Carbohydrates As Functional Ingredients in Baking Senay Simsek, Phd Bert L
Carbohydrates as functional ingredients in baking Senay Simsek, PhD Bert L. D'Appolonia Cereal Science and Technology of Wheat Endowed Professor North Dakota State University Department of Plant Sciences Cereal Science Graduate Program 2 Team Members
Project Leader Dr. Senay Simsek Staff Kathy Christianson Megan Hest Kelly McMonagle DeLane Olsen Gwen Thomas Hourly Workers and Graduate Students Amber Walter Visiting Scientists Shatha Alaoufi PhD Kristin Whitney Alice Fujita-Schwarz Natsuki Barber PhD Hi Kent Ho Godras Manuhara PhD Rabia Bali Abdulrahman Alahmed PhD Sophia Marushka Ana Maria Lopez PhD Sean McMonagle Jayani Maddakandage MS Victoria Miller Jane Snelling MS Putut Ismu Maite Cristina Alava Vargas MS Kaitlyn Peterson Responsibilities
• Adjunct Professor – Purdue University, WCCR, Department of Food Science – University of Puerto Rico, Food Science Program • Research – Carbohydrate Research – Leadership in Wheat Quality Laboratory • Teaching – Carbohydrate Chemistry (2 cr, 100%) – Advanced Food Chemistry II (4 cr, 33%) – Fundamentals of Flour Testing an Baking (3 cr, 100%) – Cereal Science: Flour Testing and Baking (7/lectures/year) • Service – Working with US Wheat Associates, Milling and Baking Industry, Wheat Commissions, Food Industry, Wheat Producers and End-users Bakery Products
Bakery products means products manufactured in a bakery; for example: bread, rolls, buns, cakes, cookies, crackers, doughnuts, pies, pastries, pretzels, and potato chips. Baked Products – Wide Variety
Pan breads Each type of bakery product Doughnuts Cookies has a unique formulation Flatbreads and requires flour with Pancakes different functionality and Muffins Hearth breads different types of functional Crackers ingredients to optimize Pastries quality Cakes Bagels Specialty breads Frozen/refrigerated dough Wheat Flour • Proteins – Gluten forming proteins – Gliadin and glutenin – Very important for bread – Gluten development is discouraged for cookie and cake • Starch – Important for cakes and cookies • Lipids • Arabinoxylan – Important for many baked goods • Bran in whole wheat FUNCTION OF FLOUR POLYMERS IN BAKING Wheat Proteins Gluten Albumin Forming Proteins
Wheat Globulin 1. Viscoelastic Endosperm properties Gliadin 2. Important in dough Proteins development
Glutenin
(Delcour and Hoseney 2010) Gluten in Bread
• Very important • When flour is mixed with water, the gluten swells to form a continuous network of fine strands. • This network forms the structure of bread dough and makes it elastic and extensible. Gluten Network in Dough
(Amend and Belitz 1990) Gluten in Cookies
Spread Height • Needed for structure • But not too much • Too little gluten = too much spread • Too much gluten = too little spread Gluten in Crackers • Unique role • Acts to make the cracker weaker and stronger at the same time. Strong protein structure
Creates rigid, crispy, and continuous layers
Aides in formation of a small number of large gas bubbles, which
Separates the layers and reducing density
Increasing surface area
Increasing moisture loss rate
Resulting in a low moisture, crispy texture. Gluten in Cookies
% Gluten 0 5 7.5 10 12.5 15
(Pareyt et al 2008) Starch
Distinct granules
Amylose and Amylopectin
Embedded in gluten matrix in dough
Partially hydrolyzed during fermentation
Undergo gelatinization during baking
Influences bread structure and texture
Main factor in staling
(Pyler and Gorton 2008) Starch Gelatinization
(Schirmer et al. 2015) Starch
• Starch Damage – Susceptibility to α-amylase – Formation of fermentable carbohydrate – Sustain adequate gas production by yeast – Formation of dextrins – Baking absorption
(Pyler and Gorton 2008) Starch in Dough and Bread
Proofed dough Bread crumb Bread crumb Blue/purple = Starch Green = Protein
