Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruit and Vegetables: a Training Manual for Trainers

Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

IMPROVING THE SAFETY AND QUALITY OF FRESH FRUIT AND VEGETABLES: A TRAINING MANUAL FOR TRAINERS

Copyright © 2002 University of Maryland. This work may be reproduced and redistributed, in whole or in part, without alteration and without prior written permission, for nonprofit administrative or educational purposes provided all copies contain the following statement: “© 2002 University of Maryland. This work is reproduced and distributed with the permission of the University of Maryland. No other use is permitted without the express prior written permission of the University of Maryland. For permission, contact JIFSAN, University of Maryland, Symons Hall, College Park, MD 20742

i Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

IMPROVING THE SAFETY AND QUALITY OF FRESH FRUIT AND VEGETABLES:

A TRAINING MANUAL FOR TRAINERS

Table of Contents

Introduction Table of Contents ...... i Introduction ...... v About This Manual ...... v Acronyms...... ix

Principles

SECTION I. THE IMPORTANCE OF TRAINING FOR IMPROVING THE SAFETY AND QUALITY OF FRESH FRUITS AND VEGETABLES Module 1. Safety Hazards In Fresh Produce – Biological, Chemical and Physical...... I-2 Module 2. Fresh Produce Safety and Consumer Health ...... I-13 Module 3. Impact of Produce Safety on Trade ...... I-18 References...... I-22

SECTION II. GOOD AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES Module 1. Soil and Water ...... II-3 Module 2. Organic and Inorganic Fertilizers ...... II-16 Module 3. Animal Exclusion and Pest Control ...... II-27 Module 4. Worker Health and Safety ...... II-39 Module 5. Harvesting and Cooling ...... II-50 References ...... II-63

SECTION III. GOOD MANUFACTURING PRACTICES FOR HANDLING, PACKING, STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION OF FRESH PRODUCE Module 1. Produce Cleaning and Treatment ...... III-2 Module 2. Packing, Storage and Transportation ...... III-15 Module 3. Equipment Cleaning and Sanitation ...... III-25 References ...... III-33

ii Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

SECTION IV. FOOD LAWS AND REGULATIONS Module 1. The U.S. Food Safety System...... IV-2 Module 2. Investigating Foodborne Disease Outbreaks...... IV-9 Module 3. International Food Laws and Regulations...... IV-16 References ...... VI-23

SECTION V. FOOD SAFETY AND QUALITY ASSURANCE ISSUES Module 1. Safety and Quality Assurance ...... V-2 Module 2. Quality Attributes, Grades and Standards ...... V-10 Module 3. Quality Attributes and Spoilage ...... V-18 References ...... V-25

SECTION VI. DEVELOPING AN EFFECTIVE TRAINING COURSE Module 1. Planning for Effective Training: Identifying Needs and Setting Objectives ...... VI-2 Module 2. Preparing and Organizing the Training Content ...... VI-9 Module 3. Conducting and Evaluating the Course ...... VI-18 References ...... VI-25

Practical

Introduction ...... P-3 Experiments/Demonstrations · Water as a Contamination Agent ...... P-4 · Product Integrity and Produce Contamination ...... P-6 · Handwashing ...... P-8 · Chlorine Concentration and Water Quality Management ...... P-10 · Fruit Spoilage ...... P-13 · Experiments Using Artificial “Germs”: Handwashing ...... P-15 How Germs are Spread - I...... P-16 How Germs are Spread – II ...... P-16 Germs and Produce ...... P-16 · Fresh Produce Quality ...... P-18 Discussion Questions ...... P-19 Problem Solving Exercises Traceback Investigation...... P-20 Planning for an Effective Training Course on GAPs: 3 Scenarios …...... P-22 Field Site Visit Guide ...... P-24

iii Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Additional Resources

Part I. Foodborne Disease and Fresh Produce · Table 1 – Pathogens Associated with Fresh Fruits and Vegetables .Res-2 · Table 2 – Outbreaks of Foodborne Disease Associated with Fresh Fruits and Vegetables ...... Res-6 Part II. FDA Publications · The Guide to Minimize Microbial Food Safety Hazards for Fresh Fruits and Vegetables - In Brief ...... Res-10 · Farm Investigation Questionnaire ...... Res-14 · Do Your Own Establishment Inspection – A Guide to Self Inspection for the Smaller Food Processor and Warehouse ...... Res-25 · Guidance for Industry: Reducing Microbial Food Safety Hazards for Sprouted Seeds ...... Res-36 · FDA Publishes Final Rule to Increase Safety of Fruit and Vegetable Juices ...... Res-39 Part III. Disinfecting Contaminated Wells ...... Res-41 Part IV. Composting Facility ...... Res-43 Part V. Storage Conditions for Fruits and Vegetables ...... Res-46 Part VI. Fundamentals of HACCP ...... Res-48 Part VII. Choosing the Correct Training Aids ...... Res-60 Part VIII. Glossary of Terms ...... Res-64 Part IX. Where to Find Additional Information ...... Res-68

iv Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Introduction

The health benefits associated with regular consumption of fresh fruits and vegetables have been clearly demonstrated and encouraged by national and international nutrition and health authorities. However, increased consumption of these products has been associated with a increased proportion of reported outbreaks of foodborne illness that can be traced to fresh produce. Recent outbreaks of foodborne illness, such as those in the U.S. involving E. coli O157:H7 in lettuce and Salmonella in cantaloupe, and the fact that most fresh produce is not processed, a step which generally reduces or eliminates pathogens, have raised concerns regarding the potential safety of fresh fruits and vegetables.

