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History of Christianity I Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance

History of Christianity I Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance

0HT502 – History of I

Reformed Theological , Distance Education

Dr. S. Donald Fortson III

GUIDE Format in Course Notebook This course notebook is for the coordination of all your course materials, including reading assignments and lecture recordings. Each course notebook for RTS Distance Education is arranged by the GUIDE acronym. The five components of GUIDE are organized in each lesson by the following steps in the notebook:

1. Getting Started: To do the lessons, reading and listening assignments are listed. 2. Understanding: To maximize learning, the purposes are given. 3. Investigating: To explore the content, outlines are provided for note taking. 4. Developing: To expand content, readings are suggested. 5. Evaluating: To help review, lessons questions are based on purposes. Lesson 1: Christianity and History

GETTING STARTED

• Read: no reading assignment • Listen: Why Study Church History? • Listen: Christian Historiography

UNDERSTANDING

Purpose • To explain the importance and necessity of studying church history • To introduce a Christian view of historiography and the three Christian convictions regarding history • To examine the various approaches to studying history

INVESTIGATING

I. Why Study Church History? A. Introductory comments B. Bishop of Smyrna C. Cultural apathy toward history D. Modern church’s ignorance of the past E. Results of neglecting Christian history 1. Fuzzy ecclesiology 2. Disunity over minutia 3. Confusion over mission 4. Adoption of cultural values 5. Sloppy 6. Weak foundations 7. Heresy “Due to ignorance of the patristic period, the modern church has tended to duplicate in its theology the errors and problems of the first five centuries of Christian thought.”

2 I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education – James E. Bradley and Richard A. Muller, Church History: An Introduction to Research, Reference Works, and Methods F. Why the work is necessary 1. Christianity is a religion of history “History is the stage where His play is acted out. History is the drama of redemption.” – Philip Schaff 2. Learn about humanity “When we look at the past, it’s like seeing our own reflection in a pool.” – Michael Bauman, Historians of the Christian Tradition 3. Church is in history 4. End of history is the goal decreed by God “Eschatology is the understanding of history in the opposite direction.” – Michael Bauman 5. Church’s task to preserve and present the G. Benefits of knowing the Christian past 1. Perspective 2. Intellectual tools 3. Balance of judgment 4. Understanding the place of tradition “Traditionalism is the dead faith of the living. Tradition is the living faith of the dead. And it is traditionalism that has given tradition such a bad name.” – Jaroslav Pelikan, The Vindication of Tradition 5. Sense of belonging and identity 6. Passive mentoring by the 7. Appreciation of grace, power, mercy of God “Ecclesiastical amnesia is a serious and crippling disease. A church without a memory is doomed to invent the churchly and the theological wheels anew. The writing of religious history, in other words, is the necessary prop our naked memory requires in order to draw upon the accumulated wisdom of the ages, enabling us to withdraw at our need the deposit of insight and truth generously stored up for us in written form.” – Michael Bauman, Historians of the Christian Tradition “It is the forgotten, not the remembered past, that enslaves us.” – C. S. Lewis II. Christian Historiography

3 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education A. Three Christian convictions about history 1. God intervenes in the world 2. He guides the world with purpose 3. The Lord will bring history to conclusion B. Approaches to history (in the past) 1. Early church 2. 3. Renaissance 4. 5. 17th century 6. 18th century (Enlightenment) 7. 19th century 8. 20th century 9. Postmodern C. Self-consciousness of the historian “Everyman his own historian.” – Carl Beker “History is a pack of tricks we play on the dead.” – Voltaire “The facts of history simply do not speak for themselves; historians speak for them from an interpretive framework of the ideas they already hold.” – Ronald Wells, History Through the Eyes of Faith D. Critical objectivity E. Reconstructing the past F. The question of meaning G. Components of a Christian approach to history 1. of providence “God is in control of history, but it is not always easy to recognize His handiwork.” – Richard Niebuhr 2. Christian perspective of the historian 3. Validity of religious experience 4. Importance of social history 5. Tell truth in its ambiguity and complexity 6. Integration of faith and historical study

4 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education H. Unity of biblical and historical studies I. Summary “Church history is the connecting link between exegetical and systematic theology.” – Philip Schaff 1. The tree a. Branches – systematic theology b. Trunk – church history c. Root – biblical

DEVELOPING

Recommended Reading Augustine. Confessions. Penguin , 2008.

Bainton, Roland. Here I Stand. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1950.

Edwards, Jonathan. The Religious Affections. Carlisle, PA: Banner of Truth, 1961.

Niebuhr, Richard H. Christ and Culture. New York: Harper & Row, 1951.

Oden, Thomas C. The Ancient Christian Commentary on Scripture. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 2001.

Pelikan, Jaroslav. The Vindication of Tradition. New Haven, CT: Yale University, 1984.

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1994.

Wells, Ronald A. History Through the Eyes of Faith. New York: HarperCollins, 1989.

EVALUATING

Lesson Question 1. Why is knowledge of church history important for the church today?

5 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education Lesson 2: The Character of Primitive Christianity

GETTING STARTED

• Read: Dowley - pp. 14-28, 34-36, 57-81 • Read: Bettenson - Part I, Section VII, Chapters I-IV • Read: Maier - Book I • Read: McGrath - Introduction • Read: Acts chapters 1-11; Romans 1:8-16; 1 Corinthians 9:16-27 • Listen: Context of the Early Church • Listen: Sources of the Early Church • Listen: Practices of the Early Church • Important Dates: o 35 AD Paul’s conversion

UNDERSTANDING

Purpose • To introduce the context of the early church as well as the sources we have for understanding its practices and theology • To examine how the practices of the early church compare to those of the modern church • To explore the meaning and practice of and the Lord’s Supper in the early church

INVESTIGATING

I. The Context of the Early Church A. The “fullness of time” B. Birth of the church? C. Reconstructing the picture of the early church 1. Archaeology 2. Early Christian writing

6 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education 3. Pagan sources 4. Biblical materials 5. Palestine between the testaments a. Persia (550-334 BC) b. Alexander the Great (334-324 BC) c. Egypt [Ptolemies] (324-204 B.C.) d. Syria [Seleucids] (204-165 BC) e. Maccabees [Independence] (165-63 BC) f. Romans (63 BC - ) D. The Greco-Roman context 1. Political / cultural context a. Alexander the Great (d. 324 BC) b. Hellenism and the Jews c. The Septuagint (LXX) d. Alexandrian allegorism e. The synagogue f. Romans take over in 63 BC 2. Philosophical and religious context a. and b. Neo- c. Epicureanism d. Stoicism e. Mystery religions i. Isis cult ii. Mithraism E. The growth of Christianity II. Early Christianity Sources A. apostolic church B. The C. The 1. Clement of

7 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education 2. Ignatius 3. Hermas 4. Barnabas of Alexandria 5. Papias 6. Polycarp 7. Didache 8. III. First Century Christian Practices A. The church at Corinth (pristine Christianity?) 1. Divisions over teachers 2. Confusion over speaking in tongues 3. Incest among members 4. Questions about marriage and divorce 5. Misuse of Lord’s Supper 6. Split over meat offered to idols 7. Receiving false teaching about the resurrection B. The Jewish foundation: Torah 1. Leadership 2. Worship 3. Beliefs 4. C. Baptism and the early church 1. Meaning of baptism 2. Practice of baptism “Now about baptism: this is how to baptize. Give public instruction on all these points, and then ‘baptize’ in running water, ‘in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit.’ If you do not have running water, baptize in some other. If you cannot in cold, then in warm. If you have neither, then pour water on the head three times….” – Didache 7:1-4 D. Eucharistic practice 1. Meaning of the Lord’s Supper 2. Practice of the Lord’s Supper

8 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education “Concerning the Eucharist, in this way hold Eucharist. First concerning the cup, ‘We give thanks to you, our Father, for the holy vine of David your child, whom you made known to us through your child; to you be the glory into the ages.’ Concerning the bread, ‘We give thanks to you, our Father, for the life and the knowledge, which you made known to us through Jesus your child; to you be the glory into the aeons. Just as the wheat that became this bread was scattered upon the mountains and has been gathered together and became one, so also may your church be gathered together from the ends of the earth into thy kingdom. For yours is the glory and the power through Jesus Christ into the ages. No one, however, shall eat nor drink from your Eucharist, but only those who have been baptized in the name of the Lord. For indeed about this the Lord has spoken, ‘Do not give the holy things to the dogs.’ ” – Didache 9 E. Prayer and fasting F. The pastoral functions G. Leadership “Now you should welcome anyone who comes your way and teaches you all that we have been saying, but if the teacher proves himself a renegade by teaching otherwise and contradicts all this, pay no attention to him. But if his teaching furthers the Lord’s righteousness and knowledge, welcome him as the Lord. Now about the apostles and prophets, act in line with the precept. Welcome every apostle upon arriving, as if he were the Lord, but he must not stay beyond one day. In case of necessity, however, the next day too. But if he stays three days, he is a false prophet. On departing, an apostle must not accept anything, except sufficient food to carry him until the next lodging. If he asks for money, he is a false prophet.” – Didache 11 H. Gathering for worship I. Women in the early church

DEVELOPING

Recommended Reading Lightfoot, J. B. The Apostolic Fathers. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 1989.

EVALUATING

Lesson Question 1. Who were the following people and what significant contributions did they make to the church: Josephus, , , John Foxe, Kenneth Latourette, Peter, and Paul? 2. How did early believers practice the faith? What light does the Didache shed on this era?

