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History of the Christian Church

VOLUME 5. The Middle Ages, the Papal Theocracy in Conflict with the Secular Power from Gregory VII to Boniface VIII, AD 1049 to 1294

By Philip Schaff

CH512

Chapter 12: Scholastic and Mystic Theology

History of the Christian Church Volume 5 The Middle Ages, the Papal Theocracy in Conflict with the Secular Power from Gregory VII to Boniface VIII, AD 1049 to 1294

CH512 Table of Contents

Chapter 12. Scholastic and Mystic Theology ...... 2 5.95. Literature and General Introduction ...... 2 5.96. Sources and Development of Scholasticism ...... 4 5.97. Realism and Nominalism ...... 6 5.98. Anselm of Canterbury ...... 7 5.99. Peter Abelard ...... 12 5.100. Abelard’s Teachings and Theology ...... 18 5.101. Younger Contemporaries of Abelard ...... 21 5.102. Peter the Lombard and the Summists ...... 22 5.103. Mysticism ...... 25 5.104. St. Bernard as a Mystic ...... 26 5.105. Hugo and Richard of St. Victor ...... 28

down to Jesuitism and Jansenism.—R. REUTER Chapter 12. Scholastic and Mystic (Prof. of Ch. Hist. at Goettingen, d. 1889): Theology Gesch. d. Rel. Aufklaerung im Mittelalter, 2 vols. Berlin, 1875–1877. Important for the 5.95. Literature and General Introduction skeptical and rationalistic tendencies of the M. LITERATURE: I.—The works OF ANSELM, ABELARD, A.—TH. HARPER: The Metaphysics of the PETER THE LOMBARD, HUGO OF ST. VICTOR, School, London, 1880.—K. WERNER (Rom. ALBERTUS MAGNUS, THOMAS AQUINAS, Cath.): D. Scholastik des spaeteren Mittelalters, BONAVENTURA, DUNS SCOTUS, and other 4 vols. Wien, 1881–1887. Begins with DUNS Schoolmen. SCOTUS.—The relevant chapters in the Histories II.—R. D. HAMPDEN (bishop of Hereford, d. of Doctrine, by HARNACK, LOOFS, FISHER, SEEBERG, 1868): The Scholastic Philos. considered in its SHELDON, and the Rom. Cath. divines, and J. Relation to Christ. Theol., Bampton Lectures, BACH: Dogmengesch. d. Mittelalters, 2 vols. Oxf., 1832, 3d ed. 1848.—B. HAUREAU: De la 1873–1875, and *J. SCHWANE: Dogmengesch. d. philos. scholast., 2 vols. Paris, 1850.—W. mittleren Zeit, 1882.—The Histories of Philos. KAULICH: Gesch. d. scholast. Philos., Prag, by RITTER, ERDMANN, UEBERWEG-HEINZE, and 1863.—C. PRANTL: Gesch. d. Logik im Scholasticism, by PROF. SETH, in Enc. Brit. XXI. Abendlande, 4 vols. Leip., 1861–1870:—P. D. 417–431. MAURICE (d. 1872): Med. Philos., London, SCHOLASTICISM is the term given to the 1870.—*A. STOECKL (Rom. Cath.): Gesch. d. theology of the Middle Ages. It forms a Philos. d. Mittelalters, Mainz, 3 vols. 1864– distinct body of speculation, as do the works 1866. Vol. I. covers the beginnings of of the Fathers and the writings of the Scholasticism from Isidore of Seville to Peter Reformers. The Fathers worked in the the Lombard; Vol. II., the period of its supremacy; Vol. III., the period of its decline quarries of Scripture and, in conflict with heresy, wrought out, one by one, its teachings

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 3 CH512: Volume 5, Chapter 12 a Grace Notes course into dogmatic statements. The Schoolmen to satisfy a prurient curiosity. Anselm gives collected, analyzed and systematized these the best example of treatises on distinct dogmas and argued their reasonableness subjects, such as the existence of God, the against all conceivable objections. The necessity of the Incarnation, and the fall of the Reformers, throwing off the yoke of human devil. Peter the Lombard produced the most authority, and disparaging the Schoolmen, clear, and Thomas Aquinas the most complete returned to the fountain of Scripture, and and finished systematic bodies of divinity. restated its truths. With intrepid confidence these busy thinkers The leading peculiarities of Scholasticism are ventured upon the loftiest speculations, that it subjected the reason to Church raised and answered all sorts of doubts and authority and sought to prove the dogmas of ran every accepted dogma through a fiery the Church independently by dialectics. As for ordeal to show its invulnerable nature. They the Scriptures, the Schoolmen accepted their were the knights of theology, its Godfreys and authority and show an extensive Tancreds. Philosophy with them was their acquaintance with their pages from Genesis handmaid,—ancilla,—dialectics their sword to Revelation. With a rare exception, like and lance. Abelard, they also accepted implicitly the In a rigid dialectical treatment, the doctrines teaching of the Fathers as accurately of Christianity are in danger of losing their reflecting the Scriptures. A distinction was freshness and vital power, and of being made by Alexander of Hales and others turned into a theological corpse. This result between the Scriptures which were treated as was avoided in the case of the greatest of the truth, veritas, and the teaching of the Fathers, medieval theologians by their religious which was treated as authority, auctoritas. fervor. Anselm, Thomas Aquinas, and It was not their concern to search in the Bonaventura were men of warm piety and, Scriptures for new truth or in any sense to like Augustine, they combined with the reopen the investigation of the Scriptures. metaphysical element a mystical element, The task they undertook was to confirm what with the temper of speculation the habit of they had inherited. For this reason they made meditation and prayer. no original contributions to exegesis and He is far from the truth who imagines the biblical theology. They did not pretend to medieval speculations to be mere spectacular have discovered any new dogmas. They were ballooning, feats of intellectual acrobatics. purveyors of the dogma they had inherited They were, on the contrary, serious studies from the Fathers. pursued with a solemn purpose. The It was the aim of the Schoolmen to Schoolmen were moved with a profound accomplish two things,—to reconcile dogma sense of the presence of God and the sacrifice and reason, and to arrange the doctrines of of the cross, and such treatments as the the Church in an orderly system called summa ethical portions of Thomas Aquinas’ writings theologiae. These systems, like our modern show deep interest in the sphere of human encyclopedias, were intended to be conduct. For this reason, as well as for the exhaustive. It is to the credit of the human reason that they stand for the theological mind that every serious problem in the literature of more than two centuries, these domains of religion and ethics was thus writings live, and no doubt will continue to brought under the inspection of the intellect. live. The Schoolmen, however, went to the Following Augustine, the Schoolmen started extreme of introducing into their discussions with the principle that faith precedes every imaginable question,—questions knowledge—fides praecedit intellectum. Or, as which, if answered, would do no good except Anselm also put it, “I believe that I may

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 4 CH512: Volume 5, Chapter 12 a Grace Notes course understand; I do not understand that I may used all the forces of logic and philosophy to believe” credo ut intelligam, non intelligo ut vindicate the orthodox system of theology, credam. They quoted as proof text, Isaiah 7:9. but they used much wood and straw in their “If ye will not believe, surely ye shall not be constructions, as the sounder exegesis and established.” Abelard was an exception, and more scriptural theology of the Reformers reversed the order, making knowledge and these later days have shown. precede faith; but all arrived at the same result. Revelation and reason, faith and 5.96. Sources and Development of science, theology and philosophy agree, for Scholasticism they proceed from the one God who cannot The chief feeders of Scholasticism were the contradict himself. writings of Augustine and Aristotle. The In addition to the interest which attaches to former furnished the matter, the latter the Scholasticism as a distinct body of intellectual form; the one the dogmatic principles, the effort, is its importance as the ruling theology other the dialectic method. in the Roman Catholic Church to this day. The Augustine, who ruled the thought of the Such dogmas as the treatment of heresy, the Middle Ages, was the churchly, supremacy of the Church over the State, the sacramentarian, anti-Manichean, and anti- immaculate conception, and the seven Donatist theologian. It was the same sacraments, as stated by the Schoolmen, are Augustine, and yet another, to whom Luther still binding, or at any rate, they have not and Calvin appealed for their doctrines of sin been formally renounced. Leo XIII. bore fresh and grace. How strange that the same mighty witness to this when, in his encyclical of Aug. intellect who helped to rear the structure of 4, 1879, he pronounced the theology of Scholastic divinity should have aided the Thomas Aquinas the standard of Catholic Reformers in pulling it down and rearing orthodoxy, and the safest guide of Christian another structure, at once more Scriptural philosophy in the battle of faith with the and better adapted to the practical needs of skepticism of the nineteenth century. life! The Scholastic systems, like all the distinctive Aristotle was, in the estimation of the Middle institutions and movements of the Middle Ages, the master philosophical thinker. The Ages, were on an imposing scale. The industry Schoolmen show their surpassing esteem for of their authors cannot fail to excite him in calling him again and again “the amazement. Statement follows statement philosopher.” Dante excluded both him and with tedious but consequential necessity and Virgil as pagans from paradise and purgatory precision until chapter is added to chapter and placed them in the vestibule of the and tome is piled upon tome, and the subject inferno, where, however, they are exempt has been looked at in every possible aspect from actual suffering. Aristotle was regarded and been exhausted. Duns Scotus produced as a forerunner of Christian truth, a John the thirteen folio volumes, and perhaps died Baptist in method and knowledge of natural when he was only thirty-four. The volumes of things—precursor Christi in naturalibus. Until Albertus Magnus are still more extensive. the thirteenth century, his works were only These theological systems are justly imperfectly known. The Categories and the de compared with the institution of the medieval interpretatione were known to Abelard and papacy, and the creations of Gothic other Schoolmen in the Latin version of architecture, imposing, massive, and strongly Boethius, and three books of the Organon to buttressed. The papacy subjected all John of Salisbury. His Physics and kingdoms to its divine authority. Architecture Metaphysics became known about 1200, and made all materials and known mechanical all his works were made accessible early in arts tributary to worship. The Schoolmen the thirteenth century through the mediation

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 5 CH512: Volume 5, Chapter 12 a Grace Notes course of the Arab philosophers, Avicenna, d. 1037, Germany, Italy, and Spain made contributions Averrhoes, d. 1198, and Abuacer, d. 1185, and to this galaxy of men. Gabriel Biel, professor through Jewish sources. Roger Bacon laments at Tuebingen, who died 1495, is usually called the mistakes of translations made from the the last of the Schoolmen. Almost all the great Arabic, by Michael Scot, Gerard of Cremona, Schoolmen were monks. and others. The two centuries included between the At first the Stagyrite was looked upon with careers of Anselm and Duns Scotus show suspicion or even prohibited by the popes decided modifications of opinion on and synods as adapted to breed heresy and important questions such as the immaculate spiritual pride. But, from 1250 on, his conception, and in regard to the possibility of authority continued supreme. The saying of proving from pure reason such doctrines as Gottfried of St. Victor became current in Paris. the incarnation and the Trinity. These two Every one is excluded and banned doctrines Thomas Aquinas, as well as Duns Who does not come clad in Aristotle’s armor. Scotus and Ockam, declared to be outside the The Reformers shook off his yoke and Luther, domain of pure ratiocination. Even the in a moment of temper at the degenerate existence of God and the immortality of the Schoolmen of his day, denounced him as “the soul came to be regarded by Duns Scotus and accursed pagan Aristotle” and in his the later Schoolmen as mysteries which were Babylonian Captivity called the medieval to be received solely upon the authority of the Church “the Thomistic or Aristotelian Church. The argument from probability was Church.” emphasized in the last stages of Scholastic thought as it had not been before. The line of the Schoolmen begins in the last year of the eleventh century with Roscellinus In their effort to express the minutest and Anselm. Two centuries before, John distinctions of thought, the Schoolmen Scotus Erigena had anticipated some of their invented a new vocabulary unknown to discussions of fundamental themes, and laid classical Latin, including such words as ens, down the principle that true philosophy and absolutum identitas quidditas, haecceitas, true religion are one. But he does not seem to aliquiditas, aleitas. The sophistical have had any perceptible influence on speculations which they allowed themselves Scholastic thought. The history divides itself were, for the most part, concerned with the into three periods: the rise of Scholasticism, angels, the Virgin Mary, the devil, the its full bloom, and its decline. creation, and the body of the resurrection. Such questions as the following were asked To the first period belong Anselm, d. 1109, and most solemnly discussed by the leading Roscellinus, d. about 1125, Abelard, d. 1142, Schoolmen. Bernard, d. 1153, Hugo de St. Victor, d. 1161, Richard of St. Victor, d. 1173, and Gilbert of Albertus Magnus asked whether it was harder Poictiers, d. 1154. for God to create the universe than to create man and whether the understandings of The chief names of the second period are angels are brighter in the morning or in the Peter the Lombard, d. 1160, Alexander of evening. “Who sinned most, Adam or Eve?” Hales, d. 1243, Albertus Magnus, d. 1280, was a favorite question with Anselm, Hugo de Thomas Aquinas, d. 1274, Bonaventura, d. St. Victor, and others. Alexander of Hales 1274, Roger Bacon, d. 1294, and Duns Scotus, attempted to settle the hour of the day at d. 1308. which Adam sinned and, after a long To the period of decline belong, among discussion, concluded it was at the ninth others, Durandus, d. 1334, Bradwardine, d. hour, the hour at which Christ expired. 1349, and Ockam, d. 1367. England, France, Bonaventura debated whether several angels