Background

In 1998, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) issued the document "Guidance for Industry -- Guide to Minimize Microbial Food Safety Hazards for Fresh Fruits and Vegetables." This document, referred to as the Guide, addressed microbial food safety hazards and good agricultural and manufacturing practices (GAPs and GMPs) common to the growing, harvesting, cleaning/washing, sorting, packing, and transporting of most fruits and vegetables sold to consumers in an unprocessed or minimally processed (raw) form. This voluntary, science-based guidance was designed to be used by both domestic and foreign fresh fruit and vegetable producers to help ensure the safety of their produce. The voluntary guidance is consistent with U.S. trade rights and obligations and does not impose unnecessary or unequal restrictions or barriers on either domestic or foreign producers.

That same year, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) in conjunction with the Institute of Food Science and Engineering, University of Arkansas (IFSE/UA) initiated plans to develop a regional training course for Mexico and Central America on quality assurance and safety of fresh produce. The Government of Guatemala hosted a planning Workshop for this training in Guatemala City in December 1998. The 10-day FAO Regional Training Course took place in June 1999 at the School of Tropical and Humid Agriculture (EARTH) and was hosted by the Government of Costa Rica. The participants at both the planning workshop and the training course indicated a critical need for more training opportunities and greater availability of training materials on safety and quality of fresh fruits and vegetables.

About This Manual

The objective of this manual is to provide uniform, broad-based scientific and practical information on the safe production, handling, storage, and transport of fresh produce. This manual will: v Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

1. Provide a teaching tool to train trainers who will be conducting courses to facilitate the safe production, handling, storage, and transport of fruits and vegetables produced in countries exporting to the United States and elsewhere 2. Serve as a resource for trainers preparing and conducting courses to assist those in the produce industry with identifying and implementing appropriate measures to minimize risks of microbial contamination while also reducing other hazards (chemical and physical) and maintaining market quality

The information and recommendations presented expand on the Guide and the material developed for the Regional course in Costa Rica. The material in this manual is guidance and not regulation and should be applied as appropriate and feasible to individual fruit and vegetable operations.

Use of This Manual

Information presented includes:

Principles – science-based information regarding elements of produce safety and quality. Topics included are: · The importance of training for improving the safety and quality of fresh fruits and vegetables · Good agricultural practices (GAPs) · Good manufacturing practices (GMPs) for handling and packing · Quality and phytosanitary issues for fresh produce · Safety hazards and quality attributes of fresh produce · Developing an effective training course

Practical - materials to accompany and complement lectures. Included are experiments/demonstrations, discussion questions, problem solving activities and a Field Site Visit Guide. Volume II of this manual contains commodity specific case studies that provide an opportunity for participants to apply material learned to actual agricultural situations.

Additional Resources- includes relevant reference documents and information on obtaining additional resource material.

Although background data and examples have been specifically targeted to Latin America and the Caribbean, the recommendations contained in this manual are globally applicable and independent of location or agricultural and industrial circumstances. For use in other regions, presentation style and teaching resources may vary, depending upon cultural and political circumstances.

vi Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

As training needs vary by country, the time frame for training and the extent of training will also vary. It is anticipated that the length of time to present the Principles and Practical information will be 5-7 days with the inclusion of a field site visit. The backgrounds and needs of the course participants will determine how much time should be spent on each of the training modules. Logistics, budget, and schedules may dictate shorter or split sessions and the number of Practical activities that are included. Since interactive sessions with discussions, lab demonstrations, field visits, and case studies are an important part of the training process, the number of participants needs to be limited to a manageable level for trainers and facilities.

Included throughout the Principles section are suggestions for information that may be highlighted as visuals. These are intended as suggestions for visuals, not as actual visual masters. Depending on the amount of material to be presented, the type of visual aids to be used, and the size of the training group, the trainer may choose to present each as a single visual or as multiple slides, overheads, charts, or posters.

The Practical section of the manual includes activities to involve participants in the training. Use of these activities will enhance training of trainers by complementing lecture material and by providing the participants with ideas for activities to enrich their own training efforts. Suggestions for activities related to training topics are included at the beginning of each of the training modules. Trainers of trainers are encouraged to use as many of these as time and resources will allow.