9 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education Lesson 3: The Persecution of the First Three Centuries

GETTING STARTED

• Read: Dowley – Section 2, “The Challenge to Faith” • Read: Bettenson – Part I, Section I, Chapters I and III • Read: Maier – Book 2 • Read: McGrath - pp. 16-26, 73-76 • Read: Matthew 5:10-16; 10:16-39; 16:24-26; Romans 8:16-18, 28-39; Hebrews 11:32-12:2; 2:8-11; 6:9-11; 20:4-6 • Listen: Persecution of the Early Church • Listen: The Problem of the Lapsed • Important Dates: o 64 AD Nero’s persecution o 70 AD Destruction of Jerusalem o 100 AD St. John’s death o 155 AD Martyrdom of Polycarp o 303 AD Diocletian Persecution

UNDERSTANDING

Purpose • To examine the accusations and persecution of the first century church with particular emphasis on the death of the 12 Apostles and the Roman persecution • To explore the ten waves of persecution encountered by the first century church • To introduce the subject of apostasy and the Churches response to individuals leaving the church

INVESTIGATING

I. The Death of the Twelve A. Simon Peter – crucified upside down in Rome, died under the reign of Nero B. Andrew – scourged and crucified in Achaia

10 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education C. James (son of Zebedee) – executed by Herod Agrippa I D. John – natural death in Ephesus E. Philip – crucified in Asia Minor F. Matthew – slain by the sword in Ethiopia G. Thomas – run through with a lance in India H. Bartholomew – flayed to death in Armenia I. James (son of Alphaeus) – stoned and clubbed in Syria J. Thaddaeus – killed by arrows in Edessa K. Simon the Zealot – attacked by a mob in Persia L. Judas Iscariot – hanged himself M. Matthias – burned in Syria II. Accusations against Believers A. Popular criticism 1. Anti-social behavior 2. Atheism 3. Strange rituals 4. Lower classes 5. Incest and orgies (“holy kiss,” “agape feasts”) B. Political criticism 1. Refusal to worship the gods 2. Refusal to make token sacrifices 3. Revolutionaries 4. Unpatriotic, won’t serve in army 5. Flagitia cohaerentia nomini – “crimes associated with the name” C. Philosophical criticism 1. Intellectual attackers a. Celsus, True Discourse (2nd century) b. , Against Christians (3rd century) c. , Against the Galileans (4th century) 2. Christianity for simple-minded 3. Embraced immoral people

11 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education 4. Bible stories are foolish – birth, miracles, resurrection 5. Incarnate God inconceivable 6. Novelty and superstition III. The Roman Persecutions A. Introductory comments B. Nero (54-68 AD) 1. Blamed fire in Rome on Christians 2. Christians crucified 3. Cruelty produced pity (Tacitus, Annals) 4. Peter and Paul martyred C. Domitian (81-96 AD) 1. Offer incense to “genius of the emperor” 2. Persecutions sporadic 3. John exiled to Patmos 4. , 7 churches “Domitian, indeed, having exercised his cruelty against many, and unjustly slain no small number of noble and illustrious men at Rome, and having, without cause, punished vast numbers of honorable men with exile and the confiscation of their property, at length established himself as the successor of Nero, in his hatred and hostility to God.” – Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History D. Trajan (98-117 AD) “They are not to be sought out; if they are informed against, and the charge is proven, they are to be punished, with this reservation: that if any one denies that he is a Christian, and actually proves it — that is by worshipping our gods — he shall be pardoned as a result of his recantation, however suspect he may have been with respect to the past.” – From a letter of Trajan to Pliny the Younger, Governor of Pontus / Bithynia, 111-113 “I declare to all the churches, and I bid all men know, that of my own free will I die for God, unless you should hinder me. I exhort you, that you not be an unseasonable kindness to me. Let me be given to the wild beasts, for through them I can attain unto God. I am God’s wheat, and I am ground by the teeth of wild beasts that I may be found the pure bread of Christ. Rather entice the wild beasts, that they may become my sepulcher and may leave no part of my body behind, so that I may not, when I am fallen asleep, be burdensome to anyone. Then shall I be truly a of Jesus Christ, when the world shall not so much as see my body. Supplicate the Lord for me, that through these instruments I may be found a sacrifice to God.” – , Letter to the Romans

12 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education E. Hadrian (117-138 AD) 1. Hadrian’s Rescript – 124-125 AD: moderation 2. Cases must be brought to trial 3. Must prove guilty of illegal acts 4. Slanderous attacks forbidden 5. False witnesses punished F. Polycarp. 1. Martyrium Polycarpi (155 AD) – first martyrology “But as Polycarp entered the stadium, a voice came to him from heaven; ‘Be strong, Polycarp, and play the man.’ No one saw the speaker, but those of our people who were present heard the voice. And at length, when he was brought up, there was a great tumult, for they heard that Polycarp had been apprehended. When they brought him in, the proconsul enquired whether he were the man. And on his confessing that he was, he tried to persuade him to deny, ‘Have respect to your age,’ and other things…’Swear by the genius of Caesar; repent and say, Away with the atheists.’ Then Polycarp with solemn countenance looked upon the whole multitude of the lawless heathen that were in the stadium, and he waved his hand to them; and groaning, he looked up to heaven he said, ‘Away with the atheists.’ But when the magistrate pressed him hard and said, ‘Swear the oath, and I will release you; revile the Christ,’ Polycarp said, ‘Fourscore and six years I have been His servant, and He has done me no wrong. How then can I blaspheme my King who saved me?’…The proconsul said; ‘I have wild beasts and I will throw you to them, unless you repent.’ Polycarp said, ‘Call for them: for the repentance from better to worse is a change not permitted to us; but it is a noble thing to change from untowardness to righteousness.’ Then he said to him again, ‘I will cause you to be consumed by fire, if you despise the wild beasts, unless you repent.’ Polycarp replied, ‘You threaten me with a fire that burns for a season and after a while it is quenched: for thou art ignorant of the fire of the future judgment and eternal punishment, which is reserved for the ungodly. Why do you delay? Do what you will.’ ” – The Martyrdom of Polycarp G. Marcus Aurelius (161-181 AD) 1. Due to their unwillingness to worship the deities, Christians were blamed for natural disasters 2. Accused of immorality and black magic 3. Cry for Christian blood to propitiate the gods “We are not competent to describe the magnitude of the tribulation here, the extent of the rage of the Gentiles against the saints and the sufferings of the blessed martyrs...Not only were we excluded from public buildings, baths and markets, but even the mere appearance of any one of us was forbidden, in any place whatsoever...” – The Epistle of the Gallican Churches

13 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education “For by means of these the greater part of those that fell away, again retraced their steps...And now living again, and strengthened in their faith, they approached the tribunal...they were again interrogated by the governor...Wherefore, he also examined them again, and as many as appeared to have the Roman citizenship, these he beheaded. The rest he sent away to the wild beasts.” – Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History “After all these, on the last day of the shows of the gladiators, Blandina was again brought forth together with Ponticus, a youth of about fifteen years old. These were brought in every day to see the tortures of the rest. Force was also used to make them swear by their idols, and when they continued firm and denied their portended divinity, the multitude became outrageous at them, so that they neither had compassion for the youth of the boy nor regarded the sex of the woman. Hence they subjected them to every horrible suffering. They led them through the whole round of torture, striving to force them to swear, but were unable to effect it. Ponticus indeed, encouraged by his sister, so that the heathen could see that she was encouraging and confirming him, nobly bore the whole of these sufferings and gave up his life. But the blessed Blandina, last of all, as a noble mother that had animated her children and sent them as victors to the great King herself retracing the ground of all the conflicts her children had endured hastened at last with joy and exultation at the issue, as it were invited to a marriage feast, and not to be cast to wild beasts. And thus after scourging, after exposure to the beasts, after roasting, she was finally thrown into a net and cast before a bull and when she had been well tossed by the animal and now had no longer any sense of what was being done to her, by of her firm hope, confidence, and faith, and her communion with Christ, she too was dispatched. Even the Gentiles confessed that no woman among them had ever endured sufferings as many and as great as these.” – Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History H. Septimus Severus (193-211 AD) 1. Severe in North Africa 2. Perpetua and Felicitas, Carthage (203 AD) 3. Nursing mother and pregnant slave girl 4. Diary from prison “ ‘Have pity on your father’s grey head; have pity on your infant son. Offer the sacrifice for the welfare of the emperors.’ ‘I will not,’ I retorted. ‘Are you a Christian?’ said Hilarianus. And I said: ‘Yes, I am.’ Then Hilarianus passed sentence on all of us; we were condemned to the beasts, and we returned to prison in high spirits.” I. Decius (249-251) 1. Threats from Goths 2. Economic decline 3. Answer: return to emperor’s annual sacrifice to gods 4. Empire-wide persecution 5. Targeted bishops

14 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education 6. Edict – sacrifice to Roman gods and get a certificate 7. “All cowered in fear” – in Alexandria I have always sacrificed regularly to the gods, and now, in your presence, in accordance with the edict, I have done sacrifice, and poured the drink offering, and tasted of the sacrifices, and I request you to certify the same. Farewell. -----Handed in by me, Aurelius Diogenes. -----I certify that I saw him sacrificing [signature obliterated]. Done in the first year of the Emperor, Caesar Gaius Messius Quintus Trajanus Decius Pius Felix Augustus, second of the month Epith. [June 26, 250 A.D.] “The persecution with us did not begin with the imperial edict, but preceded it a whole year...with one accord, all rushed upon the houses of the pious, and whomsoever of their neighbors they knew, they drove thither in all haste, and despoiled and plundered them...there was no way, no public road, no lane, where we could walk, whether by day or night; as they all, at all times and places, cried out, whoever would refuse to repeat those impious expressions, that he should be immediately dragged forth and burnt.” – Dionysius to Fabius, bishop of Antioch 8. Many fled persecution 9. Massive apostasy 10. Some offered the sacrifices 11. Others bribed officials and purchased libelli without sacrificing 12. Some refused and were martyred 13. Caused deep division within the church 14. of Carthage returns, finds church demoralized J. Valerian (253-260) 1. Summer of 257, persecution resumes 2. Cyprian, other bishops deported 3. Christians sent to mines 4. Christians forbidden to assemble 5. The church did not bend this time 6. Emperor’s patience breaks in summer of 258 7. Christian leaders executed 8. Church property confiscated “Cyprian to...the brethren in the mines, martyrs of God the Father Almighty, and of Jesus Christ our Lord...now the nature of the mines is changed, and the places which previously had been accustomed to yield gold and silver have begun to receive them. Moreover, they have put fetters on your feet and have bound your blessed limbs and the temples of God with disgraceful chains...such things are ornaments, not chain; nor do they bind the feet