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 6 CH512: Volume 5, Chapter 12 a Grace Notes course can be in one place at the same time, whether Nominalists. The question, which receives one angel can be in several places at the same little attention now, was regarded as most time, and whether God loved the human race important in the Middle Ages. more than He loved Christ. Anselm, in his Realism taught that the universals are not work on the Trinity, asked whether God could mere generalizations of the mind but have a have taken on the female sex and why the real existence. Following Plato, as he is Holy Spirit did not become incarnate. represented by Aristotle, one class of Realists Of the former question, Walter of St. Victor, held that the universals are creative types, speaking of Peter the Lombard, very sensibly exemplars in the divine mind. Their view was said that it would have been more rational for stated in the expression—universalia ante him to have asked why the Lombard did not rem—that is, the universals exist before the appear on earth as an ass than for the individual, concrete object. The Aristotelian Lombard to ask whether God could have Realists held that the universals possess a become incarnate in female form. The famous real existence, but exist only in individual discussion over the effect the eating of the things. This was the doctrine of universalia in host would have upon a mouse will be taken re. Humanity, for example, is a universal up in connection with the Lord’s Supper. having a real existence. Socrates partakes of Albertus Magnus, Bonaventura, Thomas it, and he is an individual man, distinct from Aquinas, and others pondered over the other men. Anselm, representing the Platonic problem. It was asked by Robert Pullen school, treated the universal humanity as whether man in the resurrection will receive having independent existence by itself. Duns back the rib he lost in Eden, and whether a Scotus, representing the second theory, found man will recover all the clippings of his finger in the universal the basis of all classification nails. and gives to it only in this sense a real Such endless discussions have been ridiculed existence. as puerile and frivolous, though, as has The Nominalists taught that universals or already been said, they grew out of the desire general conceptions have no antecedent to be exhaustive. At last and justly, they existence. They are mere names—nomina, brought Scholasticism into disrepute. While it flatus vocis, voces—and are derived from a was losing itself in the clouds and mists of comparison of individual things and their things transcendental, it neglected the earth qualities. Thus beauty is a conception of the at its feet. As the papacy passed sentence mind gotten from the observation of objects upon itself by intolerable ambition, so which are beautiful. The individual things are Scholasticism undermined its authority by first observed and the universal, or abstract intellectual sophistries and was set aside by conception, is derived from it. This doctrine the practical interests of the Renaissance and found statement in the expression universalia Humanism and by simple faith, searching post rem, the universal becomes known after through the Scriptures, to reach the living the individual. A modification of this view sympathy of Christ. went by the name of Conceptualism, or the doctrine that universals have existence as 5.97. Realism and Nominalism conceptions in the mind, but not in real being. The underlying philosophical problem of the The starting-point for this dialectical Scholastic speculations was the real and distinction may have been a passage in independent existence of general or generic Porphyry’s Isagoge, as transmitted by concepts, called universalia or universals. Do Boethius. Declining to enter into a discussion they necessarily involve substantial being? On of the question, Porphyry asks whether the this question the Schoolmen were divided universals are to be regarded as having into two camps, the Realists and the

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 7 CH512: Volume 5, Chapter 12 a Grace Notes course distinct substantial existence apart from fountain which was carried through, nor the tangible things or whether they were only pond. So in the same way, the Godhead conceptions of the mind, having substantial became incarnate without involving the existence only in tangible things. The incarnation of the Father and Holy Spirit. distinction assumed practical importance The decision of the synod of Soissons and when it was applied to such theological Anselm’s argument drove Nominalism from doctrines as the Trinity, the atonement, and the field and it was not again publicly avowed original sin. till the fourteenth century when it was The theory of Realism was called in question revived by the energetic and practical mind of in the eleventh century by Roscellinus, a Occam, by Durandus and others. It was for a contemporary of Anselm and the teacher of time fiercely combated by councils and King Abelard, who, as it would seem, advocated Louis XI., but was then adopted by many of Nominalism. Our knowledge of his views is the great teachers of the fourteenth and derived almost exclusively from the fifteenth centuries. statements of his two opponents, Anselm and Abelard. He was serving as canon of 5.98. Anselm of Canterbury Compiegne in the diocese of Soissons, 1092, LITERATURE: The Works of Anselm. First when he was obliged to recant his alleged complete ed. by GERBERON, Paris, 1675, tritheism, which he substituted for the reprinted in Migne, vols. 158, 159.—Anselm’s opuscula, trans. Chicago, 1903, pp. 288.— doctrine of the Trinity. Anselm’s Devotions, trans. by Pusey, Oxf., The views of this theologian called forth 1856, London, 1872, and by C. C. J. Webb., Anselm’s treatise on the Trinity, and Abelard London, 1903.—Trans. of Cur Deus homo in despised him as a quack dialectician. Anselm Anc. and Mod. Library, London.—The Life of affirmed that Roscellinus’ heretical views on Anselm by his secretary and devoted friend the Trinity were the immediate product of his EADMER: de vita Anselmi and Historia novorum false philosophical principle, the denial that in Migne, and ed. by RULE in Rolls series, London, 1884.—JOHN OF SALISBURY’S Life, universals have real existence. Roscellinus written to further Anselm’s canonization by called the three persons of the Godhead three Alexander III., Migne, 199: 1009–1040, is substances, as Scotus Erigena had done based upon Eadmer.—WILLIAM OF MALMESBURY before. These persons were three distinct in Gesta Pontificum adds some materials.— beings equal in power and will, but each Modern Lives, by *F. R. HASSE, 2 vols. Leip., separate from the other and complete in 1843–1852, Abrdg. trans. by *W. TURNER, himself, like three men or angels. These three London, 1850. One of the best of Hist. could not be one God in the sense of being of monographs.—*C. DE REMUSAT: Paris, 1853, the same essence, for then the Father and the last ed., 1868.—*DEAN R. W. CHURCH (d. 1890): Holy Spirit would have had to become London, new ed., 1877 (good account of Anselm’s career, but pays little attention to his incarnate as well as the Son. philosophy and theology).—M. RULE: 2 vols. Defending the orthodox doctrine of the London, 1883, eulogistic and ultramontane.— Trinity, Anselm proceeded on the basis of P. RAGEY: 2 vols. Paris, 1890.—J. M. RIGG: strict realism and declared that the three London, 1896.—A. C. WELCH, Edinburgh, persons represented three relations and not 1901.—*W. R. W. STEPHENS in Dict. Natl. Biog., three substances. Fountain, brook, and pond II. 10–31.—P. SCHAFF, in Presb. and Ref’d are three; yet the same water is in each one Review, Jan., 1894.—*ED. A. FREEMAN: The and we could not say the brook is the Reign of William Rufus, 2 vols. London, 1882.—H. BOEHMER: Kirche u. Staat in England fountain or the fountain is the pond. The u. in der Normandie im XI. u. XIIten Jahrh., water of the brook may be carried through a Leip., 1899.—Anselm’s philosophy is discussed pipe, but in that case it would not be the by RITTER, ERDMANN, and UEBERWEG-HEINZE in

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their Histories of Philos.; his theology is make. Then, refreshed with the whitest of treated by BAUR: Gesch. d. Christl. Lehre. von d. bread, he descended again to the valley. The Versoehnung, Tuebingen, 1838, 142–189.— following day he firmly believed he had RITSCHL: Rechtfertigung u. Versoehnung, and in actually been in heaven and eaten at the the Histories of Doctrine.—KOELLING: D. Lord’s table. This was the story he told after satisfactio vicaria, 2 vols., Guetersloh, 1897– 1899. A vigorous presentation of the Anselmic he had ascended the chair of Canterbury. view.—LEIPOLDT: D. Begriff meritum in Anselm, A quarrel with his father led to Anselm’s in Theol. Studien u. Kritiken, 1904.—LE leaving his home. He set his face toward the CHANOINE PORÉE: Hist. de l’Abbaye du Bec, Paris, West and finally settled in the Norman abbey 1901. of Le Bec, then under the care of his Anselm of Canterbury, 1033–1109, the first of illustrious countryman Lanfranc. Here he the great Schoolmen, was one of the ablest studied, took orders, and, on Lanfranc’s and purest men of the medieval Church. He transfer to the convent of St. Stephen at Caen, touched the history of his age at many points. 1063, became prior, and, in 1078, abbot. At He was an enthusiastic advocate of Bec he wrote most of his works. His warm monasticism. He was archbishop of devotion to the monastic life appears in his Canterbury and fought the battle of the repeated references to it in his letters and in Hildebrandian hierarchy against the State in his longing to get back to the convent after he England. His Christian meditations give him a had been made archbishop. high rank in its annals of piety. His profound In 1093, he succeeded Lanfranc as archbishop speculation marks one of the leading epochs of Canterbury. His struggle with William in the history of theology and won for him a Rufus and Henry I. over investiture has place among the doctors of the Church. While already been described (pp. 88–93). During Bernard was greatest as a monk, Anselm was his exile on the Continent he attended a synod greatest as a theologian. He was the most at Bari, where he defended the Latin doctrine original thinker the Church had seen since the of the procession of the Holy Spirit against days of Augustine. the Greek bishops who were present. Life.—Anselm was born at Aosta, in The archbishop’s last years in England were Piedmont, at the foot of the great St. Bernard, years of quiet, and he had a peaceful end. which divides Italy from western Switzerland. They lifted him from the bed and placed him He had a pious mother, Ermenberga. His on ashes on the floor. There, “as morning was father, Gundulf, a worldly and rude nobleman, breaking, on the Wednesday before Easter,” set himself violently against his son’s April 21, 1109, the sixteenth year of his religious aspirations, but on his death-bed pontificate and the seventy-sixth of his life, he himself assumed the monastic garb to escape slept in peace, as his biographer Eadmer says, perdition. “having given up his spirit into the hands of In his childish imagination, Anselm conceived his Creator.” He lies buried in Canterbury God Almighty as seated on a throne at the top Cathedral at the side of Lanfranc. of the Alps, and in a dream, he climbed up the Anselm was a man of spotless integrity, single mountain to meet Him. Seeing, on his way, the devotion to truth and righteousness, patient king’s maidens engaged in the harvest field, in suffering, and revered as a saint before his for it was Autumn, neglecting their work he official canonization in 1494. Dante associates determined to report their negligence to the him in Paradise with Nathan, the seer, and king. The lad was most graciously received Chrysostom, both famous for rebuking vice in and asked whence he came and what he high places, and with the Calabrian prophet, desired. The king’s kindness made him forget Joachim. all about the charges he was intending to