(Hug-Iten et al. 1999) Staling: Starch Retrogradation Mechanisms of Retrogradation
• Over time swollen granules loose water as it migrates to dryer regions and evaporates • Starch also undergoes retrogradation • Irreversible process • Liberates water and collapses starch molecules into insoluble crystallites
(Pyler and Gorton 2008) http://www.classofoods.com/page3_3.html Arabinoxylan Functionality Textural characteristics Shelf life Water binding capacity Stability of dough Cryo-stabilization Viscosity Intermolecular interactions Arabinoxylan in Wheat Dough
Wheat Gluten Wheat Gluten - WEAX
(Ma et al 2016) Arabinoxylans in Wheat Dough Medium - Control AX Low High - - AX AX
(Guo et al 2018) RED = PROTEIN, GREEN = STARCH
Impact of arabinoxylan with different molecular weight on the thermo‐mechanical, rheological, water mobility and microstructural characteristics of wheat dough, Volume: 53, Issue: 9, Pages: 2150-2158, First published: 21 April 2018, DOI: (10.1111/ijfs.13802) Functions of Arabinoxylans in Baking
(Courtin and Delcour 2002) Arabinoxylans in Bread
• WEAX • WUAX – Increase stability of – Disrupts gluten gas cells matrix – Increase loaf – Lower loaf volume volume – Improved texture Arabinoxylan in Bread
Control = No AX F40 = WEAX precipitated with 40% ethanol, MWT=491,000 Da F60 = WEAX precipitated with 60% ethanol, MWT=454,000 Da
(Wang et al 2019) Arabinoxylans in Bread
Xylanase application in industry
Bread baking • Included in bread improver mixtures
Improvement of • Dough handling • Oven spring • Loaf volume
(Courtin and Delcour 2002) Arabinoxylan in Cookies Not desirable in soft wheat flours used for cookies or crackers
Arabinoxylans High water Increase cause: absorption viscosity
• Longer bake • Poor cookie time spread Arabinoxylan in Cookies
• Negative effects of arabinoxylan – Increased bake time – Decreased cookie diameter – Sugar syrup sequestration • Decreased dough plasticity • Increased checking (stress fractures)
(Kiszonas et al 2013) Function of Fat in Bread What is fat? Specific function and use • Energy-rich molecule made from glycerol and fatty acids depends on application • It is insoluble in andwater type while of soluble fat used in organic solvents, and at room temperature can exist in a liquid or solid state. In baking, fat contributes to: • . •• AidsStabilization in sliceing of gas cells • Flavor enhancer and • Tenderness •• MoistnessAids in slicing adder •• FlavorTenderness enhancer and adder • Smooth mouthfeel •• SmoothMoistness mouthfeel • Silky texture • Silky texture Functional Ingredients in Baking
Yeast nutrients
pH regulators
Oxidizing agents
Reducing agents
Emulsifiers
Gums and hydrocolloids
Enzymes
(Pyler and Gorton 2008) Emulsifiers
• Food – EMULSIFICATION Low fat yoghurt – Encapsulation – Films – Coatings – Gels Emulsified beverages – FAT REPLACEMENT • Industrial Encapsulation of flavors Emulsifiers in Bread Crumb softening emulsifiers Softer, fresher crumb, fine crumb, Mono-glycerides, SSL, CSL shorter bite
Dough strengthening emulsifiers Strengthen dough, form complexes with SSL, DATEM, polysorbate-60 gluten, contribute to dough elasiticity
Some can be both Emulsifiers in Bread
Increase volume Improve crumb texture Improve softness (expansion in oven) Emulsifiers in Bread Any single emulsifier does not possess all of these functions
Functions Classifications • Improve dough handling • Origin (synthetic or natural) • Improve rate of hydration • Solubility • Greater tolerance • Functional groups • Improve crumb structure • Hydrophilic/lipophilic • Improved slicing balance (HLB) • Crust thickness • Potential for ionization • Emulsification of fats • Improved symmetry • Longer shelf life Carbohydrate Functional Ingredients Two Main Groups
• Native and modified Starches and • Cyclodextrins derivatives • Maltodextrins • Hydrolysates
