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Before the Church: the Jewish Musical Tradition

Before the Church: the Jewish Musical Tradition

Chapter We cannot start seriously to discuss the music of the Christian church without first looking at what is known of the music of the 1 ancient world, and particularly the music 11 Before the Church: of ancient . Just as, for Christians, the

New Testament cannot be understood fully B The Jewish without a knowledge of the Old Testament, e r o f e in the same way the music of Christianity

Musical Tradition and the church cannot properly be e h t

understood without at least some knowledge C

of the music of the ancient Jewish people. r u h We start with a major disadvantage. For c

Jubal… was the father of all h

obvious reasons, we possess no recorded : T music from two millennia ago; however, such as handle the harp and e h

nor do we have any contemporary notated J organ. music that might give some indication of h s i w e Genesis 4:21, k j v how ancient music sounded. The nineteenth-

century German musicologist Ambros M

bewailed the fact that “we did not have the i s u

opportunity of listening to [ancient music] c

Left: Detail of King playing his harp, from The Adoration of l a for even one minute in order to be able to the Holy Trinity (1511), also known as the Landauer Altarpiece, T

by German artist Albrecht Dürer (1471–1528), now in the judge its sound”. There are a few written radition Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna, Austria. David’s harp is, of records concerning music, but apart from course, not depicted with historical accuracy. Below: A nineteenth-century illustrator’s conception of the silver these we are reliant on interpreting the (khatsotsrah) blown by Jewish priests in biblical times. evidence derived from stone, clay, metal, and bone artefacts discovered by archaeologists. Until very recently, most historians have based their researches into the music of ancient Israel almost solely upon the written evidence available in the Jewish Scriptures. However, modern scholarship has widened this methodology, by first investigating and interrogating the evidence of archaeology and then allowing the fruits of that research to 12 C hristian Mu s i c : A Gl o b a l Hi s t o r y something oftheactualancient Jewish Babylon) and Yemen mayhave preserved Jewish communitiesinIraq (ancient have ventured tosuggestthatmodern music,someethnomusicologists somewhere attheroots ofmodernJewish the ancientJewishmusicaltraditionlies in KingSolomon’sfamedTemple. on his“harp”orthesoundofmusicians instance, theharmoniesmadebyKingDavid much more shakyisourknowledge of,for experienced by, contemporarylisteners.How how theymighthavesoundedto,andbeen compositions were originally performedand understanding exactlyhowtheirmusical Beethoven weare stillfarfrom confidentin recent composerssuchasBachand “authentic” performance,evenforrelatively Testament (andtheNew). qualify andinterpret theevidenceofOld While musicologistsgenerallyagree that Despite theresearches ofseekersafter prisoners fromIsrael/Palestine playingthelyre(BritishMuseum). will almostcertainlyremain fragmentary the factthatourknowledge ofancientmusic word ofmouth,wemustresign ourselvesto entrusted towritingbutpassedonsolely by experience oftheancientworldwasnever from theminaret ofthemosque. of themuezzin,callingfaithfultoprayer music –notleastbytheall-pervasivevoice succeeding centuries, for instance by Islamic failed tohavebeeninfluencedovermany Jewish communitiescanhardly have However, thisseemsunlikely, asthese from theWestern musicaltradition. both from non-Jewishcommunities and sounds, sincetheywere relatively insulated Right: of Idolatry The Above: Solomon’s lateryears,thoughwithlittlehistoricalverisimilitude. (1676/80–1764) illustratesmusic-makingatthedecadentcourtof In anyevent,sincemuchofthemusical RelieffromSennacherib’spalace,Ninevehc.700 bytheItalianartistSebastianoConca c b , depicting

when theHebrew oftheJewishScriptures example inthethird orsecondcentury misinterpretations were introduced –for stages, linguisticmisunderstandingsand the biblicaltexts.However, evenatearly ancient Israelrelied almostexclusivelyon most scholarswritingonthemusicof musical impactonlisteners. woman’s anklescouldexertasignificant the softrustling ofornamentswornona where theblastingofagoat’shornor it isdifficulttoimagineatranquilpast planes andthedullrumble ofroad traffic, assaulted bytheroar ofhelicoptersandjet the depthsofcountrysidewecanbe contamination andabuse,where evenin of ancienttimes.Inourworldaural the socialandpsychologicalsituations but norcanwerecreate withanyaccuracy acoustically themusicofancientIsrael, do wehavenomeansofreproducing pointed out,theproblem isthatnotonly and incomplete. As onemusicologisthas As wehavementioned,untilrecently c b ,

centuries the , datingtothesecondsixth holy writingsknownastheMishnahand music oftheRomanperiod,whileJewish Roman writersshedsomelightonJewish of ancientmusicalinstruments. considerably more consistentinitsnaming fifth centuryandknownasthe , is writer Jerome (c.347–420)intheearly ,overseenbytheChristian By contrastthelaterLatintranslationof confused thenamesofmusicalinstruments. such astheSyriacPeshitta,translatorsoften translation, andinlaterbiblicaltranslations the cityofJericho.) of beingheard more thantenmilesawayin capable ofproducing athousandtonesand called themagrephah,whichwasallegedly mention aninstrument foundinJerusalem great historicalaccuracy. (Forinstance,they relevant tothismusic,thoughnotalwaysof we knowastheSeptuagint( was translatedintoGreek intheversion In additiontothebiblicaltexts,afew d a , offer severaldescriptions x x l