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Writings.—Anselm’s chief works in the and the teaching of the Church which are in departments of theology are his Monologium complete agreement with one another and and Proslogium, which present proofs for are one with true philosophy. Anselm had a God’s existence, and the Cur Deus homo, profound veneration for the great African “Why God became Man,” a treatise on the teacher, Augustine, and his agreement with atonement. He also wrote on the Trinity him in spirit and method secured for him the against Roscellinus; on original sin, free will, titles “the second Augustine” and the, Tongue the harmony of foreknowledge and of Augustine.” foreordination, and the fall of the devil. To Anselm made two permanent contributions these theological treatises are to be added a to theology, his argument for the existence of number of writings of a more practical God and his theory of the atonement. nature, homilies, meditations, and four The ontological argument, which he stated, hundred and twelve letters in which we see constitutes an epoch in the history of the him in different relations, as a prelate of the proofs for God’s existence. It was first laid Church, a pastor, as a teacher giving advice to down in the Monologium or Soliloquy, which pupils, and as a friend. His correspondence he called the example of meditation on the shows him in his human relations. His reasonableness of faith, but mixed with meditations and prayers reveal the depth of cosmological elements. Starting from the idea his piety. His theological treatises betray the that goodness and truth must have an genius of his intellect. In extent they are far existence independent of concrete things, less voluminous than the works of Thomas Anselm ascends from the conception of what Aquinas and other Schoolmen of the later is relatively good and great, to Him who is period. absolutely good and great. Theology.—Anselm was one of those rare In the Proslogium, or Allocution, the characters in whom lofty reason and childlike ontological argument is presented in its faith work together in perfect harmony. Love purest form. Anselm was led to its to God was the soul of his daily life and love to construction by the desire to find out a single God is the burning center of his theology. It argument, sufficient in itself, to prove the was not doubt that led him to speculation, but divine existence. The argument was the result enthusiasm for truth and devotion to God. His of long reflection and rooted in piety and famous proposition, which Schleiermacher prayer. Day and night the author was haunted adopted as a motto for his own theology, is with the idea that God’s existence could be so that faith precedes knowledge—fides proved. He was troubled over it to such a praecedit intellectum. Things divine must be a degree that at times he could not sleep or matter of experience before they can be take his meals. Finally, one night, during comprehended by the intellect. “He who does vigils, the argument stood clearly before his not believe,” Anselm said, “has not felt, and he mind in complete outline. The notes were who has not felt, does not understand.” Christ written down while the impression was still must come to the intellect through the avenue fresh in Anselm’s mind. The first copy was of faith and not to faith through the avenue of lost; the second was inadvertently broken to intellect. On the other hand, Anselm declared pieces. himself against blind belief, and calls it a sin of neglect when he who has faith, does not Anselm’s argument, which is the highest strive after knowledge. example of religious meditation and scholastic reasoning, is prefaced with an These views, in which supernaturalism and exhortation and the words, “I do not seek to rationalism are harmonized, form the understand in order that I may believe, but I working principle of the Anselmic theology. believe in order that I may understand, for of The two sources of knowledge are the Bible

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 10 CH512: Volume 5, Chapter 12 a Grace Notes course this I feel sure, that, if I did not believe, I The reasoning of the Proslogium was would not understand.” attacked by the monk Gaunilo of Marmontier, The reasoning starts from the idea the mind near Bec, in his Liber pro insipiente. He has of God, and proceeds to the affirmation of protested against the inference from the the necessity of God’s objective existence. The subjective conception to objective reality on mind has a concept of something than which the ground that by the same method we nothing greater can be conceived. This even might argue from any of our conceptions to the fool has, when he says in his heart, “there the reality of the thing conceived, as for is no God,” Ps. 14:1. He grasps the conception example for the existence of a lost island, the when he listens, and what he grasps is in his Atlantis. “That, than which nothing greater mind. This something, than which nothing can be thought,” does not exist in the mind in greater can be conceived, cannot exist solely any other way than does the perfection of in the mind. For, if it existed solely in the such an island. The real existence of a thing mind, then it would be possible to think of it must be known before we can predicate as existing also in reality (objectively), and anything of it. Gaunilo’s objection Anselm that would be something greater. This is answered by declaring that the idea of the impossible. This thing, therefore, than which lost island was not a necessary conception nothing greater can be conceived, exists both while that of the highest being was, and that it in the mind and in reality. This is God. “So was to it alone his argument applied. truly,” exclaims Anselm, “dost Thou exist, O Untenable as Anselm’s argument is logically, Lord God, that it is not possible to conceive of it possesses a strong fascination, and contains Thee as not existing. For, if any mind could a great truth. The being of God is an intuition conceive of anything better than Thou art, of the mind, which can only be explained by then the creature would ascend above the God’s objective existence. The modern theory Creator and become His judge, which is of correlation lends its aid to corroborate supremely absurd. Everything else besides what was, after all, fundamental in the Thyself can be conceived of as not existing.” Anselmic presentation, namely, that the idea The syllogism, compact as its presentation is of God in the mind must have corresponding and precise as its language seems to be, is to it a God who really exists. Otherwise, we nevertheless defective, as a logical statement. are left to the mystery which is perhaps still It begs the question. It offends against the greater, how such an idea could ever have principle that deductions from a definition taken firm and general hold of the human are valid only on the supposition that the mind. thing defined exists. The definition and the The doctrine of the atonement.—With the Cur statement of God’s existence are in the major Deus homo, “Why God became Man,” a new premise, “there is something than which chapter opens in the development of the nothing greater can be conceived.” And yet it doctrine of the atonement. The treatise, was the objective existence of this being, which is in the form of a dialogue, is the Anselm wanted to prove. Setting this author’s most elaborate work, and he thought objection aside, there is the other fatal the argument sufficient to break down the objection that objective existence is not a objections of Jew and Pagan to the Christian predicate. Objective being is implied when we system. affirm anything. This objection was stated by Anselm was the first to attempt to prove the Kant. Again, Anselm confused, as necessity of the incarnation and death of the synonymous, understanding a thing and Son of God by the processes of pure reason. having a conception in the understanding. He argued that the world cannot be redeemed by an arbitrary decree of God, nor through

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 11 CH512: Volume 5, Chapter 12 a Grace Notes course man or angel. Man is under the domination of of God, it covers the infinite guilt of the sinner the devil, deserves punishment, and is justly and constitutes the satisfaction required. punished; but the devil torments him without Anselm concludes his treatise with the right, for he does not do it by the authority of inquiry why the devil and his angels are not God, but from malice. The handwriting of saved by Christ. His answer is that they did ordinances against the sinner (Col. 2:14) is not derive their guilt and sinful estate not a note due the devil, but the sentence of through a single individual as men do from God that he who sinned should be the servant Adam. Each sinned for himself. For this of sin. reason each would have to be saved for God cannot allow his original purpose to be himself by a God-angel. In declaring the thwarted. Sin must be forgiven, but how? Man salvation of fallen angels to be impossible, owes subjection to God’s will. Sin is denying Anselm closes with the words, “I do not say to God the honor due him. Satisfaction must that this is impossible as though the value of be rendered to justice before there can be Christ’s death were not great enough to be forgiveness. Bare restitution, however, is not sufficient for all the sins of men and fallen a sufficient satisfaction. For his “contumely,” angels, but because of a reason in the man must give back more than he has taken. unchangeable nature of things which stands He must compensate God’s honor. Just as he in the way of the salvation of the lost angels.” who has inflicted a wound must not only heal It is the merit of Anselm’s argument that, the wound, but pay damages to satisfy the while Athanasius and Augustine had laid demands of violated honor. stress upon the article that through Christ’s All sin, then, must either receive punishment sufferings atonement was made, Anselm or be covered by satisfaction. Can man make explained the necessity of those sufferings. He this satisfaction? No. Were it possible for him also did the most valuable service of setting to lead a perfectly holy life, from the moment aside the view, which had been handed down he became conscious of his debt, he would be from the Fathers, that Christ’s death was a simply doing his duty for that period. The ransom-price paid to Satan. Even Augustine debt of the past would remain unsettled. But had asserted the rights of the devil. Again, sin, having struck at the roots of man’s being, Anselm laid proper stress upon the guilt of he is not able to lead a perfect life. sin. He made earnest with it, not as a mistake, God’s justice, then, man is not able to satisfy. but as a violation of law, a derogation from Man ought, but cannot. God need not, but the honor due to God. does. For, most foreign to God would it be to The subject of the atonement was not allow man, the most precious of his creatures, exhausted by the argument of the Cur Deus to perish. But as God himself must make the homo. No one theory can comprehend its satisfaction, and man ought to make it, the whole meaning. Certain biblical features have satisfaction must be made by one who is both been made prominent since his day which God and man, that is, the God-man. Anselm did not emphasize. Each creative age To make satisfaction, the God-man must give has its own statement of theology, and now back to God something he is not under one aspect and now another aspect of the obligation to render. A life of perfect unchangeable biblical truth is made obedience he owes. Death he does not owe, prominent. The different theories must be put for death is the wages of sin, and he had no into their proper places as fragments of the sin. By submitting to death, he acquired merit. full statement of truth. Anselm regarded the Because this merit is infinite in value, being atonement from the legal rather than from connected with the person of the infinite Son the moral side of the divine nature. The attribute of justice is given a disproportionate

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 12 CH512: Volume 5, Chapter 12 a Grace Notes course emphasis. Man’s relation to God is construed Scripture, and its language constitutes the wholly as the relation of a subordinate to a chief vehicle of his thoughts. superior. The fatherhood of God has no In the first meditation, Anselm makes the adequate recognition. The actor in human famous comparison of human life to the redemption is God, the sovereign and the passage over a slender bridge, spanning a judge. Anselm left out John 3:16 and the deep, dark abyss whose bed is full of all kinds Parable of the Prodigal Son. of foul and ghastly things. The bridge is a Anselm as a mystic.—In Anselm, mysticism single foot in width. What anguish would not was combined with scholasticism, pious take hold of one obliged to cross over it, with devotion with lofty speculation, prayer with eyes bandaged and arms tied, so as not to be logical analysis. His deeply spiritual nature able even to use a staff to feel one’s way! And manifests itself in all his writings, but how greatly would not the anguish be especially in his strictly devotional works, his increased, if great birds were flying in the air, Meditations and Prayers. They are in danger intent on swooping down and defeating the of suffering neglect in the attention given to purpose of the traveller! And how much more Anselm’s theological discussions. anguish would be added if at every step a tile The Schoolman’s spiritual reflections abound should fall away from behind him! The ravine in glowing utterances from the inner is hell, measureless in its depth, horribly dark tabernacle of his heart. Now he loses himself with black, dismal vapors! And the perilous in the contemplation of the divine attributes, bridge is the present life. Whosoever lives ill now he laments over the deadness and falls into the abyss. The tiles are the single waywardness of man. Now he soars aloft in days of a man’s existence here below. The strains of praise and adoration, now he birds are malign spirits. We, the travellers, whispers low the pleadings for mercy and are blinded with ignorance and bound with pardon. At one moment he surveys the the iron difficulty of doing well. Shall we not tragedy of the cross or the joys of the turn our eyes unto the Lord “who is our light redeemed; at another the terrors of the and our salvation, of whom shall we be judgment and hopeless estate of the lost. Such afraid?” Ps. 27:1. a blending of mellow sentiment with high The Prayers are addressed to the Son and speculations is seldom found. No one of the Spirit as well as to the Father. To these are greater personages of the Middle Ages, except added petitions to the Virgin, on whom Bernard, excels him in the mystical element; Anselm bestows the most fulsome titles, and and he often reminds us of Bernard, as when to the saints. In this Anselm was fully the he exclaims, “O good Jesus, how sweet thou child of his age. art to the heart of him who thinks of thee and These devotional exercises, the liturgy of loves thee.” Or again, when he exclaims in his Anselm’s soul, are a storehouse of pious tenth meditation, “O benign Jesus, thought to which due appreciation has not condescending Lord, holy Master, sweet in been accorded. The mystical element gives mouth, sweet in heart, sweet in ear, him a higher place than his theological inscrutably, unutterably gentle, self- treatises, elevated and important as they are. sacrificing, merciful, wise, mighty, most sweet and lovely”—valde dulcis et suavis. The 5.99. Peter Abelard soaring grandeur of Anselm’s thoughts may LITERATURE: Works of ABELARD: ed. first by be likened to the mountains of the land of his DUCHESNE, Paris, 1616. COUSIN: Ouvrages birth, and the pure abundance of his spiritual inédites d’Abélard, Paris, 1836, containing the feeling to the brooks and meadows of its Dialectica and Sic et Non; also the Opera valleys. He quotes again and again from omnia, 2 vols. Paris, 1849–1859. Reprod. in Migne, vol. 178.—R. STOELZLE: De unitate et

