Crean 1 from the Perfect Painting to the Late Quattrocento the Quattrocento in Italy Saw Many Various Artistic Styles. The

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From the Perfect Painting to the Late Quattrocento

The Quattrocento in Italy saw many various artistic styles. The fading of the Gothic style in the early Renaissance, to a more common approach first seen in the work of Masaccio, to the development of the perfect painting, and finally to the final artists of the Quattrocento, where naturalism dominated the stylistic choices of artists. Each new phase of style built upon the last as artists took old ideas and developed them in a constant effort of artistic innovation. The production of knowledge and questioning of reality drove the creation of new ideas and theories.

By the later period of the Renaissance, art became the essence of Italy and its influence spread throughout Europe.

The development of the perfect painting, also known as the second Renaissance style, came about in the early Quattrocento with artists such as Paolo Uccello, Domenico Veneziano,

Andrea del Castagno and Leonbattista Alberti. The period of the perfect painter began as a result of the rapidly increasing writing and publication of artistic treatises. One of the first pieces of writing was by Alberti in 1435 titled Della Pittura and provided a general audience with surveys and advice regarding painting. The book expressed his opinions about the importance of geometry. Alberti’s writings also looked to “express the doctrine that ‘virtus’ was the most important quality to be sought in human life; [...] a combination of ideal human traits: intelligence, reason, knowledge, control, balance, perception, harmony, and dignity.” (H&W

239) As art historians we should also look at mid 16th century artist Giorgio Vasari and his latter literary work, The Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects (Lives for short) as a major artistic treatise. Vasari expressed what perfection in the arts meant to him, as it

“consisted of the ability to reproduce forms in a naturalistic manner while adding an ineluctable aspect of grace to figural movement and to emulate, if not surpass, the artistic accomplishments Crean 2 of ancient Greece and Rome.” (Paoletti 24) Although it is not an example of a treatise that influenced perfect painting artists, as his work was written well after the period of the perfect painting, it is one of the most referenced historical accounts of everything happening in art during and before his life.

It was with Della Pittura and many other writings on the doctrines of art that influenced this second Renaissance style. The treatises became the canons of the art world and artists followed them. The challenge of innovation that came with these academic texts made being an artist an even more competitive endeavor. They were forced to innovate to get commissions, as

“the major commissions were awarded to the innovators, and artists who adhered to the Gothic

Style were forced to seek commissions in small towns.” (299 H&W) However the desire for everlasting glory through artistic innovation became the ultimate driver of this competition, as artists were challenged to create something totally original: “Our fame ought to be much greater, then, if we discover unheard-of and never-before-seen arts and sciences without teachers or without any model whatsoever.” (Della Pittura prologue)

Paolo Uccello (c. 1397-1475), one of the youngest to aspire for the perfect painting, was notoriously obsessed with perspective. He does not have many works throughout his long life, perhaps a testament to the “unconventionality” of his works. It was, and still is, often that scholars complained that he “spent too much time studying perspective.” (H&W 265) Giorgio

Vasari later wrote in his Lives that Uccello once conducted a perspective study that represented

“a polyhedron with seventy-two sides projected in space [...] executed in perfect recession.”

(H&W 265)

In Uccello’s Deluge (see fig.1), two scenes of Noah’s ark are depicted side by side from one another without a defining separation. Both scenes create a strong perspective of recession Crean 3 into space in the middle of the painting. Uccello includes two examples of orthogonals in his piece that really highlight his use of perspective recession. The ladder floating in the water in the scene on the left clearly recedes into space. The club-bearer beating on the ark and the women sitting in a relaxed posture front and center of the scene, both wearing “one of the favorite subjects of Uccello’s perspective investigations, the mazzocchio,” being the second example.

(H&W 267) The scene becomes balanced in a way through the incorporation of two different scenes within one composition. As the scene on the left is dramatic and destructive, the scene on the right shows the calm aftermath of the storm, providing harmony within the work. Although

Uccello is most known for his obsession of perspective, he also shows his attention to space and gracefulness within his figures. The gracefulness of Noah sticking out his hand to retrieve his dove, I believe, would be an element that Vasari would approve of.