In Volume II, the commodity specific case studies allow participants to apply the recommended GAPs and GMPs in examples relevant to Latin America and the Caribbean. These case studies have been developed with direct input from producers in the region to ensure that topics and presentation are appropriate. They are intended to build understanding and awareness of practices that may be presented to individual growers, packers, and shippers for consideration and incorporation into their own operations.

Users of the Guide are reminded of several important considerations in applying its recommendations. These considerations also are important for those using this manual:

1) The manual focuses on microbial hazards for fresh produce. It addresses in only the broadest terms other areas of concern to the food supply or the environment (such as pesticide residues or chemical contaminants). When providing recommendations to growers, packers, and shippers it is important to encourage them to apply the techniques that are most appropriate for reducing hazards in their individual operations. They should also strive to establish practices that do not inadvertently increase other risks to the food supply or the environment (e.g., excessive packaging or improper use and disposal of vii Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

antimicrobial chemicals). 2) This training manual focuses on risk reduction not risk elimination. Current technologies cannot eliminate all potential food safety hazards associated with fresh produce that will be eaten raw. 3) This training manual provides broad, scientifically-based principles. Trainers should encourage operators to use the information to help assess microbiological hazards within the context of the specific conditions (climatic, geographical, cultural, economic) that apply to their own operation and implement appropriate and cost effective risk reduction strategies. 4) Users of the manual should constantly be alert for new information and technological advances that expand the understanding of those factors associated with identifying and reducing microbial food safety hazards. Awareness of these advances will allow updating the recommendations and information contained in this manual as appropriate to keep training content current.

viii Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

ACRONYMS

The following acronyms are used in this manual. Each is identified when first introduced in the text but are also listed here for easy reference.

APHIS – Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service/U.S. Department of Agriculture

CAC- Codex Alimentarius Commission

CCP – Critical Control Point

CDC – U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

CFR – Code of Federal Regulations

CFSAN – Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition/U.S. Food and Drug Administration

CODEX ALIMENTARIUS – a code of food standards for all nations

CSREES – Cooperative State Research, Education and Extension Service/U.S. Department of Agriculture

EPA – U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

FAO – Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

FDA – U.S. Food and Drug Administration

GAPs - Good Agricultural Practices

GATT- General Agreement on Tariff and Trade

GDP- Gross Domestic Product

GMPs - Good Manufacturing Practices

HACCP - Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point

IFSE – Institute of Food Science and Engineering/University of Arkansas

ix Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

IPM – Integrated Pest Management

JIFSAN – Joint Institute of Food Safety and Applied Nutrition/University of Maryland

MAQ – Minimum Acceptable Quality

PAHO – Pan American Health Organization

OSHA – Occupational Safety and Health Administration

SOPs – Standard Operating Procedures

SPS – Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures

SSOPs – Sanitation Standard Operating Procedures

TBT – Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade

USDA – U.S. Department of Agriculture

USDA-AMS – USDA’s Agricultural Marketing Service

WHO – World Health Organization of the United Nations

WTO – World Trade Organization of the United Nations

x Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

SECTION I THE IMPORTANCE OF TRAINING FOR IMPROVING THE SAFETY AND QUALITY OF FRESH FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

Copyright © 2002 University of Maryland. This work may be reproduced and redistributed, in whole or in part, without alteration and without prior written permission , for nonprofit administrative or educational purposes provided all copies contain the following statement: “© 2002 University of Maryland. This work is reproduced and distributed with the permission of the University of Maryland. No other use is permitted without the express prior written permission of the University of Maryland. For permission, contact JIFSAN, University of Maryland, Symons Hall, College Park, MD 20742

I-1 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

SECTION I

The Importance of Training for Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables

Module 1 Safety Hazards in Fresh Produce – Biological, Chemical and Physical*

Learning Outcomes

Ø Participants will gain awareness of the potential biological, chemical and physical hazards associated with the production and distribution of fresh fruits and vegetables.

Ø Participants will increase their knowledge of the characteristics and growth requirements of microorganisms.

Practical

Ø Experiment/Demonstration: Water as a Contamination Agent

Additional Resources

Ø Table 1 – Pathogens Associated with Fresh Fruits and Vegetables Ø Table 2 – Outbreaks of Foodborne Disease Associated with Fresh Fruits and Vegetables

There are many activities that take place as fruits and vegetables move from the farm to the table. These include activities related to production, post-harvest operations, packaging, transportation, and storage. Implementing programs such as the use of Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs) and Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs) are important steps to reducing possible hazards associated with the produce throughout the production and distribution chain. These will be discussed later in this manual.

* Prepared by: Carmen Hernandez-Brenes, Ph.D., ITESM-Campus Monterrey, Mexico

I-2 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Visual I.1-1

Hazard - something that could cause harm to the consumer.