). Inthis

T M J T : C B radition l a c i s u h s i w e e h h c r u h e h t e r o f e 13 14 C hristian Mu s i c : A Gl o b a l Hi s t o r y vivid descriptionsofthe288 musicians in ancientIsrael.Itprovides, forexample, most importantwrittensource formusic in itsoriginalHebrew remains thesingle psaltérion, andórganon),theOldTestament word kinnôrvariouslyaskithára , kin´yra for instance,translatesthesingleHebrew musical instruments (theGreek , translating obscure Hebrew words for archaeologists haverefuted. instruments exist”–astatementmodern Minor andGreece, nomore vestigesofolder sources byassertingthat“inPalestine, Asia prevailing misplacedsolereliance onwritten instruments ofBibletimes,butreinforced the more accuratedescriptionsofmusical Michael Praetorius(c.1571–1621),provided music, theGermanProtestant musician subject forthenextthree centuries. was followedbymostotherwritersonthe gamba”. Unfortunatelyhisflawedprecedent “clavichord”, andthe’ûgabas“violada Portaleone translatedanachronistically as own time.Forinstance,theHebrew minnîm with thenamesofinstruments from his of theancientHebrew words forinstruments chronological fallacy by translating a number Old Testament translators,heintroduced a . However, likemanyoftheearly the musicofancientJewishTemple in from MantuainItaly, attemptedtoresearch doctor, Avraham Portaleone(1547–1612), survey ancientJewishmusic. A Jewish in more moderntimessystematicallyto seventeenth-century musicalinstruments. names the“organ”, the“viol”, andother Authorized (KingJames)Version (1611) (1560) mentionsthe“dulcimer”;and introduced the“fiddle”;GenevaBible 15:25 (c.1385);William Tyndale (1526) imported a“hurdy-gurdy” intoLuke linguistic errors. JohnWycliffe’s translation English madesimilaranachronistic and The earlytranslatorsoftheBibleinto However, despitetheseproblems of The secondearlymodernwriteronJewish Two Renaissancewriterswere thefirst H the numerous excavationsintheNearEast. utilized archaeological evidencegainedfrom musical culture ofancientIsraelandhave Sumeria andUgarittothrow lightonthe about musicfrom parallelcultures suchas been ableusefullytocompare evidence early Church Fathers.Scholarshavealso apocryphal textsandsomewritingsofthe carefully, includeJewishandChristian Other usefultextualsources, interpreted Solomon’s (2Chronicles 5:12–14). – whoperformedatthededicationofKing musicians –mostimportantlytrumpeters Jerusalem (1 Chronicles 15:16–28),andofthe sacred Ark oftheCovenantintocity King David’sprocession toconductthe whom thechronicler mentionsasleading at burials.Thekhalilseemstohavebeen some animalsacrifices,on pilgrimages,and twelve oftheseinstruments –andalso at was supposedtoincludebetween twoand the Jerusalem Temple “orchestra” –which Jewish rituallament,andfeatured bothin with prophetic ecstasyand wasusedduring a militaryvictory. Thekhalilisalsolinked the anointingofanewkingandfollowing connection withcelebrationssurrounding – andappearsintheOldT – notalaterallyheldflute-likeinstrument The Hebrew word khalilmeansatypeofpipe Khalil Christian “OldTestament”. mentioned intheJewishScriptures –the will lookatthemainmusicalinstruments over. Bearinginmindthesedifficulties,we nebel isanotherinstrument muchargued instrument knownasthe’ûgab,while how totranslatetheword fortheHebrew Bible. Forinstance,itisstilltodayunclear musical instruments mentionedinthe understanding theHebrew termsfor There remain manydifficultiesin H Musical InstrumentsoftheBible 1 estament in Numbers 10:2–10, times intheOldTestament, including This instrument ismentionedthirty-one Khatsotsrah wind instruments oftheancientNearEast. reed instruments were themostcommon musicologists believedouble-pipe,double- modern clarinetoroboerespectively). Some with asingleordoublereed (likethe bone, orsometimesofbronze orcopper, an oboe-likeinstrument, madeofreed or was reserved forthesoleuseofpriests (v. 2, them forcallingthecommunitytogether…” two trumpets ofhammered silver, anduse the great JewishleaderMosesto“make v i n ). From thistimethekhatsotsrah 2 where Godinstructs (ruled c.1333–1324 discovered inthetombofTutankhamun sounded similartothecelebratedtrumpets from theEgyptians,anditmayhave like end.Itsdesignmayhavebeenborrowed inches) long,withathinbodyandwidebell- probably about40centimetres (1cubit/15 madeofbeatenorhammered silver, it indisputablethatthekhatsotsrahisa including the sack of Jerusalem. Roman soldiers are depicted carrying including thesackofJerusalem.Romansoldiersaredepictedcarrying Left: Left: c b originating betweenthelasttwocenturies the DeadSeaScrolls discovered atQumran, blasts. TheapocalypticWarScroll,oneof sustained soundandalsoshorter, staccato like instrument couldproduce astrong, Covenant, andintimeofwar. Thistrumpet- the transportofsacred Ark ofthe together atreligious festivals,during and blowntosummontheJewishpeople trumpets ofalarm…”. rules “forthe trumpets ofsummonsandthe The descriptioninNumbers10renders andthefirstcentury Relief fromtheArchofTitus, Rome,celebratingTitus’s victories, off lootfromHerod’sTemple, includingthe menorah (left)and Below: Below: discovery oftheDeadSeaScrolls. discovery c b Cave IVatQumran,Israel,siteof ). 4 3 It isimportantto d a , givesdetailed khatsotsrah

