EVANGELICAL DICTIONARY of THEOLOGY

THIRD EDITION

Edited by DANIEL J. TREIER and WALTER A. ELWELL

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Evangelical Dictionary of Theology, 3rd edition General Editors: Daniel J. Treier and Walter A. Elwell Advisory Editors: D. Jeffrey Bingham, Cheryl Bridges Johns, John G. Stackhouse Jr., Tite Tiénou, and Kevin J. Vanhoozer

© 1984, 2001, 2017 by Baker Publishing Group Published by Baker Academic a division of Baker Publishing Group P.O. Box 6287, Grand Rapids, MI 49516–6287 www.bakeracademic.com Printed in the United States of America All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means—for example, electronic, photocopy, recording—without the prior written permission of the publisher. The only exception is brief quotations in printed reviews. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Treier, Daniel J., 1972– editor. | Elwell, Walter A., editor. Title: Evangelical dictionary of theology / edited by Daniel J. Treier, Walter A. Elwell. Description: Third edition. | Grand Rapids, MI : Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, 2017. Identifiers: LCCN 2017027228 | ISBN 9780801039461 (cloth : alk. paper) Subjects: LCSH: Theology—Dictionaries. Classification: LCC BR95 .E87 2017 | DDC 230/.0462403—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017027228 Unless otherwise labeled, Scripture quotations are from the Holy Bible, New International Version®. NIV®. Copyright © 1973, 1978, 1984, 2011 by Biblica, Inc.™ Used by permission of Zondervan. All rights reserved worldwide. www.zondervan.com 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

_Treier_EvangelicalDicTheo_book.indb 4 8/17/17 2:57 PM CONTENTS

Preface to the Third Edition 7 Preface to the Second Edition 9 Preface to the First Edition 10 Contributors 11 Abbreviations 20

Dictionary Entries A–Z 25

List of Entries 965

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In 1984, when Walter Elwell dramatically revised and ex- larger treatments of major doctrinal loci and ar- panded the former Baker Dictionary of Theology into the ticles on early Christianity. Almost half of the new Evangelical Dictionary of Theology, he did not have the authors contribute female, ethnic minority, and/or luxury of using computerized word processing or spread- Majority World perspectives, improving our rep- sheets. He relied on postcards and a basement worktable. resentation of evangelical Christianity’s fullness. I treasure a 1983 photo he has shared, in which he stands 3. We have streamlined the prose as needed while up- next to the typescript as it was ready for delivery to the dating every remaining article in light of recent publisher—registering, on a tape measure, over five feet scholarly developments. The dictionary’s distinc- tall! The resulting legacy of the EDT is long and distinc- tive focus on readable overviews frequently does tive, particularly in its readability and its global reach, not require intricate revisions to address fresh aca- for instance into Eastern Europe. demic subtleties. Nevertheless, many remaining Nevertheless, revision inevitably becomes essential, articles contain modest changes, especially near and I am grateful for Dr. Elwell’s blessing to take up this their conclusions, updating scholarly and/or re- responsibility. The basic editorial perspective remains the cent evangelical trends. Because many earlier con- same: attempting to represent both the range of evangeli- tributors are now deceased, we have kept the basic cal diversity accurately and the center of evangelical con- viewpoints of articles the same or else we have re- sensus winsomely, while making evangelical engagement placed them. When occasionally an update exceeds with wider scholarship accessible. The chief components a parenthetical note or turn of phrase, it is usu- of this revision include the following. ally signaled by language such as “Recently . . . ,” 1. We have reduced the volume’s overall size by nearly and when possible it appears toward the end of 30 percent to strengthen its focus on theology an article. Of course, the original author’s exact per se, taking advantage of the fact that some sec- words are readily accessible in the previous edition ondary material is now readily and more deeply if needed. accessible elsewhere. Accordingly, the volume has 4. Finally, all bibliographies have been updated. Al- become more focused on systematic theology; though technical works are often included, our some secondary articles in biblical and histori- chief focus is on works that offer next steps for cal theology have been reduced or removed, while basic learning. Typically we have not repeated ref- some remaining articles have been trimmed. This erences to works that are mentioned in the articles reduction in size also meant returning to an earlier themselves. Often we still include some of the more practice, containing no articles on living theolo- classic works that originally informed earlier ar- gians. Aside from worries over changing views and ticles; we have not indulged the conceit that newer speedy obsolescence, the sheer volume of relevant and more academic works are always superior. Yet voices supported this decision. Some of the most we have sought to indicate at least the most sub- significant figures can still be covered under the stantial, accessible, contemporary treatments. headings of related movements they helped to spawn. One other word is in order regarding both the bibli- 2. We have added one hundred and fifty thousand ographies and the articles themselves. We have taken the words of new content while making special effort task of cross-referencing very seriously. Linking articles to diversify the contributor list. Some of this fresh in this way allows us to expand the array of evangelical material involves brand-new articles on subjects of perspectives on contested subjects by assigning authors contemporary theological interest. Yet we have also from various perspectives to related articles. Similarly, a replaced a wide range of earlier articles, especially fuller range of resources for further reading can often be 7 Daniel J. Treier and Walter A. Elwell, eds., Evangelical Dictionary of Theology Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 1984, 2001, 2017. Used by permission.

_Treier_EvangelicalDicTheo_book.indb 7 8/17/17 2:57 PM Preface to the Third Edition gained by checking the bibliographies of cross-referenced important feedback at a long early planning meeting articles. along with support in periodic emails ever since. In contrast with Dr. Elwell’s herculean efforts, I A sabbatical from Wheaton College made it possible was able to employ technological crutches, such as a to finish the project. Jeff Greenman and Tim Larsen spreadsheet containing well over two thousand entries. particularly recognized the importance of this endeavor Moreover, I depended on help from numerous people. and gave much-needed encouragement. My wife, Amy, Baker Academic made generous provisions for research my daughter, Anna, and our parents listened patiently assistance, and it was a delight to work with my friends and prayerfully for six years to updates regarding “the Jim Kinney and Brian Bolger once again. Steve Spencer dictionary,” and they lovingly rescued me from occasional helped with bibliography revision, especially on more ob- despair. scure articles, while providing some technical corrections. As Walter wrote in prior prefaces, we offer this edition Katherine Graber served as my indispensable assistant of the EDT with the grateful prayer that God will use it for most of the project—handling correspondence, track- not only to inform you intellectually but also to form you ing articles, keying in revisions, and so forth. Timothy spiritually. Furthermore, this edition embodies the hope- Belcher, Stephanie Lowery, and Hank Voss also provided ful conviction that authentically evangelical theology is initial help. Advisory board members representing a cross- important for the health of Christ’s church—now more section of evangelical theologies and disciplinary spe- than ever. cialties—Jeffrey Bingham, Cheryl Bridges Johns, John Daniel J. Treier Stackhouse Jr., Tite Tiénou, Kevin Vanhoozer—gave Wheaton College

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The positive reception accorded the first edition of the decision that excluded living theologians seemed to EDT was a source of deep satisfaction and thanksgiving make sense at the time because people’s views inevitably to God on the part of the many people who had contrib- change, and that would render those articles obsolete the uted to it. The goal that Baker Book House had set was moment the volume was published. We came to realize to construct a one-volume reference work on theology that in spite of that it would be more helpful if the lead- that was both up to date and academically accurate, yet ing players on the current theological scene were included accessible to the average layperson. The success that the because they were the ones who were being talked about EDT enjoyed was testimony that that goal had largely and studied. We tried to include the major theologians, been reached. However, no work of this sort is entirely but, of course, there will always be a difference of opinion free of shortcomings and certain limitations, some of as to who should or should not be there. The reader can which were unavoidable, but some of which were due to make the final decision on that subject. We also wanted human oversight. Our reviewers were good enough to to include some of the newer theological trends that have point some of these out to us and some of them we found risen in prominence since the first edition, such as Ca- on our own—and some we were able to correct during nonical Criticism, Empirical Theology, and Postliberal the various printings of the original edition. However, in Theology, as well as some of the more controversial topics time we came to realize that a full-blown revision would of interest, such as the Jesus Seminar, Deconstructionism, eventually be called for, and work on that began about and Spiritual Warfare. Significant articles were updated six years ago. The process of revision has been every bit or sometimes rewritten where it was deemed necessary, as demanding as the production of the original volume such as Church Growth Movement, Evangelicalism, and and, I might add, every bit as informative and enjoyable. Dispensationalism. Bibliographies were updated, cross- Obviously, it is the authors who deserve the lion’s share of references were upgraded, and articles were added where the credit for the excellence of the work that was done, needed to balance out some of the older categories, such and I gladly offer them my sincerest thanks. This is not to as Cloud of Unknowing, History of Religion School, overlook the immense amount of effort that everyone at and Religious Language. We also added some articles Baker put into this revision. Special thanks go to Rebecca that should have been in the original edition but for one Cooper, David Aiken, Brian Brunsting, Barb Malda, Jan reason or another were not, such as Sociology of Religion. Arroyo, Helen Kelly, Laura Weller, Margie Hailstone, Jarl We trust that all these changes will make the revised Waggoner, and Matt Donnelly, along with Allan Fisher, EDT an even more valuable reference work than the origi- Jim Weaver, and Cindy Ingrum. nal was in its time, and we offer it to you with thanksgiv- The process of revision took us through the entire ing and gratitude. May God’s richest blessings be yours as volume and consisted of the following things: We added you make use of this volume and in every other possible about 215 new articles and deleted about 100 that were way. If this volume informs you intellectually, strengthens deemed no longer relevant for the current day. One major you spiritually, challenges you personally, or deepens your change was the decision to include living theologians, walk with the Lord, we will have achieved our purpose. such as James Cone, George Lindbeck, J. I. Packer, Wolf- Walter A. Elwell hart Pannenberg, and Rosemary Reuther. The original Wheaton College

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After years of trying to find answers for our deepest they write. They are not, however, uncritically sympa- questions in everything from biochemistry to computer thetic, and in many instances they include critical evalua- science, it has dawned upon us once more that these questions. Third, the EDT is written in popular language. The tions are theological and that only theological answers editor, contributors, and publisher sincerely hope that the will do. This has created a newer, friendlier climate for dictionary communicates well. Our goal was this: that the study of religion and a genuine need for serious yet the scholar find it correct; the layman, understandable. understandable reference works. Older works, good as Fourth, cross-references at the end of an article direct one they are, addressed the situation of earlier generations to related material, enabling one to study thoroughly the and simply do not provide what is needed today. Hence whole subject. Fifth, the bibliographies are intended to this volume, Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. It is be not exhaustive, but selective. For the most part they a new work, designed to succeed Baker’s Dictionary of are limited to works in English, because that is the only Theology, which, since its publication in 1960, has nobly language most of the dictionary’s readers can use. served almost two generations of seminarians and theo- Needless to say, in a work written by approximately logical students. two hundred people, differences of opinion appear. No The EDT, although considerably larger than its pre- attempt was made to force uniformity upon it all. That decessor in the number of both entries and words, is differences of opinion exist in this dictionary is only still limited in scope because of its one-volume format. testimony to the fact that such differences exist in the This limitation did have one good effect: it discouraged evangelical community at large. Nothing in EDT, though, the inclusion of anything unnecessary. A beginning col- casts doubt on any fundamental truth of the Christian lection of over 8,000 entries was cut back several times faith or on the absolute trustworthiness of the Bible. until approximately 1,200 entries remained. Differences Special acknowledgment is due to those who played a of opinion obviously exist as to whether these 1,200 are special role in the production of this work: Lauris Mays, the most significant, but the reader is humbly requested who did all the secretarial work cheerfully and efficiently; to consider how difficult it is to decide what should go my wife, Louan Elwell, whose patience and organiza- or stay. tional skills kept the project on track; Allan Fisher of Several special features of the EDT need to be under- Baker Book House, whose guidance and understanding stood in order to use it most effectively. First, each article were exceptional; Jean Hager, whose final editorial work stresses the theological dimension of its subject. So, for was invaluable; and finally Wheaton College, which example, items drawn from church history, Bible, or bi- granted a sabbatical in the fall of 1982. ography attempt to emphasize that entry’s theological Walter A. Elwell significance rather than its significance per se. Second, Wheaton College contributors are sympathetic to the subjects on which