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trinitate divina, first ed., Freib. im Br., 1891.— over their hearers, Abelard stands in the front Ed. of his Letters by R. RAWLINSON, Lond., 1718. rank and probably has not been excelled in Engl. trans. of Letters of Abelard and Heloise, France. In some of his theological in Temple Classics. speculations he was in advance of his age. His BIOGRAPHICAL: Abelard’s Autobiography: Hist. personal misfortunes give to his biography a calamitatum, in Migne, 178. 113–180.— flavor of romance which belongs to no other BERENGAR: Apologeticus contra Bernardum, etc., in Migne, 178. 1856–1870.—Bernard’s Schoolman. A man of daring thought and letters as quoted below.—OTTO OF FREISING: De restless disposition, he was unstable in his Gestis Frid., 47 sqq.—JOHN OF SALISBURY: mental beliefs and morally unreliable. Our Metalog. and Hist. Pontificalis.—Modern Lives main authority for his career is the Story of by A. F. GERVAISE, Paris, 1728; COUSIN, in the Misfortunes, Historia calamitatum, written by Ouvrages, 1836; WILKINS, Goettingen, 1855; CH. his own hand, (Migne, 178. 113–180,) in the DE RÉMUSAT, Paris, 1845, 2 vols., new ed., 1855; form of a letter. O. I. DE ROCHELY (Abél. et le rationalisme The eldest son of a knight, Abelard was born moderne), Paris 1867; BONNIER (Abél. et S. Bernard), Paris, 1862; VACANDARD (P. Abél. et at the village of Palais or le Pallet, a few miles sa lutte avec S. Bernard), Paris, 1881; *S. M. from Nantes. His original name was Pierre de DEUTSCH (P. Abael, ein kritischer Theologe des Palais. Both his parents entered convents. 12ten Jahrh., the best exposition of Abelard’s Abelard had for his first teacher Roscellinus. system, Leip., 1883; A. HAUSRATH, Leip., 1893; He listened to William of Champeaux, then at JOSEPH MCCABE, London, 1901.—E. KAISER: P. the head of the cathedral school at Paris, and Abél. Critique, Freib., 1901.—The story of soon began with confidence to refute Abelard and Heloise has been specially told by William’s positions. He then established MAD. GUIZOT, 2 vols., Paris 1839; JACOBI, Berl., independent schools at Melun and Corbeil. 1850; WRIGHT, New York, 1853; KAHNIS, Leip., After a period of sickness, spent under his 1865, etc.—COMPAYRÉ, Abél. and the Orig. and Early His. of Universities.—R. L. POOLE: P. father’s roof, he returned to Paris. He again Abailard in Illustrations of Med. Thought, listened to William on rhetoric, but openly Lond., 1884, pp. 136–167.—STOECKL: Phil. des announced himself as an antagonist of his Mittelalters, I. 218–272.—DENIFLE: D. views, and taught on Mt. Genevieve, then Sentenzen d. Abael. und die Bearbeitungen covered with vineyards. Abelard represents seiner Theologie vor Mitte des 12ten Jahrh. in himself as having drawn almost the last Archiv fuer Lit. und Kirchengesch., etc., 1885, scholar away from the cathedral school to pp. 402–470, 584–624; HEFELE, Councils, V. Genevieve. We next find him under Anselm of 451–488.—The Histories of Philos. of Laon, who, with his brother Radulf, had made UEBERWEG-HEINZE and RITTER—The Lives of St. the school of Laon famous. Again Abelard set Bernard by NEANDER, I. 207–297; II. 1–44; MORISON, 254–322; VACANDARD, II. 120–181.— himself up against his teacher, describing him The Histories of Doctrine of SCHWANE, Harnack, as having a wonderful flow of words, but no Loofs, FISHER, SEEBERG, SHELDON. thoughts. When he lit a fire, he filled the During the first half of the twelfth century, whole house with smoke. He was like the Peter Abelard, 1079–1142, was one of the barren fig tree with the promise of leaves and most conspicuous characters of Europe. His nothing more. Abelard started at Laon fame was derived from the brilliance of his counter lectures on Ezekiel. intellect. He differed widely from Anselm. The Now the opportunity of his life came and he latter was a constructive theologian; Abelard, was called to preside over the cathedral a critic. Anselm was deliberate, Abelard, school at Paris. William of Champeaux had impulsive and rash. Anselm preferred retired to St. Victor and then had been made seclusion; Abelard sought publicity. Among bishop. The years that immediately followed teachers exercising the spell of magnetism were the most brilliant in Abelard’s career. All the world seemed about to do him homage.

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Scholars from all parts thronged to hear him. than instruction. The matter was whispered He lectured on philosophy and theology. He about in Paris. Fulbert was in rage. Abelard was well read in classical and widely read in removed Heloise to his sister’s in Brittany, sacred literature. His dialectic powers were where she bore a son, called Astralabius. ripe and, where arguments failed, the Abelard expressed readiness to have the teacher’s imagination and rhetoric came to nuptial ceremony performed, though in the rescue. His books were read not only in secret, in order to placate Fulbert. Open the schools and convents, but in castles and marriage was eschewed lest he should guild houses. William of Thierry said they himself suffer loss to his fame, as he himself crossed the seas and overleaped the Alps. distinctly says. When he visited towns, the people crowded The Story of Misfortunes leaves no doubt that the streets and strained their necks to catch a what he was willing to do proceeded from glimpse of him. His remarkable influence over fear and that he was not actuated by any men and women must be explained not by his sense of honor toward Heloise or proper view intellectual depth so much as by a certain of woman or of marriage. What accord, he daring and literary art and brilliance. He was wrote, “has study with nurses, writing attractive of person, and Bernard may have materials with cradles, books and desks with had this in mind when he says, Abelard was spinning wheels, reeds and ink with spindles! outwardly a John though he had the heart of a Who, intent upon sacred and philosophical Herod. His statements were clear. He used apt reflections could endure the squalling of analogies and quoted frequently from Horace, children, the lullabies of nurses and the noisy Ovid, and other Latin poets. To these qualities crowd of men and women! Who would stand he added a gay cheerfulness which expressed the disagreeable and constant dirt of little itself in compositions of song and in singing, children!” which made him acceptable to women, as in Abelard declared a secret marriage was later years Heloise reminded him. performed in obedience to the demands of In the midst of this popularity came the fell Heloise’s relatives. At best it was a mock tragedy of his life, his connection with ceremony, for Heloise persisted in denying Heloise, whom Remusat has called “the first she was Abelard’s wife. With mistaken but of women.” This, the leading French woman splendid devotion, she declined to marry him, of the Middle Ages, stands forth invested with believing that marriage would interrupt his a halo as of queenly dignity, while her career. In one of her letters to him she wrote: seducer forfeits by his treatment of her the “If to you, the name of wife seems more esteem of all who prefer manly strength and proper, to me always was more dear the little fidelity to gifts of mind, however brilliant. word friend, or if you do not deem that name Heloise was probably the daughter of a canon proper, then the name of concubine or harlot, and had her home in Paris with her uncle, concubina vel scortum. I invoke God as my witness that, if Augustus had wished to give me Fulbert, also a canon. When Abelard came to the rule over the whole world by asking me in know her, she was seventeen, attractive in marriage, I would rather be your mistress, person and richly endowed in mind. Abelard meretrix, than his empress, imperatrix. Thy prevailed upon Fulbert to admit him to his passion drew thee to me rather than thy house as Heloise’s teacher. Heloise had before friendship, and the heat of desire rather than been at the convent of Argenteuil. The love.” meetings between pupil and tutor became Abelard removed Heloise to Argenteuil and meetings of lovers. Over open books, as she assumed the veil. He visited her in secret Abelard wrote, more words of love were and now Fulbert took revenge. Entering into passed than of discussion and more kisses collusion with Abelard’s servant, he fell upon

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 15 CH512: Volume 5, Chapter 12 a Grace Notes course him at night and mutilated him. Thus They had their wives and children settled humiliated, Abelard entered the convent of St. upon the convent’s domains. They treated Denis, 1118,—not from any impulse of piety their new abbot with contempt and violence, but from expediency. He became indifferent twice, at least, attempting his life. On one to Heloise. occasion it was by drugging the chalice. He New trials fell upon his chequered career— complained of the barrenness of the charges of heresy. He was arraigned for surroundings. Bernard described him as an Sabellian views on the Trinity at Soissons, abbot without discipline. In sheer despair, 1121, before the papal legate. Roscellinus, his Abelard fled and in “striving to escape one old teacher, opened the accusations. Abelard sword I threw myself upon another,” he said. complains that two enemies were responsible At this point the autobiography breaks off for the actual trial and its issue, Alberic and and we know little of its author till 1136. Lotulf, teachers at Rheims. He was obliged to In the meantime the nuns of Argentueil were commit his book to the flames and to read driven out of their quarters. In 1127, Abelard publicly a copy of the Athanasian Creed. placed Heloise in charge of the Paraclete, and Again he got himself into difficulty by under her management it became opposing the current belief, based upon prosperous. He had observed a cold silence Bede’s statement, that Dionysius or St. Denis, for a protracted period, but now and again the patron of France, was the Dionysius visited the Paraclete and delivered sermons converted by Paul at Athens. The monks of St. to the nuns. Heloise received the Story of Denis would not tolerate him. He fled, Misfortunes, and, in receiving it, wrote, retracted his utterance, and with the addressing him as “her lord or rather father, permission of Suger, the new abbot of St. her husband or rather brother, from his Denis, settled in a waste tract in Champagne handmaid or rather daughter, his consort or and built an oratory which he called after the rather sister.” Her first two letters have third person of the Trinity, the Paraclete. scarcely, if ever, been equaled in the annals of Students again gathered around him, and the correspondence in complete abandonment of original structure of reeds and straw was heart and glowing expressions of devotion. replaced by a substantial building of stone. She appealed to him to send her communications. Had she not offered her But old rivals, as he says, again began to very being on the altar for his sake! Had she pursue him just as the heretics pursued not obeyed him in everything, and in nothing Athanasius of old, and “certain would she offend him! ecclesiastics”—presumably Norbert, the founder of the Premonstrants, and Bernard of Abelard replied to Heloise as the superior of Clairvaux—were stirred up against him. the nuns of the Paraclete. She was to him Abelard, perhaps with not too much self- nothing more. He preached to her sermons on disparagement, says of himself that, in prayer, asked for the intercession of the nuns comparison to them, he seemed to be as an on his behalf, and directed that his body be ant before a lion. It was under these laid away in the Paraclete. He rejoiced that circumstances that he received the notice of Heloise’s connection with himself prevented his election as abbot of the monastery of St. her from entering into marriage and giving Gildas on the sea, in his native Brittany. He birth to children. She had thereby been forced went, declaring that “the envy of the into a higher life and to be the mother of Francians drove him to the West, as the envy many spiritual daughters. Heloise plied him of the Romans drove Jerome to the East.” with questions about hard passages in the Scriptures and about practical matters of The monks of St. Gildas are portrayed by daily living and monastic dress,—a device to Abelard as a band of unmitigated ruffians. secure the continuance of the

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 16 CH512: Volume 5, Chapter 12 a Grace Notes course correspondence. Abelard replied by giving Rome. William adduced no less than thirteen rules for the nuns which were long and errors. severe. He enjoined upon them, above all else, The first open sign of antagonism was a letter the study of the Scriptures, and called upon written by Abelard, brimming over with self- them to imitate Jerome who took up Hebrew conceit. On a visit to Heloise at the Paraclete, late in life. He sent them sermons, seven of Bernard had taken exception to the use of the which had been delivered in the Paraclete. He phrase “super substantial bread” in the Lord’s proposed that there should be a convent for Prayer, instead of “daily bread” as given by monks close by the Paraclete. The monks and Luke. Abelard heard of the objection from nuns were to help each other. An abbot was Heloise, and, as if eager to break a lance with to stand at the head of both institutions. The Bernard, wrote to him, showing he was in nuns were to do the monks’ washing and error. He became sarcastic, pointing out that, cooking, milk the cows, feed the chickens and at Clairvaux, novelties were being practised geese. which were otherwise unknown to the In 1137 and again in 1139, we find Abelard Church. New hymns were sung and certain suddenly installed at St. Genevieve and intercessory prayers left out as if the enjoying, for a while, meteoric popularity. Cistercian monks did not stand in need of John of Salisbury was one of his pupils. How intercession also. the change was brought about does not fully So far as we know, Bernard did not answer appear. But Abelard was not destined to have this letter. After some delay, he acted upon peace. The final period of his restless career the request of William of Thierry. He visited now opens. Bernard was at that time the most Abelard in Paris and sought to secure from imposing religious personality of Europe, him a promise that he would retract his Abelard was its keenest philosophical thinker. errors. The one was the representative of The difference was brought to open conflict at churchmanship and church authority, the the synod of Sens, 1141, where Abelard asked other of freedom of inquiry. A clash between that his case might be presented, and that he these two personalities was at hand. It cannot might meet Bernard in argument. Arnold of be regarded as an historical misfortune that Brescia seems to have been among those these two men met on the open field of present. Bernard was among friends and controversy and on the floor of ecclesiastical admirers. Abelard had few friends, and was synods. History is most true to herself when from the first looked upon with suspicion. she represents men just as they were. She is a Bernard had come to the synod to lay the poor teacher, when she does not take whole weight of his influence against Abelard. opportunity to reveal their infirmities as well He had summoned the bishops as friends of as their virtues. Christ, whose bride called to them out of the Abelard was as much to blame for bringing on thicket of heresies. He wrote to the cardinals the conflict by his self-assertive manner as and to Innocent II., characterizing Abelard as Bernard was to blame by unnecessarily a ravenous lion, and a dragon. With Arnold as trespassing upon Abelard’s territory. William, his armor-bearer at his side, Abelard stood abbot of St. Thierry, addressed a letter to like another Goliath calling out against the Bernard and Geoffrey, bishop of Chalons, ranks of Israel, while Bernard felt himself a announcing that Abelard was again teaching youth in dialectical skill. and writing doctrinal novelties. These were At a preliminary meeting with the bishops, not matters of mean import, but concerned Bernard went over the case and it seems to the doctrine of the Trinity, the person of have been decided, at least in an informal Christ, the Holy Spirit, and God’s grace. They way, that Abelard should be condemned. The were even receiving favor in the curia at