trumpets.

T M J T : C B radition l a c i s u h s i w e e h h c r u h e h t e r o f e 15 16 C hristian Mu s i c : A Gl o b a l Hi s t o r y dating totheeighteenthcentury c b onwards. Thewordkinnôr isthoughtto the Jewishmonarchy, from KingDavid during theIron Age andtheperiodof particular, andretained thispre-eminence East ingeneral,andofIsrael/Palestine dominant instrument oftheancientNear at MariinSyria.Thelyre soonbecamethe from asearlythemid-third millennium archaeological evidenceforthisinstrument two timesintheOldT – atypeoflyre –ismentionedforty- instruments oftheancientJews,kinnôr One ofthemostsignificantmusical Kinnôr the ram’s-horntrumpet discussedbelow. distinguish thekhatsotsrahfrom theshophar, , anditisalsomentionedinaletter estament. There is c b found 23:16; 1Samuel10:5 31:27; Job30:31;2Samuel6:5;Isaiah and duringecstaticprophesying (Genesis religious praise,aswellbyprostitutes family celebrations,inmourning,and Testament tohavebeenplayedduring (Genesis 4:21),andisknownfrom theOld Genesis tostandforthecraftofmusicians (Joshua 19:35). be related totheplace-name“Kinnereth” today tohavebeenaformoflyre. “the harpofDavid”, itisgenerallyagreed Vulgate, andhascommonlybeenknownas translated intheSeptuagintand Although kinnôrhasbeenvariously its therapeuticeffect (1Samuel16:16). kinnôr to the melancholicKingSaulfor mentionedasplayingthe famously is The kinnôrisfirstmentionedearlin 5 6 ). TheyoungDavid 7

(red kinnôr wasusuallymadeofalmugtimber dedication ofKingSolomon’s Temple and transfer ofthe Ark oftheCovenant,at at theJewishTemple (Ezra3:10)–atthe (along withothers)bytheLevites officiating “cymbals”. Theseinstruments were used respectively, isgenerallyagreed to mean and cymbalaintheSeptuagintVulgate This Hebrew word, translatedkymbalon Msiltayim (orZelzelim) the famousfresco from anineteenth-century Israel, andalyre-player isalsopictured on and femalemusicians”. Judah, hecaptured KingHezekiah’s “male among the200,150peopleheexpelledfrom lyre-players. Sennacheribboasted that Sennacherib, depictsthree captive Hebrew from LachishinIsraelbythe Assyrian king from Nineveh,showingprisonerstaken and singing. A seventh-century be playedwhilesimultaneouslywalking horizontally bytheperformersoitcould instrument (around 50x30centimetres) held hasan mural”depictsarelatively small c b to 1150–1000 of alyre-player appearsonajardating One well-knownrepresentation others withparallelarms. with diverging arms, asymmetrical, some symmetrical, others Israel/Palestine, some the lyre inancient representations of than thirtyvisual discovered more by thehandalone. either withaplectrum or the nebel),it six andtenstrings(fewerthan 2:8). With somewhere between imported from Lebanon(2Chronicles From thetimeofKingSolomonJewish Archaeologists have tombatBeni-hasaninEgypt.This“Beni-

sandalwood, or possibly juniper) sandalwood, orpossiblyjuniper) could be played could beplayed c b excavatedatMegiddoin 8