There are three main types of hazards associated with fresh produce:

· Biological hazards · Chemical hazards · Physical hazards

A hazard is something that could cause harm to the consumer. There are three main types of hazards associated with fresh produce: · Biological hazards · Chemical hazards · Physical hazards

Biological Hazards

Foodborne microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses and parasites are often referred to as biological hazards (FAO, 1998). Some fungi are able to produce toxins and also are included in this group of hazards.

Visual I.1-2

Microorganisms

Microorganisms are small organisms that can be observed through a microscope.

In order to facilitate the study of microorganisms they are divided into five major classifications:

· Bacteria · Yeasts · Molds · Parasites · Viruses

Microorganisms are small organisms that can only be observed through a microscope. Many of these organisms consist of a single cell. They can be found everywhere in the environment. Some have the ability to take up nutrients and metabolize them into a large number of end products. Microorganisms often have the ability to react to changes in their environment and some have been known to adapt to new environments.

I-3 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Many microorganisms are beneficial to humans. Some are involved in the production of fermented foods such as bread, cheese, wine, beer, and sauerkraut. Other microorganisms are used by industry in the production of such products as some enzymes, antibiotics, and glycerol. Additional microbial functions such as degradation of organic matter and enrichment of soils also benefit mankind. However, some microorganisms have the potential for causing foodborne illnesses.

Microorganisms able to cause human disease may be found on raw produce. Sometimes they are part of the fruit or vegetable microflora as incidental contaminants from the soil, dust and surroundings. In other instances they get introduced onto the food through poor production and handling practices such as the application of untreated manure, the use of contaminated irrigation water or unsanitary handling practices.

Bacterial Hazards

Because bacterial pathogens are part of the environment, they can easily contaminate fruit and vegetables when these commodities are not properly handled prior to consumption. A list of bacterial pathogens that have been isolated from raw produce can be found in Table 1 in the Additional Resources section. A thorough discussion of the pathogenic microorganisms associated with food may be found in the FDA/CFSAN Bad Bug Book (FDA, 2001).

Visual I.1-3

Pathogenic bacteria associated with fruits and vegetables include: · Salmonella · Shigella · Escherichia coli (pathogenic) · Campylobacter species · Yersinia enterocolitica · Listeria monocytogenes · Staphylococcus aureus · Clostridium species · Bacillus cereus · Vibrio species

A large number of bacterial pathogens have been implicated in foodborne outbreaks associated with the consumption of fresh fruits and vegetables (Beuchat, 1998). Table 2 in the Additional Resources section provides a list of many of these outbreaks and the organisms associated with them.

Bacteria such as Clostridium botulinum, Bacillus cereus and Listeria monocytogenes can be found in the soil and can easily contaminate produce.

I-4 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Other bacteria such as Salmonella, Shigella, pathogenic Escherichia coli and Campylobacter reside in the intestinal tract of animals and/or humans. They can contaminate fruit and vegetables through infiltration of sewage waters into fields, irrigation with contaminated water, presence of animals in the field or inappropriate composting. Contamination also can take place during handling at harvest and packaging and in other steps in the distribution and marketing chain.

The number of bacteria that must be present to cause human illness varies with organism type and age and condition of the host. In some instances it is necessary to have over a million pathogenic bacteria per gram or cm2 of food surface before any illness occurs. However some pathogens are able to cause disease at much lower numbers. For example, Shigella spp. are highly infectious agents with an infective dose of as few as 10 cells.

Because some bacteria have such low infective doses, prevention of bacterial contamination is the most important control factor to enhance produce safety. It is also important to take steps to assure that pathogens present cannot reproduce to hazardous levels.

Visual I.1-4

To prevent pathogen reproduction in produce, control: · Nutrient availability · Humidity · Acidity · Temperature · Oxygen

In order to reproduce bacteria require adequate nutrients and appropriate environmental conditions such as humidity, oxygen and temperature (FDA, 1998). Each type of bacterium has specific requirements to achieve optimum development, but bacteria can multiply and cause disease outside of these optimum conditions. For example, for most rapid growth, E. coli requires a temperature of 37°C (98.6 °F). It can, however, multiply in a range of 10o to 46°C (50o to 114.8 °F). Bacillus cereus has an optimal growth temperature of 30°C, but can grow in the temperature range of 10o to 49°C (50o to 120.2 °F) (Frazier and Westhoff, 1991).

I-5 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Visual I.1-5

Bacterial reproduction scheme: Each bacterial cell divides into two when conditions are appropriate for its growth

Bacteria reproduce through a mechanism referred to as binary fission. During this process, each cell divides in two. These two cells then divide in two and so on. When conditions are appropriate, a bacterial population can grow rapidly in a very short time.