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 17 CH512: Volume 5, Chapter 12 a Grace Notes course next day Bernard publicly presented the had set out for Rome and was hardly well charges, but, to the great surprise of all, started on his journey, when the sentence Abelard declined to argue his case and reached him. He stopped at Cluny, where he appealed it to the pope. Passing by Gilbert of met the most useful friend of his life, Peter Poictiers, Abelard is said to have whispered the Venerable. At Peter’s intercession, Horace’s line, Innocent allowed the homeless scholar to “Look well to your affairs now that your remain in Cluny whence the pope himself had neighbor’s house is burning.” gone forth. Nam tua res agitur, paries eum proximus ardet. Following Peter’s counsel, Abelard again met To Rome the case must go. Abelard no doubt Bernard face to face. In a defence of his felt that he had nothing to hope for from the orthodoxy, addressed to Heloise, he affirmed prelates. From Innocent II., whose side he had his acceptance of all the articles of the Church espoused against the antipope, Anacletus, he from the article on the Trinity to the might expect some favor and he had friends resurrection of the dead. As it was with in the curia. The synod called upon the Jerome, so no one could write much without supreme pontiff to brand Abelard’s heresies being misunderstood. with perpetual condemnation—perpetua But his turbulent career was at an end. He damnatione—and to punish their defenders. was sent by Peter to St. Marcellus near The charges, fourteen in number, concerned Chalons for his health, and there he died April the Trinity, the nature of faith, the power and 21, 1142, sixty-three years old. His last days work of Christ, and the nature of sin. Bernard in Cluny are described by Peter in a letter followed up the synodal letter with a written to Heloise, full of true Christian communication to the pope, filling forty sympathy. He called Abelard a true columns in Migne, and letters to cardinals, philosopher of Christ. One so humble in which are full of vehement charges against manner he had not seen. He was abstinent in the accused man. Abelard and Arnold of meat and drink. He read continually and Brescia were in collusion. Abelard had joined prayed fervently. Faithfully he had committed himself with Arius in ascribing degrees within his body and soul to his Lord Redeemer for the Trinity, with Pelagius in putting free will time and eternity. “So Master Peter finished before grace, and with Nestorius in his days and he who was known in almost the separating the person of Christ. In name and whole world for his great erudition and exterior a monk, he was at heart a heretic. He ability as a teacher died peacefully in Him had emerged from Brittany as a tortuous who said ‘Learn of me, for I am meek and snake from its hole and, as in the case of the lowly of heart,’ and he is, as we must believe, hydra, seven heads appeared where before gone to Him.” there had been but one. In his letter to the Abelard’s body was carried to the Paraclete pope, he declared the only thing Abelard did and there given rest. Twenty-two years later, not know was the word nescio, “I do not Heloise was laid at his side. The inscription know.” placed over the tomb ran, The judgment was swift in coming and “The Socrates of the Gauls, the great Plato of crushing when it came. Ten days were the Occidentals, our Aristotle, who was greater sufficient. The fourteen articles were burned or equal to him among the logicians! Abelard by the pope’s own hand in front of St. Peter’s was the prince of the world’s scholars, varied in the presence of the cardinals. Abelard in talent, subtle and keen, conquering all things himself was declared to be a heretic and the by his mental force. And then he became a penalty of perpetual silence and confinement conqueror indeed, when, entering Cluny, he was imposed upon him. The unfortunate man passed over to the true philosophy of Christ.”

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At a later time the following inscription was thinking of, and lamenting. Instead of placed over the united dust of these ascribing his misfortunes to his own mistakes remarkable and unfortunate personages, and distemper, he ascribes them to the rivalry “Under this marble lie the founder of this and jealousy of others. His one aim in his convent, P. Abelard and the first abbess troubles seems to have been to regain his Heloise, once joined by studies, mind, love, popularity. forbidden marriage,—infaustis nuptiis,—and Abelard’s writings are dialectic, ethical, and penitence and now, as we hope, in eternal theological treatises, poems and letters to felicity.” Heloise, and his autobiography. His chief At the destruction of the Paraclete during the theological works are a Commentary on the French Revolution, 1792, the marble Romans, the Introduction to Theology, and a sarcophagus was removed to Paris and in Christian Theology, the last two being mainly 1816 it was transferred to the cemetery of concerned with the Trinity, a colloquy Père la Chaise. There it remains, the chief between a philosopher, a Jew, and a Christian object of interest in that solemn place of the and the Sic et Non, Yes and No. In the last dead, attracting Frenchmen and visitors from work the author puts side by side in one distant lands who commemorate, with tears hundred and fifty-eight chapters a collection of sympathy and a prayer over the mistakes of quotations from the Fathers which seem to of mortals, the unfortunate lovers. be or really are contradictory. The compiler 5.100. Abelard’s Teachings and Theology does not offer a reconciliation. The subjects on which the divergent opinions are collated Furnished with brilliant talents, Abelard range from the abstruse problem of the stands in the front rank of French public Trinity and the person of Christ to the teachers. But he was a creature of impulse questions whether Eve alone was seduced or and offensively conscious of his own gifts and Adam with her, whether Adam was buried on acquirements. He lacked the reverent Calvary (the view taken by Ambrose and modesty and equilibrium which become Jerome) or not (Isidore of Seville), and greatness. He was deficient in moral force to whether Adam was saved or not. His chief lift him above the whips and stings of fortune, writing on Ethics was the Scito te ipsum, or rather the calamities of his own making. He “Know thyself.” seems to have discerned no goal beyond his own selfish ambition. As Neander has said, if In some of his theological conceptions he had been a man of pure moral character, Abelard was in advance of his age. The new he would have accomplished more than he seeds of thought which he let fall have did in the domain of scholarly study. A man of germinated in recent times. His writings show the highest type could not have written his that, in the twelfth century also, the critical Story of Misfortunes in the tone that Abelard sense had a representative. wrote. He shows not a sign of repentance 1. In the conflict over Realism and towards God for his treatment of Heloise. Nominalism Abelard occupied an When he recalls that episode, it is not to find intermediate position. On the one hand he fault with himself, and it is not to do her any ridiculed the nominalism of Roscellinus, and reparation. on the other he controverted the severe His readiness to put himself in opposition to realism of William of Champeaux. He taught his teachers and to speak contemptuously of that the universal is more than a word, vox. It them and to find the motive for such is an affirmation, sermo. That which our opposition in envy, indicates also a lack of the thinking finds to be common, he declared to higher moral sentiment. It is his own loss of be real, and the forms of things existed in the fame and position that he is continually divine mind before the creation.

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2. Of much more interest are Abelard’s views an innovation. In him the inquisitive temper of the ultimate seat of religious authority and was in the ascendant over the fiducial. Some of inspiration. Although his statements at writers even treat him as the forerunner of times seem to be contradictory, the modern rationalism. In appearance, at least, conclusion is justified that he was an he started from a principle the opposite of advocate of a certain freedom of criticism and Anselm’s, namely, “nothing is to be believed, inquiry, even though its results contradicted until it has been understood.” His definition of the authority of the Church. He recognized faith as a presumption of things not seen was the principle of inspiration, but by this he did interpreted by Bernard and other not mean what Gregory the Great taught, that contemporaries to mean that faith was an the biblical authors were altogether passive. uncertain opinion. What Abelard probably They exercised a measure of independence, meant was, that faith does not rest upon and they were kept from all mistakes. authority, but upon inquiry and experience. The rule upon which he treated the Fathers There are times, however, when he seems to and the Scriptures is set forth in the Prologue contradict himself and to set forth the of the Sic et Non. In presenting the opposite principle. He says, “We believe in contradictory opinions of the Fathers he order to know, and unless ye believe, ye shows his intellectual freedom, for the cannot know.” His contemporaries felt that he accredited belief was that their statements was unsound and that his position would were invariably consistent. Abelard overthrow the authority of the Church. pronounced this a mistake. Did not Augustine The greater doctrines of the Trinity and the retract some of his statements? Their existence of God, Abelard held, could not be mistakes, however, and the supposed proved as necessary, but only as probable. In mistakes of the Scriptures may be only opposition to the pruriency of Scholasticism, imaginary, due to our failure to understand he set up the principle that many things what they say. Paul, in saying that pertaining to God need neither to be believed, Melchisedek has neither father nor mother, nor denied, for no danger is involved in the only meant that the names of his parents belief or denial of them. He gives as examples, were not given in the Old Testament. The whether God will send rain on the morrow or appearance of Samuel to Saul at the interview not, and whether God will grant pity to a with the witch of Endor was only a fancy, not certain most wicked man or not. On the other a reality. Prophets did not always speak with hand he declared that to affirm that we the Spirit of God, and Peter made mistakes. cannot understand what has been taught Why should not the Fathers also have made about the Trinity is to say that the sacred mistakes? The authority of Scripture and the writers themselves did not understand what Fathers does not preclude critical they taught. As for the Catholic faith, it is investigation. On the contrary, the critical necessary for all, and no one of sound mind spirit is the proper spirit in which to can be saved without it. approach them. “In the spirit of doubt we 3. In his statement of the doctrine of the approach inquiry, and by inquiry we find out Trinity, Abelard laid himself open to the the truth, as He, who was the Truth said, ‘Seek charge both of modalism and Arianism. It and ye shall find, knock and it shall be opened called forth Bernard’s severest charges. unto you.’ ” Abelard made no contribution to the subject. The mystical and the philosophical elements, The idea of the Trinity he derived from God’s united in Anselm, were separated in Abelard. absolute perfections. God, as power, is the But Abelard followed the philosophical Father; as wisdom, He is the Son; as love, the principle further than Anselm. He was a born Spirit. The Scriptures are appealed to for this critic, restless of mind, and anxious to make view. The Father has put all things in His

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 20 CH512: Volume 5, Chapter 12 a Grace Notes course power, Acts 1:7. The Son, as Logos, is wisdom. The seat of sin is the intention, which is the The Holy Spirit is called good, Ps. 143:10, and root, bearing good and bad fruit. Desire or imparts spiritual gifts. The figure gave much concupiscence is not sin. This intention, umbrage, by which he compared the three intentio, is not the simple purpose, say, to kill persons of the Trinity to the brass of which a a man in opposition to killing one without seal is made, the form of the seal, and the seal premeditation, but it is the underlying itself proceeding from, or combining the purpose to do right or wrong. In this brass and the form. “The brass itself which is consciousness of right or wrong lies the guilt. the substance of the brazen seal, and the seal Those who put Christ to death from a feeling itself of which the brass is the substance, are that they were doing right, did not sin, or, if essentially one; yet the brass and the seal are they sinned, sinned much less grievously than so distinct in their properties, that the if they had resisted their conscience and not property of the brass is one, and the property put him to death. How then was it that Christ of the brazen seal another.” These are prayed that those who crucified him might be ultimately three things: the brass, aes, the forgiven? Abelard answers by saying that the brass capable of sealing, sigillabile, and the punishment for which forgiveness was asked brass in the act of sealing, sigillans. was temporal in its nature. 4. In his treatment of the atonement, Abelard The logical deduction from Abelard’s has valuable original elements. Strange to say, premises would have been that no one incurs he makes no reference to Anselm’s great penalty but those who voluntarily consent to treatise. Man, Abelard said, is in the power of sin. But from this he shrank back. The godless the devil, but the devil has no right to this condition of the heathen he painted in power. What rights does a slave have over darkest colors. He, however, praised the another slave whom he leads astray? Christ philosophers and ascribed to them a not only did not pay any price to the devil for knowledge through the Sibylline books, or man’s redemption, he also did not make otherwise, of the divine unity and even of the satisfaction to divine justice and appease Trinity. Bernard wrote to Innocent II. that, God’s wrath. If the fall of Adam needed while Abelard labored to prove Plato a satisfaction by the death of some one, who Christian, he proved himself to be a pagan. then would be able to satisfy for the death of Liberal as he was in some of his doctrinal Christ? In the life and death of the Redeemer, views, he was wholly at one with the Church God’s purpose was to manifest. His love and in its insistence upon the efficiency of the thus to stir up love in the breast of man, and sacraments, especially baptism and the Lord’s to draw man by love back to Himself. God Supper. might have redeemed man by a word, but He Because Abelard stands outside of the chose to set before man an exhibition of His theological circle of his day, he will always be love in Christ. Christ’s love constitutes the one of the most interesting figures of the merit of Christ. The theory anticipates the Middle Ages. His defect was in the lack of modern moral influence theory of the moral power. The student often finds himself atonement, so called. asking the question, whether his statements 5. Abelard’s doctrine of sin likewise presents were always the genuine expression of features of difference from the view current convictions. But for this lack of moral force, in his time. The fall occurred when Eve he might have been the Tertullian of the resolved to eat the forbidden fruit, that is, Middle Ages, whom he is not unlike in dash after her desire was aroused and before the and original freshness of thought. The African actual partaking of the fruit. Father, so vigorous in moral power, the Latin Church excludes from the number of the saints on account of his ecclesiastical dissent.

