits and relative weight 43 Figure 3.2: Distance-based network of 27 Corridor language varieties 46 Figure 3.3: Distance-based network of 22 Corridor language varieties excluding Bantu F 50 Figure 3.4: Distance-based network for Wungu and the hypothesized Mbeya-clade 52 Figure 3.5: Distance-based network for hypothesized Mwika-clade and Wungu 53 Figure 3.6: Consensus tree of 22 Corridor language varieties 55 Figure 5.1: Bailey’s dynamic wave model (from Pelkey 2011: 92) 80 Figure 5.2: The historical development of the morphologization of BSp (based on insights from Bostoen 2008 (c.f. Downing 2007)) 99 Figure 5.3: Cladogram hypothesis for selected P-Mwika and P-Nyika languages 102 Figure 5.4: Nyiha as a diachronic hinge using simplified dynamic wave model 110 Figure 5.5: Internal classification hypothesis for Corridor languages as Stammbaum diagram 111 Tables Table 1.1: Tanzanian population figures for corpus language groups (Lewis 2009) 8 Table 1.2: Village locations of field research in Rukwa/Katavi Region 10 Table 1.3: Proto-Bantu reflexes vs. later borrowing from Swahili 16 Table 1.4: Maho’s (2009) Bantu referential classifications 20 Table 1.5: Maho’s (2009) detailed Bantu referential classifications 21 Table 2.1: Example of Konongo vowel variation compared to Nyamwezi 28 Table 2.2: Quantitative and qualitiative methods (adapted from Pelkey 2011: 34) 30 Table 3.1: Patterns and their interpretation in network diagrams 44 Table 3.2: Number of non-cognate forms between Wungu and three others 48 Table 3.3: Differences in the numerals for Bantu F languages 49 Table 4.1: Various Mwika varieties compared to Nyiha-Msanda 61 Table 4.2: Hypothesized-Mbeya-clade internal percentages 64 Table 4.3: Safwa dialect percentages 65 Table 4.4: Mbeya-clade percentages without Nyika and Nyiha-Msanda 66 Table 4.5: Hypothesized-Mwika-clade internal percentages 66 Table 4.6: Fipa and Mambwe-Lungu percentages 67 Table 4.7: Pimbwe/Rungwa vs. Wungu 68 Table 4.8: Pimbwe/Rungwa vs. Fipa/Mambwe-Lungu 69 Table 4.9: Wungu and Safwa percentages 73 Table 4.10: Nyiha-Mbozi vs. Safwa 74 Table 4.11: Nhiha/Nyika varieties vs. Wungu 74 Table 5.1: An implicational grid (adapted from Mühlhäusler 1996: 10) 80 Table 5.2: Diagnostic features for Corridor languages 82 Table 5.3: Diagnostic features that distinguish the corpus Bantu F languages 83 vi Table 5.4: *k-lenition in reflexes of *-cek 85 Table 5.5: *g-lenition in reflexes of *gembe 86 Table 5.6: Augment loss in subset of Bantu F varieties 87 Table 5.7: Bantu spirantization (adapted from Schadeberg 1995: 75) 87 Table 5.8: Spirantization and 7V>5V merger in Corridor languages 90 Table 5.9: Morpheme-Internal Spirantization (‘goat’) 92 Table 5.10: Morpheme-Internal Spirantization (‘millet’) 92 Table 5.11: Adjectival spirantization (‘dry’) 93 Table 5.12: Causative spirantization (‘to sell’) 93 Table 5.13: Agentive spirantization (‘sorcerer, witch’) 94 Table 5.14: Wungu agentive spirantization variation (data from Labroussi 1999: 361) 103 Table 5.15: Fipa perfect spirantization variation (data from Labroussi 1999: 360) 103 Table 5.16: Wungu perfect tense spirantization variation (data from Labroussi 1999: 362) 104 Table 5.17: Velar consonant alternations preceding a front vowel in Malila 106 Table 5.18: Consonant alternations in Malila adjectives/abstract nouns 107 Table 6.1: Ranking of potential diagnostics 116 Table 6.2: Quantitative and qualitiative methods (adapted from Pelkey 2011: 34) 118 vii Abbreviations BSp Bantu spirantization BT Bende-Tongwe Fipa-I, FI Fipa-Ilembo FK Fipa-Katongolo FL Fipa-Lwanji FM Fipa-Miombo IPA International Phonetic Alphabet Ra Range SIG Safwa-Igale S-It Safwa-Itala (Mbwila) Safwa-Map Safwa-Mapogoro (Guruha) StD Standard deviation Sw Swahili WG Wungu-Gua (Manda) Wungu-M, WM Wungu-Maleza Wungu-MW, WMW Wungu-Mwambani Wungu-U, WU Wungu-Udinde viii Map A. Language map of Tanzania (Lewis 2009) Used by permission, ©SIL International, All Rights Reserved. ix Map B. Wungu (or Bungu )1 language area and its neighbors (Smith et al . 2008a: 9) Used by permission, ©SIL International, All Rights Reserved. 1 Wungu i s also called Bungu in Swahili and is sometimes seen in the literature as such. x Map C. Fipa dialects and surrounding language varieties (Woodward et al. 2010: 10) Used by permission, ©SIL International, All Rights Reserved. xi Map D. Wungu (or Bungu) language area with village names (Smith et al. 2008a: 11) Used by permission, ©SIL International, All Rights Reserved. xii © SIL International 2008 Map E. Safwa language area with village names (from Smith et al. 2008b: 4) Used by permission, ©SIL International, All Rights Reserved. xiii Table of Contents ABSTRACT ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii FURTHER ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES v ABBREVIATIONS vii MAP A viii MAP B ix MAP C x MAP D xi MAP E xii 1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Chapter overview 5 1.2 Preview of results 6 1.3 Orientation to corpus language data 8 1.3.1 Personal field research 9 1.3.2 External sources 10 1.4 Orientation to Bantu historical linguistics 12 1.5 Challenges in Bantu historical/comparative linguistics in E. Africa 15 1.5.1 Swahili 15 1.5.2 Paradox in Bantu networks 17 1.5.3 Resulting isoglossic confusion 19 1.6 Subclassification
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