15 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education of the Christians for infamy, but glorify them for a crown...This temporal and brief suffering, how shall it be exchanged for the reward of a bright and eternal honor...Farewell in the Lord.” – Cyprian to nine Christian friends in mines near Sigua 9. Christians in high places, lose privileges 10. Sixtus II and seven killed, catacombs 11. Cyprian executed “You have lived a sacrilegious life, and you have gathered around yourself many vicious men in a conspiracy. You have set yourself up as an enemy of the Roman gods and of their sacred rites...Therefore, having been apprehended as the instigator and ringleader of a criminal conspiracy...you will be executed.” – Governor Galerius Maximus 12. Origin is put in the rack and later dies from the injuries 13. After Valerian’s death a 40 year reprieve 14. Church grows in numbers 15. Christians in prominent government positions 16. Church building erected 17. Gold and silver vessels used for Eucharist 18. Calm before the storm K. Diocletian (284-305) 1. “The Great Persecution” – 10 years 2. Propaganda against Christians intensifies in 290’s 3. A return to traditional Roman values 4. Christians in emperor’s family 5. Increasing pressure to rid government and army of Christians 6. Caesar Galerius exerting pressure 7. Visit shrine of Apollo’s, oracle against Christians 8. February 23, 303 – festival of god, Terminus – repression begins 9. All accusations against Christians to be received 10. Churches destroyed 11. All church services banned 12. Scriptures seized and burned 13. Christians in high places lose civil rights 14. Deprived of liberties 15. But, no bloodshed 16 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education 16. Second Edict 17. All must sacrifice 18. Prisons so full, most released 19. “Day of Handing Over” – Christians give up copies of Scriptures L. Galerius (305-311) 1. “The Era of the Martyrs” 2. Imposes sacrifice or death 3. Ruthless repression – beasts, burning, stabbing, crucifixion, the rack 4. Much defiance and many martyrs 5. Thousands killed or maimed 6. Carnage so great, sickened of prolonged massacre 7. No martyrs recorded after 310 8. 311 – Galerius is dying and revokes edicts of persecution 9. 312, 313 – Constantine consolidates his power 10. 313 – Edict of Milan makes persecution illegal IV. The Problem of the Lapsed A. Introductory comments 1. First 200 years apostasy rare 2. Under Decian persecution the church almost collapsed 3. Thousands sacrificed (sacrificati) or purchased libelli (libellatici) 4. After Decius dies, apostates want back into the church 5. Intense struggle B. Two parties 1. Conservative party a. Church is the pure bride of Christ b. , On Penance c. No second repentance after baptism d. No forgiveness for mortal sins (adultery, murder, apostasy) 2. Moderate party a. Church is a hospital for sinners b. One repentance after baptism, Shepherd of Hermas

17 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education c. , Against Celsus d. Penance allowed – long period of probation, no longer church office C. A case study 1. Carthage after Decian persecution in mid-3rd century a. 18 martyrs, 17 confessors b. Confessors forgiving sins and readmitting lapsed without penance c. Cyprian returns to deal with the problems d. Church council decides i. All admitted to penance but not to the church ii. If obtained libellus without sacrifice, readmitted after penance iii. If performed sacrifice, readmitted at point of death iv. Only bishops remit sin, not confessors D. Diversity of policies 1. Spain a. Sacrificati excommunicated b. Libellatici do penance 2. Asia Minor a. Clergy suffered could keep office but not administer sacraments b. Laity readmitted after 3-5 years of penance 3. Egypt a. If lapsed under pressure, 40 days fasting and penance b. All confessed, restored within 3 years c. Clergy cannot be restored to office d. Church split 4. Rome a. Bishop Fabianus martyred b. Newly elected bishop Cornelius immediately offers penance to lapsed c. sets up rival congregation, no penance for lapsed d. Council of Nicaea, terms for readmitting Novatianists e. Tensions until the 6th century 5. Carthage

18 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education a. After Diocletian persecution in early 4th century b. Bishop Caecilian of Carthage consecrated by a traitor c. Rival bishop elected, separate church established d. Leader of new group is Donatus e. Donatists saw themselves as true church f. Rebaptized Catholics V. Long Term Issues A. Church discipline for public sin 1. Unity of the church – schism 2. Understanding of the sacraments B. The concept of penance 1. Teaching of Christ – repentance 2. Lord’s Prayer – “forgive us our debts…” 3. Lord’s Supper – be reconciled to your 4. 1 Corinthians 5, Matt 18 – remove unrepentant from church 5. Hebrews 6 – fall away, no more repentance C. Penance first mentioned in the 2nd century (Second Clement) 1. Acts of penitence for forgiveness 2. Fasting, prayer, alms for the poor 3. Distinction between forgiveness through baptism and reconciliation through penance 4. Venial sin – confession and prayer 5. Mortal sin – liable to strict discipline and D. Process of penance 1. Show mercy but ecclesiastical procedures necessary 2. Long process of examination, stages 3. Acts of satisfaction to show contrition 4. Then public confession and reconciliation by priest or bishop VI. Honoring the Martyrs and Confessors A. Martyrdom viewed as imitation of Christ B. Martyr’s blessed by Christ – visions, words of revelation 19 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education C. “The Great Contest” – image of athletic games D. “The Second Baptism” – all post-baptismal sins forgiven E. Reward 100 times greater F. Confessors pronounce on heresy, forgive sin, intercessors G. From honor to veneration (venerari) H. “Heavenly Birthdays” – annual celebrations I. Polycarp, Ignatius, Cyprian J. Relics – reverence to remains of the saints K. Prayer to the saints

DEVELOPING

Recommended Reading Foxe, John. Foxe’s Book of Martyrs. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009.

EVALUATING

Lesson Question 1. Who were the following people and what significant contributions did they make to the church: Ignatius of Antioch, Perpetua, Cyprian, , and ? 2. What were the pagan criticisms of Christianity and how did the apologists answer them? 3. Describe how the Roman persecutions shaped the church of the first three centuries?

20 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education Lesson 4: The Church Sets Standards

GETTING STARTED

• Read: Dowley - Section 2, “What the First Christians Believed” • Read: Bettenson – Part I, Section I Chapter II; Sections II-III; Section IV Chapters I-IV and Section VII Chapters V and VII • Read: Maier – Book 3 • Read: McGrath – pp. 26-35 • Read: 1 Timothy 4:1- 7; Titus 1:5-2:1; 1 John 4:1-6 • Listen: The First Christian Apologists • Listen: Christianity Attacked from Within • Listen: The • Important Dates: o 144 AD Marcion excommunicated o 150 AD Justin Martyr’s First Apology o 200 AD Muratorian Canon o 215 AD Hippolytus’ Old Roman Creed o 248 AD Cyprian elected Bishop of Carthage o 251 AD Novatian Schism

UNDERSTANDING

Purpose • To introduce Justin Martyr and his defenses of the Christian faith • To examine the early heresies that arose from within the church (Ebionites, Gnostics, Marcionites. Monarchianism, and Montantists) • To discuss the nature of authority in the church and canonicity

INVESTIGATING

I. The Christian Apologists (2nd – 5th Centuries) A. Introductory comments

21 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education 1. Greek tradition – a speech offered by accused in a judicial proceeding 2. 2nd century Greek apologists 3. Many works lost 4. Several treatises addressed to emperors B. Justin Martyr (100-165) 1. converted to Christianity 2. Traveling lay teacher 3. Argued for Christianity from prophecy, miracles, ethics 4. Beheaded in Rome 5. Justin Martyr's writings a. First Apology b. Second Apology c. Dialogue with Trypho the Jew d. Against Heresies (lost) e. Against Marcion (lost) C. Adversus Judaeos (defense against Jewish attacks) 1. Defending Christ from the OT 2. Matthew – prophecy and fulfillment 3. Stephen’s speech in Acts 4. Galatians – Judaizing Christians 5. 6. Dialogue with Trypho the Jew 7. Later polemical tracts 8. Christianity as distinct a. Messianism b. Role of the law c. Place of the Gentiles d. Intended readers? D. Defense against Greco-Roman attacks 1. Pagans view Christianity as: a. Politically dangerous

22 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education b. Socially offensive c. Intellectually absurd 2. Apologists protect the church: a. From popular violence and political repression b. By preserving the credibility of mission work E. apologies (late 2nd – early 5th century) 1. Tertullian – To Scapula, Apology 2. Octavius of Minucius Felix 3. Origen – Against Celsus 4. Augustine – City of God F. Apologetic methodology 1. Went beyond rebuttal 2. Attacked popular religion 3. Christianity consistent with best classical thinking 4. Used arguments of Hellenistic Judaism 5. Used Greco-Roman philosophical skepticism of mythology G. Defending Christianity 1. Denied criminal behavior 2. Worship one true God 3. Christians are good citizens 4. Prosecution for “name alone” is illegal 5. Christianity not a novelty H. Attacking popular religion 1. Images are unworthy of reverence 2. Pagan cults are morally perverse 3. Ridiculed anthropomorphism and immorality in classical myths I. Using to defend the faith? 1. Most apologists valued classical philosophical tradition 2. Stressed the similarities with paganism 3. Classical logos speculation accommodated to Christianity 4. Revelation of logos among Greeks (Justin Martyr)

23 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education 5. Live according to reason, one may be saved 6. Get inside the culture approach 7. No use for pagan philosophy a. Stressed the dissimilarity with paganism b. Creation vs. eternal matter c. Consummation of history vs. cyclical view d. “What does Jerusalem have to do with Athens?” (Tertullian) e. Touch not the unclean things f. Greek are patriarchs of heretics g. Christianity against culture approach II. Christianity Attacked from Within. A. Heretical groups in the early church 1. Ebionites 2. Gnostics 3. Marcionites 4. Monarchianism 5. Montantists B. Ebionites (“poor”) 1. First mention is by Irenaeus, Adversus Haereses 2. Jewish Christians from late 1st century 3. Emphasis on circumcision, Jerusalem, Mosaic Law 4. Gospel of Matthew in Hebrew 5. Paul an apostate 6. Jesus is Messiah, a prophet 7. Gospel of Ebionites 8. Gospel of the Hebrews 9. James was the most important apostle C. 1. Not an institution but a set of ideas 2. Gnosis is mystical knowledge reserved for enlightened 3. Secret knowledge is the key to

24 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education 4. Salvation is escape from evil material world 5. Eternal Spirit is trapped in the body (prison of the soul) 6. Dualism – spirit is good / body is evil 7. Origin of the world a. All reality was spiritual b. Father of light had no plan to create a material world c. Created spiritual beings – aeons d. One of aeons fell into error and created the world e. Bits of spirit in created matter f. Spirits asleep in body, driven by impulses of the body g. Above humanity are heavenly spheres with evil rulers that prevent progress to pleroma h. To break through spheres need secret gnosis 8. The Savior a. To realize freedom, spiritual messenger sent b. Messenger will awaken people from the dream c. Reminds of the heavenly origin d. Calls to strive for liberation e. Brings secret gnosis f. Christian Gnosticism – messenger is Christ 9. Person of Christ a. Christ from heaven, therefore pure spirit b. Body/matter is evil c. Therefore, Christ could not have a real body i. Body was a phantom or ghost ii. Heavenly Christ and an earthly Jesus iii. Most denied birth of Christ d. (dokeo) – only “seemed” to be a fleshly body 10. Life on earth (two answers) a. If body is prison of spirit, must control passions = asceticism