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Tersur Aben (PhD, Calvin Theological Seminary). Timothy K. Beougher (PhD, Trinity Evangelical Divin- Magic ity School). Allen, Richard Eric Adams (PhD candidate, University of Cam- Jeffrey Bingham (PhD, Dallas Theological Seminary). bridge). Merton, Thomas History of Interpretation John N. Akers (PhD, University of Edinburgh). Abo- Michael F. Bird (PhD, University of Queensland). litionism; Alcuin; Gregory I the Great; Gregory Canon of Scripture Palamas Russell K. Bishop (PhD, McGill University). Franciscan R. Michael Allen (PhD, Wheaton College). Order; Francis of Assisi Justification Craig A. Blaising (ThD, Dallas Theological Seminary; Oswald T. Allis †. Numerology PhD, University of Aberdeen). Constantinople, First C. FitzSimons Allison (DPhil, Oxford University). Council of; Cyprian; Dispensation, Dispensational- Anglo-Catholicism; Bernard of Clairvaux; Bunyan, ism; Eusebius of Caesarea; Hardening, Hardness of John; Caroline Divines Heart; Homoousios; Hypostatic Union; Melitian Allan Heaton Anderson (DTh, University of South Af- Schisms; Monarchianism; Nicaea, Council of; Ni- rica). Pentecostalism caea, Second Council of Marvin W. Anderson (PhD, University of Aberdeen). Daniel I. Block (DPhil, University of Liverpool). Peter Martyr Vermigli Animals Uche Anizor (PhD, Wheaton College). Voice Donald G. Bloesch †. Conversion; Descent into Hell (Hades); Fate, Fatalism; Forsyth, Peter Taylor; Gleason Leonard Archer Jr. †. Covenant Prayer; Sin David J. Atkinson (PhD, University of London). Di- Hans Boersma (ThD, Utrecht University). Nouvelle vorce; Remarriage; Separation, Marital Théologie; Radical Orthodoxy Stuart Barton Babbage †. Church Officers Loraine Boettner †. Purgatory John S. Baird (STD, Temple University). Preach, Gerald L. Borchert (PhD, Princeton Theological Sem- Preaching inary). Demiurge; Demythologization; Docetism; William H. Baker (ThD, Dallas Theological Seminary). Emanation Kneel, Kneeling; Tribulation Steven Bouma-Prediger (PhD, University of Chicago). William R. Baker (PhD, University of Aberdeen). Creation Care Stone-Campbell Movement Mark Alan Bowald (PhD, University of Toronto). As- Steven Barabas †. Keswick Convention cension of Christ Jeffrey W. Barbeau (PhD, Marquette University). Owen Rupert Brandon (MLitt, University of Durham). Coleridge, Samuel Taylor Heart Jack Bates (PhD candidate, Wheaton College). Maxi- Gerald Bray (DLitt, University of Paris–Sorbonne). Ap- mus the Confessor ostolic Succession Hans F. Bayer (PhD, University of Aberdeen). Confess- Geoffrey W. Bromiley †. Angels; Baptism; Baptism, ing Church; German Christians; Kulturkampf Believers’; Baptism, Infant; Baptism, Lay; Baptismal Dewey M. Beegle (PhD, Johns Hopkins University). Regeneration; Baptism for the Dead; Canon Law; Anthropomorphism Concomitance; Creed, Creeds; Eck, Johann; Eternal Bruce Ellis Benson (PhD, Catholic University of Lou- Generation; Fathers, Church; Filioque; Foreknowl- vain). Postmodernism edge; Penance; Presence, Divine 11 Daniel J. Treier and Walter A. Elwell, eds., Evangelical Dictionary of Theology Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 1984, 2001, 2017. Used by permission.

_Treier_EvangelicalDicTheo_book.indb 11 8/17/17 2:57 PM Contributors Wick Broomall †. Accommodation Lynn H. Cohick (PhD, University of Pennsylvania). Colin Brown (PhD, DD, University of Nottingham). En- Fruit of the Spirit; Melito of Sardis lightenment, The; Existentialism; Kant, Immanuel Graham A. Cole (ThD, Australian College of Frederick Fyvie Bruce †. Dead Sea Scrolls; Form Criti- Theology). Holy Spirit cism; Last Things C. John Collins (PhD, University of Liverpool). Origin C. Hassell Bullock (PhD, Hebrew Union College). Old of the Universe Testament Theology George Norman MacLeod Collins †. Federal Maxie Burch (PhD, Baylor University). Justice; Via Af- Theology; Infant Salvation; Order of Salvation firmativa, Via Affirmationis Frank Colquhoun †. Doxology Gary M. Burge (PhD, University of Aberdeen). Age of Philip Wesley Comfort (DLitt, DPhil, University of Accountability; Alms, Almsgiving; Armageddon; South Africa). Textual Criticism; Textus Receptus Day of Christ, God, the Lord; Deacon, Deaconess; John W. Cooper (PhD, University of Toronto). Human Faithfulness; Obedience; Realized Eschatology; Being Sayings of Jesus; Sin, Unpardonable; Zionism Winfried Corduan (PhD, Rice University). Neo- Gary T. Burke (PhD, University of Iowa). Paul of Sa- Thomism; Rahner, Karl; Reason; Thomism; Via mosata; Sermon on the Mount; Son of God; Stoics, Analogia; Via Media; Via Negativa Stoicism; Substance Marc Cortez (PhD, University of St. Andrews). Body Richard Eugene Butman (PhD, Fuller Theological Sem- Peter C. Craigie †. Idolatry; Israel and Prophecy; Mercy; Psychology and Christianity; Psychology of inary). Mercy Seat; Priests and Levites; Ten Commandments Religion Terrelle B. Crum †. Imitation of Christ Glenn Butner Jr. (PhD, Marquette University). Mammon Virgil Cruz (PhD, Free University of Amsterdam). James P. Callahan (PhD, Marquette University). Black Theology Balthasar, Hans Urs von; Barth, Karl; Bloesch, Don- ald G.; Gospel, Social Implications of; Historical Robert G. Culberson (PhD, University of Cincinnati). Theology; Narrative Theology; Stott, John R. W. Capital Punishment William John Cameron †. Father, God as David A. Currie †. Torrance, Thomas Forsyth; Unitarianism Julie Canlis (PhD, University of St. Andrews). Union with Christ Peter H. Davids (PhD, Victoria University of Man- chester). Adoption; Ascetic Theology; Basil the Linda M. Cannell (EdD, Southwestern Baptist Theo- Great; Blasphemy; Blasphemy against the Holy logical Seminary). Education Spirit; Dark Night of the Soul; Dead, Abode of the; M. Daniel Carroll R. (PhD, University of Sheffield). Death; Devotio Moderna; John of the Cross; Mass Immigration Ivor Davidson (PhD, University of Glasgow). Ambrose; D. A. Carson (PhD, Cambridge University). Church, Arius, Arianism Authority in the; “I Am” Sayings; Jerusalem; Jeru- Ronald E. Davies (PhD, Fuller Theological Seminary). salem, New Revival, Spiritual John D. Castelein (PhD, University of Chicago). Myth; Creath Davis †. Happiness; Jealousy; Joy Secular Christianity Don L. Davis (PhD, University of Iowa). Stewardship Peter T. Cha (PhD, Northwestern University). Asian American Theology Donald Gordon Davis (PhD, University of Edinburgh). Prelacy Simon Chan (PhD, Cambridge University). Asian Theology Kerry L. Dearborn (PhD, University of Aberdeen). Adrienne Dengerink Chaplin (PhD, Free University of Image of God Amsterdam). Aesthetics Lester R. DeKoster †. Church Discipline; Liberty, Paul G. Chappell (PhD, Drew University). Church of Christian Christ, Scientist; Heal, Healing Bruce A. Demarest (PhD, Manchester University). Miyon Chung (PhD, Southwestern Baptist Theological Amyraldianism; Apokatastasis; Fall of Humanity Seminary). Assurance Rebecca Konyndyk DeYoung (PhD, University of David K. Clark (PhD, Northwestern University). Notre Dame). Virtue Personalism; Philosophy of Religion; Truth; David W. Diehl (PhD, Hartford Seminary Foundation). Understanding Righteousness; Righteousness, Original Robert G. Clouse †. Albertus Magnus; Duns Scotus, Melvin E. Dieter (PhD, Temple University). Adventism; John; Erasmus, Desiderius; Grotius, Hugo; Hu- Articles of Religion; Revivalism manism, Christian; Millennium; Peter Lombard; John Patrick Donnelly †. Ignatius of Loyola; Limbo; Quietism; Rapture of the Church; War; Wycliffe, Society of Jesus (Jesuits) John J. D. Douglas †. Bohemian Brethren; Brethren of the Richard John Coates †. Supererogation, Works of Common Life; Bruderhof; Chesterton, Gilbert 12 Daniel J. Treier and Walter A. Elwell, eds., Evangelical Dictionary of Theology Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 1984, 2001, 2017. Used by permission.