Visual I.1-6

Time (hrs) # of bacteria 0 1 1 8 2 32 3 256 In 7 hours one bacteria cell can 4 2,048 generate over a million bacteria 5 16,384 6 131,072 cells 7 1,048,576 8 16,777,216 9 134,217,728 10 1,073,741,824

The time needed for a cell to divide (or a population to duplicate) is known as generation time. Generation times vary for different types of bacteria. Bacterial generation times depend to a large extent on nutrient availability and environmental conditions such as humidity, oxygen availability, acidity and temperature. Consider E. coli which has a generation time that ranges between 15 and 20 minutes. Under optimum conditions, in 10 hours a single cell could produce over a million cells.

When conditions for reproduction are favorable, bacterial cells start their multiplication process. This process usually takes place in a series of steps or phases. In general, the bacterial reproduction process for a given population of cells follows a pattern similar to that illustrated in Visual I.1-7.

I-6 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Visual I.1-7

(4) Stationary Phase (5) Death Phase

(3) Logarithmic or Number of ExponentialGrowth Phase bacteria

(2) Positive Growth Phase

(1) Lag or Latent Phase

Time

Knowledge of the population growth process provides insight into opportunities for prevention and control of bacterial growth. In order to keep bacterial numbers from reaching levels that can be a threat to human health, it is necessary to keep the initial numbers low and to assure that organisms that reach the product are not allowed to grow beyond the lag phase.

Some of the control strategies that will be discussed in this course are preventive and attempt to maintain low initial numbers of microorganisms. These include Good Agricultural Practices like controlling microbial hazards from water, proper use of manure and biosolids, appropriate worker hygiene and provision of worker sanitation facilities, and proper sanitation during product handling and transportation. Other recommendations such as temperature control and some of the more novel technologies are used to slow bacterial growth.

A processing step which can lower initial bacterial numbers is washing, provided wash water is of good quality and is not allowed to accumulate dirt and contaminants. The surface of a well-washed tomato may have less than 1000 microorganisms per square centimeter, while an unwashed one may have a several thousand. Before washing, the number of microorganisms on the external tissue of cabbage could be as high as one or two million per gram. Washing decreases this number to the range of 200,000 to 500,000 (Frazier and Westhoff, 1991).

I-7 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Visual I.1-8

The surface of fruits and vegetables can be contaminated with pathogenic microorganisms due to contact with: · soil · water · manure · sewage fluids · air · humans · animals

Pathogens can be found among the microflora of fruits and vegetables because it is fairly easy for external surfaces of these commodities to come in contact with soil, water, sewage fluids, air, humans and animals. When conditions become favorable for the natural flora to reproduce, these pathogens reproduce.

Parasitic Hazards

Visual I.1-9

Parasites most commonly associated with human infections include: · Cryptosporidium · Cyclospora · Giardia · Entamoeba · Toxoplasma · Sarcocystis · Isospora · Helminthes: - Nematodes (i.e. Ascaris lumbricoides, Thricuris trichiura) - Plathelminthes (i.e. Fasciola hepatica and Cysticercus spp.)

Parasites are organisms that live in another living organism, called the host. They are only able to grow in a host, however, they may be passed from one host to another through some non-host vehicle. Parasites most commonly associated with human infections include Cryptosporidium, Cyclospora, Giardia, Entamoeba, Toxoplasma, Sarcocystis, Isospora, and Nematodes.

Because produce is often eaten raw, it can serve as a vehicle to pass a parasite from one host organism to another (Beuchat, 1998 and Murray et al., 1995). Water contaminated with fecal material, infected food handlers, and animals in the field may be vehicles for contamination of produce with parasites that may then be passed on to humans consuming the raw produce.

I-8 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Viral Hazards

Visual I.1-10

Viruses that have been reported as transmitted by foods include: · Hepatitis A · Norwalk virus and Norwalk-like virus · Rotaviruses, astroviruses, enteroviruses (polioviruses, echoviruses and coxsackie viruses), parvoviruses, adenoviruses and coronaviruses.

Viruses are very small and unable to reproduce outside of a living cell. Therefore they do not grow in or on foods. However, raw fruits and vegetables may become contaminated by exposure to contaminated water or during handling by infected people. The viruses infect susceptible persons consuming the raw produce. Since an infective dose of most viruses is extremely small, sometimes as few as 10 virus particles, prevention of produce contamination is critical to controlling viral disease.

Sources of Biological Hazards

Characteristics of some of the microorganisms causing disease in humans are described in Table 1 in the Additional Resources section. Also presented are examples of sources of contamination and symptoms associated with the illnesses they cause. Diagnosis of these illnesses requires clinical testing, however, recognizing the symptoms associated with various forms of contamination can aid in preventing contamination by providing a means of identifying potentially infected handlers so that their contact with fresh produce can be avoided.

Many of the diseases caused by pathogenic bacteria, parasites, and viruses that have been linked to fruits and vegetables can be transmitted when human feces contaminate the produce. It is important that individuals handling produce at every stage, from field to table have a good understanding of proper hygiene practices to prevent contamination. Training of workers at every level of the production chain and education of consumers have been identified as key elements to reduce foodborne illnesses associated with fresh fruits and vegetables (Beuchat, 1998).