25 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education b. If spirit is good and can’t be destroyed, let passions run wild = libertines 11. New Testament and Gnosticism a. Paul – Colossians and Pastoral Epistles b. John – stress on /blood of Christ in 1 John 12. Valentinus (136-160?) a. Teacher in Alexandria b. Candidate for Roman bishop c. Excommunicated for heresy d. Reinterprets the Scriptures e. Attacked by f. Gnostic texts found at Nag Hammadi, Egypt g. The Gospel of Truth D. Marcionites (2nd century) 1. Marcion’s father a bishop in Pontus 2. Disliked Judaism and material world 3. He goes to Rome in 144 4. A rival church established 5. His teaching a. Father’s purpose is only a spiritual world b. Creator of world is evil or ignorant c. Father of Christ is not Jehovah of OT d. Jehovah is arbitrary, vindictive e. Father of Christ is loving, no judgment at the end f. Christ: appears as a grown man during reign of Tiberius; sufferings not real, no resurrection g. Docetic view h. Scripture: rejected OT as work of inferior god; accepted parts of Luke and 10 Pauline epistles only 6. Gnosticism vs. E. Monarchianism

26 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education 1. Question of relation of Father and Son 2. Term refers to monarchy of God (unity) 3. Versus the many aeons of the Gnostics 4. Versus the dual gods of Marcion 5. Called the alogoi 6. Two forms of Monarchianism 7. Dynamic Monarchianism a. Divinity of Christ is an impersonal power b. Theodotus of Byzantium, “Theodotians” c. Paul of Samosata, “Paulianists” d. Only one God e. Father alone is God f. – Jesus a man upon whom the Word came, empowered like the prophets of old g. No singing of hymns to Jesus h. Existence begins in womb of Mary i. Use of homoousios condemned by the church j. Council of pastors condemn him (Epistle to Bishop Dionysius of Rome and Bishop Maximus of Alexandria –Eusebius) 8. Modalistic Monarchianism a. Unity of God and deity of Christ b. Deity of Christ identified with the Father c. Father suffered in Christ (Patripassianism) d. Hippolytus, Contra Noetum e. Tertullian, Adversus Praxeam f. Sabellius, early 3rd century () g. Denied distinctions in Godhead h. Son and Spirit, modes in which God appeared i. One prosopon 9. Adoptionism vs. Modalism F. Montanists “New Prophesy”

27 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education 1. Montanus begins prophesying in 157 2. Maximilla and Priscilla join him 3. Prophetesses claim to be “mouthpieces of the ” 4. Call for holy living, prepare for New Jerusalem 5. Followers treasure these direct 6. Trancelike ecstatic utterances 7. Orthodox theology 8. Reaction of the church a. Major tradition – concerned with order and institutional church b. Regional deliberate, Montanists excommunicated c. Objections: abnormal revelations, refuse discernment from bishops, worldliness, false prophecies, devalues Scripture d. Hippolytus, prophecy ended with apostle John 9. Minor tradition in the church a. Emphasis on experience, prophecy, miraculous b. Tertullian becomes a Montanist c. Irenaeus warns of censuring authentic gifts of Spirit d. Epiphanius found no serious fault with movement e. Testimony of the church fathers III. The Question of Authority A. Introductory comments 1. What is apostolic? 2. Clarifying the faith of the apostles 3. Need for uniformity 4. Church’s response a. Canon b. Creed c. Bishop B. The canon develops 1. Marcion’s list 2. Lists compiled gradually

28 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education 3. Hebrew Scriptures accepted 4. acknowledged first 5. Consensus of whole apostolic tradition 6. Muratorian canon 7. Easter letter of Athanasius, 367 C. Tests of canonicity 1. Inspiration 2. Apostolicity 3. Orthodoxy a. Rejection of “spurious” books b. Canon provided uniformity of belief and church unity D. The creed 1. Apostolic preaching a. 1 Corinthians 15:3-7 b. 2 Corinthians 13:13 c. 1 Timothy 3:16 d. 1 John 4:2 2. The “Rule of Faith” “Be deaf, therefore, whenever anyone speaks to you apart from Jesus Christ, who is of the stock of David, who is of Mary, who was truly born, ate and drank, was truly persecuted under Pontius Pilate, was truly crucified and died in the sight of beings of heaven, of earth and the underworld, who was also truly raised from the dead…” – Ignatius of Antioch (c. 107), Letter to the Trallians “We also know in truth one God, we know Christ, we know the Son, suffering as he suffered, dying as he died, and risen on the third day, and abiding at the right hand of the Father, and coming to judge the living and dead. And in saying this we say what has been handed down to us.” – Profession of the Presbyters of Smyrna (c. 180) “The Church, though dispersed throughout the whole world, even to the ends of the earth, has received from the apostles and their disciples this faith: in one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of heaven, and earth, and sea, and all things that are in them; and in one Christ Jesus, the Son of God, who became incarnate for our salvation; and in the Holy Spirit, who proclaimed through the prophets the dispensations of God, and the advents, and the birth from a virgin, the passion, and the resurrection from the dead, and the ascension into heaven in the flesh of the beloved Christ Jesus, our Lord, and His

29 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education manifestation from heaven in the glory of the Father…” – Irenaeus of Lyon (c. 190), Against Heresies 3. A baptismal creed a. “ ‘Do you believe in God the Father Almighty?’ ‘I believe.’ ‘Do you believe in Christ Jesus, the Son of God, who was born of the Holy Spirit and the Virgin Mary, who was crucified in the days of Pontius Pilate, and died and rose from the dead and ascended in the heavens and sat down at the right hand of the Father, and will come to judge the living and the dead?’ ‘I believe.’ ‘Do you believe in the Holy Spirit, in the holy church and in the resurrection of the body?’ ‘I believe.’” b. Textus Receptus “Received Text” (c. 700) Southwest 4. Historic role of the Apostles Creed a. Essentials of the faith b. Standard against false teaching c. Catechizing converts d. The i. Luther – catechism ii. Calvin – worship E. The bishop 1. Authority of the church to battle heresy 2. Heretics claim succession of secret teachers a. If Jesus had secret knowledge, given to apostles b. Apostles would have passed it to followers c. Secret should be found among bishops d. But, those who claim deny secret teaching 3. Churches kept lists of bishops 4. Apostolic churches preeminent F. Catholicity – universal 1. “According to the whole” 2. Witness of all the apostles

30 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education 3. True church acknowledges: a. Writings of apostles b. Tradition of apostles c. Bishops as successors of the apostles (Irenaeus, Against Heresies) 4. The response of the ancient church to heresy G. How did God guide the early church? 1. Roman – the bishops 2. Eastern Orthodox – the ecumenical creeds 3. Protestants – the canon (Holy Scripture) 4. All agree – apostolic foundation

DEVELOPING

Recommended Reading Augustine. The City of God. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2009.

Felix, Marcus Minuscius. The Octavius of Minucius Felix. Charleston, SC: Nabu Press, 2010.

Origen. Against Celsus. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980.

Robinson, James. The Nag Hammadi Scriptures. New York: HarperCollins, 2008.

Tertullian. To Scapula, Apology.

EVALUATING

Lesson Question 1. Who were the following people and what significant contributions did they make to the church: Marcion, Origen, Tertullian, and Clement of Rome? 2. Explain why the views of the Gnostics, Marcionites and Monarchians were heretical? 3. Discuss the three sources of authority established to guard the church from heresy.

31 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education Lesson 5: The Catholic Tradition

GETTING STARTED

• Read: Dowley – Section 3, “Constantine and the Christian Tradition” and pp. 195- 203 • Read: Bettenson – pp. 16-24; Section VIII Chapter VI and Section VIII • Read: Maier – Book 4 • Read: McGrath – pp. 37-46 • Read: John 4:23-24; 1 Corinthians 11:17-34, 14:26-40, 16:1-2; Colossians 3:16- 17 • Listen: Constantine, Leadership, and Baptism • Listen: • Listen: How Developed • Important Dates: o 312 AD Conversion of Constantine o 325 AD Council of Nicaea o 392 AD Theodosius bans pagan worship o 440 AD Leo I, Petrine Theory

UNDERSTANDING

Purpose • To discuss the impact and influence of Constantine on early Christianity • To examine the issue of leadership that arose in the early church • To introduce doctrinal differences regarding the sacraments and practices of the church • To describe the practices and development of the papacy

INVESTIGATING

I. (285-337) A. Introductory comments

32 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education 1. Consolidation of power 2. Vision at Milvian Bridge 3. Edict of Milan in 313 AD B. Ecclesiastical contributions 1. Donatists 2. Arians 3. Sunday observance 4. The 13th apostle 5. Shifts empire to the East 6. “Donation of Constantine” C. Edict of Milan 1. Life before Edict of Milan a. Accusations, insults, hatred b. Torture and death c. Constant moving to avoid persecution d. Uncertainty, fear, stress e. Separation from family f. Loss of possessions g. Loss of citizenship h. Oneness with other Christians 2. Life after Edict of Milan a. Favoritism and support of government b. End of uncertainty and fear c. of property, citizenship d. New church buildings, more Bibles e. Christian involvement in state affairs f. Church leaders struggle for power and position g. More Christians, less committed “As increasing favor was shown to the by Constantine and his successors, as increasing restrictions were placed on heathenism outside the church, the population moved en masse into the church, bringing with them many of their former practices, baptized now in the name of Christ.” – E. T. Thompson

33 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education “The Church became filled with the half-converted, the socially-ambitious, and the ill- instructed.” – Alan Richardson II. Leadership in the Church A. Introductory comments 1. The Jewish pattern 2. Two-fold ministry of the NT – speaking and mercy 3. Concept of the clergy emerges 4. Three fold ministry – bishop, presbyter, 5. Additional orders of ministry 6. Orders reflect civil offices in government 7. Selection to office 8. Clerical restrictions 9. Clergy privileges B. The priesthood concept 1. Clement – OT priesthood and church leaders 2. Tertullian – bishops, believers called priests 3. Hippolytus – bishops, presbyters are priests 4. Cyprian – bishops are priests (Lt. sacerdos) 5. Origen – presbyters, a second order of priests after the bishop 6. Augustine – applies term to bishops, presbyters, believers 7. Priestly office of bishop – Eucharist, , confirmation, reconciling sinners, , teaching 8. By 6th century rise in ritual activity C. Liturgies of the patristic era (2nd – 6th century) 1. Filled in details of 1st century worship 2. More sources to reconstruct the picture 3. “Movement from freedom to formula” 4. Regional diversity in a variety of cultures 5. Liturgical forms change, theology and content remain the same 6. Gregory’s advice to Augustine D. Baptism