Another embodiment of Uccello’s study of perspective, Battle of San Romano (see fig. 2) depicts a scene that is less intense than Deluge and seems rather unnatural and unrealistic.

Uccello uses geometric figures to form the bodies of humans and animals, rendering their anatomy in an odd geometric fashion. They also seem frozen and posed. The fallen lances create unnatural orthogonals that contribute to the recession in space but take away from a potentially realistic scene. Uccello’s struggle to depict a natural and anatomically realistic scene may have been due to his interest in perspective: “The geometrically simplified humans and animals and the carefully arranged angles of the fallen lances indicate the painters reputed obsessive interest in the new science of perspective.” (246 Paoletti) It is almost as if perspective has taken over the scientific laws of the natural world. Although we have seen perspective in previous works, such as Masaccio’s Trinity, no one before Uccello has made it an element of such obsession. Crean 4

It can be argued that Domenico Veneziano (c. 1410-61) was a better artist than Uccello due to his resumé. It is believed that he traveled away from Venice throughout his career, including to Rome to assist Gentile da Fabriano and Pisanello, and later settling down in

Florence in 1439. (H&W 269) It is clear in his works that he also studied Masaccio and Fra

Angelico, as his paintings consist of many-figured compositions and show a keen talent of using light to enhance his work.

Contrary to Uccello’s works, perspective within Veneziano’s Madonna and Child (see fig. 3) is executed in a way that contributes to the scene. His perspective establishes a relationship between foreground and background without allowing perspective to take over. He develops Uccello’s perspective into a more concrete execution. There also contains elements of color and light that are executed brilliantly. Evidence of study from past Florentine artists such as

Donatello and Ghiberti exist within the faces of the male saints as well as the muscular anatomy of St. John. (H&W 272) However Veneziano goes further to perfect the execution of shading and color. The faint shadow beneath the standing figure's feet, the beautiful and colorful patterns beneath the feet of Madonna, and the ability to accurately differentiate the small areas of color within St. Zenobius’ drapery and the pearls on Lucy and the Virgin are all examples of the careful attention and control he administers. Veneziano attempts to advance the idea of shading and use of color into a more complete stage within this piece, and I believe that he succeeds.

Andrea del Castagno (c.1417-47) was an angry and violent man and it was believed that he was the one who murdered his predecessor Veneziano, which had a consequence on his reputation until it was recently disproven. (H&W) His masterpiece Last Supper (see fig. 4) also utilizes perspective, however in a different way than both Uccello and Veneziano. The figures in the scene seem to be all be placed in the background, despite them being the main subjects. Crean 5

Perspective here makes it seem as though we are looking into an actual room full of people.

However, with careful study “the striking impression of three-dimensional reality is, surprisingly, deliberately inaccurate.” (H&W 275) The orthogonals of the footrest are not congruent with the vanishing point and the ceiling tiles, although consistent with the vanishing point, do not change in depth. Despite these deliberate inaccuracies and Castagno's knowledge of a rational perspective system from artists such as Brunelleschi and Alberti, there was a reason behind his decision: “If Castagno had used a consistent one-point perspective, he would have restricted the observer to a single point in the refectory, yet he wanted his illusion to be valid to every [viewer] in the room.” (H&W 275) To make up for the lack of a visual reality achieved through perspective, Castagno utilized light perhaps in an attempt to outdo Veneziano, the man whom he envied for his ability to execute lighting and color so brilliantly. His choice to depict the subjects within this scene often with an obvious emotion, as well as his invention of the exotic and abstract painted marble behind Jesus strengthens Castagno’s narrative interpretation.

With this and Castagno’s bold attempts at foreshortening, his accurate use of lighting, and his overall rendering of the figures, it is safe to say that he successfully innovates within this piece as

“his art sometimes seems to foreshadow that of Caravaggio,” (275 H&W) who came more than a century after himself.

The period of the perfect painting is so important in the development of the art discipline.