_Treier_EvangelicalDicTheo_book.indb 12 8/17/17 2:57 PM Contributors Keith; Fox, George; Friends of God; Hilary of Thomas N. Finger (PhD, Claremont School of Poitiers; Julian of Norwich; Lausanne Covenant; Theology). Merit Paschal Controversies; Photian Schism; Remon- Fred Lewis Fisher (ThD, Southwestern Baptist Theo- strants; Salvation Army, The; Schwabach, Articles logical Seminary). Witness, Witnessing of; Socialism, Christian; Thérèse of Lisieux; David B. Fletcher (PhD, University of Illinois). Meta- Utrecht, Declaration of; Watts, Isaac; Whitby, physics; Monism; Polytheism; Utilitarianism; Synod of; Wittenberg, Concord of Voluntarism John M. Drickamer (ThD, Concordia Seminary). John M. Frame (MPhil, Yale University). Second Augsburg Confession; Communication of At- Chance; Virgin Birth of Jesus; Westminster Cat- tributes; Francke, August Hermann; Mediating echisms; Westminster Confession of Faith Theology; Terminism; Thirteen Articles, The; Zu- rich Agreement John R. Franke (DPhil, Oxford University). Emergent Christianity; Missional Theology David G. Dunbar (PhD, Drew University). Meister Eckhart; Sensus Deitatis, Sensus Divinitatis Stephen T. Franklin (PhD, University of Chicago). Chi- cago School of Theology; Panentheism William A. Dyrness (DTh, University of Strasbourg). Christianity and Culture Albert H. Freundt Jr. †. Genevan Catechism Kent Eilers (PhD, University of Aberdeen). Marriage C. George Fry (PhD, Ohio State University; DMin, United Theological Seminary). Impanation; Mon David B. Eller (PhD, Miami University). Kierkegaard, ergism; Morning Prayer; Office, Daily (Divine); Søren Osiander, Andreas; Smalcald Articles; Synergism; Walter A. Elwell (PhD, University of Edinburgh). Torgau Articles, The; Worms, Diet of; Würtemberg Atonement, Extent of; Berkouwer, Gerrit Cornelis; Confession Clark, Gordon Haddon; Conditional Immortal- Harlie Kay Gallatin (PhD, University of Illinois at ity; Henry, Carl Ferdinand Howard; Ramm, Ber- Urbana-Champaign). Chrysostom, John; Sect, nard; Schaeffer, Francis; Spiritual Gifts; Thielicke, Sectarianism Helmut; Van Til, Cornelius; Wiley, Henry Orton; Williams, John Rodman Oscar García-Johnson (PhD, Fuller Theological Sem- inary). Pilgrimage Ronald Enroth (PhD, University of Kentucky). Occult; Reincarnation; Transcendental Meditation; Unifica- Craig M. Gay (PhD, Boston College). Technology tion Church; Way International, The R. Douglas Geivett (PhD, University of Southern Cali- Paul A. Ericksen (MA, Wheaton College). Cyril of Je- fornia). Idealism; Knowledge; Ricoeur, Paul rusalem; Theosophy Terence J. German (PhD, Oxford University). Christian Millard J. Erickson (PhD, Northwestern University). Year; Dulia; Hyperdulia; Immaculate Conception; Euthanasia; Second Coming of Christ; Separation Latria; Scholasticism; Sentences James Ernest (PhD, Boston College). Athanasius John H. Gerstner †. Evil William R. Estep Jr. †. Strong, Augustus Hopkins; Te- David W. Gill (PhD, University of Southern Cali- resa of Ávila fornia). Civil Disobedience; Lie, Lying; Moral Theology; Obscenity; Secularism, Secular Human- Donald Fairbairn (PhD, University of Cambridge). ism; Social Ethics Chalcedon, Council of; Ephesus, Council of; Nesto- rius, Nestorianism Ken Gnanakan (PhD, King’s College London). Hinduism Charles L. Feinberg †. Curse; Peace Louis Goldberg †. Kabbalah John S. Feinberg (PhD, University of Chicago). Doubt; James Gordon (PhD, Wheaton College). Dialectic; Evil, Problem of; Pain; Theism; Theodicy Food; Reformed Epistemology Paul D. Feinberg †. Agnosticism; Aristotle, Aristote- Fernando Q. Gouvea (MA, University of São Paulo). lianism; Atheism; Being; Bible, Inerrancy and Infal- Communion of Saints; Conciliarism; Godliness; libility of; Cause, Causation; Epistemology; Mind; New Heavens and New Earth Pantheism Katherine J. Graber (MA, Wheaton College). Palmer, Duncan S. Ferguson (PhD, University of Edinburgh). Phoebe Kerygma Michael Graves (PhD, Hebrew Union College). Helle- Everett Ferguson (PhD, Harvard University). Hippoly- nism, Hellenization; Philo tus; Irenaeus; Lactantius; Marcion; Neoplatonism; J. Kenneth Grider †. Arminianism; Arminius, Jakob; Recapitulation Forgiveness; Glorification; Heaven David H. Field (BA, Cambridge University). Elements, Howard Griffith (MDiv, Gordon-Conwell Theological Elemental Spirits Seminary). Knox, John Bruce L. Fields (PhD, Marquette University). Libera- Wayne A. Grudem (PhD, University of Cambridge). tion Theology Keys of the Kingdom 13 Daniel J. Treier and Walter A. Elwell, eds., Evangelical Dictionary of Theology Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 1984, 2001, 2017. Used by permission.

_Treier_EvangelicalDicTheo_book.indb 13 8/17/17 2:57 PM Contributors Royce Gordon Gruenler (PhD, University of Aber- Norman Victor Hope †. Alexander of Hales; Bonaven- deen). Lord’s Prayer; Son of Man; Spiritual Body ture; Dorner, Isaac August; Gallican Articles, Four; Stanley N. Gundry (STD, Lutheran School of Gallic Confession; Jansen, Cornelius Otto Theology at Chicago). Altar; Cajetan, Thomas de Carl Horn III (JD, University of South Carolina). Vio; Death of God Theology; Imminence; Judg- Abortion ment of Nations; Northfield Conferences Michael Horton (PhD, University of Coventry and Gary R. Habermas (PhD, Michigan State University). Wycliffe Hall, Oxford). God Plato, Platonism; Rationalism; Resurrection of Christ James M. Houston (DPhil, Oxford University). Joseph H. Hall (ThD, Concordia Seminary). Beza, Spirituality Theodore; Councils, Church; Encratites Craig Hovey (PhD, University of Cambridge). Frederick R. Harm (ThD, American Divinity School). Martyrdom Mortality; Sabbatarianism; Sin, Mortal; Sin, Venial; Daniel Howard-Snyder (PhD, Syracuse University). Theologia Crucis; Theologia Gloriae Descartes, René; Essence; Existence R. Laird Harris †. Remnant David A. Hubbard †. Antichrist; Last Judgment; Everett F. Harrison †. Apostle, Apostleship; Benedic- Monophysitism tion; Catholic; Glory; Only Begotten; Rebaptism; Philip Edgcumbe Hughes †. Grace, Means of; Redeemer, Redemption; Saint, Saintliness; Soul Priesthood Sleep; Will; World Edwin Hui (PhD, University of British Columbia). Fer- R. K. Harrison †. Scripture tility and Infertility Paul Hartog (PhD, University of Loyola). Apostolic Horace D. Hummel (PhD, Johns Hopkins University). Fathers Majoristic Controversy Peter W. Hasbrouck (MA, Wheaton College). Historie Morris A. Inch (PhD, Boston University). Golden and Geschichte Rule Gerald F. Hawthorne †. Prophecy, Prophet Peter F. Jensen (DPhil, University of Oxford). Kevin W. Hector (PhD, Princeton Theological Sem- Revelation inary). Ontology Paul K. Jewett †. Satisfaction Rolland N. Hein (PhD, Purdue University). Lewis, Karen H. Jobes (PhD, Westminster Theological Sem- Clive Staples; MacDonald, George inary). Translation Rudolph W. Heinze (PhD, University of Iowa). Leipzig Cheryl Bridges Johns (PhD, Southern Baptist Theo- Disputation; Luther, Martin; Marburg Colloquy; logical Seminary). Sacred Space Ninety-Five Theses; Saxon Confession Alan F. Johnson (ThD, Dallas Theological Seminary). Carl F. H. Henry †. Bible, Inspiration of; Eternity; Conditional Immortality Time James E. Johnson (PhD, Syracuse University). Friends, David J. Hesselgrave (PhD, University of Minnesota). Religious Society of Contextualization John F. Johnson (ThD, Concordia Seminary). Adia Irving Hexham (PhD, University of Bristol). Arm- phora, Adiaphorists; Andreae, Jakob; Athanasian strongism; British Israelitism; Communitarianism, Creed; Chemnitz, Martin; Lutheran Tradition Community of Goods; Cults; Dooyeweerd, Her- man; Jehovah’s Witnesses; Kuyper, Abraham; Mor- Keith L. Johnson (PhD, Princeton Theological Sem- monism; Positive Thinking inary). Grace Andrew E. Hill (PhD, University of Michigan). Abor- Kristen Deede Johnson (PhD, University of St. An- tion; Happiness drews). Political Theology Wesley Hill (PhD, Durham University). Anglican Com- O. Raymond Johnston (MA, Oxford University). munion; Friend, Friendship Prayers for the Dead Bruce Hindmarsh (DPhil, Oxford University). Robert K. Johnston (PhD, Duke University). Experi- Evangelicalism ence; Fideism; Four Spiritual Laws, The; Imputa- tion; Liberal Evangelicalism Harold W. Hoehner †. Love; Mediation, Mediator W. Andrew Hoffecker (PhD, Brown University). Darby, Beth Felker Jones (PhD, Duke University). Desire John Nelson; Manichaeism; New Light Schism; David Clyde Jones (ThD, Concordia Seminary). Birth New School Theology; Old School Theology; Control; Nature, Theology of Schleiermacher, Friedrich Daniel Ernst James C. Juhnke (PhD, Indiana University). Mennonites Nicola Hoggard-Creegan (PhD, Drew University). William G. Justice Jr. (DMin, Luther Rice Seminary). Eugenics; Feminist Theology; Process Theology; Guilt Sexual Ethics; Women, Ordination of George Kalantzis (PhD, Northwestern University). An- Arlie J. Hoover (PhD, University of Texas, Austin). tiochene Theology; Energies, Divine; Theodore of God, Arguments for the Existence of Mopsuestia 14 Daniel J. Treier and Walter A. Elwell, eds., Evangelical Dictionary of Theology Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 1984, 2001, 2017. Used by permission.

_Treier_EvangelicalDicTheo_book.indb 14 8/17/17 2:57 PM Contributors Kenneth S. Kantzer †. Paradox; Wisdom Walter L. Liefeld (PhD, Columbia University). Laying Kelly M. Kapic (PhD, King’s College London). on of Hands; Ministry; Overseer; Patriarch Atonement Robert P. Lightner (ThD, Dallas Theological Sem- Douglas F. Kelly (PhD, University of Edinburgh). For- inary). Hell; Omission, Sins of; Ordain, Ordination tunate Fall; Hooker, Richard; Household Salvation; Paul C. H. Lim (PhD, University of Cambridge). Re- Irish Articles; Machen, John Gresham; Marrow formed Tradition Controversy; Orr, James; Scottish Realism James R. Lincoln (MDiv, Trinity Evangelical Divinity Homer A. Kent Jr. (ThD, Grace Theological Sem- School). Five Ways; Inclusive Language; Pinnock, inary). Footwashing Clark H. David W. Kerr (ThD, Harvard University). Immortality Robert D. Linder (PhD, University of Iowa). Abelard, William Nigel Kerr (ThD, Northern Baptist Theo- Peter; Agricola, Johann; Antinomianism; Brunner, logical Seminary). Kneel, Kneeling; Mary, Assump- Heinrich Emil; Fast, Fasting; Fosdick, Harry Emer- tion of; Paulicians; Scofield, Cyrus Ingerson; Slav- son; Ultramontanism ery; Twelve Articles of the Peasants Harold Lindsell †. Schism Sharon Galgay Ketcham (PhD, Boston College). Patricia Janzen Loewen (PhD, University of British Co- Youth lumbia). Memory Ernest F. Kevan †. Baptist Tradition, The D. Stephen Long (PhD, Duke University). Mammon Fred H. Klooster †. Basel, First Confession of; Berk- David K. Lowery (PhD, University of Aberdeen). hof, Louis; Decrees of God; Elect, Election; Inter- Lord’s Day nal Testimony of the Holy Spirit; Sovereignty of Roger Lundin †. Emerson, Ralph Waldo; God; Supralapsarianism Transcendentalism Han-luen Kantzer Komline (PhD, University of Notre Jo Anne Lyon (MA, University of Missouri–Kansas Dame). Freedom, Free Will, and Determinism City). Pastoral Theology Catherine Clark Kroeger (MA, University of Min- Robert W. Lyon (PhD, St. Andrews University). Bap- nesota). Mandaeans; Mystery Religions; Novatian tism of Jesus; Lord, Jesus as; Ransom Schism; Priscillianism; Sardica, Council of; Subor- Michael H. Macdonald (PhD, University of Washing- dinationism; Tertullian ton). Deism; Descartes, René; Matter; Naturalism Richard C. Kroeger (DMin, Gordon-Conwell Theo- Hans Madueme (PhD, Trinity Evangelical Divinity logical Seminary). Hesychasm; Mandaeans; Mys- School). Original Sin tery Religions; Novatian Schism; Priscillianism; Sardica, Council of; Subordinationism; Tertullian Norris A. Magnuson †. Renewal, Church; Social Gos- pel; Uniformity, Acts of Carl G. Kromminga (ThD, Free University of Amster- dam). Repentance; Temptation George John Charles Marchant †. Opus Operatum A. Paul Kubricht (PhD, Ohio State University). Hus, W. Harold Mare †. Confession; Mark of the Beast Jan; Racovian Catechism; Socinus, Faustus Caroline T. Marshall (PhD, University of Virginia). Harold B. Kuhn (PhD, Harvard University). Dualism Leo I, the Great; Monasticism; Schism, Great; Waldenses, Waldensians; William of Ockham Richard Kyle (PhD, University of New Mexico). Scots Confession; Semi-Pelagianism Peter Martens (PhD, University of Notre Dame). Al- exandrian Theology; Allegory; Clement of Alex- George Eldon Ladd †. Apocalyptic; Kingdom of andria; Diodore of Tarsus; Origen; Theodoret of Christ, God, Heaven Cyrrhus André Lamorte (ThD, Montpellier University). Proph- A. J. Martin (PhD, Vanderbilt University). Reformed ecy, Prophet Tradition William Sanford LaSor †. Zoroastrianism Dennis D. Martin (PhD, University of Waterloo). Mys- David Lauber (PhD, Princeton Theological Seminary). ticism; Thomas à Kempis; Underhill, Evelyn Patience C. V. Mathew (ThM, Serampore University). Indian Robert B. Laurin †. John the Baptist Theology Terry LeBlanc (PhD, Asbury Theological Seminary). Brian Matz (PhD, University of St. Louis; PhD, STD, Native American Theology Katholieke Universiteit Leuven). Cappadocian Fa- Gregory W. Lee (PhD, Duke University). Augustine of thers; Gregory of Nazianzus; Gregory of Nyssa Hippo David R. Maxwell (PhD, University of Notre Dame). Hak Joon Lee (PhD, Princeton Theological Seminary). Cyril of Alexandria Terror, Terrorism Scottie May (PhD, Trinity Evangelical Divinity School). Gordon R. Lewis †. Impassibility of God Parenthood James F. Lewis (PhD, University of Iowa). Comparative Thomas H. McCall (PhD, Calvin Theological Sem- Religion inary). Thomas Aquinas 15 Daniel J. Treier and Walter A. Elwell, eds., Evangelical Dictionary of Theology Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 1984, 2001, 2017. Used by permission.