c b relief evidence ofmusicalpracticeinancientIsrael/Palestine. Jewish) RevoltagainsttheRomans( Beni Hasan,,datingbackto1920–1900 Above: Left: in 5:13; 29:25).Themsiltayimare described Temple (1Chronicles 15:28;2Chronicles at theburnt-andsin-offerings madeatthe stringed broadlyre. 5:12, Psalm33:2,and2Chronicles 5:12), the OldTestament (forexampleinIsaiah term nebeloccurstwenty-eighttimesin lyre, thelute,andbagpipe! TheHebrew Suggestions havevariedaswidelythe has stillnotbeensoundlyestablished. The precise meaningofthe word nebel Nebel resonant sound. intact havebeentestedandproduce abroad, the excavatedcymbalswhichhavesurvived two typesmentionedinPsalm150.Someof is suggestedthesetwosizesrepresent the between 3and6centimetres indiameter. It 7 and12centimetres indiameter, and Israel/Palestine, intwosizes:between discovered manyancientcymbalsin and struck forcibly. Archaeologists have struck lightly, andcymbalsheldvertically cymbals heldhorizontallywithahandleand 1 Chronicles 15:19asbronze cymbals ThisPalestinian lyre-player, partofapaintingfromtombat AJewishcoinmintedduringtheBarKokhba (orSecond of cymbalcommonintheregion – ( v i n is referring here tobothtypes with whichtheancientJewish and othermoderntranslations), suggesting thatthepsalmist historian Josephusagrees, loud clashingcymbals!”, stating that“thecymbals cymbals; praisehimwith were broad andlarge “Praise himwithclanging instruments, andwere translates Psalm150:5: made ofbronze”. Standard Version ( The NewRevised d a 132–36),depictingafive- c b , affordsrarevisual 9 v s r n

)

T M J T : C B radition l a c i s u h s i w e e h h c r u h e h t e r o f e 17 18 C hristian Mu s i c : A Gl o b a l Hi s t o r y restored synagogueatMasada,Israel,in2005. plectrum. With itsthickerstringsanddeeper louder sound–yetstillplayedwithouta thicker stringsthanthekinnôr–givingita peculiar totheNearEast,withmore and been suggestedthenebelisaformoflyre the Hellenisticperiod.Forthisreason ithas harps inthisregion datingtoearlierthan archaeologists haveasyetdiscovered no scholars favourtranslatingnebelas“harp”, plucked withaplectrum. Although most fingers, andthekinnôr,withsixtotenstrings twelve stringsandwasplayedwiththe distinguishes betweenthenebel,whichhad this instrument, thoughJosephususefully 2 Chronicles 20:28;1Samuel10:5). 15:16; 2Samuel6:5;Nehemiah12:27; and inecstaticprophesying (1Chronicles Jewish Exile,Israelitevictorycelebrations, the rebuilt wallsofJerusalem followingthe the Ark oftheCovenant,dedication the priests)andfeatured atthetransferof It plucked byhand(1Kings10:12; Amos 6:5). was constructed from almug-woodand with thekinnôr.Like, twenty-two ofwhichare alsoassociated A manblowsaram’s-horntrumpet( Ancient sources offer littlehelpindefining was playedbytheLevites(assistantsto shophar ) toinauguratethe

the nebel

Temple orchestra, from thelatesixthcentury a tenororbassinstrument intheSecond tone, thenebelwaspossiblydeployedas worn nearthehem. Syria bothdepictsimilarbells and astatueofanancienthighpriestfrom main purposewasasawarning: these bellswassaidtobepleasant,their high priest’srobe. Although thesoundof bells fastenedtothebottomofTemple 28:33–34 and39:25–26refers tothegold This Hebrew termisfoundinonlyExodus Pamonim c b fifteenth-century not uniquetotheJews:adepictionof Such functionalwarningbellswere (Exodus 28:35, (Exodus as hegoesinandoutoftheL If hewearsit,willnotdie. minister totheL robe wheneverheenterstheHolyPlaceto Aaron [thefirsthighpriest]willwearthis onwards. 10 t l n ) d r o c b Assyrian ambassador , andthebellswilltinkle d r o ’ s presence. its hearers assupernatural (Exodus 19:13). so powerfulthatitcouldbeexperiencedby jubilee year. Thesoundoftheshopharwas while everyfiftyyearsitannouncedthe on thefeastofRoshHashanah(New Year), 2 Samuel15:10).Theshopharwasalsoblown (2 Samuel6:15;Judges6:34;113:3; victories, andevenatpoliticalcoups the Covenant,inwartime,aftermilitary as wellatthetransferof Ark of observance ofYomKippur(Leviticus25:9), signals inreligious andmilitarycontexts. “moaning” –evidentlyusedtogivedifferent “voice”, a“trumpet blast”, a“shout”, andeven It canproduce onlytwoorthree tones–a Israel asitwasplayedasoloinstrument. also uniqueamongtheinstruments ofancient (in moderneasternTurkey). Theshopharis depictions from ninth-century by theRomansin After thedestruction ofHerod’s Temple c b horns havebeenfoundineighteenth-century untwisted afterimmersioninhotwater. Such and atNew Year astraighthorn,apparently (the annualJewishdayofatonementfast), a curvedhorncovered insilveratYomKippur Apparently twotypesofshopharwere inuse: from Qumranprovide fullerdescriptions. the JewishTalmud andsomewritings information abouttheshophar; The Hebrew Scriptures givelittlefurther it a“tuba”(Latinformilitarytrumpet). succeeding scholarsastraybydubbing more reliable Vulgate translatorsledmany or ram(neveracow),thoughthegenerally in itsusagemodernJewishliturgy. ancient Israeltohavesurvivedlittlechanged Scriptures. Itisalsothesoleinstrument from referenced musicalinstrument intheHebrew the shopharisbyfarmostfrequently Mentioned asmanyseventy-fourtimes, Shophar to wherever theSanhedrin–Jewish the shopharonSabbathwasrestricted The shopharfeatured attheJewish is the natural horn of a goat The shopharisthenaturalhornofagoat images excavated at Mari in Syria and in imagesexcavatedatMariinSyriaand d a 70,theblowingof