It not only affected the artists, as it challenged them to boldly innovate ideas that had never before been seen, but also the entire micro-economic environment of the art world. Because the dissemination of the new styles artists strived for was supported within the academic books, there was a transformation in “the perception of the arts from a craft-based to an intellectual activity.” (Paoletti 22) With this, a rapid increase in the most extravagant Patronage from Crean 6 powerful Florentine families began for the final artists in the Quattrocento. It was in the period of the second Renaissance style that the craft of art began to be seen as a discipline, which consequently launched an era containing the most famous of artworks by the most famous of authors; Sandro Botticelli, Filippino Lippi, and Leonardo da Vinci being a few. This newly realized view of the profession of art remained.

However, with the advancements made in the period of the perfect painting, the artists that followed were also forced to realize new ideas: “Despite their relative freedom, [Antonio del

Pollaiuolo, Sandro Botticelli, and Filippino Lippi] were to a certain extent limited by the discoveries of their predecessors. The methods of depicting space, form, and light were well known and there seemed little point in merely repeating them.” (325 H&W) As it seemed they would also be challenged, there were three new fields of study these artists boldly, and successfully, explored. The first being that all living things (plants, animals, humans) and their nature of “motion, growth, decay, and dissolution” are just as important as “principles of form, space and light” and mathematical relationships that were explored by the perfect painters. (325

H&W) The organic world, rather than the scientific principles, became the newer and greater challenge. These artists also looked to explore emotion within their subjects and filled their works with references to contemporary Florentines and the city of Florence, often through the eyes of the artist. This period takes the mechanical principles established by the perfect painters and enhances them to an extreme intellectual, emotional, and natural approach to art.

Antonio del Pollaiuolo (1431-98) innovated the role of nature and movement in art.

Without his focus on nature and the way he created a relationship between his subjects and nature, perhaps there would have been no Leonardo and Botticelli. As one of the first artists to succeed the period of the perfect painting, it is clear that he recognized the principles of artists Crean 7 before him but also escaped these principles in development of his own, which focused largely on nature, movement, and emotion.

The figures in his two mythological works Hercules and the Hydra and Hercules and

Antaeus (see fig. 5) seem to be coming out of nature as if they were a product of it. The backgrounds appear to be the Florentine Arno Valley, however the coloring and technique make it difficult to perceive and make it look kind of like a carpet. The colors of his figures are nearly the same as the nature in his background, creating a relationship between them. Because of this the nature is seemingly overgrown and out of control like the violence of Hercules. Pollaiuolo intentionally does not follow the geometric regulation in his rendering of the figures that was established by the perfect painters, as movement within the perfect painting with still posed and static like we saw in Uccello’s work. Pollaiuolo, instead, renders in a way that contributes to the movement, as he focuses on the anatomy of his figures, showing strong and obvious muscles.

The balance of the work is able to move past the rule of perspective that seemed to dominate the works of the preceding artists and, rather, be dictated by the movement of the figures. The violence, anger, and emotion of Hercules are felt by viewers through the movement. It is with the work of Pollaiuolo that we begin to move towards the study of anatomy, tension, strength, etc. that we see later by artists such as Michelangelo and Da Vinci.

Pollaiuolo’s St. Sebastian (see fig. 6) is one the most monumental pieces of the

Renaissance. It is an example of mastery of foreshortening and movement, with references to classical studies of the pre-Gothic and Gothic periods, seen in the architecture of the background.

There is a seamless blend of foreground and background, achieved by the perfect foreshortening of the figures loading their bows. The use of a geometric triangle to enhance the composition is old news by now, but Pollaiuolo develops the idea even more through his execution of Crean 8 movement. The triangle is implied by movement as well as the arrows of the figures on the ground, as they aim upwards towards St. Sebastian during his sacrificial martyrdom. The closed triangle is drawn by the movement of the figures. The moment when the archers drop their bows to reload, the triangle that builds the shape of the composition will be broken. Despite this triangle, the overall work is still not regulated by geometry as he continues to escape the canons of the perfect painters. The landscape has an earthly, natural color that gives an idea of a less decorated space. It was with St. Sebastian more than his Hercules works that he influenced

Michelangelo and Da Vinci in their rendering of foreshortening, movement, and nature.