• Tree exudates • Seed flours • Plant fragments Hydrocolloids • Fermentation • Seaweed extracts • Animal derived Uses in Bakery Products Bulking agents Gluten substitutes Fat replacers/mimetics Modification of dough rheologyVery and Diverse texture Change water absorption Applications! Stabilizers Cryoprotectant Alter crumb structure and texture Increase moisture retention Extend shelf-life Gluten Free Baked Products
Comparison of the swelling mechanism (a) and appearance (b) of fermenting wheat dough and additive-free, gluten-free (GF) rice batter
(Yano 2019) Gluten Free Baked Products
Summary of the procedures for making additive-free rice bread and “cooking tips” for each step
(Yano 2019) Use in Gluten Free Formulation
• Maltodextrins – Alter starch gelatinization – Improve loaf volume – Inhibit staling • Chemically and physically modified starches – Improvement of volume and crumb softness • Resistant starch – Improve nutritional quality
(Naqash et al 2017) Hydrocolloids in Gluten Free Baking
Most frequently used hydrocolloids, in commercially available gluten-free breads
(Roman et al 2019) Gluten Substitute
• Hydrocolloids in gluten free bread – Improved volume – Improved crumb texture Control 1 + HPMC – Softer texture
Control 2 + HPMC
(Mariotti et al 2013) Gluten Substitute Flour Blend Rice Flour Wheat Flour • Hydrocolloids in gluten free crackers • Resulted in – Fewer & larger gas cells – Higher moisture 1% HPMC 1.5% HPMC 2.0% HPMC • Interact with native rice proteins → increased dough elasticity 1% CMC 1.5% CMC 2.0% CMC
1% XN 1.5% XN 2.0% XN (Nammakuna et al 2016) Fat Replacers
Fat replacers are defined by the American Dietetic Association as “an ingredient that can be used to provide some or all of the functions of fat, yielding fewer calories than fat” (ADA, 1998) Fat Replacers • Carbohydrate, protein or fat origin • Bind water and form paste that mimics texture and viscosity of fats Complex carbohydrates • Inulin, maltodextrin, polydextrose, plant fibers
Gums and gels • Xanthan gum, oatrim, pectin, HPMC
Whole foods • Chia seed mucilage, bean puree, apple pomace Fat Replacers
• Ideal fat replacer ingredients for different bakery products
Product Fat Replacer
Biscuit Oatrim or bean puree
Cake Oleogels or inulin
Cracker Inulin
(Colla et al 2018) Fat Replacers in Cakes a Succinyl chitosan containing cakes obtained with different levels of fat reduction: a: 0%, b: 25%, c: 50%, d: 75%, e: 100%. b
Fat Hardening Hardness Chewiness Drying rate Reduction Rate c (N) (g) (g/100g/day) (%) (N/day)
0 130 922 27.8 3.85 d 25 132 1029 26.1 5.64 50 130 985 14.0 5.00 75 129 1186 35.4 4.00 e 100 111 960 49.2 3.46
(Rios et al 2018) Fat Replacers in Cakes
Texture and Sensory Quality of Cake with OSA Mung Bean Starch as Fat Replacer Control 10% 20% 30% 40% Hardness (N) 43.2 46.3 49.4 50.4 56.5 Cohesiveness 1.52 1.65 1.777 2.11 2.14 Mouthfeel* 8.5 8.4 8.1 7.9 7.3 Texture* 8.2 8.0 7.7 7.6 7.2 Overall acceptability* 8.9 8.7 8.5 8.2 7.2 *Scored 1-10, 10 being the best
(Punia et al 2019) Fat Replacers in Cakes
Cake with OSA Mung Bean Starch as Fat Replacer
Control 10% 20% 30% 40%
(Punia et al 2019) Cryoprotectants
Need increased stability Must control ice crystal to freeze/thaw cycles to formation and growth maintain dough quality https://en.angelyeast.com Cryoprotectants
Unfrozen Control
Good volume and shape Nice bright crumb color Good crumb structure Ice crystal formation during freezing/re-freezing 9 Weeks Frozen of dough damages gluten and dough Poor volume and shape Dark yellow crumb color structure. Dense crumb structure
(Steffolani et al 2012) Cryoprotectants Mechanisms of Ice Recrystallization
(Zhu et al 2019) Cryoprotectants
Tissues Affected by Ice Crystals
(Zhu et al 2019) Cryoprotectants Percent Freezable Water in Frozen Bread Dough Containing Carboxymethyl Cellulose Sodium with Different Degrees of Substitution