Chemical Hazards

Chemical contaminants in raw fruits and vegetables may be naturally occurring or may be added during agricultural production, post-harvest handling and other unit operations (FAO, 1998). Harmful chemicals at high levels have been associated with acute toxic responses and with chronic illnesses.

I-9 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Visual I.1-11

Some Naturally Occurring Chemicals Hazards

· Allergens (e.g. weeds) · Mycotoxins (e.g. aflatoxin) · Mushroom toxins · Phytohaemagglutinin · Alkaloids

Visual I.1-12

Added Chemical Hazards

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) Contaminants Agricultural chemicals § Lubricants § Pesticides § Cleaners § Fertilizers § Sanitizers § Antibiotics § Coatings Prohibited substances § Paints § Direct § Refrigerants § Indirect § Water or steam treatment chemicals Toxic elements and compounds § Pest control chemicals § Lead From packaging materials § Zinc § Plasticizers § Cadmium § Vinyl chloride § Mercury § Painting/coding inks § Arsenic § Adhesives § Cyanide § Lead § Tin

Data collected by the WHO Food Contamination Monitoring and Assessment Program (GEMS/Food) indicate that, in many countries, chemical contamination levels are tending to decline. This is due, in large part, to increased restriction on the use of toxic chemicals and pesticides that persist in the environment and to improved control of environmental pollution.

Physical Hazards

Physical hazards may be introduced into fresh fruit and vegetable products at numerous points in the production chain.

I-10 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Visual I.1-13

Material Injury potential Sources Glass Cuts, bleeding; may require Bottles, jars, light, surgery to find or remove fixtures, utensils, gauge, covers, etc.

Wood Cuts, infection, choking; may Field sources, pallets, require surgery to remove boxes, building materials

Stones Choking, broken teeth Fields, buildings

Insulation Choking long-term if Building materials asbestos

Plastic Choking, cuts, infection; may Packaging, pallets, require surgery to remove equipment

Personal Choking, cuts, broken teeth; Employees effects, i.e. may require surgery to jewelry, hair remove clips, pens

Illness and serious injuries can result from foreign material in produce. These physical hazards can result from poor practices during harvesting, washing, sorting and packaging operations (FAO, 1998). Filth and foreign matter in fruit and vegetables are listed, in many instances, among the main barriers for international trade.

Summary

1. A hazard is something that could cause harm to the consumer. There are three main types of hazards associated with fresh produce: · Biological hazards · Chemical hazards · Physical hazards

2. Foodborne microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses and parasites are often referred to as biological hazards. Some fungi are able to produce toxins and also cause a hazard.

3. Microorganisms able to cause human disease may be found on raw produce. Sometimes they are part of the fruit or vegetable microflora as incidental

I-11 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

contaminants from the soil, dust and surroundings. In other instances they get introduced into the food through poor production and handling practices such as the application of untreated manure, the use of contaminated irrigation water or unsanitary handling practices.

4. Fresh fruits and vegetables may be vehicles for the transmission of parasites and viruses.

5. Training of workers at every level of the production chain and education of consumers have been identified as key elements to reduce microbial hazards associated with fresh fruits and vegetables.

6. Chemical contaminants in raw fruits and vegetables may be naturally occurring or may be added during agricultural production, post-harvest handling and other unit operations.

7. Illness and serious injuries can result from foreign material in produce. These physical hazards can result from poor practices during harvesting, washing, sorting and packaging operations.

I-12 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Module 2 Fresh Produce Safety and Consumer Health*

Learning Outcome

Ø Participants will gain greater awareness of the consequences of foodborne disease.

Practical

Ø Discussion Question 2

In 1983, the Expert Committee on Food Safety convened jointly by the World Health Organization (WHO) and Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) of the U.N. concluded that illness due to contaminated food is “the most widespread health problem in the contemporary world” (FAO/WHO, 1984).

Despite efforts to reduce foodborne illnesses, there are still significant health hazards associated with food.

Visual I.2-1

Sources of Foodborne Disease Outbreaks in Latin America and the Caribbean – 1995-1997

Agent % Cases Bacteria 46.3 Viruses 1.8 Parasites 1.8 Total Microbial 49.9

Marine Toxins 44.2 Plant Toxins 0.4 Chemicals 5.4

The relative importance of these hazards can be determined by studying disease surveillance data. Data from Latin America and the Caribbean reveal that almost half of all foodborne diseases with identifiable sources were caused by microbial sources and bacterial pathogens represented the largest single share of all known sources (PAHO/WHO, 1998). In the U.S during 1993-1997, a total of

* Prepared by: Pamela Brady, Ph.D., IFSE, University of Arkansas

I-13 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

2,751 outbreaks of foodborne disease (two or more cases of a similar illness resulting from the ingestion of a common food) were reported (Olsen et al., 2000). These outbreaks caused a reported 86,058 persons to become ill. Among outbreaks for which the cause was determined, the largest percentage of both outbreaks (75%) and cases (86%) were caused by bacterial pathogens. Chemical agents caused 17% of outbreaks and 1% of cases; viruses, 6% of outbreaks and 8% of cases; and parasites, 2% of outbreaks and 5% of cases.