34 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education 1. Evidence 2. Practices 3. Fixed patterns by 3rd century a. Tertullian, On Baptism; Apostolic Tradition b. , Mystagogical Catechisms c. , On the Mysteries; Sacraments d. John Chrysostom, Baptismal Instructions e. Peregrinatio Etheria 4. Differences develop by the 5th century a. Eastern churches b. Western churches c. Influence of Augustine i. Instruction ii. Baptism iii. Sign of the Holy Spirit iv. First communion E. Eucharist 1. Justin Martyr, First Apology (mid-2nd century) a. , prayer b. Sent to the absent by the deacons c. Offering for the needy 2. Apostolic Tradition (3rd century): Eucharist at ordination and baptism 3. Regional Eucharistic liturgies (4th century) a. North African b. Alexandrian c. West Syrian d. East Syrian e. Byzantine f. Roman g. Non-Roman Western F. Preaching

35 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education 1. Art of rhetoric 2. Place of the pulpit in worship 3. Strong biblical exegesis developing 4. Lectionaries by 4th century 5. Great preachers, many survive G. Music 1. Disassociation from pagan music 2. Unison singing 3. Ambivalence in Augustine 4. Ancient hymns H. Prayer 1. Daily hours – 3 times / 7 times 2. Change after persecution ceases 3. Cathedral office – morning and evening 4. Daily cycle taken over by 5. Monastic tradition develops other patterns I. Church buildings 1. Worship moves from private to public 2. Civil basilica serves as model 3. Separate baptisteries, shrines 4. Ceremonies increase, vestments, visual arts J. The Christian year 1. Sunday 2. Pentecost 3. Passover 4. Epiphany 5. Pentecost and Ascension 6. Epiphany and Christmas 7. Controversy over date of Easter 8. Saints Days 9. Lent

36 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education K. John Chrysostom (349-407 AD) 1. Early life and ministry 2. Affair of the statues 3. “The Golden Mouth” 4. A prophet 5. Three years in exile 6. Legacy L. The bishop of Rome 1. Germanic tribes 2. Rome falls 3. Church provides stability 4. Classical Roman culture survives M. The Petrine Theory 1. Rome as capital of the empire 2. Martyrdom of Peter and Paul 3. Old Roman Creed 4. Muratorian Canon 5. Innocent I (402) 6. Leo I (440) 7. Gregory I (590) N. Papal primacy develops 1. First century – elders and deacons in each church 2. Second century – monarchial bishops 3. Third century – diocesan bishops 4. Fourth century – metropolitan bishops 5. Fifth century – five patriarchal bishops 6. Sixth century – two chief patriarchs compete for authority O. Benefits of the papacy 1. Helped preserve and spread Christianity in Europe 2. Filled the vacuum of power in the West 3. Defended the church against barbaric plunderers

37 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education 4. Protected the church from heresy

DEVELOPING

Recommended Reading Aland, Kurt. Did the Early Church Baptize Infants? Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock, 2004.

Chrysostom, John. On the Priesthood. St. Vladimir’s Seminary Press, 1996.

Jeremias, Joachim. Infant Baptism in the First Four Centuries. Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock, 2004. Jeremias, Joachim. The Origins of Infant Baptism: A Further Study in Reply to Kurt Aland. Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock, 2004.

EVALUATING

Lesson Question 1. Who were the following people and what significant contributions did they make to the church: Athanasius, Ambrose of Milan, , John Chrysostom, and Columba? 2. What was the long-term impact of Constantine’s conversion to Christianity? 3. Explain the development of the papacy in the Christian church after the first century.

38 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education Lesson 6: The Great Ecumenical Councils

GETTING STARTED

• Read: Dowley – Section 3, “Councils and Creeds” • Read: Bettenson – Part I, Section II Chapter II; Section IV Chapters V-VII; Section V • Read: Maier – Book 5 • Read: McGrath – pp. 46-62 • Read: Christological Heresies (downloadable from the Virtual classroom) • Read: John 1:1-18; Philippians 2:5-11; Colossians 1:13-20; 2:9-10; Hebrews chapters 1-2 • Listen: The Council of Nicaea • Listen: The • Important Dates: o 328 AD Athanasius becomes bishop of Alexandria o 381 AD Council of Constantinople o 451 AD Council of Chalcedon

UNDERSTANDING

Purpose • To discuss the council of Nicaea in 325 AD and the theological climate surrounding the formation of this council • To discuss the Council of Chalcedon and the theological climate surrounding the formation of this council in 451 • To introduce various heretical teachings that were addressed in the Councils of Nicaea and Chalcedon

INVESTIGATING

I. The Council of Nicaea (325 AD) A. The theological climate

39 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education 1. The West (Tertullian) 2. The East (dominant influence of Origen) a. Alexander of Alexandria b. Eusebius of Caesarea 3. Arius a. 318, presbyter in Alexandria b. Basic premise of Monarchians c. Son must be a creature d. As a creature, Son had a beginning e. Son has no communion with / no direct knowledge of his Father f. Son must be liable to change and sin g. Arian Scripture texts i. Son was a creature (Prov 8:22), first born texts (Col 1:15) ii. Texts emphasize one true God (John 17:3) iii. Texts imply Christ’s inferiority to the Father (John 14:28) iv. Texts attribute ignorance, weakness, suffering, and development to the Son B. The immediate setting of the controversy 1. Historian Socrates: Alexander of Alexandria (296-373) lecturing to gathering of presbyters on doctrine of God – Father, Son, Spirit – when Arius interrupts and accuses Alexander of Sabellianism 2. Arius said that if the Father begat the Son, then the Son had a beginning of his existence, therefore there was a time when he was not 3. Alexander was distressed at this aberrant view. He called a of bishops who deposed Arius and his followers, stating that Arius’ views were heretical “The novelties that Arius has put forward contrary to the Scriptures are these: God was not always a Father...the Word of God was not always...there was a time when he was not...neither is he like in essence to the Father; neither is he the true and natural Word of the Father; neither is he his true wisdom...And the Father cannot be described by the Son, for the Word does not know the Father perfectly and accurately.”

40 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education “Arius of Alexander, I’m the talk of the town. Friend of saints, elect of heaven, filled with learning and renown. If you want the logos doctrine, I can serve it hot and hot. God begat, and before he was begotten, He was not.” 4. Constantine gets involved a. Hosius (Ossius), bishop of Cordova (ecclesiastical advisor) discusses issue with emperor. Sent him to Alexandria and Nicomedia with letter from the emperor b. The letter states that Constantine is unclear about what quarrel is over and urges reconciliation “...these questions are idle cobwebs of contention, spun by curious wits.” “Who is capable of distinguishing such deep and hidden mysteries?” “In former times, the church was attacked by enemies and strangers from without. Today those who are natives of the same country, who dwell under one roof and sit down at table together, fight with their tongues as if with spears.” c. Hosius returns with a pessimistic report: bloodshed in the streets d. Constantine calls a General Council at Nicaea (325) e. 250-300 bishops attended – also many presbyters, deacons, laymen f. Most clergy from the East (West not affected by schism) C. The council debates 1. Angry accusations begin flying across the hall, wild arms waving 2. Arius explains his views and breaks out into a , puts his beliefs to music 3. Anti-Arians closed their eyes and put hands over ears 4. Hosius suggests they draw up a creed to resolve conflict D. The Creed of Nicaea 1. Attempts at a creed a. First attempt drawn up by 18 Arian bishops; blatant, Arian position, bedlam broke out b. Eusebius of Caesarea recommends a creed he remembered from childhood. Emperor accepts it, and Arians willing to, but anti-Arians said it didn’t resolve conflict c. Constantine recommends the use of the word homoousios for Son: one in essence with the Father 41 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education 2. Hosius presents new creed June 19 (Creed of Nicaea), with reformulated statements, clearly anti-Arian a. Omitted: “Word of God,” “First born of every creature,” and “begotten of the Father before all worlds.” b. Theology of Nicaea i. Son is fully God ii. Son’s co-eternity with Father iii. Son shares Father’s nature 3. The Creed of Nicaea 325 A.D. “We believe in one God, the Father All Governing, creator of all things visible and invisible. And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, begotten of the Father as only begotten, that is, from the essence of the Father, God from God, Light from Light, True God from True God, begotten not created, of the same essence [homoousion] as the Father, through whom all things came into being, both in heaven and in earth; Who for us men and for our salvation came down and was incarnate, becoming human. He suffered and the third day he rose, and ascended into the heavens. And he will come to judge both the living and the dead. And [we believe] in the Holy Spirit. …But those who say, Once he was not, or he was not before his generation, or he came to be out of nothing, or who assert that he, the Son of God, is of a different substance [hypostasis] or essence [ousia], or that he is a creature, or changeable, or mutable, the Catholic and Apostolic Church anathematizes them.” II. Continuing Battle with A. Controversy for fifty years 1. Political instability after Constantine 2. Banishment of Arius and Eusebius of Nicomedia set a precedent of using political might for ecclesiastical purposes 3. Emperors viewed church as cement of empire B. 325-330 AD 1. Five years, Nicaea party has the high ground

42 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education 2. Three main sees (Rome, Alexandria, Antioch) supported Nicaea 3. 328 Alex of Alexandria dies, Athanasius becomes bishop; greatest defender of Nicaea C. 330-337 AD 1. The Arians gained the upper hand 2. Constantine allows Eusebius of Nicomedia and Arius to return from exile 3. Arians soon tried to adopt a conciliatory position; tried to persuade emperor that anti-Arian party was extreme 4. Eusebius goes after Eustathius of Antioch, Marcellus of Ancyra, and Athanasius D. 337-350 AD 1. East, Constantius joins with Arian party 2. West, Constans backs Nicene party 3. Moderate Eusebians getting behind Nicaea a. Creedal statements without homoousion b. Contains condemnation of strict Arianism E. 350-361 AD (Constantius, sole emperor) 1. Extreme Arians in ascendancy a. Council of Sirmium, 357 (“blasphemy of Sirmium”) i. Subordinationist creed, omits ban on Arians ii. Son substantially different from Father iii. Rejected (homoousion) b. Synods of Nice (359), Constantinople (360) i. Homoean (homoean) creeds (“like,” “similar”) 2. Three parties among the anti-Nicenes a. Anomoeans (anomoios): Aetius, Eunomius i. Extreme Arians, Jesus “unlike the Father in every respect.” b. Homoeans (homoousios): Ursacius, Valens i. Son is similar; they left much undefined c. Homoiousians (homoiousios): Basil of Ancyra i. Moderates