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Abelard she cannot include on account of exposition of Aristotle’s last six categories, moral weakness. Had he been willing to suffer which Aristotle himself left unexplained, and and had he not retracted all the errors a commentary on the work on the Trinity, charged against him, he might have been ascribed to Boethius. They occupy only a few given a place among the martyrs of thought. pages in print. As it is, his misfortunes arouse our sympathy Gilbert’s work on the Trinity involved him in for human frailties which are common; his a trial for heresy, in which Bernard was again theology and character do not awaken our a leading actor. The case was brought before admiration. the synods of Paris, 1147, and Rheims, 1148. 5.101. Younger Contemporaries of Abelard According to Otto of Freising, Gilbert was a man of earnest purpose. It was his dark and LITERATURE: For Gilbert (Gislebertus) of abstruse mode of statement and intense Poictiers. His Commentaries on Boethius, De trinitate are in Migne, 64. 1266 sqq. The De sex realism that exposed him to the accusation of principiis, Migne, 188. 1250–1270. For his life: unorthodoxy. GAUFRID OF AUXERRE, Migne, 185. 595 sqq.— Some of Gilbert’s pupils were ready to testify OTTO OF FREISING, De gestis Frid., 50–57.—J. OF against him, but sufficient evidence of SALISBURY, Hist. pontif., VIII.—POOLE, in Illustr. tritheism were not forthcoming at Paris and of the Hist. of Med. Thought, pp. 167–200. the pope, who presided, adjourned the case to HEFELE, V. 503–508, 520–524.—NEANDER- Rheims. At Rheims, Bernard who had been DEUTSCH, St. Bernard, II. 130–144. appointed prosecutor offended some of the For John of Salisbury, Works in Migne, vols. 190, 199, and J. A. Giles, Oxford, 1848, 5 vols.— cardinals by his methods of conducting the Hist. pontificalis romanus, in Mon. German., prosecution. Both Otto of Freising and John of vol. XX.—Lives by REUTER, Berlin, 1842.—*C. Salisbury state that a schism was threatened SCHAARSCHMIDT, Joh. Saresbriensis nach Leben and only averted by the good sense of pope und Studien, Schriften und Philosophie, Leip., Eugenius. 1862, and art. in Herzog, IX. 313–319.— To the pope’s question whether Gilbert Denimuid, Paris, 1873.—SCHUBERT: Staatslehre believed that the highest essence, by virtue of J. von Sal., Berlin, 1897.—STUBBS, in Study of which, as he asserted, each of the three Med. and Mod. Hist., Lectt. VI., VII.—POOLE, in Illustr. etc., pp. 201–226, and Dict. of Natl. persons of the Trinity was God, was itself Biogr., XXIX. 439–446. God, Gilbert replied in the negative. Gilbert won the assembly by his thorough Among Abelard’s younger contemporaries acquaintance with the Fathers. The charge and pupils were Gilbert of Poictiers, John of was declared unproven and Gilbert was Salisbury, and Robert Pullen, theologians who enjoined to correct the questionable were more or less influenced by Abelard’s statements in the light of the fourth spirit of free inquiry. Peter the Lombard, d. proposition brought in by Bernard. The 1164, also shows strong traces of Abelard’s accused continued to administer his see till teaching, especially in his Christology. his death. Otto of Freising concludes his Gilbert of Poictiers, 1070–1154, is better account by saying, that either Bernard was known by his public trial than by his writings, deceived as to the nature of Gilbert’s teaching or any permanent contributions to theology. as David was deceived by Mephibosheth, 2 Born at Poictiers, he studied under Bernard of Sam. 9:1–9 sqq., or that Gilbert covered up his Chartres, William of Champeaux, Anselm of real meaning by an adroit use of words to Laon, and Abelard. He stood at the head of the escape the judgment of the Church. With cathedral school in Chartres for ten years, and reference to his habit of confusing wisdom in 1137 began teaching in Paris. In 1142 he with words Walter of St. Victor called Gilbert was made bishop of Poictiers. His two one of the four labyrinths of France. principal works are De sex principiis, an

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John of Salisbury, about 1115–1180, was the intricate and obscure as possible, so as to chief literary figure and scholar among the attract students by the appearance of Englishmen of the twelfth century, and profundity. John declared that logic was a exhibits in his works the practical tendency of vain thing except as an instrument, and by the later English philosophy. He was born at itself as useless as the “sword of Hercules in a Salisbury and of plebeian origin. He spent ten pygmy’s hand.” He emphasized the or twelve years in “divers studies” on the importance of knowledge that can be put to Continent, sat at the feet of Abelard on Mt. use, and gave a long list of things about which Genevieve, 1136, and heard Gilbert of a wise man may have doubts, such as Poictiers, William of Conches, Robert Pullen, providence and human fortune, the origin of and other renowned teachers. A full account the soul, the origin of motion, whether all sins of the years spent in study is given in his are equal and equally to be punished. God, he Metalogicus. Returning to England, he stood affirmed, is exalted above all that the mind in a confidential relation to archbishop can conceive, and surpasses our power of Theobald. At a later time he espoused ratiocination. Becket’s cause and was present in the The Historia pontificalis is an account of cathedral when the archbishop was ecclesiastical matters falling under John’s murdered. He had urged the archbishop not own observation, extending from the council to enter his church. In 1176 he was made at Rheims, 1148, to the year 1152. bishop of Chartres. He says he crossed the Alps no less than ten times on ecclesiastical 5.102. Peter the Lombard and the business. Summists By his reminiscences and miscellanies, John LITERATURE: Works of P. Lombard, Migne, vols. contributed, as few men did, to our 191, 192.—PROTOIS, P. Lomb. son épôque, sa knowledge of the age in which he lived. He vie, ses écrits et son influence, Paris, 1881. had the instincts of a Humanist, and, had he Contains sermons not found in Migne.— KOEGEL: P. Lomb. in s. Stellung zur Philos. des lived several centuries later, would probably Mittelalters, Leip., 1897.—*O. BALTZER: D. have been in full sympathy with the Sentenzen d. P. Lomb., irhe Quellen und ihre Renaissance. His chief works are the dogmengeschichtl. Bedeutung, Leip., 1902.— Metalogicus, the Polycraticus, and the *DENIFLE: D. Sentenzen Abelards, etc., in Archiv, Historia pontificalis. The Polycraticus is a 1885, pp. 404 sqq.—Arts. Lombardus, in treatise on the principles of government and Wetzer-Welte, IX. 1916–1923, and *Herzog, by philosophy, written for the purpose of Seeberg, XI. 630–642.—STOECKL, Philos. des drawing attention away from the trifling Mittelalters, I. 390–411. The Histories of disputes and occupations of the world to a Doctrine of SCHWANE, pp. 160 sqq., BACH, consideration of the Church and the proper HARNACK, FISHER, etc. uses of life. He fortified his positions by Peter the Lombard is the father of systematic quotations from the Scriptures and classical theology in the Catholic Church. He produced writers, and shows that the Church is the true the most useful and popular theological text- conservator of morality and the defender of book of the Middle Ages, as Thomas Aquinas justice in the State. He was one of the best- produced the most complete theological read men of his age in the classics. system. In method, he belongs to the age of In the Metalogicus, John calls a halt to the the great theologians of the thirteenth casuistry of Scholasticism and declares that century, when Scholasticism was at its height. the reason is apt to err as well as the senses. In point of time, he has his place in the twelfth Dialectics had come to be used as an century, with whose theologians, Bernard, exhibition of mental acumen, and men, like Abelard, Gilbert, Hugo of St. Victor, and Adam du Petit Pont, made their lectures as others, he was personally acquainted. Peter

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 23 CH512: Volume 5, Chapter 12 a Grace Notes course was born at Novara, in Northern Italy, and books have enjoyed the distinction of having died in Paris about 1164. After studying in had so many commentaries written upon Bologna, he went to France and attended the them. One hundred and sixty are said to be by school of St. Victor and the cathedral school in Englishmen, and one hundred and fifty-two Paris, and came under the influence of by members of the order of St. Dominic. The Abelard. He afterwards taught in Paris. greatest of the Schoolmen lectured and wrote Walter Map, describing his experiences in commentaries upon it, as Alexander Hales, France, calls him “the famous theologian.” In Albertus Magnus, Bonaventura, Thomas 1159 he was made bishop of Paris. Aquinas, Durandus, and Occam. His monumental work, the Four Books of Not uninfluenced by the method pursued by Sentences, libri quatuor sententiarum, covers, Abelard in the Sic et Non, the Lombard in a systematic way, the whole field of collated statements from the Fathers and he dogmatic theology, as John of Damascus had set about making his compilation to relieve done four hundred years before in his the student from the task and toil of searching summary of the Orthodox Faith. It won for its for himself in the Fathers. Augustine author the title, the Master of Sentences, furnished more than twice as many magister sententiarum. Other systems of quotations as all the other Fathers together. theology under the name of sentences had The Lombard went further than Abelard and preceded the Lombard’s treatise. Such a work proposed to show the harmony existing was ascribed to Abelard by St. Bernard. This between the patristic statements. In the was probably a mistake. It is certain, arrangement of his material and for the however, that Abelard’s scholars—Roland material itself he drew largely upon Abelard, (afterwards Alexander III.), while he was Gratian, and Hugo of St. Vector, without, professor at Bologna, 1142, and Omnebene— however, quoting them by name. Upon Hugo produced such works and followed Abelard’s he drew for entire paragraphs. threefold division of faith, charity, and the The Sentences are divided into four parts, sacraments. Of more importance were the treating of the triune God, created beings and treatises of Anselm of Laon, Robert Pullen, sin, the incarnation, the Christian virtues and and Hugo of St. Victor, who wrote before the the Decalogue, and the sacraments with some Lombard prepared his work. Robert Pullen, questions in eschatology. The author’s who died about 1147, was an Englishman and method is to state the doctrine taught by the one of the first teachers at Oxford, then went Church, to confirm it from Scripture, then to to Paris, where he had John of Salisbury for adduce the opinions of the Fathers and, if one of his hearers about 1142, enjoyed the they seemed to be in conflict, to reconcile friendship of St. Bernard, came into favor at them. His ultimate design was to lift up the Rome, and was appointed cardinal by light of truth in its candlestick, and he assures Celestine II. us his labor had cost him much toil and sweat The Lombard’s work is clear, compact, and of the brow. sententious, moderate and judicial in spirit, The Lombard’s arguments for the divine and little given to the treatment of useless existence are chiefly cosmological. God’s questions of casuistry. In spite of some predestination of the elect is the cause of attacks upon its orthodoxy, it received wide good in them and is not based upon any recognition and was used for several foreseen goodness they may have. Their centuries as a text-book, as Calvin’s Institutes, number cannot be increased or diminished. at a later period, was used in the Protestant On the other hand, God does not take the churches. Down to the sixteenth century, initiation the condemnation of the lost. Their every candidate for the degree of B. A. at Paris was obliged to pass an examination in it. Few