_Treier_EvangelicalDicTheo_book.indb 15 8/17/17 2:57 PM Contributors Scott E. McClelland (PhD, University of Edinburgh). Steve Motyer (PhD, University of London). Israel, Demon, Demonization; Judgment Seat New; Mystery; New, Newness; New Creation, New Thomas Edward McComiskey †. Angel of the Lord; Creature God, Names of Robert H. Mounce (PhD, University of Aberdeen). C. Douglas McConnell (PhD, Fuller Theological Sem- Cardinal Virtues; Sins, Seven Deadly inary). Polygamy; Racism; Sociology of Religion; William D. Mounce (PhD, University of Aberdeen). Watchman Nee Heavenlies, The; Magnificat Hugh Dermot McDonald (DD, University of London). Richard Mouw (PhD, University of Chicago). Com- Life; Word, Word of God, Word of the Lord mon Grace C. T. McIntire (PhD, University of Pennsylvania). An- James C. Moyer (PhD, Brandeis University). Clean- ticlericalism; Fundamentalism; Fundamentals, The; ness, Uncleanness; Theophany Vatican Council I; Vatican Council II J. Theodore Mueller †. Adultery; Fornication Donald K. McKim (PhD, University of Pittsburgh). Ashish J. Naidu (PhD, University of Aberdeen). Confession of 1967; Creation; Crypto-Calvinism; Evagrius Dionysius the Pseudo-Areopagite; Dogma; Erigena, Roger Nicole †. Male and Female John Scotus; Ex Opere Operato; Tithing James O. Nkansah (PhD, Fuller Theological Sem- Steven A. McKinion (PhD, University of Aberdeen). inary). Imagination Monothelitism Dieumème Noelliste (PhD, Northwestern University). Scot McKnight (PhD, University of Nottingham). Torture Gospel Mark A. Noll (PhD, Vanderbilt University). Alexander, Jennifer Powell McNutt (PhD, University of St. An- Archibald; Asbury, Francis; Azusa Street Revival; drews). Extra Calvinisticum; Reformation, Catholic Bushnell, Horace; Confessions of Faith; Edwards, John R. McRay (PhD, University of Chicago). Jonathan; Great Awakenings; Halfway Covenant; Fellowship Hodge, Charles; King, Martin Luther, Jr.; Land- James E. Mennell (PhD, University of Iowa). Ten markism; Luther’s Small Catechism; McPherson, Articles Aimee Semple; Mercersburg Theology; New En- Paul Louis Metzger (PhD, King’s College London). gland Theology; New Hampshire Confession; Church New Haven Theology; Niebuhr, Helmut Richard; Paul A. Mickey (PhD, Princeton Theological Sem- Niebuhr, Reinhold; Oberlin Theology; Pietism; inary). Bucer, Martin; Calvinistic Methodism; Princeton Theology, Old; Puritanism; Sayers, Doro- Febronianism; Gallicanism; Methodism; Tetrapoli- thy Leigh; Scopes Trial; Shedd, William Greenough tan Confession Thayer; Six Articles, The; Stoddard, Solomon; Thirty-Nine Articles; Warfield, Benjamin Breckin- Douglas J. Miller (PhD, Claremont School of ridge; Whitefield, George; Zwingli, Ulrich Theology). Civil Rights; Despair; Discrimination; Good, the Good, Goodness Stephen F. Noll (PhD, University of Manchester). Tab- ernacle, Temple Matthew J. Milliner (PhD, Princeton University). Mary, The Blessed Virgin Stanley R. Obitts (PhD, University of Edinburgh). Buber, Martin; Casuistry; Epicureanism; Philoso- Christopher W. Mitchell †. Communication of phy; Responsibility Operations Dennis L. Okholm (PhD, Princeton Theological Sem- Jack Mitchell Jr. (MA, Wheaton College). Effectual inary). Antony of Egypt; Benedict of Nursia; Cas- Calling; Simul Iustus et Peccator sian, John; Dominic, Dominicans; Ellul, Jacques; David O. Moberg (PhD, University of Minnesota). Extra Ecclesiam Nulla Salus; Nygren, Anders Aging O. Guy Oliver Jr. (BD, Louisville Presbyterian Theo- John M. Monson (PhD, Harvard University). Archae- logical Seminary). Apostles’ Creed; Baxter, Richard; ology, Biblical Bullinger, Johann Heinrich; Cathari; Celibacy A. Scott Moreau (DMiss, Trinity Evangelical Divin- Grant R. Osborne (PhD, University of Aberdeen). New ity School). Church Growth Movement; Exorcism; Testament Theology; Tongues, Speaking in; Type, Missiology; Phenomenology of Religion; Poor, Typology Poverty; Satanism; Signs and Wonders; Spiritual M. Eugene Osterhaven †. Cocceius, Johannes; Con- Warfare; Syncretism; Witchcraft cursus; Covenant Theology; Dort, Synod of; Gro J. P. Moreland (PhD, University of Southern Califor- ningen Theology; Lord’s Supper, Views of; Rule nia). Science and Theology; Scientific Creationism of Faith; Sinlessness of Christ; Soul; Spirit; Will of Leon L. Morris †. Adam; Blood; Clergy; Eternal Pun- God; Works ishment; Minor Orders; Orders, Holy; Propitiation; James I. Packer (DPhil, University of Oxford). Punishment Call, Calling; Faith; Justification; Orthodoxy; J. A. Motyer †. Flesh; Imprecatory Psalms Regeneration 16 Daniel J. Treier and Walter A. Elwell, eds., Evangelical Dictionary of Theology Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 1984, 2001, 2017. Used by permission.

_Treier_EvangelicalDicTheo_book.indb 16 8/17/17 2:57 PM Contributors T. H. L. Parker †. Providence of God Bong Rin Ro (ThD, Concordia Seminary). Pain of God James A. Patterson (PhD, Princeton Theological Sem- Theology inary). Apocalyptic Robert C. Roberts (PhD, Yale University). Bultmann, J. Barton Payne †. Servant of the Lord Rudolf Tony L. Payne (DMA, Northwestern University). William Childs Robinson †. Wrath of God Music, Christian Jerry R. Root (PhD, British Open University). Cloud of Jonathan T. Pennington (PhD, University of St. An- Unknowing, The; Universalism drews). Biblical Theology Brian Rosner (PhD, University of Cambridge). Law, Zaida Maldonado Pérez (PhD, St. Louis University). Biblical Hispanic Theology Charles Caldwell Ryrie †. Chafer, Lewis Sperry; De- Nicholas Perrin (PhD, Marquette University). Gnosticism pravity, Total; Illumination Robert A. Peterson (PhD, Drew University). Burial, J. Daniel Salinas (PhD, Trinity Evangelical Divinity Christian; Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy; School). Latin American Theology Constantinople, Second Council of; Constanti- Fred Sanders (PhD, Graduate Theological Union). nople, Third Council of; Contra-Remonstrants; Trinity, The Holy Lollards; World Council of Churches, The Timothy R. Phillips †. Christianity and Religions; Christine Schirrmacher (PhD, University of Bonn). Postliberal Theology; Revisionist Theology Islam W. Gary Phillips (ThD, Grace Theological Seminary). Robert V. Schnucker (PhD, University of Iowa). Heidel- Lonergan, Bernard Joseph Francis; Traducianism berg Catechism; Helvetic Confessions; Infralapsari- anism; Melanchthon, Philip; Neoorthodoxy Richard V. Pierard (PhD, University of Iowa). Alcohol, Drinking of; Civil Religion; Harnack, Adolf von; Richard L. Schultz (PhD, Yale University). Babylon; Holiness Movement; Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim; Flood; Higher Criticism Liberalism, Theological; Pascal’s Wager; Ritschl, Tom Schwanda (DMin, Fuller Theological Seminary; Albrecht; Romanticism; Schlatter, Adolf von; PhD, University of Durham). Spiritual Disciplines Strauss, David Friedrich; Troeltsch, Ernst; Tübingen J. Julius Scott Jr. (PhD, University of Manchester). School; Zinzendorf, Nikolaus Ludwig von Bruce, Frederick Fyvie; Cross, Crucifixion; Dead F. Stuart Piggin (PhD, University of London). Excommu- Sea Scrolls; Historie and Geschichte; Last Things; nication; Principalities and Powers; Trent, Council of Literal Interpretation; Nag Hammadi Codices Arend J. Poelarends (PhD, Utrecht University). Origin Calvin G. Seerveld (PhD, Free University of Amster- of the Universe dam). Art, Christian Christine D. Pohl (PhD, Emory University). Hospitality Bruce L. Shelley (PhD, University of Iowa). Jerome; Stephen O. Presley (PhD, University of St. Andrews). Semi-Arianism Athenagoras; Justin Martyr R. Larry Shelton (ThD, Fuller Theological Seminary). Robert D. Preus †. Concord, Book of; Concord, For- Perfection, Perfectionism mula of Charles Gregg Singer †. Confirmation William Cecil Gibbon Proctor †. Absolution; Infallibil- Elizabeth R. Skoglund (MA, Pasadena College). Self- ity; Mother of God Esteem, Self-Love Laura Miguélez Quay (PhD, Boston University). Nietz- sche, Friedrich Wilhelm Michael J. Sleasman (PhD, Trinity Evangelical Divinity School). Bioethics David A. Rausch (PhD, Kent State University). Ecu- menical Councils; Empiricism; Hume, David; Leib- Stephen M. Smith (PhD, Claremont Graduate Univer- niz, Gottfried Wilhelm; Locke, John; Nominalism; sity). Aulén, Gustaf Emanuel Hildebrand; Hope, Oxford Movement; Realism; Sabbath; Synagogue Theology of; Intermediate State; Kenosis, Kenotic Robert S. Rayburn †. Baptism, Modes of; Christians, Theology; Perichoresis Names of; Head, Headship; Marriage Feast of the Wilbur M. Smith †. Promise Lamb Stephen R. Spencer (PhD, Michigan State University). William Stanford Reid †. Calvin, John; Calvinism; Conscience; Predestination; Real Presence Preterition; Reprobation; Work James D. Spiceland (PhD, Oxford University). Barmen, Ian S. Rennie †. Newman, John Henry; Utopianism Declaration of; Miracle; Numinous, The; Positiv- Alexander MacDonald Renwick †. Erastianism ism; Tillich, Paul Robert L. Reymond †. Immanuel; Incarnation; Obedi- Keith L. Sprunger (PhD, University of Illinois). Ames, ence of Christ; Offices of Christ William; Ramus, Peter Kenneth Warren Rick (MA, Wheaton College). Book John G. Stackhouse Jr. (PhD, University of Chicago). of Common Prayer; Heresy; Messianic Judaism Apologetics 17 Daniel J. Treier and Walter A. Elwell, eds., Evangelical Dictionary of Theology Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 1984, 2001, 2017. Used by permission.