c b however, Carchemish

d a and Sumeria. Egypt flute, suchaswasalsofound inancient that the’ûgabwasatypeoflong,transverse instrument. Thebestsupportedsuggestionis others regard the’ûgabasapurely symbolic pan-pipe orbagpipetotheluteharp, Even todayinterpretations vary from the it asthekithara,organonandpsalmos. Old Testament, andtheSeptuaginttranslates word ’ûgab.Itoccursonlyfourtimesinthe controversy abouttheprecise meaningofthe As withthenebel, ’ûgab ram’s hide,wasstruck withthehand. The membrane,probably madeofleatheror the tambourinebutwithoutmetaljingles. 25 to30centimetres indiameter, similarto a drum withacircular woodenframeabout was widelyusedinancientIsrael/Palestine. the Temple music(Judges11:34). Thetoph and itdoesnotappeartohavefeatured in have playedthetophasasoloinstrument, woman’s instrument, onlywomenseemto (Exodus 15:20).Thoughnotexclusivelya of theRedSeaafterExodusfrom Egypt following theHebrews’ successfultraversing these references istoMiriam,sisterofMoses, which theplayerisawoman.Bestknownof sixteen timesintheOldTestament, infiveof as thetoph–atypeofdrum –ismentioned The ancientinstrument knowninHebrew Toph the endofdayfasting. ,andatYomKippurtomark particular occasionsduringtheprayerson New Moon,tointroduce theSabbath,atfour toannouncetheNew destruction of theJerusalem Temple. instruments asasignofmourningforthe banned theplayingofallothermusical religious useincreased becausetheJews legislature andcourtbetween191 Most modernscholarsagree thetophwas T 358–waslocated.Inlatertimes,its oday theshopharisstillblownin

there is considerable is considerable Y c b ear and and while

T M J T : C B radition l a c i s u h s i w e e h h c r u h e h t e r o f e 19 20 C hristian Mu s i c : A Gl o b a l Hi s t o r y player’s shoulder.player’s Thiscontrastswiththe vertically, withitssound-boxresting onthe the “trigon”asmall,angularharp,held about 50by25centimetres insize,and small, symmetricallyshapedinstrument, instrument. The“lyre” wouldhavebeena or metaltrumpet, andthe“pipe”areed H 3:5, and worshipthegoldenstatue…”(Daniel musical ensemble,youare tofalldown pipe, lyre, trigon,harp,drum, andentire “… whenyouhearthesoundofhorn, as the“orchestra ofNebuchadnezzar”: Israelite musicalculture, oftenreferred to group ofmusicalinstruments from anon- book ofDanieldescribesamuch-discussed The fourthchapteroftheOldTestament H Instruments inBabylon v s r n ). 11 The“horn”isprobably aclay

H of David’slastyears,themusicat in theOldT 15:16–28). Particularlyfullydescribed the CovenanttoJerusalem (1Chronicles King Davidtransportedtheholy Ark of account ofthemusiciansdeployedwhen The firstbookofChronicles offers arich Old Testament possibly beatenwithsticks. larger, angularharp,heldhorizontallyand “harp” ofDaniel3:5,whichwasprobably a . ArtworkbyAlanParry. Solomon’s Temple, Jerusalem,focusofJewishworshipbeforethe of Artist’s impressionofthebronzelaverandmainsanctuary H Jewish Musicinthe estament are themusic 12 in 586 7:44, 67;12:27–43). grand orchestras (Ezra2:41,65;Nehemiah Nehemiah include huge of singers and of returning JewsinthebooksofEzraand T 537 benevolent rule ofCyrus IIofPersiaaround of manydeporteesundertherelatively H knowledge oftheTemple musicians: admitted tothechoir. year trainingapprenticeship before being The singersevidentlyunderwentafive- Levite boys“toaddsweetnesstothesong”. between thirtyandfifty, togetherwithsome singers (womenwere excluded) aged consisted ofaminimumtwelvemale reports thatthechoirof JewishTemple terms forinstrumental music.TheMishnah terms forvocalmusic,outnumberingthe Old Testament, there are more thantwelve . IntheHebrew vocabularyofthe Old Testament, particularlyofcourseinthe singing isalsofrequently mentionedinthe exclusively instrumental music.However, Until nowwehavediscussedalmost 2 Chronicles 29:25–26;30:21). into thesungliturgy (2Kings18:4–5; particularly stringed-instrument –music and incorporatinginstrumental – music, reorganizing theLevitemusicians the ritualofJerusalem Temple andits 29:25). KingHezekiahapparently reformed of Judah(1Chronicles 23–25;2Chronicles during thelaterreign ofKingHezekiah and thatperformedatTemple sacrifices Solomon’s Temple (2Chronicles 5:11–14), coming of the Ark of the Covenant to King emple worshiprecommenced. Thelists Following theExileofJewsinBabylon between instrumentsandvoices inthemusic individuals; thereseemedtobe abalance musiciansservedingroupsnotasTemple One scholarhasusefullysummarizedour H Singing c b , theSecondTemple wasbuiltand c b andthesubsequentreturn toJudah