• CMCNa with higher DS resulted in less freezable water • Less freezable water will prevent ice crystal formation
(Xin et al 2018) Cryoprotectants Loaf Volume of Bread from Frozen Bread Dough Containing Carboxymethyl Cellulose Sodium with Different Degrees of Substitution
• Adding CMCNa with higher DS better loaf volume • Bread from frozen dough with CMCNa was also softer than bread without CMCNa (data not shown)
(Xin et al 2018) Sugar Reduction
Cakes and cookies have similar formulas
• High sugar • High fat • Differ in flour type and water level
Sucrose is the most commonly used sugar for baking
Recent interest in healthier baked products with reduced sugar contents
Products with
• Lower glycemic index • Prebiotic nutritional benefits Sugar Reduction
• Functionality of Sugar – Significant impact on gelatinization temperature • Starch gelatinization and cake quality – Major factor in determining cake volume and shape – Different sugars will change gelatinization temperatures Sugar Reduction Effect of Sugar Type on Gelatinization Temperature
DSC Thermograms
(Kweon et al 2016a and c) Sugar Reduction Cakes Formulated with Different Sugars
Ultrafine Fine Sucrose Sucrose
Ultrafine Sucrose Fine Sucrose
Fructose Glucose Xylose (Kweon et al 2016a) Sugar Reduction
Cakes Prepared with Sucrose and Alternative Sugars
Sucrose
Sucrose Isomaltulose
Isomaltulose
Glucodry 314 Glucodry 314 Mylose 351
Mylose 351
(Kweon et al 2016b) Baking Time Sugar Reduction Minutes 0 Effects of Process 5 Parameters Using Isomalutlose as a Sugar 10 Substitute in Cakes 15
20
25 Pre-dissolution of isomaltulose resulted in an 30 inferior product
35 Cross section Predisolved ‘As Is” Isomaltulose Isomaltulose (Kweon et al 2016b) Sugar Reduction Firmness of Cakes with Different Bulking Agents and Sucrose (control)
(Ronda et al 2005) Sugar Reduction Sensory Scores of Cakes with Different Bulking Agents and Sucrose (control)
(Ronda et al 2005) Sugar Reduction Cookies Formulated with Sucrose and Sugar Alternatives
Sucrose Isomaltulose
Glucodry 314 Mylose 351
Sucrose Isomaltulose Glucodry 314 Mylose 351
(Kweon et al 2016c) Sugar Reduction Cookies Formulated with ‘As Is’ and Pre-dissolved Isomaltulose L: ‘As Is’ R: Pre-dissolved
Similar to Cakes → Process effects Quality
(Kweon et al 2016c) Sugar Reduction Partial Sugar Reduction: Cookies Formulated with Blends of Sucrose and Glucodry314
0% 25%
50% 75% 100%
0% 25% 50% 75% 100%
(Kweon et al 2016c) Sugar Reduction
Cookies Prepared with Sucrose (A) Tagatose (B) and Fructose (C)
Likeness rankings (1-9) of cookies containing tagatose and sucrose Sweetener Color Sweetness Texture Overall 100% Sucrose 6.13a 6.23a 5.42a 6.17a 50% Suc-Tag 5.89a 5.28b 5.51a 5.40ab 100% Tagatose 6.85b 4.79b 6.02a 5.17b
1 = dislike extremely 9 = like extremely, values within a column with the same letter are not significantly (P<0.05) different
(Taylor et al 2008) Arabinoxylan in Cookies • Arabinoxylan oligosaccharides (AXOS) for sugar replacement Flour substituted with AXOS (12, 23.5 and 34%)
Control
Sucrose substituted with AXOS (10, 20 and 30%) (Pareyt et al 2011) Quality and Shelf Life
Crumb structure of control bread, bread with konjac glucomannan (KGM), and bread with konjac superabsorbent polymer (KSAP).
(Liu et al 2014) Quality and Shelf Life
Hardness of crumb for control bread (▲), bread with konjac glucomannan (■), and bread with konjac superabsorbent polymer (●).
(Liu et al 2014) Quality and Shelf Life Moisture Loss During Storage of Cakes Prepared with Different Hydrocolloids
Control
(Gomez et al 2007) Quality and Shelf Life Hardness increase during ageing of wheat bread from partially baked bread stored at subzero (frozen) or positive temperatures. Frozen storage: 42 days; positive temperature storage: 10 days. Ageing conditions: 24 h at 25 C.