_Treier_EvangelicalDicTheo_book.indb 17 8/17/17 2:57 PM Contributors James J. Stamoolis (ThD, University of Stellenbosch). Canterbury; Bavinck, Herman; Beatification; Be- Florovsky, Georges; Philokalia; Simeon the New atific Vision; Belgic Confession; Bellarmine, Robert; Theologian; Theosis Canonization; Ibn Rushd; Infallibility; Natural Paul D. Steeves (PhD, University of Kansas). Berdyaev, Law; Natural Theology; Papacy; Peter, Primacy of; Nikolai Aleksandrovich; Images, Veneration of; Tradition Orthodox Tradition; Relics; Saints, Invocation of; Willem A. VanGemeren (PhD, University of Wisconsin, Saints, Veneration of Madison). Feasts and Festivals; Offerings and Sacri- Diane B. Stinton (PhD, University of Edinburgh). An- fices; Solidarity, Human; Tetragrammaton cestors, Veneration of Kevin J. Vanhoozer (PhD, Cambridge University). Doc- Jana Strukova (PhD, Princeton Theological Seminary). trine; Language Community Sylvie P. Vanhoozer (Cert. in Botanical Art, Chicago Sarah Sumner (PhD, Trinity Evangelical Divinity Botanic Garden). Agriculture School). Gender Mary Veeneman (PhD, Fordham University). Deus ex Elizabeth Yao-Hwa Sung (PhD, Trinity Evangelical Di- Machina; Evangelicals and Catholics Together vinity School). Worldview Adonis Vidu (PhD, University of Nottingham). Scott R. Swain (PhD, Trinity Evangelical Divinity Hermeneutics School). Scripture, Interpretation of the Bible as Howard F. Vos (ThD, Dallas Theological Seminary). Betty J. Talbert-Wettler (MA, Talbot School of Adoptionism; Alleine, Joseph; Apocrypha, New Theology). Feminism, Christian Testament; Astrology; Bulgakov, Sergei Nikolae Richard A. Taylor (PhD, Catholic University of Amer- vich; Butler, Joseph ica). Aphrahat; Ephrem the Syrian; Shenoute Paul de Vries (PhD, University of Virginia). Berkeley, Stephen Taylor (MA, Wheaton College). Essenes; George; Cambridge Platonism; Hegel, Georg Wil- Pharisees; Sadducees helm Friedrich; Heidegger, Martin Timothy C. Tennent (PhD, University of Edinburgh). David H. Wallace (PhD, University of Edinburgh). Buddhism Apocrypha, Old Testament; Firstborn; Messiah Robert L. Thomas (ThD, Dallas Theological Sem- Ronald Stewart Wallace (PhD, University of Edin- inary). Sin, Conviction of burgh). Elder; Lord’s Supper; Sacrament J. G. S. S. Thomson (PhD, University of Edinburgh). Andrew Finlay Walls (BLitt, Cambridge University). Spiritual Gifts Hermetic Literature; Logos Tite Tiénou (PhD, Fuller Theological Seminary). Afri- Victor L. Walter (ThM, Princeton Theological Sem- can Theology; Bediako, Kwame inary). Apollinarianism; Augustine of Canterbury; Donald G. Tinder (PhD, Yale University). Boethius, Anicius Manlius Torquatus Severinus; Denominations Donatism; Ebionites Denis Harold Tongue (MA, Cambridge University). John F. Walvoord †. Eternal Life Hope; Light Wayne E. Ward †. Dichotomy; Hypostasis; Peter Toon †. Bishop; Cardinal; Catechist; Catechu- Trichotomy men; Collegialism; Diocese; Evening Prayer, Even- J. Denny Weaver (PhD, Duke University). Anabaptism; song; Ex Cathedra; High Church Movement; Indul- Pacifism; Zwickau Prophets gences; Low Church; Major Orders; Owen, John; Timothy P. Weber (PhD, University of Chicago). An- Savoy Conference; Subdiaconate; Territorialism throposophy; Ecumenism; Evangelism; Niagara Benno van den Toren (PhD, Wycliffe Hall, Oxford). Conferences Religion, Religious Douglas D. Webster (PhD, University of Toronto). Jeremy Treat (PhD, Wheaton College). States of Jesus Oppression Christ Stephen J. Wellum (PhD, Trinity Evangelical Divinity Daniel J. Treier (PhD, Trinity Evangelical Divinity School). Analogy School). Canonical Theism; City; Creation and J. C. Wenger †. Grebel, Conrad; Hubmaier, Balthasar; Evolution; Drama; Finitude; Jesus Christ; Person; Melchiorites; Menno Simons Postcolonial Theory; Systematic Theology David H. Wheaton (MA, Oxford University). All Robert G. Tuttle Jr. (PhD, University of Bristol). Wes- Saints’ Day; Book of Common Prayer; Christening; ley, John; Wesleyan Tradition Love Feast; Session; Synod Merrill F. Unger †. Satan Reginald E. O. White †. Baptism with the Spirit; Eth- Ronald J. VanderMolen (PhD, Michigan State Uni- ics, Christian; Hedonism; Homosexuality; Humil- versity). Pragmatism; Scholasticism, Protestant; ity; Nihilism; Perseverance; Pornography; Preexis- Spener, Philipp Jakob; Turretin, Francis tence of Christ; Reconciliation; Resurrection of the John Van Engen (PhD, University of California, Dead; Salvation; Sanctification; Savior; Vengeance; Los Angeles). Anoint, Anointing; Anselm of Violence; Worldliness and Otherworldliness 18 Daniel J. Treier and Walter A. Elwell, eds., Evangelical Dictionary of Theology Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 1984, 2001, 2017. Used by permission.

_Treier_EvangelicalDicTheo_book.indb 18 8/17/17 2:57 PM Contributors Luder G. Whitlock Jr. (DMin, Vanderbilt University). David F. Wright †. Catechisms; Latitudinarianism; Apostasy Montanism; Nonconformity; Protestantism; Refor- Anna Williams (MA, Wheaton College). Biography; mation, Protestant Dreams and Visions Martin J. Wyngaarden †. Testament; Theocracy J. Rodman Williams †. Charismatic Movement; Holiness Robert W. Yarbrough (PhD, University of Aberdeen). Lesley-Anne Dyer Williams (PhD, University of Notre Consistent Eschatology; Heilsgeschichte; History Dame). Roman Catholicism of Religion School; Jesus Seminar; Myth of God Michael D. Williams (PhD, University of Toronto). Incarnate Debate; New Age Movement Pannenberg, Wolfhart Jonathan Yates (PhD, STD, Catholic University of Marvin R. Wilson (PhD, Brandeis University). Anti- Louvain). Pelagius, Pelagianism Semitism; Judaism; Judaizers K. K. Yeo (PhD, Northwestern University). Chinese John D. Witvliet (PhD, University of Notre Dame). Worship Theology Kevin Wong (MA, Fuller Theological Seminary). Body Amos Yong (PhD, Boston University). Disability James E. Wood Jr. (PhD, Southern Baptist Theological Ronald Youngblood †. Judgment; Monotheism; Seminary). Tolerance Name W. Jay Wood (PhD, University of Notre Dame). Ruth Zerner (PhD, University of California). Bonhoef- Molinism fer, Dietrich; Holocaust, The

_Treier_EvangelicalDicTheo_book.indb 19 8/17/17 2:57 PM ABBREVIATIONS

General JB Jerusalem Bible 1 En. 1 Enoch (Ethiopic JSB Jewish Study Bible Apocalypse) adj. adjective KJV King James Version 2 En. 2 Enoch (Slavonic Akk. Akkadian LXX Septuagint Apocalypse) Arab. Arabic MT Masoretic Text 4 Ezra 4 Ezra Aram. Aramaic NASB New American Standard Jub. Jubilees ca. circa Bible Let. Aris. Letter of Aristeas cf. compare NEB New English Bible Pss. Sol. Psalms of Solomon chap(s). chapter(s) NIV New International Version T. Benj. Testament of Benjamin col(s). column(s) NJPS Tanakh: The Holy Scrip- T. Gad Testament of Gad d. died tures: The New JPS Trans- T. Levi Testament of Levi e.g. for example lation according to the esp. especially Traditional Hebrew Text ET English translation NRSV New Revised Standard Dead Sea Scrolls etc. and the rest Version Ger. German NT New Testament 1QS Rule of the Community Gk. Greek OT Old Testament Heb. Hebrew RSV Revised Standard Version i.e. that is Rabbinic Writings Lat. Latin b. Babylonian Talmud mg. marginal Deuterocanonical Works m. Mishnah pl. plural and Septuagint r. reigned sg. singular 1–2 Esdr. 1–2 Esdras Abot Abot Syr. Syriac 1–4 Macc. 1–4 Maccabees B. Bat. Baba Batra v(v). verse(s) Sir. Sirach Ber. Berakhot Tob. Tobit Bik. Bikkurim Wis. Wisdom Erub. Erubim Bible Texts and Versions Hag. Hagigah Nid. Niddah ASV Authorized Standard Old Testament Pseudepigrapha Ohal. Ohalot Version Parah Parah CEB Common English Bible 2 Bar. 2 Baruch (Syriac Sanh. Sanhedrin ESV English Standard Version Apocalypse) Yad. Yadaim 20 Daniel J. Treier and Walter A. Elwell, eds., Evangelical Dictionary of Theology Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 1984, 2001, 2017. Used by permission.