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 24 CH512: Volume 5, Chapter 12 a Grace Notes course reprobation follows as a consequence upon certain highest being,” and that the substance the evil in them which is foreseen. neither begets nor is begotten, nor does it In the second book, the Lombard makes the proceed from anything. Joachim charged that famous statement which he quotes from he substituted a quaternity for the Trinity and Augustine, and which has often been falsely called him a heretic, but the council took ascribed as original to Matthew Henry, that another view and pronounced in favor of the woman was not taken from Adam’s head, Peter’s orthodoxy. Walter of St. Victor went as if she were to rule over him or from his so far as to accuse the author of the Sentences feet as if she were to be his slave, but from his with Sabellianism, Arianism, and “novel side that she might be his consort. By the Fall heresies.” In spite of such charges no one can man suffered injury as from a wound, get as clear an idea of medieval theology in a vulneratio, not deprivation of all virtue. succinct form as in Peter Lombard unless it Original sin is handed down through the be in the Breviloquium of Bonaventura. medium of the body and becomes operative The last and one of the clearest of the upon the soul by the soul’s contact with the Summists of the twelfth century was Alanus body. The root of sin is concupiscence, de Insulis, Alain of Lille, who was born at concupiscentia. The Lombard was a Lille, Flanders, and died about 1202. His creationist. God knew man would fall. Why He works were much read, especially his did not prevent it, is not known. allegorical poems, Anticlaudianus and De In his treatment of the atonement, Peter planctu naturae. denied that Christ’s death was a price paid to In the Rules of Sacred Theology Alanus gives the devil. It is the manifestation of God’s love, one hundred and twenty-five brief and by Christ’s love on the cross, love is expositions of theological propositions. In the enkindled within us. Here the Lombard five books on the Catholic Faith, he considers approaches the view of Abelard. He has the doctrine of God, creation and redemption, nothing to say in favor of Anselm’s view that the sacraments, and the last things. The the death of Christ was a payment to the Church is defined as the congregation of the divine honor. faithful confessing Christ and the arsenal of In his treatment of the sacraments, the the sacraments. Alanus’ work, Against Lombard commends immersion as the proper Heretics, has already been used in the form of baptism, triune or single. Baptism chapters on the Cathari and Waldenses. destroys the guilt of original sin. The Lord’s Another name which may be introduced here Supper is a sacrifice, and the elements are is Walter of St. Victor, who is chiefly known transmuted into the body and blood of Christ. by his characterization of Abelard, Gilbert of Water is to be mixed with the wine, the water Poictiers, Peter the Lombard, and the signifying the people redeemed by Christ’s Lombard’s pupil, Peter of Poictiers, passion. afterwards chancellor of the University of It is remarkable that a work which came into Paris, as the four labyrinths of France. He such general esteem, and whose statements likened their reasoning to the garrulity of are so carefully guarded by references to frogs,—ranarum garrulitas,—and declared Augustine, should have been attacked again that, as sophists, they had unsettled the faith and again as heretical, as at the synod of by their questions and counterquestions. Tours, 1163, and at the Third Lateran, 1179; Walter’s work has never been printed. He but at neither was any action taken. Again at succeeded Richard as prior of the convent of the Fourth Lateran, 1215, Peter’s statement St. Victor. He died about 1180. of the Trinity was attacked. Peter had said that the Father, Son, and Spirit were “a

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5.103. Mysticism In the Apostle John and also in Paul we have LITERATURE: The Works of St. Bernard, Hugo the mystical element embodied. The center of and Richard of St. Victor, Rupert of Deutz, and John’s theology is that God is love. The goal of also of Anselm, Bonaventura, Thomas Aquinas, the believer is to abide in Christ and to have all in Migne’s Patrology.—G. ARNOLD: Historie Christ abide in him. The true mystic has felt. und Beschreibung d. myst. Theologie, Frankf., He is no visionary nor a dabbler in occultism. 1703.—H. SCHMID: D. Mysticismus des Nor is he a recluse. Neither the mystics of this Mittelalters, Jena, 1824.—J. GOERRES (Prof. of period nor Eckart and Tauler of a later period Hist. in Munich, founder of German seclude themselves from the course of human ultramontanism, d. 1848): D. christl. Mystik, 4 events and human society. Bernard and the vols. Regensb., 1836–1842. A product of the fancy rather than of sober historical theologians of St. Victor did not lose investigation.—A. HELFFERICH: D. christl. themselves in the absorption of ecstatic Mystik, etc., 2 parts, Gotha, 1842.—R. A. exercises, though they sought after complete VAUGHN: Hours with the Mystics, Lond., 1856, and placid composure of soul under the 4th ed., no date, with preface by influence of love for Christ and the pure Wycliffefefefefe Vaughan.—LUDWIG NOACK: D. contemplation of spiritual things. “God,” said christl. Mystik nach ihrem geschichtl. St. Bernard, “is more easily sought and found Entwickelungsgang, 2 parts, Koenigsb., by prayer than by disputation.” “God is 1863.—J. HAMBERGER: Stimmen der Mystik, etc., known,” said both Bernard and Hugo of St. 2 parts, Stuttg., 1857.—W. PREGER: Gesch. der Victor, “so far as He is loved.” Dante placed deutschen Mystik im Mittelalter, 3 vols. Leip., 1874–1893. The Mysticism of the twelfth and Bernard still higher than Thomas Aquinas, the thirteenth cents. is given, vol. I 1–309.—CARL master of scholastic thought, and was led by DU PREL: D. Philosophie der Mystik, Leip., him through prayer to the beatific vision of 1885.—W. R. INGE: Christ. Mysticism, Lond., the Holy Trinity with which his Divine 1899.—The Lives of Bernard, Hugo of St. Comedy closes. Victor, etc.—The Histories of Doctrine of Augustine furnished the chief materials for SCHWANE, Harnack, etc. the mystics of the Middle Ages as he did for Side by side with the scholastic element in the scholastics. It was he who said, “Thou hast medieval theology was developed the made us for thyself and the heart is restless mystical element. Mysticism aims at the till it rests in Thee.” For Aristotle, the mystics immediate personal communion of the soul substituted Dionysius the Areopagite, the with the Infinite Spirit, through inward Christian Neo-Platonist, whose works were devotions and spiritual aspirations, by made accessible in Latin by Scotus Erigena. abstraction rather than by logical analysis, by The mystical element was strong in the adoration rather than by argument, with the greatest of the Schoolmen, Anselm, Thomas heart rather than with the head, through the Aquinas, and Bonaventura. spiritual feelings rather than through The Middle Ages took Rachel and Leah, Mary intellectual prowess, through the immediate and Martha as the representatives of the contact of the soul with God rather than contemplative and the active life, the through rites and ceremonies. conventual and the secular life, and also of the The characteristic word to designate the mystic and scholastic methods. Through the activity of the mystic is devotion; of the entire two periods of seven years, says Peter scholastic, speculation. Mysticism looks less Damiani, Jacob was serving for Rachel. Every for God without and more for God within the convert must endure the fight of temptation, breast. It relies upon experience rather than but all look forward to repose and rest in the upon definitions. Mysticism is equally joy of supreme contemplation; that is, as it opposed to rationalism and to ritual were, the embraces of the beautiful Rachel. formalism. These two periods stand for the Old and New

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Testament, the law and the grace of the hymns. The author’s intimate acquaintance Gospel. He who keeps the commandments of with the Scriptures is shown on almost every both at last comes into the embraces of page. He has all the books at his command Rachel long desired. and quotation follows quotation with great Richard of St. Victor devotes a whole treatise rapidity. Bernard enjoyed the highest to the comparison between Rachel and Leah. reputation among his contemporaries as an Leah was the more fertile, Rachel the more expounder of the inner life, as his letters comely. Leah represented the discipline of written in answer to questions show. Harnack virtue, Rachel the doctrine of truth. Rachel calls him the religious genius of the twelfth stands for meditation, contemplation, century, the leader of his age, the greatest spiritual apprehension, and insight; Leah for preacher Germany had ever heard. In matters weeping, lamentation, repining, and grief. of religious contemplation he called him a Rachel died in giving birth to Benjamin. So new Augustine, Augustinus redivivus. reason, after the pangs of ratiocination, dies The practical instinct excluded the in giving birth to religious devotion and speculative element from Bernard as worldly ardor. ambition excluded the mystical element from This comparison was taken from Augustine, Abelard. Bernard had the warmest respect for who said that Rachel stands for the joyous the Apostle Paul and greatly admired apprehension of the truth and, for that Augustine as “the mightiest hammer of the reason, was said to have a good face and heretics” and “the pillar of the Church.” Far beautiful form. St. Bernard spoke of the more attractive is he as a devotional fellowship of the active and contemplative life theologian, descanting on the excellence of as two members of the same family, dwelling love and repeating Paul’s words. “Let all your together as did Mary and Martha. things be done in love,” 1 Cor. 16:14, than as a champion of orthodoxy and writing, “It is The scholastic theology was developed in better that one perish than that unity perish.” connection with the school and the university, the mystic in connection with the Prayer and personal sanctity, according to convent. Clairvaux and St. Victor near Paris Bernard, are the ways to the knowledge of were the hearth-stones of mysticism. Within God, and not disputation. The saint, not the cloistral precincts were written the disputant, comprehends God. Humility and passionate hymns of the Middle Ages, and the love are the fundamental ethical principles of eucharistic hymns of Thomas Aquinas are the theology. The conventual life, with its vigils utterances of the mystic and not of the and fastings, is not an end but a means to Schoolman. develop these two fundamental Christian virtues. Every convent he regarded as a The leading mystical divines of this period company of the perfect, collegium were Bernard, Hugo and Richard of St. Victor, perfectorum, but not in the sense that all the and Rupert of Deutz. Mystical in their whole monks were perfect. tendency were also Joachim of Flore, Hildegard and Elizabeth of Schoenau, who The treatise on Loving God asserts that God belong in a class by themselves. will be known in the measure in which He is loved. Writing to Cardinal Haimeric, who had 5.104. St. Bernard as a Mystic inquired “why and how God is to be loved,” The works of Bernard which present his Bernard replied. “The exciting cause of love to mystical theology are the Degrees of Humility God, is God Himself. The measure of love to and Pride, a sermon addressed to the clergy, God is to love God without measure. The gifts entitled Conversion, the treatise on Loving of nature and the soul are adapted to awaken God, his Sermons on the Canticles, and his love. But the gifts involved in the soul’s

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 27 CH512: Volume 5, Chapter 12 a Grace Notes course relation to the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, 4:5, are the goodness and longsuffering which whom the unbeliever does not know, are Christ feels and dispenses, Rom. 2:4. The inexpressibly more precious and call upon Canticles are a song commemorating the man to exercise an infinite and measureless grace of holy affection and the sacrament of love, for God is infinite and measureless. The eternal matrimony. It is an epithalamial soul is great in the proportion in which it hymn; no one can hear who does not love, for loves God.” the language of love is a barbarous tongue to Love grows with our apprehension of God’s him who does not love, even as Greek is to love. As the soul contemplates the cross it is one who is not a Greek. Love needs no other itself pierced with the sword of love, as when stimulus but itself. Love loves only to be loved it is said in the Canticles, 2:5. “I am sick from again. love.” Love towards God has its reward, but Rhapsodic expressions like these welled up in love loves without reference to reward. True exuberant abundance as Bernard spoke to his love is sufficient unto itself. To be fully audiences at different hours of the day in the absorbed by love is to be deified. As the drop convent of Clairvaux. They are marked by no of water dropped into wine seems to lose its progress of thought. Aphoristic statement color, and taste, and as the iron held in the takes the place of logic. The same spiritual glowing flame loses its previous shape and experiences find expression over and over becomes like the flame, and as the air, again. But the treatment is always devout and transfused by the light of the sun, becomes full of unction, and proves the justice of the itself like the light, and seems to be as the sun title, “the honey-flowing doctor,”—doctor itself, even so all feeling in the saint is wholly mellifluus—given to the fervid preacher. transfused by God’s will, and God becomes all The mysticism of St. Bernard centers in and in all. Christ. It is by contemplation of Him that the In Bernard’s eighty-six Sermons on the Song soul is filled with knowledge and ecstasy. The of Solomon, we have a continuous apostrophe goal which the soul aspires to is that Christ to love, the love of God and the soul’s love to may live in us, and our love to God become God. As sermons they stand out like the Petite the all-controlling affection. Christ is the pure Carême of Massillon among the great lily of the valley whose brightness illuminates collections of the French pulpit. Bernard the mind. As the yellow pollen of the lily reached only the first verse of the third shines through the white petals, so the gold of chapter. His exposition, which is written in his divinity shines through his humanity. Latin, revels in the tropical imagery of this Bethlehem and Calvary, the birth and passion favorite book of the Middle Ages. Everything of Christ, controlled the preacher’s thought. is allegorized. The very words are exuberant Christ crucified was the sum of his allegories. And yet there is not a single philosophy. The name of Jesus is like oil sensual or unchaste suggestion in all the which enlightens, nourishes, and soothes. It is extended treatment. As for the historical and light, food, and medicine. Jesus is honey in the literal meaning, Bernard rejects all suggestion mouth, melody in the ear, and in the heart, of it as unworthy of Holy Scripture and joy. worthy only of the Jews, who have this veil Bernard was removed from the pantheistic before their faces. The love of the Shulamite self-deletion of Eckart and the imaginative and her spouse is a figure of the love between extravagance of St. Theresa. From Madame the Church and Christ, though sometimes the Guyon and the Quietists of the seventeenth soul, and even the Virgin Mary, is put in the century, he differed in not believing in a state place of the Shulamite. The kiss of SS. 1:2 is of pure love in the present life. Complete the Holy Spirit whom the second person of obedience to the law of love is impossible the Trinity reveals. The breasts of the bride,