(Barcenas and Rosell 2007) HYDROCOLLOIDS IN REFRIGERATED DOUGH What is refrigerated dough?
≈ $1.7 Billion Dollar Industry Challenges in Refrigerated Dough
During storage:
1. Loss of strength (dough consistency)
2. Increased syruping Flour and Dough Quality
Xanthan Gum % 0 0.01 0.5 1.0 Moisture (%)b 12.6a 12.6a 12.6a 12.6a c Ash (%) 0.54a 0.55a 0.54a 0.55a Not Proximate Protein (%)b 13.0a 13.0a 13.0a 12.9a much Analysis change Total Starch (%)c 73.5a 73.0a 73.0a 72.4b Xylanase Activity b 1.4a 1.4a 1.4a 1.4a Absorption (%) 66.4c 66.4c 69.2b 70.2a Farinograph d Data PT (min) 7.5c 8.0c 14.0a 12.5b Stability (min) 12.5c 12.5c 22.0a 19.5b *Values in the same row not sharing a common letter are significantly different (P≤0.05) a All analyses were replicated (n≥2) and mean values were reported. ± represent the standard deviation. b As is c Dry Weight Basis d Peak Time e Mixing Tolerance Index f Brabender Units Degree of Dough Syruping Dough Consistency
Measured by Farinograph as the difference in BU between day 0 and the other storage days Summary
Improvement of Refrigerated Water Dough Dough Quality Usage Level Sequestration Consistency by Functional Carbohydrate – • Xanthan gum’s • At 0.5% level • Xanthan gum is Xanthan Gum hydrophilic nature xanthan gum was able to prevent allows for binding able to improve dough syruping at of water released the dough low levels by AX consistency OCTENYL SUCCINATE STARCHES AS EMULSIFIERS AND FAT REPLACERS IN BREAD Light Microscopy of Emulsion Droplets
Oil droplet
Starch
*20x magnification, N: native and M: modified. C: corn; T: tapioca; R: rice; P: potato; W: wheat. Size Distribution: Droplets
Day 1 d[43] Day 15 d[43] Day 1 d[32] Day 15 d[32] 160 a 140 a b b 120 Smallest Droplets c a c b m 100 a μ 80 d d b d 60 e e e 40 c c c cd d de 20 d e 0 OSA OSA Native Rice OSA OSA OSA Modified Modified Modified Modified Modified Corn Tapioca Rice Potato Wheat *d[43]: volume mean diameter; d[32]: surface mean diameter; μm: micrometers. **Columns of the same color with the same letter are not significantly different (P<0.05) Dough Quality
2% Shortening 2% OSA Wheat 4% OSA Wheat 2% OSA Tapioca 4% OSA Tapioca 45 a 40 a 35 f bc c b a c c 30 b b d d c 25 d 20 15
grams force force mm or grams 10 5 0 Stickiness Resistance Extensibility *OSA = Octenyl succinic anhydride **Columns for the same parameter with the same letter are not significantly different (P<0.05) Dough Quality
Farinograph Absorption Farinograph Stability 64 20 a a 18 a 62 b b 16 ab b ab b 60 c 14 58 12 10 56
Minutes 8 54 6
% Absorption MB) (14% % 4 52 2 50 0 2% 2% Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat Tapioca Tapioca Tapioca Tapioca 2% OSA 4% OSA 2% OSA 4% OSA 2% OSA 4% OSA 2% OSA 4% OSA Shortening Shortening
*MB = Moisture basis, OSA = Octenyl succinic anhydride **Values in the same graph with the same letter are not significantly different (P<0.05) Bread Quality
Volume (cc)
2% Shortening 930.00a
2% OSA Wheat 823.33b
4% OSA Wheat 773.33bc
2% OSA Tapioca 771.67bc
4% OSA Tapioca 746.67c
*OSA = Octenyl succinic anhydride **Values with the same letter are not significantly different (P<0.05) Bread Crumb Firmness Summary
OSA esterification improves the emulsification properties,
Size of the starch granule showed a strong influence on emulsification
Effects of esterification varied among starches of different botanical sources
Improved functional properties
Useful as emulsifiers or fat replacer for many baked products BINDING OF BITTER FLAVORS IN WHOLE WHEAT PRODUCTS BY CYCLODEXTRINS Cyclodextrins