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Apostolic Fathers Epiphanius Pan. Panarion (Adversus haereses) (Refuta- Barn. Barnabas tion of All Heresies) 1 Clem. 1 Clement Eusebius Did. Didache Hist. eccl. Historia ecclesiastica (Ecclesiastical Diog. Diognetus History) Herm. Mand. Shepherd of Hermas, Mandates Praep. ev. Praeparatio evangelica (Preparation Herm. Sim. Shepherd of Hermas, Similitudes for the Gospel) Herm. Vis. Shepherd of Hermas, Visions Gregory of Nazianzus Ign. Eph. Ignatius, To the Ephesians Ep. Epistulae (Epistles) Ign. Mag. Ignatius, To the Magnesians Or. Orationes (Orations) Ign. Phil. Ignatius, To the Philadelphians Gregory of Nyssa Ign. Pol. Ignatius, To Polycarp Eunom. Contra Eunomium (Against Ign. Rom. Ignatius, To the Romans Eunomius) Ign. Smyrn. Ignatius, To the Smyrnaeans Ign. Trall. Ignatius, To the Trallians Irenaeus Mart. Pol. Martyrdom of Polycarp Haer. Adversus haereses (Against Heresies) Pol. Phil. Polycarp, To the Philippians John Chrysostom Hom. 1 Cor. Homiliae in epistulam i ad Corinthios (Homilies on 1 Corinthians) Nag Hammadi Codices Hom. 2 Cor. Homiliae in epistulam ii ad Corin- thios (Homilies on 2 Corinthians) Gos. Thom. II, 2 Gospel of Thomas Hom. Gen. Homiliae in Genesim (Homilies on Genesis) Hom. Jo. Homiliae in Joannem (Homilies on Greek and Latin Works John) Hom. Rom. Homiliae in epistulam ad Romanos Aristotle (Homilies on Romans) Eth. nic. Ethica nichomachea (Nichomachean Josephus Ethics) Ag. Ap. Against Apion Athanasius Ant. Jewish Antiquities Inc. De incarnatione (On the Incarnation) J.W. Jewish War Augustine Life The Life An. orig. De anima et eius origine (The Soul Justin Martyr and Its Origin) 1 Apol. Apologia i (First Apology) Civ. De civitate Dei (The City of God ) 2 Apol. Apologia ii (Second Apology) Conf. Confessionum libri XIII (Confessions) Dial. Dialogus cum Tryphone (Dialogue Doctr. chr. De doctrina christiana (Christian with Trypho) Instruction) Enchir. Enchiridion de fide, spe, et caritate Lucian (Enchiridion on Faith, Hope, and Pereg. De morte Peregrini (The Passing of Love) Peregrinus) Ep. Epistulae (Letters) Origen Faust. Contra Faustum Manichaeum Comm. Jo. Commentarii in evangelium Joannis (Against Faustus the Manichaean) (Commentary on the Gospel of John) Gen. litt. De Genesi ad litteram (On Genesis Princ. De principiis (Peri archōn) (First Literally Interpreted ) Principles) Quant. an. De quantitate animae (The Magni- Philo tude of the Soul) Agriculture On Agriculture Tract. Ev. Jo. In Evangelium Johannis tractatus Confusion On the Confusion of Tongues (Tractates on the Gospel of John) Creation On the Creation of the World Trin. De Trinitate (The Trinity) Heir Who Is the Heir? Basil of Caesarea Names On the Change of Names Ep. Epistulae (Epistles) Prelim. Studies On the Preliminary Studies Clement of Alexandria QE Questions and Answers on Exodus Paed. Paedagogus (Christ the Educator) QG Questions and Answers on Genesis Strom. Stromateis (Miscellanies) Spec. Laws On the Special Laws Cyprian Unchangeable That God Is Unchangeable Magn. Ad Magnum (Epistle to Magnus) Virt. On the Virtues 21 Daniel J. Treier and Walter A. Elwell, eds., Evangelical Dictionary of Theology Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 1984, 2001, 2017. Used by permission.

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Plato CTR Criswell Theological Review Leg. Leges (Laws) DCA Dictionary of Christianity in America, ed. Meno Meno D. G. Reid Phaed. Phaedo DCE Baker’s Dictionary of Christian Ethics, ed. Phaedr. Phaedrus C. F. H. Henry Phileb. Philebus DOP Dumbarton Oaks Papers Resp. Respublica (Republic) DPL Dictionary of Paul and His Letters, ed. G. F. Symp. Symposium Hawthorne and R. P. Martin Pliny EAC Encyclopedia of Ancient Christianity, ed. A. Ep. Epistulae (Epistles) Di Berardino Plutarch EBR Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception, Mor. Moralia ed. H.-J. Klauck, et al. Suetonius EBT Encyclopedia of Biblical Theology, ed. J. B. Nero Nero Bauer Tacitus ECR Eastern Churches Review Ann. Annales (Annals) EcumR The Ecumenical Review Tertullian EDBT Evangelical Dictionary of Biblical Theology, An. De anima (The Soul) ed. W. A. Elwell Apol. Apologeticus (Apology) ELC Encyclopedia of the Lutheran Church, ed. J. Cor. De corona militis (The Crown) Bodensieck Idol. De idololatria (Idolatry) EncBrit Encyclopaedia Britannica Jejun. De jejunio adversus psychicos (On Fast- EncJud Encyclopaedia Judaica ing, against the Psychics) EP Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ed. P. Edwards Marc. Adversus Marcionem (Against Marcion) ERE Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, ed. J. Or. De oratione (Prayer) Hastings Paen. De paenitentia (Repentance) ERT Evangelical Review of Theology Theophilus ESR Encyclopedia of Science and Religion, ed. Autol. Ad Autolycum (To Autolycus) J. W. V. van Huyssteen EuroJTh European Journal of Theology EvQ Evangelical Quarterly Secondary Sources: Journals, ExpTim Expository Times Major Reference Works, Series FP Faith and Philosophy Greg Gregorianum ABD Anchor Bible Dictionary, ed. D. N. Freedman HBT Horizons in Biblical Theology AJT American Journal of Theology HCT A Handbook of Christian Theologians, ed. ANF Ante-Nicene Fathers D. G. Peerman and M. E. Marty BBR Bulletin for Biblical Research HDSB Harvard Divinity [School] Bulletin BJRL Bulletin of the John Rylands University Li- HET Handbook of Evangelical Theologians, ed. brary of Manchester W. A. Elwell BRev Bible Review HTR Harvard Theological Review CBQ Catholic Biblical Quarterly HUCA Hebrew Union College Annual CenBQ Central Bible Quarterly IBMR International Bulletin of Missionary CH Church History Research Chm Churchman IDB The Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible, ed. CHR Catholic Historical Review G. A. Buttrick ChrCent Christian Century IEJ Israel Exploration Journal CistSt Cistercian Studies IJST International Journal of Systematic Theology CLCW The Complete Library of Christian Worship, Int Interpretation ed. R. E. Webber ISBE International Standard Bible Encyclopaedia, Conc Concilium ed. J. Orr (1st ed.); ed. G. W. Bromiley (rev. CSEL Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum ed.) Latinorum ITQ Irish Theological Quarterly CSR Christian Scholar’s Review JAAR Journal of the American Academy of CT Christianity Today Religion CTJ Calvin Theological Journal JAnS Journal of Anglican Studies CTM Concordia Theological Monthly JATS Journal of the Adventist Theological CTQ Concordia Theological Quarterly Society 22 Daniel J. Treier and Walter A. Elwell, eds., Evangelical Dictionary of Theology Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 1984, 2001, 2017. Used by permission.

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JBC Journal of Biblical Counseling ProEccl Pro Ecclesia JBL Journal of Biblical Literature PRR Presbyterian and Reformed Review JCS Journal of Cuneiform Studies PT Philosophy and Theology JECS Journal of Early Christian Studies PTR Princeton Theological Review JEH Journal of Ecclesiastical History RefJ Reformed Journal JETS Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society RevExp Review and Expositor JHI Journal of the History of Ideas RevQ Revue de Qumran JJS Journal of Jewish Studies RR Reformed Review JNES Journal of Near Eastern Studies RT Religion and Theology JPC Journal of Psychology and Christianity RTR Reformed Theological Review JPentT Journal of Pentecostal Theology RUS Rice University Studies JPH Journal of Presbyterian History SacM Sacramentum Mundi, ed. K. Rahner JPT Journal of Psychology and Theology SBLSP Society of Biblical Literature Seminar Papers JRAS Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society SCJ Sixteenth Century Journal JTI Journal of Theological Interpretation SHERK New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious JTS Journal of Theological Studies Knowledge, ed. S. M. Jackson JTSA Journal of Theology for Southern Africa SJT Scottish Journal of Theology JYM Journal of Youth Ministry StLit Studia Liturgica LCL Loeb Classical Library StPatr Studia Patristica LW Martin Luther, Luther’s Works SVTQ St. Vladimir’s Theological Quarterly McCQ McCormick Quarterly TDNT Theological Dictionary of the New Testa- MP Modern Philology ment, ed. G. Kittel and G. Friedrich MQR Mennonite Quarterly Review Them Themelios MS Mission Studies Theol Theology MT Modern Theology ThTo Theology Today NCE New Catholic Encyclopedia TJ Trinity Journal NDCEPT New Dictionary of Christian Ethics and Pas- TS Theological Studies toral Theology, ed. D. J. Atkinson, et al. TWBB A Theological Word Book of the Bible, ed. A. NEQ New England Quarterly Richardson NIDNTT New International Dictionary of New Testa- TynBul Tyndale Bulletin ment Theology, ed. C. Brown VC Vigiliae Christianae NPNF2 Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Series 2, ed. VE Vox Evangelica P. Schaff and H. Wace VT Vetus Testamentum NTS New Testament Studies WA Martin Luther, Weimarer Ausgabe PAPS Proceedings of the American Philosophical WmTJ Westminster Theological Journal Society ZNW Zeitschrift für die neutestamentliche PBR Patristic and Byzantine Review Wissenschaft PG Patrologia Graeca, ed. J. P. Migne ZPEB Zondervan Pictorial Encyclopedia of the PP Pastoral Psychology Bible, ed. M. C. Tenney

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Abelard, Peter (1079–1142). Philosopher, theologian, theological propositions and cited the authorities affirm- and teacher, Peter Abelard lived in constant turmoil and ing and denying each, thus emphasizing that merely quot- confrontation with authority. Born in Brittany, he studied ing authorities was insufficient. Instead, students had to with some of the most respected theologians of his day apply their own intellectual skills. In short, Sic et Non and eventually became the brightest intellectual star of suggested that reason must play as large a role as reve- the Cathedral School of Paris. But for his tragic love affair lation and tradition in determining truth. This method and marriage with the beautiful and talented Héloise, made Abelard the main representative of a new school he undoubtedly would have been the dominant thinker of speculative theologians and prepared for the work of of the century. Thomas Aquinas in the thirteenth century. Philosophy. During Abelard’s time, the ruling doc- During the latter part of Abelard’s life, Bernard of trine of universals was that of Boethius (d. ca. 524), who Clairvaux accused him of misleading students and em- considered them to be realities. This traditional realism ploying unorthodox methods. In 1141 several of Abelard’s was then under attack by nominalists, who looked on teachings were condemned by the Council of Sens. He universals simply as words. Abelard worked out a mod- appealed to the pope, but he died in 1142 near Cluny on erate realism that avoided the dangers and salvaged the his way to Rome. strong points of both nominalism and extreme realism. See also Atonement; Nominalism; Realism; Scholasticism He accomplished this by demonstrating the logical con- Bibliography. P. Abelard, Historia Calamitatum (Story sequences of important distinctions, such as that between of My Misfortunes); J. E. Brower and K. Guilfoy, eds., the word, the thing itself, and the concept in the mind. The Cambridge Companion to Abelard; É. Gilson, Hé- Thus, universals are concepts in the mind that have ob- loise and Abelard; D. E. Luscombe, The School of Peter jective reality derived from mental abstraction. Abelard’s Abelard; J. Marenbon, Abelard in Four Dimensions; philosophy placed universals in a distinct category, so J. R. McCallum, Abelard’s Christian Theology; B. Ra- that God was not a universal nor were particulars the dice, trans. and ed., The Letters of Abelard and Héloise; only reality. K. M. Starnes, Peter Abelard: His Place in History. Theology. Abelard’s view of the atonement is usually called the moral influence theory. He rejected the position R. D. Linder set forth by Anselm in the previous generation that the Abolitionism. A movement in America and Western Eu- satisfaction made by Jesus was necessary for forgiveness, rope to abolish the slave trade and slavery, often applied arguing instead that God forgave sins as an unqualified to those urging immediate (instead of gradual) emanci- act of grace before Christ came. In contrast, Abelard de- pation of slaves. clared, God is love and voluntarily assumed the suffering By the end of the seventeenth century, slavery was brought on by human sin. This act of grace—taken freely, legal in Britain’s American colonies. Throughout the without any compensation for sin—awakens gratitude eighteenth century, however, there were increasing ques- and love for God. In Jesus Christ, the God-man, indi- tions about its morality from both religious and secu- viduals see what they should be, realize their sin, and are lar thinkers influenced by Enlightenment emphasis on won to new responses of love, resulting in right conduct. personal liberty. Some of the strongest opposition came Abelard’s important Sic et Non (Yes and No), writ- from Quakers, who by the late eighteenth century banned ten around 1120, participating in the main philosophi- slaveholding by members. In Great Britain, William Wil- cal dispute of the time over faith and reason, suggested berforce, deeply influenced by evangelical Christianity, seminal methodological innovations and demonstrated vigorously led the successful fight in Parliament to abol- the inadequacy of extracts from the church fathers then ish the slave trade (1807). In 1808 importation of slaves used for theological work. In Sic et Non he listed 158 became illegal in the United States, and many hoped 25 Daniel J. Treier and Walter A. Elwell, eds., Evangelical Dictionary of Theology Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 1984, 2001, 2017. Used by permission.