43 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education ii. “Like substance” 3. Problems with terminology a. West used fixed terms i. Lt. substantia (Gk. ousia), one and common divinity ii. Persona – individuality b. East did not i. Used ousia interchangeably with hypostasis – original Creed of Nicaea ii. No equivalent to persona (Gk. prosopon); face / person (Sabellian?) “…both parties seemed to be in the dark about the grounds on which they were hurling abuse at each other. Those who objected to the word homoousios imagined that its adherents were bringing in the doctrine of Sabellius …the protagonists of homoousios concluded their opponents were introducing polytheism, and steered clear of them as importers of paganism.” – Historian Socrates F. Turning points 1. Athanasius’ decisive step (362 AD) a. Verbal difference unimportant if meaning is the same b. Opened door to Nicene alliance with Homoiousians c. Condemned idea that Holy Spirit is a creature d. He paved way for full Trinitarian formula 2. Athanasius’ view of salvation a. Salvation associated with deification / apotheosis b. Christ as Savior makes human beings divine, not as gods, but that by grace, human nature lifted up to share in God’s glory: 2 Peter 1:4 “partakers of God’s nature.” c. The Son “became human that we might become divine.” –Incarnation of the Word. 3. The Three Cappodocians (, , ) a. They defined more clearly the oneness / threeness of the b. Gk. ousia, hypostasis (Lt. substantia) used synonymously at Nicaea

44 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education c. Cappodocians distinguished between them: hypostasis (individual subsistence of a thing) AND ousia (essence common to a species) GOD – 3 hypostases / 1 ousia G. 361-381 AD (triumph of Nicene faith) 1. Homoiousians (“like substance”) gradually accept the term homoousion (“same substance”) 2. Council of Constantinople (381) reaffirms Nicaea 3. Cappodocian language triumphs III. Definition of Chalcedon A. Introductory comments 1. settled issue of Christ’s full divinity and humanity but the question remained: exactly how did the eternal Son become flesh? 2. Two schools of biblical interpretation (4th century) on texts dealing with person of Christ a. Alexandria (emphasis on divine) b. Antioch (emphasis on human) B. “Christological Heresies” chart (downloadable from the Virtual classroom) C. Apollinarius (310-392) 1. Began with full deity of Christ 2. His explanation for union of divine and human 3. Objections a. Scripture points to the human psychology of Jesus – mind, will, emotions b. If Jesus didn’t have a human soul, then how could he be truly human? c. If Word not united with a full human being, then how can humanity be saved? 4. Council of Constantinople definitively refuted Apollinarius (“became human”) D. Nestorious (428-431 AD)

45 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education 1. In sermons attacked popular title (God-bearer) given to Mary; he thought it implied Jesus was God only (Apollinarianism); his alternative was Christotokos (Christ-bearer) 2. Some believed he taught that Christ had two natures and two wills (two Christs in one body) 3. Objections a. Appeared to deny Gospels’ picture of Jesus as an integrated person b. called on Nestorius to recant c. Emperor calls in 431 – repudiated Nestorius E. Eutyches (378-454 AD) 1. Soon after Council of Ephesus 2. Elderly , in a near Constantinople 3. Taught that Christ’s humanity was swallowed up by his deity: Christ has only one nature () 4. Reaction a. Flavian, of Constantinople, pronounces it a heresy b. Dioscorus, patriarch of Alexandria, requests emperor call a council c. Council of Ephesus (449) – rehabilitates Eutyches d. Pope Leo dismisses council as a “Robber Council.” F. The Council of Chalcedon (451) 1. Against earlier Arius: affirmed Jesus Christ is truly God 2. Against Apollinarius: affirmed Jesus is truly man 3. Against Eutyches: affirmed Jesus deity and humanity were not changed into something else 4. Against Nestorius: affirmed that Jesus was not divided but is one person. 5. Importance a. Jesus was a normal human being (became one of us) b. He could fulfill every part of God's law c. His suffering was real and his death was real d. As God, he could fully satisfy divine justice IV. Devotion to Mary

46 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education A. Early fathers 1. Developed slowly 2. Overshadowed by cult of martyrs for first three centuries 3. Evidence of prayers to Mary almost nil in first four centuries 4. Her role in God’s redemptive plan recognized early on 5. Ignatius (2nd century) stressed reality of her child bearing vs. Docetists 6. Apocryphal literature a. Ascension of Isaiah (1st, 2nd century) b. Protoevangelium of James (2nd century) “Gospel of James.” 7. Other fathers a. Irenaeus – exempt from travail b. – Protoevangelium of James c. Tertullian – real brothers of Christ d. Origen – virgin post-partum 8. Eve and Mary a. Justin Martyr – Mary as antithesis of Eve (Dialogue with Trypho) b. Tertullian – Eve listened to serpent, Mary obeyed Gabriel “Thus as the human race was bound fast to death through a virgin, so through a virgin it was saved.” “That pure womb which regenerates men to God.” – Irenaeus B. Century following Nicaea 1. Interest in blessed virgin increasing 2. Growing prestige of virginity among ascetic groups 3. East a. Alexander of Alexandria – “Mother of God” (God-bearer) b. Athanasius – virginity post-partum, “evervirgin.” c. Gregory of Nyssa – her virginity halted long reign of death d. Epiphanius – “the mother of all living.” 4. West a. Mariology developed slowly but more extensive by 5th century b. Hilary – denounced people who said Mary did not remain a virgin

47 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education c. Jerome – rejected virginity in part, but believed in virginity post- partum d. Ambrose – perpetual virginity e. Augustine – permanent virginity, sinless by grace C. Prayers to Mary 1. Gregory of Nazianzus’ story of virgin who implored Mary to assist her in her hour of peril; papyrus fragment (4th century or later): “Mother of God, [listen to] my petitions; do not disregard us in adversity, but rescue us from danger” D. Christological debates of mid-5th century 1. Enhanced her status and integrated Mariology with 2. Divine maternity, perpetual virginity accepted in East and West after Council of Ephesus but old doubts about her sinlessness continued to be widely held 3. Many centuries until fully developed doctrine 4. declared dogma in 1854 by Pius IX 5. Assumption declared dogma in 1950 by Pius XII

DEVELOPING

Recommended Reading Athanasius. On the Incarnation. Empire Books, 2012.

EVALUATING

Lesson Question 1. Who were the following people and what significant contributions did they make to the church? Basil the Great, Nestorius, Cyril of Alexandria, and Leo the Great. 2. What was the Arian heresy and how did the address it?

48 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education Lesson 7: St. Augustine and African Christianity

GETTING STARTED

• Read: Dowley – pp. 187-194 and 204-211 • Read: Bettenson – Part I, Section VI; Section VII Chapter VII • Read: Maier – Book 6 • Read: McGrath – pp. 62-73 • Read: Augustine on Grace (downloadable from the Learning Management System (LMS)) • Read: John 17; Romans 3-5, 9-11; Ephesians 1-2; 4:1-6; 1 Peter 2:5-10 • Listen: Augustine and the City of God • Listen: Augustine and Pelagius • Listen: Christianity in Africa • Important Dates: o 397 AD Augustine’s Confessions o 426 AD Augustine’s City of God o 529 AD Council of Orange

UNDERSTANDING

Purpose • To introduce Augustine and the spread of Christianity in North Africa • To explore Augustine’s view of grace and his battle against and Semi-Pelagianism • To describe the controversy between Augustine and the Donatists

INVESTIGATING

I. Christianity in North Africa A. Spread along the Mediterranean Coast B. African fathers C. Early in Egypt

49 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education D. Siege of North African Christianity 1. Roman persecutions (1st - 3rd centuries) 2. Donatist schism (4th - 8th centuries) 3. Barbarian hordes (5th century) 4. Islamic Arabs (7th - 8th century) II. Augustine (354-430 AD) A. Road to conversion 1. Family and early education 2. Pear tree incident 3. Concubine 4. Teacher of rhetoric 5. Converted in 386 B. Bishop of Hippo 1. Judges cases/disputes 2. Preaching 3. Heresy fighting 4. Strict life 5. Donatist controversy (403-412) 6. Pelagian controversy (412-421) 7. Retractions in 427 8. Dies in August of 430 C. Great works 1. Confessio (c. 400) 2. De Civitate Dei (412-427) 3. De Trinitate (400-416) D. The Confessions “Great art Thou, O Lord, and greatly to be praised; great is Thy power, and of Thy wisdom there is no end. And man, being a part of Thy creation, desires to praise Thee – man , who bears about with him his mortality, the witness of his sin, even the witness that Thou resists the proud – yet man, this part of Thy creation, desires to praise Thee. Thou movest us to delight in praising Thee; for Thou hast formed us for Thyself, and our hearts are restless til they find rest in Thee.” – Book 1, Chapter 1 1. What is Augustine confessing? 50 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education 2. Theme 3. Structure 4. Famous passages E. The City of God (DCD) 1. City of Rome falls (410) 2. Christians and pagans disillusioned 3. Writes letters 4. 412 begins his magnum opus et ardum 5. Plan and purpose of DCD (Retractions) a. Books 1-5: answers pagans who blame Christians b. Books 6-10: critique of paganism/philosophers c. Books 11-14: origin of the two cities d. Books 15-18: progress of the two cities e. Books 19-22: destined ends of the two cities 6. Some topics in DCD a. Use of Platonism b. Doctrine of creation c. Nature of time d. Creation of man e. Existence of evil f. Spiritual nature of sin g. Classical ethics 7. Origin and history of the two cities a. Earthly city – rebellion of the angels b. At Fall, two societies begin among men c. Six periods (six days of creation) i. Adam to Noah ii. Noah to Abraham iii. Abraham to David iv. David to Babylonian captivity v. Captivity to birth of Christ

51 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education vi. Christ to the end of the world 8. Citizens of the DCD a. DCD as pilgrim/alien b. Enjoyment of God c. Peace d. DCD and the church 9. Eschatology in DCD, Book 22 a. Early church: Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Montanists, Origen, Great Persecution, Constantine b. Augustine i. Millennium begins with first advent of Christ ii. Church age, saints reign with Christ iii. Satan bound iv. First resurrection is spiritual v. Second resurrection at return of Christ, judgment vi. Thrones in Rev 20 are ecclesiastical authority F. De Trinitate 1. Prayer 2. Crede, ut intelligas 3. Desire to understand the Trinity 4. Analogies of the Trinity in man a. Memory, intelligence, will b. Mind, knowledge of itself, love of itself c. Lover, loved, love between them 5. Filioque (“double procession”) G. Critique of De Trinitate 1. Attacked for Platonic influence 2. Emphasis on the unity of the three persons (Augustine/West) 3. Economy of persons (Cappodocians/East) 4. Response a. Augustine is Catholic