Structure Classification Conical Glucosidic Structure Unit Inclusion Complex Formation
Geometry
Size Conditions Hydrophobic guest
http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/pt/polymer/images/wirach/fig2-animation.gif Applications
Cosmetic
Textile Food
Pharmaceutical
Household Wheat Bran
Phenolic compounds are concentrated in bran layers
http://grain-gallery.com/en/wheat/images Phenolic Compounds in Wheat Antioxidants Free radical scavengers Inhibit lipid oxidation
Influenced by Genetics Environmental factors Other stressors
Conflicting data regarding relationship with wheat bran color
Elicit unacceptable flavors within plant foods and their products
Sensory properties associated with phenolics Bitter taste Astringency Sour taste Cereal flavor Germ-like flavor Challacombe et al. 2012 COMPLEXATION WITH PURE PHENOLIC ACIDS 1H NMR β-CD
FA/β-CD Complex
CA/β-CD Complex
∆δ = δpure - δcomplex CO/β-CD Complex
1H-NMR-Spectra (500 MHz) of β-CD with and without the flavors Ferulic acid (FA), Coumaric acid (CO),
Caffeic acid (CA in) D2O in the range of 4.10 ppm to 3.50 ppm. SEM
A: Coumaric acid B: Caffeic acid C: Ferulic acid a) β-CD b) Phenolic acid c) Physical mixture d) Complex Quantum-chemically optimized structures
a) CA/β-CD complex b) (b) CO/β-CD complex c) (c) FA/β-CD complex Structures of complexes represented with calculated HOMO, LUMO and ESP Caffeic Acid (a) HOMO (b) LUMO (c) ESP Coumaric Acid (d) HOMO (e) LUMO (f) ESP Ferulic Acid (g) HOMO (h) LUMO (i) ESP COMPLEXATION WITH WHEAT BRAN PHENOLIC ACID EXTRACT 1H-NMR
β-cyclodextrin
Ferulic complex
Caffeic complex
Coumaric complex
Caffeic/Ferulic complex
Coumaric/Ferulic complex
Caffeic/Coumaric complex
Caffeic/Ferulic/Coumaric complex
Wheat bran extract complex
*Each 5 mM in D2O in the range of 4.10 ppm to 3.50 ppm. Computational Analysis Binding Energies
Enthalpy of formation (Hf), ∆H, total energy (ET), Mv and frontier orbital energies (EHOMO, ELUMO) for β-CD complexes with flavors.*
Complex ET Mv, Å Hf ∆Hf EHOMO ELUMO ∆HL
CA-β-CD -16350.12 536 -1476.23 -9.81 -9.362 -1.203 8.159
CO-β-CD -16058.70 517 -1437.22 -11.72 -9.330 -1.142 8.188
FA-β-CD -16499.48 589 -1469.97 -9.28 -8.972 -0.893 8.079
*- Hf, ∆H is in kcal/mol, ET , EHOMO, ELUMO and ∆HL are in eV Electrostatic Surface Potential
Caffeic acid and p-Coumaric acid and trans-Ferulic acid and β-cyclodextrin β-cyclodextrin β-cyclodextrin
Electrostatic Surface Potential (ESP) representation of phenolic acid positions within the cyclodextrin Conclusion
Undesirable flavors Undesirable aromas
Cyclodextrins
Possible Application in Baking: Making of undesirable flavors or aromas by complexation with Removal of undesirable cylcodextrins flavors or aromas Take Home Message
There is a diverse range of carbohydrate based functional ingredients that can be utilized in a variety of ways to improve quality of baked products Acknowledgement
• Manfred Zähres
• Dr. Angel Ugrinov
• Computer access and support provided by North Dakota State University, Center for Computationally Assisted Science and Technology (CCAST), and the Department of Energy through Grant No. DE-SC0001717.
• NDSU Electron Microscopy Center core facility. This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. 0619098, 0821655, 0923354, and 1229417. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.
• This work was also supported in part by the National Science Foundation through the ND EPSCoR Award #IIA-1355466 and by the State of North Dakota. References
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