_Treier_EvangelicalDicTheo_book.indb 25 8/17/17 2:57 PM Abortion that slavery would eventually die out. Such hopes were Mesopotamia was exceptional rather than routine in the doomed, however, by the invention of the power loom ancient Near East. and the cotton gin, which enormously increased demand The comparative rarity of voluntary abortion may be for slave-cultivated cotton. explained partly by the social and economic value given As slavery became more firmly entrenched in the to children in ancient Mediterranean culture, although American South, opponents sought practical ways to laws treating assault leading to miscarriage in a pregnant eliminate it. One proposal was to send freed slaves back woman indicate that the human fetus was not granted to Africa, a scheme that led to the American Colonization the legal status of “person” or “human being” in regard Society (1817) and established the colony of Liberia on to lex talionis (law of retribution). the West African coast for freed slaves but was unable Legal philosophy apparently underwent a shift with to gather widespread support. The implicit racism of the Middle Assyrian Laws (sometime between 1400 and colonization also offended some slavery opponents. 1200 BC), when application of the talion principle to More significant were groups favoring immediate aboli- miscarriage and abortion accorded the fetus “person” or tion. Best known was the American Anti-Slavery Society, “human being” status. In addition, self-induced abortion formed in Philadelphia (1833) primarily through the efforts became a capital offense. Later Persian law seems to affirm of William Lloyd Garrison, fiery editor of the Liberator, a similar philosophy, recognizing the fetus as a person and Lewis and Arthur Tappan, wealthy brothers involved and considering voluntary abortion as willful murder in evangelical causes. At its height the society had one (though apparently not a capital offense). The surprising hundred and fifty thousand members. Many of its leaders dearth of biblical material treating abortion may be due had been influenced by Charles Finney, seeing antislavery partly to the prevailing legal climate. Apparently the OT convictions as a logical outcome of evangelical faith. assumes the antiabortion legal precedent of the period. Militant abolitionism had a galvanizing effect on the Given the premium that God placed on moral issues that South, which became increasingly intolerant of dissent. would directly affect Israelite occupation of Canaan, all The strident tone of some abolitionists also offended evidence points to infanticide by ritual child sacrifice— many Northerners who favored gradual emancipation. not abortion—as one of the Canaanite abominations Nevertheless, abolitionists such as Harriet Beecher Stowe prohibited by Mosaic law (see Lev. 20:1–5). (Uncle Tom’s Cabin), Theodore Weld, and James Birney In the Bible. The laments of Job (3:10–11) and Jer- had enormous influence, gradually persuading many that emiah (20:17–18) suggest that abortion was known to slavery was an evil that only radical measures could elimi- the Israelites, yet the Bible offers no direct prohibition. nate. Abolitionist goals were finally achieved through the Biblical silence, however, is not consent. Numerous theo- Civil War and the Thirteenth Amendment to the Con- logical principles provide supporting evidence for the stitution (1865). Abolitionism was the most important Bible’s indirect condemnation of abortion, including: reform movement in the nineteenth century. • God’s sovereignty over life and death (Job 12:10; See also Slavery 33:4; 34:14; Ps. 104:29; Acts 17:25) Bibliography. D. B. Davis, The Problem of Slavery • the sanctity of human life created in God’s image in the Age of Emancipation; J. R. McKivigan, The War (Gen. 1:26–27) against Proslavery Religion; J. M. McPherson, The Strug- • forthright injunctions against other forms of infan- gle for Equality; W. Mulligan, A Global History of Anti- ticide (e.g., Lev. 18:21; 20:2–5; Deut. 12:31) Slavery Politics in the Nineteenth Century; L. Ruchames, • personhood of the embryo or fetus based on legal ed., The Abolitionists; G. Sorin, Abolitionism: A New precedent (i.e., lex talionis; cf. Exod. 21:22–25). Perspective; D. M. Strong, Organized Liberty: Evangelical • personhood of the embryo or fetus based on the Perfectionism, Political Abolitionism and Ecclesiastical continuity principle (i.e., one’s humanness and per- Reform in the Burned-Over District; J. L. Thomas, ed., sonal identity begins at conception; Luke 1:41, 44; Slavery Attacked; R. G. Walters, American Reformers, 2:12, 16 [where the Gk. brephos, “child,” is used for 1815–1860. both the fetus in the womb and a newborn infant]; J. N. Akers cf. Ps. 139:11–16; Jer. 1:5; Isa. 49:1, 5; Gal. 1:15) Abortion. A chemically induced or surgically achieved • personhood of the embryo or fetus based on im- premature termination of pregnancy designed to kill the puted sin (cf. Pss. 51:5; 58:3; Rom. 5:12–14) embryo or fetus. Sometimes miscarriage is referred to as • biblical limitations on the self-determination that “involuntary” or “spontaneous” abortion. Since abortion a (Christian) woman has over her own body (cf. is directly related to life and death, numerous resources 1 Cor. 6:18–7:5) extend the discussion of abortion to include topics such • biblical love for all and nonviolence against all per- as capital punishment and euthanasia. This article treats sons (including the embryo or fetus since the Bible only voluntary abortion. grants personhood to the unborn entity; cf., e.g., In the Biblical World. Abortion was one form of Lev. 19:18; Matt. 5:38–43; 22:34–40; Rom. 13:8–10) infanticide practiced in the biblical world (along with ritual sacrifice and exposure). But extant documenta- In Theology. Among the Greeks, Plato and Aristotle tion suggests that drug-induced abortion in Egypt and approved of voluntary abortion. Hippocrates, however, 26 Daniel J. Treier and Walter A. Elwell, eds., Evangelical Dictionary of Theology Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 1984, 2001, 2017. Used by permission.

_Treier_EvangelicalDicTheo_book.indb 26 8/17/17 2:57 PM Abortion Abortion condemned the practice and forbade it as a medical Christian position, the following factors suggest a pos- procedure. The early church opposed abortion and in- sible evangelical consensus. fanticide, both prevalent in Greco-Roman culture. The First, behavioral categories prohibited to ancient Israel Didache (2:2; 5:2) and the Epistle of Barnabas (19:5; help identify practices abhorrent to God. God rejects 20:2) denounce murder of a child by abortion (apparently idolatry, perversion, destruction of persons, and callous- understanding the embryo/fetus as a “neighbor”; cf. Luke ness to the poor. Christians may reject abortion based 10:25–37). Later church fathers voiced similar moral on at least two of these four principles. Most obviously, abhorrence, decrying the practice as murder because abortion is destructive of persons (not only the unborn “ensoulment” takes place at conception (cf. Athenago- child but also the mother sometimes, as evidenced by ras, Presbeia 35 [= PG 6:969]; Tertullian, De anima 27; numerous studies). Abortion also is idolatrous in its pro- Jerome, Epistula 22 ad Eustochium 13 [= CSEL 54:160]; fane self-interest. It may be possible to reject abortion Epistula 121 ad Algasiam 4 [= CSEL 56:16]; Ambrose, on those other grounds as well. Abortion is perverted Exameron 5.18.58 [= CSEL 32:184–85]; Augustine, De because it brutally interrupts a natural life cycle created nuptiis et concupiscentia 1.17 [= CSEL 42:230]; Chry and blessed by God. In many cases the abortion industry sostom, Homiliae in epistulam ad Romanos 24 [= PG favors financially independent women, further encourag- 60:626–27]). ing callousness to the poor by placing a “price tag” on The general Christian view from the Reformation to the unborn. the present is that abortion attacks the image of God. Second, Christians must display a consistently bibli- Karl Barth and other influential Protestant theologians es- cal pro-life stance on public-policy issues (Sider). This poused similar views (e.g., D. Bonhoeffer, Ethics, 130–31 Christian worldview applies to economics and the plight [who equated abortion with “murder”]). of the poor, sexuality and the family, euthanasia, capital Rabbinic Judaism prohibits voluntary abortion, al- punishment, military doctrine and nuclear arms, social though the fetus is considered a person only after birth vices, environmental issues, and so on. All pro-life activity (the Mishnah also permits abortion in cases that threaten is situated in biblical shalom, “peace” or “fullness of life.” the mother’s life; Ohal. 7:6; cf. Nid. 3:5). Likewise, the Biblical shalom is a harmony of right relationships, with Catholic Church remains staunchly opposed to abortion God, others (on a global scale), and the created order. (arguing that upon conception there is an intrauterine Abortion demands Christian social concern because “life” and “person” at stake that possesses human rights). it impinges on the biblical doctrine of humanity. Other Theological arguments consistent with sound biblical biblical principles bear on social action generally. The interpretation affirming the personhood of the unborn compassion motivating genuinely Christian social con- remain important to buttress an eroding Protestant concern may express itself tangibly in one of two ways: either sensus against abortion. Given the increasingly militant charitable deeds and responsible social action, or civil pluralism of Western societies, evangelicals need to en- disobedience protesting “unjust law” as applied to the gage the wider public forum with the Bible’s pro-life unborn. Given biblical teaching emphasizing Christ’s message. law of love (Matt. 5:43–48; 22:39) and virtuous citizen- Rapid technological developments in neonatal care ship in pagan society (1 Pet. 2:13–17), only passive and demand reexamination of assumptions related to the be- nonviolent forms of civil disobedience are appropriate. ginning of human life, the nature of personhood, and the Third, the vigor of evangelical orthopraxis concerning viability of that life outside the womb. Medical circum- providers and clients of the abortion industry should be stances once understood to necessitate abortion for pre- commensurate with our passion for theological ortho- serving the mother’s health must be reevaluated. Finally, doxy. Compassionate evangelical churches will mercifully questions of medical ethics must be pressed against an help women confronted with crisis pregnancies. abortion industry intent on offering women little more A strategy demonstrating Christian “charity” in pro- than an after-the-fact contraceptive service. viding a range of fully funded alternatives to abortion will Sociological arguments advocating “compassionate include competent counseling services (also addressing termination” of the unborn child for reasons related to the father if possible); subsidized prenatal and postpar- “quality of life” are specious. They reflect a view of the tum medical care; shepherding homes and shelters for poor and disadvantaged rooted in provincial modernism homeless, abused, and unwed mothers who carry preg- and Western ethnocentricism. The church must herald nancies to term; and provisions for adoption, parenting the Judeo-Christian principle of the “sanctity of human education, and financial assistance in establishing new life” in bold opposition to abortion—“a powerful expres- families resulting from pro-life decisions. sion of the culture of death,” according to Pope John Ultimately, abortion is a moral and spiritual issue, Paul II. Destruction of persons by abortion constitutes not a political one. Any Christian antiabortion platform an extreme form of child abuse, behavior that otherwise is fundamentally a form of spiritual warfare (cf. Eph. modern society rightly finds intolerable. 6:11–18). Only as righteous Christians pray, both for the In Society. Regrettably, modernity (emphasizing indi- end of legalized abortion and the coming of Christ’s king- vidual rights and moral relativism) and postmodernity dom, will “the fruit of the light” displace the “deeds” of (emphasizing ideological tolerance and social diversity) “darkness” spawning death (cf. Matt. 6:10; John 3:19–21; seriously undermine the traditional Christian anti- Eph. 5:9; James 5:16). abortion stance. Despite today’s lack of a monolithic See also Capital Punishment; Euthanasia; Human Being 27 Daniel J. Treier and Walter A. Elwell, eds., Evangelical Dictionary of Theology Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 1984, 2001, 2017. Used by permission.