Perhaps one the greatest late Quattrocento artists, Alessandro Botticelli (1445-1510) is known for his poetic master pieces like Primavera (see fig. 7). He moves away from the religious idea of the perfect painting and begins to use symbolic narrative, as the research of artists was more a product of their personal preferences or preferences of the patrons rather than religious hierarchy. As perfect painters looked to develop new forms and ideas in art, Botticelli also does this here, as he is able to because he is depicting a mythological scene. Although nature is more controlled here compared to Pollaiuolo’s works, there is still detachment from the principles of the perfect painters. The transparency of the drapery gets boldly close to nude depictions, but shows his attention to the study of anatomy. Movements of figures that are outside of the arching composition implied by the trees contribute to the emotion of the work.

Zephyrus reaches towards Chloris with the purpose of violation. Venus’s gracefulness in the center of the work provides an emotional balance from the actions of Zephyrus, as she is calm, chaste and submissive.

Despite his relatively short career, Domenico del Ghirlandaio (1449-94) managed to earn himself many major commissions. His works do not emphasize the study of nature and emotion Crean 9 as drastically as his peers, but rather focus on referencing and incorporating the contemporary tastes, styles, and events in the Florentine region. His Last Supper (see fig. 8) depicts the same scene as Castagno’s earlier one, as Jesus announces the betrayal to his apostles. Although the emotion does not nearly meet that of Castagno, we are still able to sense the weight of the apostle’s responses through their movement. Ghirlandaio shows a research of setting in his incorporation of nature and the seamless blend of the architecture within the world of the painting and walls of the refectory. His Last Supper shows us his research in color, composition, setting and expression: “The freshness of the color, the balance of the composition, and the naturalistic handling of the faces and drapery epitomize Ghirlandaio’s style.” (357 H&W).

Rather than trying to escape the techniques developed by the artists of the perfect painting, he forms them into a more complete idea, incorporating them into a scene of contemporary tastes and styles.

It was with the period of the Second Renaissance style and the artists of the late 1400’s that progressed art to a level that was perhaps unimaginable for scholars in the early

Quattrocento. The writing of treatises essentially triggered a movement that forced artists of the perfect painting period to revolutionize styles, patrons to hand out bigger commissions, and political institutions to recognize the profession of art with the high regard it deserved. Artists of the perfect painting period established their foundation on the principles of mathematics, theory, and philosophy. Artists of the late Quattrocento took these principles and advanced them further, establishing their foundation on the principles of poetry, prose, and science. Together, their developments inspired the work of some of the greatest artists seen in the Renaissance such as

Da Vinci, Michelangelo and Raphael.

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(Fig. 1) Paolo Uccello Deluge. c. 1445-55. Fresco. Santa Maria Novella.

(Fig. 2) Paolo Uccello Battle of San Romano. c. 1435-60. Panel. Uffizi Gallery.

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(Fig. 3) Domenico Veneziano Madonna and Child with St. Francis, John the Baptist, Zenobius, and Lucy. c. 1445-47. Panel. Uffizi Gallery.

(Fig. 4) Andrea del Castagno Last Supper. 1447. Fresco. Cenacolo of Saint Apollonia, Florence.

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(Fig. 5) Antonio del Pollaiuolo Hercules and Hydra (right) and Hercules and Antaeus (left). c. 1470. Panel. Uffizi Gallery.

(Fig. 6) Antonio del Pollaiuolo St. Sebastian. 1473-75. Panel. National Gallery.

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(Fig. 7) Domenico Ghirlandaio Last Supper. 1480. Fresco. Cenacolo di Ognissanti, Florence.

(Fig. 8) Alessandro Botticelli Primavera. 1482. Tempera. Uffizi Gallery.

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Sources

Hartt & Wilkins, History of Italian Renaissance Art, Prentice Hall.

Paoletti, John T. Art in Renaissance Italy.

Class notes

Images from Google Images