Sea” or“SongofMosesandMiriam”. Such canticlesincludethe“Songof into responsorial andcorporatesinging. were performed,broadly divided evidence ofthedifferent waysinwhich oftheOldTestament provide responsorial canticles: there were fivepossibleways ofperforming suggested thatintheSecondT prayer-books from whichtosing.Itis where thecongregation hadnowritten course, particularlysuitedtoacontext Psalms themselves. “Hymn ofPraise”(Isaiah),aswellthe Thanksgiving” (2Samuel),andIsaiah’s “David’s Lament”andSongof the “SongofDeborahandBarak”(Judges), Among otherOldT prostrated themselves. in thefirstcentury the musicalroutine attheJerusalem Temple In theJewishMishnahwehaveanaccountof sounded andtheassembledcongregation At theendofeachsection,atrumpet from thePentateuch(theBooksofMoses). part oftheday’sallottedpsalmorasection instrument, andtheLevitesstartedtosing a Levitecymbal-playersoundedhis at thealtarandblewshophartrumpets, their musicalperformance.Two priestsstood themselves, whiletheLevitescommenced the Temple sanctuaryitselfandprostrated (see p.13),afterwhichthepriestsentered a priestsoundedthemysteriousmagrephah 2.6). After theday’sdesignatedsacrifices, the Priestsfrom theCourtofIsrael(Middoth, stood onaplatformthatdividedtheCourtof 1. One scholarhasconcludedthatthe The call-and-response form was,of idealized quorumofTemplemusicians. times) Levites;thenumber12wasan well-trained and(atleastinpost-exilic musicians wereordinarilymale,adults, instruments werestringinstruments;the of theTemple;mostaccompanying the leader. The congregation repeats each unitafter c b estament canticlesare . T 14 emple musicians emple musicians emple period 15 13

T M J T : C B radition l a c i s u h s i w e e h h c r u h e h t e r o f e 21 22 C hristian Mu s i c : A Gl o b a l Hi s t o r y in was razedtotheground bytheRomans (later knownasHerod’s Temple) before it observed servicesintheSecondTemple of Jewishworship–andincidentally The Psalmswere probably the main“lyric” H Akiba (c. responsive publicsinging: ways ofperformingcorporately: The samescholaralsofoundevidenceoftwo 3. 2. 1. 2. The congregation repeats astandard 2. 1. The wholecongregation singsthesong. 5. 4. 3. H d a (:1–3, For hissteadfastloveenduresforever…etc. O givethankstotheGodofgods, For hissteadfastloveenduresforever. The Psalms second line,andsoon. congregation responds withtheentire The leadersingstheentire first line,the what theleaderhasjustsung. following whichthecongregation repeats The leadersingsahalf-lineattime, as theHallel–hence“alleluia”). adopted tosingPsalms113–118 (known half-verse, asarefrain. This methodwas congregation alwaysrepeats theinitial intones eachsucceedinghalf-line,butthe the congregation repeats this;theleader The leaderintonesthefirsthalf-verse; O givethankstotheL Psalm 136givesevidenceofthisform: refrain aftereachversebytheleader. the followingpartofsong. the congregation ofthesamegendersings A leaderofonegendersingstheincipit; congregation thenrepeats it. The leadersingsthewholesongand repeats theincipitandcompletesunit. words) ofeachunit;thecongregation The leadersingstheincipit(opening half oftheunitstartedbyleader. The congregation completesthesecond 70,similarlyreported three formsof d a 50–135),whowouldhave v s r n d r o ) , forheisgood, 16 were sungonparticulardaysintheT (:3–6, of othercontemporarymusicalinstruments description ofthe“Temple orchestra” and Psalm 150,forinstance,offers anevocative ancient Jewishmusic.Thesecondhalfof provide uswithrichliteraryevidenceabout voice (“sopranovoices”, in itsupperregister orbya high-pitched the psalmwastobeaccompaniedbyaflute to Alamoth” (Psalm46)probably indicates pauses, andthelike.Forexample,“According or lament),aswellbreathing instructions, musical tempoandemotionalcontext(praise which tuneorinstrument(s) touse,the as tohowperformtherespective psalm: many instancesthesesubtitlesare instructions “A Songof Ascents” (Psalms120–134).In “According toMahalath”(Psalm53),and “According toLilies”[shoshannim](Psalm45), 46), “According toTheGittith”(Psalm8), such as“According to Alamoth” (Psalm commence withatitleordescription, A numberofOldTestament psalms human voice. Temple, culminatingwiththeentryof entered themusicalperformancein enumerating theorder inwhichinstruments psalm embodiesaformof“stagedirections”, Maclaren wentasfartosuggestthatthis century Christiancommentator Alexander tune “Crimond”).Titles such as“TheDeer “The Lord’s MyShepherd” besungtothe astodayitmightbesuggested be used(just subtitles seemtoindicatepopular tunesto Day” [Psalm92]. they sang“APsalm:ASongfortheSabbath his holyhill”[Psalm48]…OntheSabbath be praisedinthecityofourGod,evenupon they sang,“GreatistheLordandhighlyto dwell therein”[Psalm24];onthesecondday therein is,theroundworldandtheythat sang “TheearthistheLord’sandallthat to singintheTemple.Onfirstdaythey This wasthesingingwhichLevitesused The Mishnahrecords thatcertainpsalms 17 v s r n 18