_Treier_EvangelicalDicTheo_book.indb 27 8/17/17 2:57 PM Absolution Bibliography. J. Burtchaell, Rachel Weeping: The first to formally defend this type of absolution, which is Case against Abortion; C. C. Camosy, Beyond the Abor- now used in the Roman Church as follows: Ego te absolvo tion Wars; Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, a peccatis tuis in nomine Patris et Filii et Spiritus Sancti. Donum Vitae: Instruction on Respect for Human Life in The Reformers sought to restore scriptural teaching Its Origin and on the Dignity of Procreation; J. J. Davis, and early church practice. The confessional with its declar- Abortion and the Christian; M. Gorman, Abortion and atory absolution was abolished by all Protestant churches. the Early Church; J. K. Hoffmeier, ed., Abortion: A Different procedures sprang up, but the same basic idea Christian Understanding and Response; G. F. Johnston, may be found in all, namely, to stir the conscience to inner Abortion from the Religious and Moral Perspective: An acknowledgment of sin so that on confession it may be Annotated Bibliography; D. Maguire, Sacred Choices: absolved directly by God himself. This stirring of con- The Right to Contraception and Abortion in Ten World science is mainly effected by preaching and prayer; any Religions; J. G. Melton and G. L. Ward, The Churches declaration of forgiveness has the form of proclamation Speak on Abortion: Official Statements from Religious of gospel promises. In most cases opportunity is given for Bodies and Ecumenical Organizations; J. T. Noonan, ed., public confession in divine worship, whether representa- The Morality of Abortion; L. P. Pojman and R. J. Beck- tively by the minister or corporately by the congregation. with, The Abortion Controversy: A Reader; Pope John Protestant thought does not overlook the occasional Paul II, Crossing the Threshold of Hope; J. M. Riddle, need for confession of sin that is burdening the con- Contraception and Abortion from the Ancient World to science. In Anglicanism, provision is made for coming the Renaissance; R. J. Sider, Completely Pro-life; D. C. to “a learned minister of God’s Word”; in other bodies Thomasma, Human Life in the Balance; R. N. Wennberg, and often in evangelistic missions, opportunity is given Life in the Balance. for private consultation with a “counselor” or other C. Horn III and A. E. Hill Christian. In each case the Scriptures are the basis of instruction, and prayer brings peace while kindling re- Absolution. From the Latin absolvo (set free), denoting newed faith in Christ. forgiveness of sins, specifically (for Catholics) the remis- See also Atonement; Confession; Forgiveness; Repentance sion given through the church. The truly free person is one against whom no accusation can be made. Bibliography. T. W. Drury, Confession and Absolu- In the Bible. The Bible teaches God’s willingness to tion; H. C. Lea, A History of Auricular Confession and forgive sin and provision whereby justice and mercy are Indulgences in the Latin Church; M. H. Seymour, The reconciled: atonement. All sin is against God (“Against Confessional; J. R. W. Stott, Confess Your Sins. you, you only, have I sinned” [Ps. 51:4]), and therefore W. C. G. Proctor absolution is finally God’s sole prerogative. But sins sometimes offend fellow humans as well; in Accommodation. The biblical writers, under the Holy particular the sins of Christians affect the whole church. Spirit’s guidance, adjusting their language to readers’ Our Lord links the disciples’ forgiveness of one another limitations without compromising truth. The concern is with God’s forgiveness of them: “Forgive us our debts, to discriminate between legitimate and illegitimate ap- as we also have forgiven our debtors” (Matt. 6:12). Sev- plications of this principle. eral parables teach the same lesson (e.g., the unforgiving Legitimate uses of accommodation include the fol- servant). “Whatever you bind on earth will be bound in lowing. (1) In theology proper, God is often described as heaven, and whatever you loose on earth will be loosed in having physical properties (hands, eyes, etc.); this figure heaven” (Matt. 16:19; 18:18) clearly gives believers their of speech is called anthropomorphism. (2) In cosmology, share in forgiveness of sins. Jesus’s words spoken in the facts of nature (sunsets, etc.) are often pictured in the upper room after the resurrection unmistakably express language of appearance rather than exact science. (3) In the church’s part in conveying forgiveness: “If you forgive ethics, stronger Christians may, in matters indifferent, ac- anyone’s sins, their sins are forgiven; if you do not forgive commodate themselves to scruples of weaker Christians them, they are not forgiven” (John 20:23). (1 Cor. 8; Gal. 2:3–5). (4) In teaching, parabolic or other In the Church. There is ample evidence that in the early analogical language accommodates deeper mysteries to church the penitent made public confession of sin before human minds (Matt. 13:10–17). the congregation, whereupon the sinner was received back Illegitimate uses of accommodation include the fol- with prayer and the imposition of the bishop’s hands. As lowing. (1) The claim that Christ accommodated himself time went on, a natural alternative was for the penitent to the prejudices and erroneous views of the Jews prac- to confess before a minister in private. In both methods tically nullifies Christ’s authority on critical questions. a prayer for absolution was used, asking God to restore (2) The claim that the early church invested OT prophe- the penitent “to the bosom of thy holy church” (Apostolic cies with a meaning they cannot bear in any sense virtu- Constitutions). ally empties the OT of real messianic prophecy. (3) The In the eighth century and later in the Latin church the claim that writers of Scripture adopted ideas from pagan presbyter ( priest), hearing confessions, increasingly as- religions and then, after some purging, accommodated sumed the position of judge, inquiring into all of life and these for Israel or the nascent NT church might inter- finally giving absolution in a declaratory form as distinct mingle God’s revelation with human error. from the earlier precatory form. Thomas Aquinas was the See also Analogy; Anthropomorphism 28 Daniel J. Treier and Walter A. Elwell, eds., Evangelical Dictionary of Theology Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 1984, 2001, 2017. Used by permission.

_Treier_EvangelicalDicTheo_book.indb 28 8/17/17 2:57 PM Absolution Adam Bibliography. J. Balserak, Divinity Compromised: A are your descendants” (2 Esdr. 7:48 [118]; cf. 3:21; 4:30; Study of Divine Accommodation in the Thought of John Wis. 2:23–24; blame is assigned to Eve in Sir. 25:24). Adam Calvin; F. L. Battles, “God Was Accommodating Him- was seen not as a lone sinner but as one who influenced self to Human Capacity,” Int 31:19–38; S. D. Benin, The all humankind. Footprints of God: Divine Accommodation in Jewish Adam is mentioned in Luke’s genealogy (Luke 3:38) and Christian Thought; D. F. Wright, “Calvin’s Accom- and in a similar reference in Jude, where Enoch is “the modating God,” in Calvinus sincerioris religionis vindex, seventh from Adam” (Jude 14). These NT passages men- ed. W. H. Neusner and B. G. Armstrong, 3–19. tion Adam simply to locate him in his genealogical place W. Broomall (Matt. 19:4–6 and Mark 10:6–8 imply reference to Adam but do not mention his name). Three passages have theo- Accountability. See Age of Accountability; Respon- logical import: Romans 5:12–21; 1 Corinthians 15:22, 45; sibility 1 Timothy 2:13–14. Acedia. See Sins, Seven Deadly In 1 Timothy 2:13–14 reference is made to (1) Adam’s being created first and (2) Eve’s being deceived, though Active Obedience of Christ. See Obedience of Christ Adam was not. The nature of this reference, whether perennial or analogical, is disputed in evangelical debates Acts of Uniformity. See Uniformity, Acts of about gender. Actualistic Ontology. See Ontology Romans 5 stresses the connection of humankind at large with Adam. Through one man sin came into the Adam. Found about 560 times in the OT, in the over- world, and the consequence of his sin was death. Some whelming majority of cases meaning “man” or “humankind of parallel is drawn between Adam’s representative kind.” This is true of some references in the creation and role and Christ’s, although the parallelism also heightens Eden stories, and many scholars hold that up to Genesis the differences and again its exact nature is disputed. 4:25 all occurrences of “Adam” refer to “man” or “the In Paul’s magnificent treatment of the resurrection Man.” But on occasion the word is the proper name of we read, “For as in Adam all die, so in Christ all will be the first man. This meaning is found outside Genesis in made alive” (1 Cor. 15:22). The thought is not unlike 1 Chronicles 1:1, possibly Deuteronomy 32:8 (where “the that in Romans 5. Adam was the head of the race and sons of Adam” may be the proper translation), and some brought death to everyone; Christ is the head of the new important NT passages. humanity and brought life to all therein. Some argue that OT Teaching. God created humans “in his own image” the two uses of “all” must refer to the same totality, the and created them “male and female” (Gen. 1:27), state- entire human race. There is no question that this is the ments made about no other creature. The man was com- meaning in respect to Adam. The argument runs that manded to “be fruitful and increase in number; fill the similarly Christ raises all from the grave, though some earth and subdue it” (1:28). He was not to be idle but to are raised only for condemnation. However, “made alive” tend the garden of Eden. He was forbidden to eat “from seems to mean more than “raised to face judgment.” It is the tree of the knowledge of good and evil” (2:17). The probably best to understand “made alive” to refer to life man was given the privilege of naming all the animals, eternal, so that “all” will mean “all who are in Christ.” All but no suitable help was found among them (2:20), so these will be made alive, just as all who are in Adam die. God made woman from a rib taken from the man’s body A little later Paul writes, “ ‘The first man Adam became (2:21–23). a living being’; the last Adam, a life-giving spirit” (1 Cor. The meaning of these passages is disputed. But the 15:45). Adam became “a living being” when God breathed creation narratives tell us that humans are related to the life into him (Gen. 2:7). Physical life was all the life Adam rest of creation (i.e., made “from the dust of the ground” had to bequeath to posterity. But “the last Adam” gave [Gen. 2:7]; for beasts and birds, cf. 2:19) and also to God life in the fullest sense, eternal life. Again Christ cancels (“in [God’s] own image” [Gen. 1:27]; cf. 2:7). Human out Adam’s evil. But the emphasis is not negative; it is dominion over the lower creation (Gen. 1:26, 28) is sym- on the life Christ gives. bolized by naming other creatures. The passage that nar- Scriptural use of Adam, then, stresses the solidarity rates the human fall speaks of the seriousness of sin and of the human race in sin. The human race had a begin- its permanent effects. Despite infrequent reference to this ning, yet all its history from early on is marked by sin. fall in the OT, it underlies everything. The fundamental But “the last Adam” (in addition to Rom. 5 and 1 Cor. presupposition that humans are sinners marks off the 15, see John 5:21–29; Rom. 1:3–5; 6:5–11; 2 Cor. 5:1–4, literature of the Hebrews from others of antiquity. The 17; Phil. 2:5–11) replaced sin with righteousness and solidarity of Adam with his descendants is in the back- death with life. ground throughout the OT, as is the connection between sin and death. See also Creation and Evolution; Fall of Humanity; Image of Intertestamental and NT Thought. The intertesta- God; Sin; Solidarity, Human mental period exhibits striking expressions of solidarity Bibliography. G. A. Anderson, The Genesis of Perfec- with Adam, such as Ezra’s impassioned exclamation: “O tion: Adam and Eve in Jewish and Christian Imagination; Adam, what have you done? For though it was you who C. K. Barrett, From First Adam to Last; M. M. Barrett, sinned, the fall was not yours alone, but ours also who ed., Four Views on the Historical Adam; K. Barth, Christ 29 Daniel J. Treier and Walter A. Elwell, eds., Evangelical Dictionary of Theology Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 1984, 2001, 2017. Used by permission.

_Treier_EvangelicalDicTheo_book.indb 29 8/17/17 2:57 PM