52 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education b. Attacks Arianism c. Soteriological concern “For surely if the Son of God by nature became son of man by mercy for the sake of the sons of men…how much easier it is to believe that the sons of men by nature can become the sons of God by grace and dwell in God; for it is in him alone and thanks to him alone that they can be happy, by sharing in his immortality; it was to persuade us of this that the Son of God came to share in our mortality.” – De Trinitate XIII.12 H. The Donatist schism 1. Background – consecration of Caecilian 2. Augustine’s concern for 40 years 3. Writes 18 works 4. Issues a. Locus of the “true church” b. Nature of the sacraments c. Holiness of the church I. Augustine vs. Donatists 1. The church is catholic 2. Separation is evil 3. Holiness of the church 4. Preeminence of charity 5. Sacrament of baptism 6. Pastoral concern J. Augustine vs. Pelagius 1. Pelagius’ views a. Sin – complete moral ability b. Grace – God’s will made known in Christ c. – foreknowledge of human decisions 2. Augustine’s response a. Sin – from Adam b. Grace – changing the will; faith is a gift c. Predestination – salvation viewed from eternity K. Augustine on the human will

53 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education 1. Innocence a. Posse peccare (able to sin) b. Posse non peccare (able not to sin) 2. Fallen state a. Non posse non peccare (unable not to sin) 3. State of grace a. Posse peccare (able to sin) b. Posse non peccare (able not to sin) 4. State of glory a. Non posse peccare (unable to sin) L. Semi – Pelagianism 1. , Vincent of Lerins, Faustus of Riez 2. Sin – partial moral ability 3. Grace – man moves, God comes to his aid 4. Predestination – conditional foreknowledge 5. A summary of what Isaiah preached 6. Both judgments and the promise of salvation M. Aftermath of the debate 1. Pelagianism condemned at Council of Ephesus, 431 2. Semi-Pelagianism condemned at Council of Orange, 529, the contrast between the folly of Israel’s present and God’s design for Israel 3. Moderate Augustinian view a. Sin – moral inability b. Grace – prevenient, then man responds in faith c. Predestination – no reprobation 4. Medieval church moves back toward Semi-Pelagianism III. Christianity in Africa A. Egypt 1. Bible and liturgy in Coptic 2. Influence of monasticism 3. Faith survives in Arabic and Islamic culture

54 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education 4. By 10th century Copts are minority in Egypt 5. 6. Persecuted today B. Nubia (modern Sudan) 1. Coptic Christianity into Nubia 2. Nubian Christianity develops 3. Persecution in 4. By 1500 Christianity almost disappeared C. Ethiopia (Abyssinia) 1. Merchants from Syria spread gospel (Frumentius, ) 2. Crown, church, and Amharic culture intertwined 3. Unique identity with Jewish heritage 4. Tension with Muslims 5. Catholicism in Ethiopia 6. Ethiopian tradition of Christianity

DEVELOPING

Recommended Reading Augustine. The Trinity. Hyde Park, New Jersey: New City Press, 2012.

EVALUATING

Lesson Question 1. Who was and what significant contributions did he make to the church? 2. What is the significance of Augustine’s City of God? 3. How did Augustine respond to the Donatist schism in North Africa?

55 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education Lesson 8: Monasticism, Missions, and the Dark Ages

GETTING STARTED

• Read: Dowley – Section 3, “Christians Ascetics and Monks”; Section 4, “The West in Crisis” • Read: Bettenson – pp. 101-106; Part II, Section III Chapter I; Section VII Chapters I-II • Read: Maier – Book 7 • Read: McGrath – pp. 77-84 • Read: Matthew 10:7-10; 16:13-20; 24-26; 19:21; 20:20-28; 1 Corinthians 7:7-9, 25-31 • Listen: The Rise of Monasticism • Listen: The Rise of Islam • Important Dates: o 432 AD St. Patrick returns to Ireland o 529 AD Benedict’s Monastic Rule o 622 AD Birth of Islam o 718 AD Boniface, mission to the Germans o 800 AD , Holy Roman Emperor

UNDERSTANDING

Purpose • To discuss the development, rise, and practices of monasticism • To introduce the beginnings of missionary work by Monks such as St. Patrick, Gregory, and Boniface • To examine the decline of culture in the West with the “dark ages” and the rise of feudalism • To explore the rise and influence of Islam in the seventh and eighth century

56 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education INVESTIGATING

I. Rise of Monastic Ideals A. “Monasticism” and “asceticism” B. Practices 1. Separation 2. Denial 3. Abstinence 4. Perfection 5. Prayer 6. Charity C. Precedents 1. OT 2. Platonism 3. Stoicism 4. NT D. Ascetic impulse 1. Imitate Christ 2. Delay of 2nd coming 3. The new martyrs 4. Nominal Christians E. History of monasticism 1. Devout religious life in solitude 2. 3rd/4th century classical forms emerge a. Solitary life of (anchoritic monasticism) b. Communal life (cenobitic monasticism) c. Semieremitic life 3. Early leaders in Egypt – Pachomius (290-346) 4. Spread of Monasticism – Vita Antonii F. St. Anthony (251-356) and Eastern monasticism 1. Coptic Christian

57 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education “If you want to be perfect, go sell your possessions and give to the poor.” – Matt 19:21 2. Seclusion for twenty years 3. Fame spread 4. Monasticism outside Egypt 5. Basil’s Rule G. Monastic spirituality 1. Ascetic theology – discipline 2. Spiritual theology – directed toward spiritual life a. Evagrius of Pontus (345-399) i. Teaching of “Desert Fathers” ii. Praktikos, chapters on prayer b. John Cassian (365-433) i. Translates Evagrius’ work for West ii. Conferences, Institutes H. Eight evil thoughts (Praktikos, chs. 6-14) 1. Gluttony 2. Impurity (lust) 3. Avarice (greed) 4. Sadness 5. Anger 6. Sloth (acedia) 7. Vainglory 8. I. Spiritual progress 1. Goal is apatheia (freedom from inner turbulence) a. Distracted by scattered desires b. Mastery over uncontrolled passions c. Better able to love God and neighbor 2. Pure heart – desire the good, desire God as one’s treasure

58 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education “Blessed are the pure in heart, for they shall see God.” – Matt 5:8, a favorite monastic text J. The practices (“habitual reminders”) 1. Lends stability to the wandering mind a. Lectio divina – reading and meditation b. Prayer – contemplation (resting silently) c. Vigils (waiting) – holy place or event 2. Helps to extinguish the flames of desire a. Fasting – hunger reminds of Christ’s sacrifice b. Toil – fatigue diffuses the passions c. Solitude – undivided attention K. (480-550) 1. Subiaco 2. Monte Cassino (529) 3. Regula (“The Benedictine Rule”) 4. Stability and structure in community 5. Three-fold vow: poverty, chastity, obedience 6. Orare et laborare (prayer and service) 7. Worship seven times a day II. Monks and Missions A. St. Patrick (390-460) 1. Captured by Irish warriors 2. Visions 3. Returns to Ireland in 432 4. Confronts the Druids 5. Strategy: convert the tribal kings 6. Builds churches and 7. Celtic Christianity B. Gregory and the mission to England 1. Christianity in Britain 2. Augustine sent to Canterbury, 596

59 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education 3. Conversion of the kings 4. Saxons embrace the faith 5. By 650 most of England is Christian 6. Missionaries from England return to continent C. Boniface: Apostle to the Germans 1. Wynfrith of Crediton (680-754) 2. Appointed bishop of German frontier 3. Sacred oak of Thor 4. Establishes bishoprics and monasteries 5. Reform of the Frankish church 6. North to Frisians, killed by mob III. Benefits of Monasticism A. A stronghold against heresy B. Evangelized the barbarians C. Kept learning alive D. Held up the ideal of commitment and service E. Stable Christian communities F. Long-term impact – “godliness requires training” G. Two classes of Christians? IV. Decline of Culture in the West A. Dark Ages B. Pepin the Short: “Protector of the Romans” C. Charlemagne: “Holy Roman Emperor” 1. 33 church councils 2. Nominated bishops 3. Reformed monasteries, liturgy 4. Carolingian Renaissance a. Late 8th century / early 9th century b. Education c. Literature of antiquity d. Venerable Bede 60 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education e. John Scotus Erigena f. of York g. Theological controversies i. Christology (Adoptionism) – Elipandus of Toledo ii. Predestination – Gottschalk, Ratramnus iii. Virginity of Mary – Ratramnus vs. Radbertus iv. Eucharist – Ratramnus and spiritualist tradition D. Feudalism 1. Charlemagne’s empire disintegrates 2. Kings, lords, and vassals 3. “Lay investiture” – kings appoint bishops 4. “Simony” – selling of church office 5. became pawns V. Rise of Islam A. Mohammed of Mecca (570-632) B. 610 Call, 622 Medina (birthday of Islam) C. Theology: judgment, reward, absolute unity of God, Jesus D. Practice: five pillars 1. Faith in Allah 2. Prayer five times daily 3. Giving of alms 4. Fasting in month of Ramadan 5. Pilgrimage to Mecca E. Mohammedan Empire 1. Theocratic organization 2. Spread by the sword 3. 7th century – all of Arabia 4. 8th century – Constantinople (N), North Africa (S), Spain (W), Pakistan (E) 5. Middle Ages – Baghdad to Cordova 6. Prosperous Islamic communities

61 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education F. Islam and the church 1. Influenced politics/economics East and West 2. Toleration and oppression of Christians 3. Stopped in Europe, 732 4. War for the Holy Land (11th – 13th century) 5. Missions by Mendicant Orders

DEVELOPING

Recommended Reading Demarest, Bruce. Satisfy Your Soul. Colorado Springs, CO: NavPress, 1999.

Halverson, Richard. “ReMonking the Church.” Christianity Today. Available online at http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2005/septemberweb-only/52.0.html

Luther, Martin. On Monastic Vows.

EVALUATING

Lesson Question 1. Who were the following people and what significant contributions did they make to the church? Patrick, Cassiodorus, , Gregory the Great, and Alcuin. 2. Tell how the monastic tradition understands Christian spirituality.