). Thenineteenth- t l n ther psalm ). Otherpsalm emple:

and ornamented.Theinterpretation and strictly observed,butfreely embellished a leapofthird. Themelodicthemewas of lessthanamusicalfifth,butincluded than pentatonic,andeachthemehadarange interval ofaperfectmusicalfourth)rather were tetrachordal (fourtonesfillingan notes andknownasmakam.Thesethemes thematic ideasorkernelsmadeupofafew Western music. Ancient “tunes”consistedof differed from themelodiesofmodern Ingathering (Exodus23:14–17). festivals ofUnleavenedBread, Harvest,and to Jerusalem (Zion)forthegreat Jewish been chantedbypilgrims“goingup” Temple Mount,orthesepsalmsmayhave Jewish highpriest’sritualascentofthe may havebeensungtoaccompanythe upon thetrumpet”. they reached abreak inthesingingtheyblew of, oraparticularword in,thetext:“…when such asthedrummer, tostress therhythm cue forthechoiroraspecificinstrumentalist, performers were topause,orisperhaps a possibly indicatesan“interlude”where the times inthetextofthirty-ninepsalms, word ,whichappearsseventy-one of theDawn”(Psalm22, Dawn”, v s r n and “Lily of the Covenant” (Psalms 60, 80, and “LilyoftheCovenant”(Psalms60,80, (, throughout thehistoryofChristianmusic. world cultures and(aswewillsee) tunes toliturgical textsiscommonthroughout performers. Theadoptionoflocalpopular melodic formulaealready familiartothe were intendedtobesungusingtunesor appears verylikelythatanumberofpsalms harvesting songquotedinIsaiah65:8.Soit 57–59, 75)hasbeenlinkedwithawine- sung. Thesubtitle“DoNotDestroy” (Psalms to whichtherespective psalmsshouldbe popular or“folk”tunes(nowsadlyunknown) The “tunes”ofthisperiodandregion The Psalmsof Ascent (Psalms120–134) The ubiquitous–andpuzzlingHebrew ) seem to be the names of contemporary ) seemtobethenamesofcontemporary t l n v s r n ), “TheDoveonFar-off Terebinths” ; “DoveonDistantOaks”, 20 v s r n ; “Doe of the ; “Doeofthe t l n 19 ), ), unknown tomusiciansofthisperiod. be usedinperformance.Harmonywas been intendedtoindicatethemakam instructions referred toearliermayhave importance. Someofthepsalmsubtitlesor the piecewasseentobeofparamount elaboration ofthemusicianperforming at afifth-century mosaic depictionofanauloswasdiscovered such pipesdatingtoRomantimes. A fine Archaeologists inIsraelhave foundmany similar tothekhalilofOldTestament. This refers toasingle-ordouble-reeded pipe Aulos mentioned intheNewT instruments oftheOldTestament. interpretation ofthemthaninthecase so wecanbemuchmore confidentinour Vulgate translationare generallyconsistent, written inGreek, theLatinrenderings inthe (Revelation 15:2). A lyre isdepicted ina of Revelationisreferred to as “God’sharp” times intheNewTestament, andinthebook The lyre (Greek kithara)ismentionedeight Lyre and wakes(Matthew9:23;11:17). Galilee. Suchpipeswere playedatweddings the HellenisticcityofSepphoris,nearLake H second centuries more recent, derivingfrom thefirstand However, sincethesetextsare relatively distinct musicalinstruments are discernible. in thebookofRevelation,andonlyfour of whichtwelveare virtuallyrepetitions twenty-nine references toinstruments, the ChristianNewT to awidevarietyofmusicalinstruments, we haveseenboastsnumerous references In contrasttotheOldTestament, whichas Four specificmusicalinstruments are H Instruments ofthe d a d a , andwere originally synagogueexcavatedat estament includesonly

estament texts:

T M J T : C B radition l a c i s u h s i w e e h h c r u h e h t e r o f e 23 24 C hristian Mu s i c : A Gl o b a l Hi s t o r y mosaic atasynagoguedatingto v s r n of theChristianrequiem massderives. passages thatthetubamirumofLatintext 1 Thessalonians4:16).Itisfrom such and lastjudgment(1Corinthians15:52b; “God’s trumpet” (1Thessalonians4:16, Testament, usuallyapocalypticallyas also referred tosymbolicallyintheNew In themaintrumpet (Greek salpinx)is Trumpet symbolize spiritualandphysicalharmony. considered bybothJewsandChristiansto Dura-Europos inmodernSyria.Thelyre was ), anditisthesignalforresurrection the Palazzo Altemps,Rome. holding hischaracteristiclyre,from a HellenisticstatueofthegodApollo 645 Assyrian kingAshurbanipal,Nineveh, Right: Left: cymbals, anddulcimer. the tambourine,lyre, First century Firstcentury c b Relieffromcourtofthe , showingmusiciansplaying d a d a Romancopyof 244at

Temple (Herod’s Temple) bytheRomansin H of Rome,datingto The Arch ofTitus intheancientforum d a Archaeologists havediscovered many New Testament Period than amusicalinstrument inthestrictsense. in Greek theatre toamplifyvoices–rather thought tobearesonating brassvase–used celebrated love/charity chapter, isnow of 1Corinthians13:1,intheapostlePaul’s The “clangingcymbal”(Greek kymbalon) Cymbal trumpets (see p.15). simply arepresentation oftypicalRoman the trumpets from theactualTemple oris unclear whetherthisaccuratelyrepresents plundered from Herod’s Temple, butitis seven-branched lamp-stand(menorah) depicts twolongtrumpets nexttotheJewish Rome’s triumphovertheJewishRevolt, It meanttheendofTemple worship.To mourn Jewish Revoltmarkedanadir inJewishhistory. pictorial representations ofmusical early Christians. H The almost total destruction of the Second Thealmosttotaldestruction oftheSecond 70 during the savage suppression of the 70duringthesavagesuppression ofthe Jewish Musicinthe by bothorthodoxJewishrabbisand condemnation ofinstrumental music pagan cultsreinforced thefrequent just southofGalilee.Suchlinkswith of Scythopolis(modernBethShan), Israel/Palestine centred on thecity first centuries was particularlystrong inthe The HellenisticDionysuscult god Pan,anderotic performances. music andtheDionysuscult, instruments andmusicians close connectionsbetween d a from thisperiod.Greek representations reveal and Romanfigurative 72andcelebrating c b and d a , andin

was considered aminorsacrilege. that reading theTorah “withoutchant” Deuteronomy). The Genesis, Exodus,Leviticus,Numbers,and Books ofMoses,ortheLaw– the publicchantingofTorah (thefive second century its dailychantingasameans ofstudy. devoted tothepracticeof , required foundations ofRabbinicJudaism andwas c b before the shopharescapedthisban. synagogue worship. As notedpreviously, only or vocal,andprohibited allmusicduring musical performances,whetherinstrumental the lossofTemple, therabbisbanned the Babylonian Exile of the (586–537 the BabylonianExileofJews(586–537 of thecentralTemple . As earlyas synagogue ritualsbegantotaketheplace soon forced toacknowledge –aslocal tradition survived–whichrabbiswere suppressed. Almost inevitablyamusical were usedinthesynagogue.) instruments –exceptpossiblytheshophar However, musicwasnotsoeasily ), theJewishleaderEzrahadpioneered d a 70 there is little evidence that any 70there islittleevidencethatany d a , Rabbi Akiba, wholaidthe almud seems to indicate almud seemstoindicate (Though even (Thougheven 21 y the Bythe assigned tothem. different andappropriate soundingneumes and Ecclesiastes)soundeddistinctive,with of different booksoftheBible(say, Ruth from anearlystage(astoday)thechanting included melodicindications.Itappearsthat punctuation oftheHebrew textsoitalso that represented themissingvowelsand system oftwenty-eightsymbols(neumes) Jerusalem –developedtheexistingwritten and scripturalscholarsbasedinT the Masoretes –groups ofJewishscribes musical rendition. Inthesixthcentury preserve andcommunicatethecorrect (“chironomy”) to d a and fingersignals a systemofhand oral tradition,with was transmittedby accompanying music papyrus scrolls, the written form,on was availablein the textofTorah good voice. Although a laypersonwith chanting ofacantor, subsumed inthesolo Temple wasoften choral singingofthe was derigueur.The the required melody “cantillation” –to By thethird century chanting–or iberias and d a

T M J T : C B radition l a c i s u h s i w e e h h c r u h e h t e r o f e 25

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