According to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), produce-associated foodborne disease outbreaks are a relatively small percentage of all foodborne disease. However, the number of cases is increasing. In 1973-1979, only 2% of U.S. foodborne disease outbreaks were associated with fresh produce. In 1990-1997, this had increased to 6%. Of these produce-related outbreaks, 50% were attributed to bacterial contamination, 7% to viruses, 6% to parasites, and 35 % to unidentified causes (Liang, 2000).

Visual I.2-2

Incidences of Foodborne Diseases in Venezuela

Despite efforts to decrease the occurrence of these diseases, it is estimated that 5 to 10% of the populations in developed countries suffer from foodborne illness each year and the numbers are even higher in less developed areas (Kaferstein, et al. 1997). Since many of these illnesses are not reported to public health officials, it is difficult to get an exact count on actual numbers. However, statistics from both developed and developing countries show a trend toward more foodborne illnesses in recent years. In part, this trend may be due to improvements in disease reporting systems in some countries. However, most authorities agree that there also is an increase in the actual number of cases.

I-14 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Health Effects of Foodborne Disease

Visual I.2-3

Some Effects of Foodborne Disease

· Vomiting · Gastroenteritis · Diarrheal disease · Non-intestinal disease, i.e. neurological conditions, pre-mature labor, and still- births

For most adults in the industrialized world, incidents of foodborne disease are unpleasant but are generally mild and self-limiting (WHO, 1999a). Symptoms are generally restricted to gastroenteritis and are not usually life-threatening. However, for susceptible individuals, such as the elderly, pregnant women, the very young, and those with compromised immune systems, foodborne illness may lead to serious consequences including death.

In developing countries, diarrheal diseases, particularly infant diarrhea, are a major public health problem. It has been estimated that annually over 1,500 million children under the age of five years suffer from diarrhea and over 3 million die as a result (WHO, 1999a). Diarrhea may also lead to malnutrition that can make children more susceptible to longer periods of diarrhea and to infections. These occurrences can lead to a downward spiral of poor health and, eventually, to premature death.

Not all foodborne disease results in intestinal illnesses (WHO, 1999a). The WHO estimated that 2-3% of the cases of foodborne illness lead to other conditions, which may result in chronic diseases having long-term effects on those afflicted and/or death. Clostridium botulinum causes a severe neuroparalytic disease that is often fatal. Effects of Listeria monocytogenes can vary from mild flu-like symptoms to meningitis and meningoencephalitis. This organism is especially serious for pregnant women since infection may result in abortion, stillbirth, or premature labor. For persons with compromised immune systems, infections may result in serious illness and even death.

I-15 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Costs of Foodborne Disease

Visual I.2-4

Costs of Foodborne Disease

Costs for Individuals Cost to Society 3 Medical costs 3 Loss of productivity 3 Missed work and lost wages 3 Cost of disease investigation 3 Travel to get care 3 Loss of revenue due to business closure and product avoidance 3 Expenses for care taker 3 Chronic disease 3 Chronic disease

Although the difficulty in identifying the actual number of cases of foodborne illness makes it hard to estimate the cost of these diseases, no one can dispute that foodborne illness is very expensive. The economic impacts affect not only the individuals and families involved but also the communities, industries, and nations (Doores, 1999). The most obvious costs are those associated with health care for the afflicted individuals. Additional costs related to caring for those who are ill, absenteeism from work and school, and travel costs to seek medical care add to the financial burden. Costs to society include lost worker productivity, the costs of investigating and controlling outbreaks, lost revenue due to business closure and product avoidance, legal costs for litigations related to the illnesses, and costs related to public services for those suffering from chronic disease.

One study estimated that, in the U.S., the cost of foodborne disease caused by seven common pathogens was US$ 5.6 to 9.4 billion (WHO, 1999b). The estimated cost of salmonellosis in England and Wales in 1992 was placed at US$560 to 800 million.

Fresh produce is a particular food safety concern since it is generally eaten without any processing to eliminate or reduce the number of microorganisms present. In addition, since the 1980’s, several foodborne infectious agents have been either newly described or newly associated with fruits and vegetables (Tauxe, 1997). For example E. coli O157:H7 was first identified as a pathogen associated with hamburger in 1982. In 1993, an outbreak of disease caused by this organism in unpasteurized apple juice demonstrated that it could survive in a low acid environment.

I-16 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Summary

1. A majority of foodborne illness for which causes have been identified have been associated with biological hazards.

2. Produce-associated foodborne disease outbreaks are a relatively small percentage of all foodborne disease however, the number of cases is increasing.