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 28 CH512: Volume 5, Chapter 12 a Grace Notes course here unless it be in the cases of some of the an independent and judicious thinker, and martyrs. His practical tendencies and his influenced contemporary writers by whom he common sense kept him from yielding is quoted. His most important works are on himself to a life of self-satisfied contemplation Learning, the Sacraments, a Summa, and a and commending it. The union with God and Commentary on the Celestial Hierarchy of Christ is like the fellowship of the disciples in Dionysius the Areopagite. He wrote the primitive Church who were together with commentaries on Romans, Ecclesiastes, and one heart and one soul, Acts 4:32. The union other books of the Bible, and also a treatise is not by a confusion of natures, but by a on what would now be called Biblical concurrence of wills. Introduction. He recognized a triple sense of Scripture, historical, allegorical, and 5.105. Hugo and Richard of St. Victor anagogical, and was inclined to lay more LITERATURE FOR Hugo.—Works, first publ. Paris, stress than was usual in that period upon the 1618, 1625, etc. Migne, vols. 175–177.—Lives historical sense. An illustration of these three by A. HUGONIN in Migne, 175. XV-CXXV. In Hist. senses is given in the case of Job. Job belonged Lit. de France, reprinted in Migne, 175. CXXVI. to the land of Uz, was rich, was overtaken by sqq.—*A. LIEBNER: Hugo von St. V. und d. Theol. Richtungen s. Zeit., Leip., 1832.—B. HAUREAU: misfortune, and sat upon the dunghill Hugues de S. V. avec deux opuscules inédits, scraping his body. This is the historical sense. Paris, 1859. new ed. 1886.—A. MIGNON: Les Job, whose name means the suffering one, origines de la scholastique et Hugues de St. V., dolens, signifies Christ who left his divine 2 vols. Paris, 1896.—KILGENSTEIN: D. glory, entered into our misery, and sat upon Gotteslehre d. Hugo von St. V., Wuerzb., the dunghill of this world, sharing our 1897.—DENIFLE: D. Sentenzen Z. von St. Victor, weaknesses and sorrows. This is the in Archiv, etc., for 1887, pp. 644 sqq.—STOEKL, allegorical sense. Job signifies the penitent pp. 352–381. soul who makes in his memory a dunghill of FOR Richard.—Works, first publ. Venice, 1506. all his sins and does not cease to sit upon it, Migne, vol. 196.—J. G. V. ENGELHARDT: Rich. von meditate, and weep. This is the anagogical St. V., Erlangen,—LIEBNER: Rich. à S. Victore de contemp. doctrina, Goett., 1837–1839, 2 sense. parts.—KAULICH: D. Lehren des H. und Rich. From Hugo dates the careful treatment of the von St. Victor, Prag., 1864.—Art. in Dict. Of doctrine of the sacraments upon the basis of Natl. Biogr., PREGER, VAUGHAN, STOEKL, SCHWANE, Augustine’s definition of a sacrament as a etc. visible sign of an invisible grace. His views are In Hugo of St. Victor, d. 1141, and more fully given in the chapter on the Sacramental in his pupil, Richard of St. Victor, d. 1173, the System. mystical element is modified by a strong The mystical element is prominent in all of scholastic current. With Bernard mysticism is Hugo’s writings. The soul has a threefold a highly developed personal experience. With power of apprehension and vision, the eye of the Victorines it is brought within the limits the flesh, the eye of reason, and the eye of of careful definition and becomes a scientific contemplation. The faculty of contemplation system. Hugo and Richard confined their is concerned with divine things, but was lost activity to the convent, taking no part in the in the fall when also the eye of reason public controversies of the age. suffered injure, but the eye of the flesh Hugo, the first of the great German remained unimpaired. Redemptive grace theologians, was born about 1097 in Saxony. restores the eye of contemplation. This About 1115 he went to Paris in the company faculty is capable of three stages of activity: of an uncle and became an inmate of St. cogitatio, or the apprehension of objects in Victor. He was a friend of St. Bernard. Hugo their external forms; meditatio, the study of left behind him voluminous writings. He was their inner meaning and essence; and

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 29 CH512: Volume 5, Chapter 12 a Grace Notes course contemplatio, or the clear, unimpeded insight More given to the dialectical method and into the truth and the vision of God. These more allegorical in his treatment of Scripture three stages are likened unto a fire of green than Hugo, was Richard of St. Victor. Richard fagots. When it is started and the flame and is fanciful where Hugo is judicious, smoke are intermingled so that the flame only extravagant where Hugo is self-restrained, now and then bursts out, we have cogitatio. turgid where Hugo is calm. But he is always The fire burning into a flame, the smoke still stimulating. Of his writings many are extant, ascending, represents meditatio. The bright but of his life little is known. He was a glowing flame, unmixed with smoke, Scotchman, became subprior of St. Victor, represents contemplatio. The carnal heart is 1162, and then prior. While he was at St. the green wood from which the passion of Victor, the convent was visited by Alexander concupiscence has not yet been dried out. III, and Thomas á Becket. In his exegetical In another place Hugo compares the spirit, works on the Canticles, the Apocalypse, and inflamed with desire and ascending to God, to Ezekiel, Richard’s exuberant fancy revels in a column of smoke losing its denseness as it allegorical interpretations. As for the rises. Ascending above the vapors of Canticles, they set forth the contemplative life concupiscence, it is transfused with light from as Ecclesiastes sets forth the natural and the face of the Lord and comes to behold Him. Proverbs the moral life. Jacob corresponds to When the heart is fully changed into the fire the Canticles, for he saw the angels ascending of love, we know that God is all in all. Love and descending. Abraham corresponds to the possesses God and knows God. Love and Proverbs and Isaac to Ecclesiastes. The vision are simultaneous. Canticles set forth the contemplative life, because in that book the advent and sight of The five parts of the religious life, according the Lord are desired. to Hugo, are reading, reflection, prayer, conduct, and contemplation. The word “love” In the department of dogmatics Richard was not so frequently on Hugo’s pen as it was wrote Emmanuel, a treatise directed to the on St. Bernard’s. The words he most often Jews, and a work on the Incarnation, uses to carry his thought are contemplation addressed to St. Bernard,in which, following and vision, and he has much to say of the Augustine, he praised sin as a happy soul’s rapture, excessus or raptus. The misdemeanor,—felix culpa,—inasmuch as it beatitude, “The pure in heart shall see God,” is brought about the incarnation of the his favorite passage, which he quotes again Redeemer. His chief theological work was on and again to indicate the future beatific vision the Trinity. Here he starts out by deriving all and the vision to which even now the soul knowledge from experience, ratiocination, may arise. The first man in the state of and faith. Dialectics are allowed full sweep in innocence lived in unbroken vision of God. the attempt to join knowledge and faith. Richard condemned the pseudo-philosophers They who have the spirit of God, have God. who leaned more on Aristotle than on Christ, They see God. Because the eye has been and thought more of being regarded illuminated, they see God as He is, separate discoverers of new things than of asserting from all else and by Himself. It is the established truths. Faith is set forth as the intellectual man that partakes of God’s bliss, essential prerequisite of Christian knowledge. and the more God is understood the more do It is its starting-point and foundation. The we possess Him. God made man a rational author proves the Trinity in the godhead from creature that he might understand and that the idea of love, which demands different by understanding he might love, by loving persons and just three because two persons, possess, and by possessing enjoy. loving one another, will desire a third whom they shall love in common.

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 30 CH512: Volume 5, Chapter 12 a Grace Notes course

Richard’s distinctively mystical writings won Richard magnifies the Scriptures and makes for him the name of the great contemplator, them the test of spiritual states. Everything is magnus contemplator. In the Preparation of to be looked upon with suspicion which does the Mind for Contemplation or Benjamin the not conform to the letter of Scripture. Less, the prolonged comparison is made The leading ideas of these two stimulating between Leah and Rachel to which reference teachers are that we must believe and love has already been made. The spiritual and sanctify ourselves in order that the soul significance of their two nurses and their may reach the ecstasy and composure of children is brought down to Benjamin. contemplation or the knowledge of God. The Richard even uses the bold language that Scriptures are the supreme guide and the soul Benjamin killed his mother that he might rise by contemplation reaches a spiritual state above natural reason. which the intellect and argumentation could In Benjamin the Greater, or the Grace of never bring it to. Contemplation, we have a discussion of the Rupert of Deutz.—Among the mystics of the soul’s processes, as the soul rises “through twelfth century no mean place belongs to self and above self” to the supernal vision of Rupert of Deutz. A German by nationality, he God. Richard insists upon the soul’s was made abbot of the Benedictine convent of purification of itself from all sin as the Deutz near Cologne about 1120 and died condition of knowing God. The heart must be 1136. He came into conflict with Anselm of imbued with virtues, which Richard sets Laon and William of Champeaux through a forth, before it can rise to the highest things, report which represented them as teaching and he who would attempt to ascend to the that God had decreed evil, and that, in height of knowledge must make it his first sinning, Adam had followed God’s will. Rupert and chief study to know himself perfectly. answered the errors in two works on the Will Richard repeats Hugo’s classification of of God and the Omnipotence of God. He even cogitatio, meditatio, and contemplatio. went to France to contend with these two Contemplation is the mind’s free, clear, and renowned teachers. Anselm of Laon he found admiring vision of the wonders of divine on his death-bed. With William he held an wisdom. It includes six stages, the last of them open disputation. being “contemplation above and aside from Rupert’s chief merit is in the department of reason,” whereby the mysteries of the Trinity exegesis. He was the most voluminous are apprehended. In transgressing the limits biblical commentator of his time. He of itself, the soul may pass into a state of magnified the Scriptures. In one consecutive ecstasy, seeing visions, enjoying sublimated volume he commented on the books of the worship and inexpressible sweetness of Old Testament from Genesis to Chronicles, on experience. This is immediate communion the four Major Prophets, and the four with God. The third heaven, into which Paul evangelists. The commentary on Genesis was rapt, is above reason and to be reached alone occupies nearly four hundred columns only by a rapturous transport of the mind— in Migne’s edition. Among his other exegetical per mentis excessum. It is “above reason and works were commentaries on the Gospel and aside from reason.” Love is the impelling Revelation of St. John, the Minor Prophets, motive in the entire process of contemplation Ecclesiastes, and especially the Canticles and and “contemplation is a mountain which rises Matthew. In these works he follows the text above all worldly philosophy.” Aristotle did conscientiously and laboriously, verse by not find out any such thing, nor did Plato, nor verse. The Canticles Rupert regarded as a did any of the company of the philosophers. song in honor of the Virgin Mary, but he set himself against the doctrine that she was

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 31 CH512: Volume 5, Chapter 12 a Grace Notes course conceived without sin. The commentary opens with an interpretation of Cant. 1:2, thus: “ ‘Let him kiss me with the kiss of his mouth.’ What is this exclamation so great, so sudden? Of blessed Mary, the inundation of joy, the force of love, the torrent of pleasure have filled thee full and wholly intoxicated thee and thou hast felt what eye has not seen nor ear heard nor has entered into the heart of man, and thou hast said, ‘Let him kiss me with the kiss of his mouth’ for thou didst say to the angel ‘Behold the handmaid of the Lord, let it be unto me according to thy word.’ What was that word? What did he say to thee? ‘Thou hast found grace,’ he said, ‘with the Lord. Behold thou shalt conceive and bare a son.’ … Was not this the word of the angel, the word and promise of the kiss of the Lord’s mouth ready to be given?” etc. Rupert also has a place in the history of the doctrine of the Lord’s Supper, and it is an open question whether or not he substituted the doctrine of impanation for the doctrine of transubstantiation.