62 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education Lesson 9: The Traditions of Eastern Orthodoxy

GETTING STARTED

• Read: Dowley – Section 4, “The Eastern Church” and pp. 316-319 • Read: Bettenson – Part II, Section I • Read: Maier – Book 8 • Read: McGrath – pp. 86-88 • Read: Deuteronomy 4:15-18; 5:7-10; Mark 12:13-17; Acts 5:25-29; Romans 13:1-7 • Listen: The Crusades • Listen: Eastern Orthodox Spirituality • Important Dates: o 860 AD Cyril and Methodius missionaries to Slavs o 988 AD Christianity comes to Russia o 1054 AD Schism of East and West o 1099 AD First Crusade

UNDERSTANDING

Purpose • To discuss the development, , and traditions of Eastern Orthodoxy • To compare and contrast Eastern and Western Christianity practices and doctrine • To introduce the Crusades and their impact on Christianity and culture

INVESTIGATING

I. The Traditions of Eastern Orthodoxy A. A distinctive Eastern Church emerges 1. 2. Byzantine culture 3. Eastern liturgy 4. Caesaropapism

63 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education B. Unity and diversity with the West 1. A common catholic faith (East/West) a. Legacy of persecution b. Ecumenical creeds c. Sacraments of the church d. Practice of monasticism C. East/West differences 1. Date of Easter 2. Celibacy of clergy 3. Clergy hairstyle 4. Use of unleavened bread 5. Purgatory 6. Papal primacy 7. Filioque D. Turning points 1. Photian schism (858-880) 2. “The Great Schism” (1054) “Let them be anathema…with all heretics: yea with the devil and his angels. Amen.” – Excommunication of Patriarch by Pope Leo IX E. Understanding the crusades 1. Penitential pilgrimages 2. Islamic conquests 3. Defensive war (persecution) 4. Regaining lost property 5. Cruelty on both sides 6. The church and warfare a. Pacifism (non-violent position) b. Just war (defense against evil) – Augustine i. Legitimate authority (under a ruler) ii. Just cause of avenging injuries (attacked) iii. Righteous (restore peace)

64 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education c. Crusader (promotion of good) d. Reformation era – all three positions F. Eight major crusades 1. 1st crusade (1095-1099) – Capture Jerusalem 2. 2nd crusade (1145-1148) – Defeat and retreat 3. 3rd crusade (1187-1191) – Negotiate access to Jerusalem 4. 4th crusade (1198-1204) – Sack of Constantinople 5. 5th crusade (1217-1221) – St. Francis in Egypt 6. 6th crusade (1228-1229) – Treaty for access to Jerusalem 7. 7th crusade (1248-1250) – Gain and loss in Egypt 8. 8th crusade (1267-1272) – Acre falls to Muslims in 1291 G. Results of the crusades 1. Military failures 2. Advances in medicine/nursing 3. Income taxes 4. Missionary activity 5. Encouraged trade and mobility 6. Further strained East/West relations H. Caesaropapism I. Iconoclastic controversy (726-787) 1. Emperor Leo bans icons 2. 2nd Council of Nicaea (787) endorses icons 3. By 813 iconoclasm is back 4. In 843 iconoclasts finally condemned 5. Emperors enforce their will 6. Iconoclasts a. 2nd commandment forbids b. Not supported by church tradition c. Cannot represent the divine 7. Iconodules a. Icons are not idols

65 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education b. Tradition supports icons c. Deny incarnation if no icons J. The orthodox way 1. Apophatic theology (apophasis – denial) a. God is an incomprehensible mystery b. Human language incapable of describing God c. “God cannot be grasped by the mind” d. (Pseudo) 2. The Divine Liturgy a. Theology through worship b. Mystery – worship the incomprehensible God c. Veneration of icons – St. 3. Holy tradition a. Voice of God in apostolic tradition b. Tradition = Scripture, councils, fathers, canon law, icons c. Seven ecumenical councils authoritative d. Skeptical of private interpretation 4. Orthodox spirituality a. Theosis (apotheosis) – progressive deification: “God became man so that men might become gods” b. c. Symeon the New Theologian d. Gregory of Palamas

DEVELOPING

Recommended Reading John of Damascus. An Exact Exposition of the Orthodox Faith.

Trifkovic, Serge. The Sword of the Prophet. Salisbury, MA: Regina Orthodox Press, 2007.

66 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education EVALUATING

Lesson Question 1. Who was Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite and what significant contributions did he make to the church? 2. Describe the distinctives of the Eastern Orthodox tradition.

67 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education Lesson 10: The Life and Times of the Medieval Church

GETTING STARTED

• Read: Dowley - pp. 260-306 • Read: Bettenson – Part II, Section II Chapters III-VII; Part II, Sections VI; Part II, Section VII Chapters III-X • Read: Maier – Book 9 • Read: McGrath – pp. 88-112 • Read: Matthew 20:28; Romans 5:6-11; 2 Corinthians 5:14-21; Hebrews 2:14-17; 1 Peter 3:18 • Listen: Anselm and Abelard • Listen: Bernard and Aquinas • Important Dates: o 1093 AD Anselm, of Canterbury o 1150 AD Universities of and Oxford o 1215 AD Innocent III, Fourth Lateran Council o 1272 AD Aquinas, Theologica

UNDERSTANDING

Purpose • To introduce the history, theology, and practice of the Medieval Church • To explore and summarize the contributions to theology and philosophy by Pope Innocent III, , , Peter Abelard, , and

INVESTIGATING

I. The Life and Times of the Medieval Church A. German kings and the church 1. Otto I – “Holy Roman Emperor” (962) 2. Lay investiture – lay appointment to church office

68 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education 3. Cluniac reform movement a. Return to strict Benedictine rule b. Cluny directly responsible to the Pope 4. Leo IX and the of Cardinals (1059) 5. Greater claims for the papacy “The Roman Pontiff alone is rightly to be called universal. He alone can depose or reinstate bishops. The Pope is the only one whose feet are to be kissed by all princes. He may depose Emperors. He himself can be judged by no one…” – Gregory VII, Dictatus Papae (1073). B. Pope Innocent III (1198-1216) 1. Forced his will on other leaders 2. Used the interdict to enforce his will C. Fourth Lateran Council (1215) 1. 71 patriarchs/metropolitans, 412 bishops 2. Innocent III presents 70 decrees/canons 3. Dogmas, discipline, heretics, next crusade 4. Canon 1 – 5. Canon 4 – exhortation to the Greeks 6. Canon 5 – proclamation of papal primacy 7. Canon 21 – annual confession D. Universities and the schoolmen 1. Monasteries and cathedral schools 2. Universities – charters from popes 3. Arts, sciences, theology (“queen of sciences”) 4. Paris and Oxford (1150) 5. – philosophy/theology (one system) 6. Faith and reason in harmony 7. 12th century theological renaissance E. Anselm of Canterbury 1. 1093 – archbishop 2. Credo ut intelligam, Proslogion 3. – existence of God

69 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education 4. Church fathers and the 5. , “Satisfaction Theory” “Satisfaction which cannot be given by anyone but God, and ought to be given by no one but man, must be given by a God-man.” 6. Doctrine of the atonement and Christology are inseparable F. Peter Abelard (1079-1142) 1. Affair with Heloise 2. Condemned at , 3. Theological method – Christian 4. Influence – 5. “Moral influence” theory 6. Sic et Non G. Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1153) 1. Cistercian reform 2. of Clairvaux 3. Challenge of scholasticism 4. Bernard attacks Abelard 5. 2nd crusade 6. On Loving God 7. Sermons on Song of Songs 8. Bernard and the Bible H. 1. Roots of Medieval thought a. Augustine and early church b. Plato and (Neo-Platonism) c. Aristotle’s works translated in 12th century 2. – reality behind universe 3. Realism, , and 4. Medieval synthesis I. St. Thomas Aquinas 1. “Angelic Doctor”

70 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education 2. Summa Theologiae 3. Method – questions, objections, authorities, 4. The – proofs for God’s existence 5. Doctrine of analogy – language for God 6. Reason and faith 7. Innovations become orthodoxy 8. “” of permanent value, papal encyclical (1879) 9. Transubstantiation 10. Relationship of grace and merit J. The seven sacraments as means of grace 1. Baptism 2. Confirmation 3. Penance 4. Eucharist (mass and communion) 5. Unction (“extreme unction”) 6. Marriage 7. Orders (ordination) 8. Council of Florence (1438-45)

DEVELOPING

Recommended Reading Bernard of Clairvaux. On Loving God.

Bernard of Clairvaux. Sermons on the Song of Songs.

EVALUATING

Lesson Questions 1. Who were the following people and what significant contributions did they make to the church? Pope Innocent III, Bernard of Clairvaux, Francis of Assisi, Anselm, Peter Abelard, Thomas Becket, and Thomas Aquinas. 2. What was scholasticism? Include the contributions of Abelard and Aquinas. 3. How did Bernard of Clairvaux have an impact on the church of his day?

71 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education Lesson 11: Reform Movements of Medieval Christianity

GETTING STARTED

• Read: Dowley - pp. 307-315, 320-350 • Read: Bettenson – Part II, Sections IV-V; Part II, Section VII Chapter X • Read: Maier – Book 10 • Read: McGrath – pp. 84-86 and 112-123 • Listen: Wycliffe and Hus • Important Dates: o 1175 AD Waldensian movement begins o 1208 AD Francis renounces wealth o 1378 AD Great Schism o 1415 AD Hus burned at the stake

UNDERSTANDING

Purpose • To discuss the early movements in the Medieval Church that would help to usher in the Reformation • To introduce the theology and lasting influence of and John Hus on the Reformation and Protestant Theology

INVESTIGATING

I. Reform Movements A. French kings dominate the church 1. Boniface and Philip 2. Avignon papacy 3. Great Schism (1378-1417) 4. Conciliar movement B. Mendicant orders (13th century) 1. St. Francis – 1208, renounces wealth

72 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education 2. Dominican – simplicity, piety, study 3. The – persecution of dissenters a. Cathari (Albigensians) b. C. 14th century England 1. Language – transition 2. Education – emerging from illiteracy 3. Church life – corruption 4. Black Death – by 1348 reached England 5. 100 Years War 6. 1381 – peasants revolt II. John Wycliffe (1330-1384) A. Biography 1. Born in Yorkshire 2. Finishes Oxford 3. Rector of Lutterworth 4. Political/ecclesiastical affairs B. Persecution of Wycliffe 1. Courtney charges heresy 2. Papal bulls 3. Lambeth Palace 4. Banned from Oxford 5. Lutterworth, dies in 1384 6. Condemned in 1415, 1428 C. Wycliffe’s theology 1. Indulgences 2. Transubstantiation 3. Papal authority 4. Church and state D. Wycliffe’s lasting influence 1. Lollards

73 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education 2. Bible translation 3. John Hus 4. III. John Hus (1369-1415) A. Born in Husinec B. University of Prague C. Bethlehem Chapel D. Excommunicated E. Interdict F. De Ecclesia G. Council of Constance H. Bohemian Brethren “We are all followers of John Hus.” – Martin Luther

DEVELOPING

Recommended Reading Wycliffe, John. On the Church.

EVALUATING

Lesson Question 1. Who were the following people and what significant contributions did they make to the church: John Hus, Savonarola, John Wycliffe, and ? 2. What were some of the medieval attempts at reform in the church? 3. Why is John Wycliffe important for ?

74 History of Christianity I, 0HT502 – Donald Fortson, PhD © 2013 Reformed Theological Seminary, Distance Education

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