3. For susceptible individuals, such as the elderly, pregnant women, the very young, and those with compromised immune systems, foodborne illness may lead to serious consequences including death. It has been estimated that annually over 1,500 million children under the age of five years suffer from diarrhea and over 3 million die as a result.

4. Costs related to foodborne illness include caring for those who are ill, absenteeism from work and school, travel costs to seek medical care, lost worker productivity, the costs of investigating and controlling outbreaks, lost revenue due to business closure and product avoidance, legal costs for litigations related to the illnesses, and public services for those suffering from chronic disease.

I-17 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Module 3 Impact of Produce Safety on Trade*

LEARNING OUTCOME

Ø Participants will increase their knowledge of the impact of produce safety on a country’s economy.

PRACTICAL

Ø Discussion Question 1.

The effects of unsafe fruits and vegetables on health are important reasons for studying produce safety but they are only part of the cause for concern about the safety of these products.

Visual I.3-1

Economic Impact of Agriculture

Country 1999 GDP* GDP - Employment (billion$) agriculture in agriculture Belize 0.74 22% 38% Brazil 1,057.00 14% 31% Chile 185.10 6% 14% Costa Rica 26.00 14% 20% Dominican Republic 43.70 14% 17% Guatemala 47.90 23% 50% Mexico 865.50 5% 24% Nicaragua 12.50 34% 42% Trinidad & Tobago 9.41 2% 10%

* GDP = Gross Domestic Product

Food and agricultural production plays an important role in the economy of many countries, especially those of Latin America and the Caribbean. 1999 figures indicated that, depending on the country, total agriculture (production of both food and non-food crops of plant and animal origin) contributed from as little as 2% to over 34% of the gross domestic product (FAOSTAT, 2000). These figures represented not only the value of products but also income generated by persons

* Prepared by: Pamela Brady, Ph.D., IFSE, University of Arkansas

I-18 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers employed in the agricultural sector. For many countries in the region a significant proportion of the population is employed in agriculture.

Trade is an important part of the economy of most countries and agricultural products make up a significant portion of this trade. According to the World Trade Organization (WTO), total world trade in 1999 was valued at $5,473 billion with approximately 10% of this total, or $544 billion, in agricultural products (WTO, 2000).

Visual I.3-2

1999 Export Values from Selected Countries (1000$ U.S.)

Country Total Produce Agriculture Total % Agriculture Belize 108,299 59,007 54% Brazil 13,824,401 1,690,870 11% Chile 2,966,674 1,804,797 52% Costa Rica 1,802,773 927,902 51% Dominican Republic 332,094 66,155 20% Guatemala 1,431,210 276,827 19% Mexico 7,006,363 3,213,241 46% Nicaragua 312,854 34,109 11% Trinidad & Tobago 221,261 20,400 9%

In 1999, exports of agricultural products from countries in Latin America and the Caribbean were valued at over $36 billion (WTO, 2000). For some countries, exports of fruits and vegetables made up close to half of the total agricultural exports. Thus, assuring the acceptability of these products to importing countries is a major economic consideration. In addition, it is important keep in mind that fruits and vegetables are produced for domestic consumption as well as for export. Therefore, the production of safe products is important for the health and welfare of the people within a country as well as for potential export revenue.

The safety of foods has a wide reaching effect on world trade. The World Health Organization estimated that in 1993, foodborne diseases produced worldwide losses in international food trade of approximately US$380 million (PAHO/WHO, 1998). In addition to the economic burden on those afflicted with disease, foodborne illness also led to economic effects on industry and healthcare systems.

Countries importing product have strong economic reasons for demanding safe product. Unsafe imports may pose a threat to the health and safety of consumers. Detention and/or rejection of unsafe product and decreased

I-19 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers consumer confidence in a product or in a country’s ability to produce safe product can lead to major losses of revenue for both exporting and importing countries. These lost markets and decreased revenues can translate to reduced community services, lower wages, and lost jobs. An example of this was seen with the 1996 U.S. outbreak of Cyclospora. Preliminary investigation identified domestic strawberries as the vehicle for this outbreak. Although further investigation proved the source of the outbreak was imported raspberries, the California Strawberry Commission reported that decreased consumer confidence in product safety resulted in over $40 million in lost revenue, 5,000 lost jobs, and a 10% reduction in crop acreage the following year (CDFA, 1997).

In the U.S., consumers are demanding year-round access to fresh fruits and vegetables. Produce from Latin America and the Caribbean helps meet this demand since much of it arrives when cold weather prevents the production of produce domestically (Zepp, et al., 1998). In 1998, U.S. fresh produce imports reached record levels with values totaling over $2.7 billion for fresh fruits and $2.1 billion for fresh vegetables (FASonline, 1999). Countries in Latin America and the Caribbean supplied over 80 percent of the U.S. imported fruits and over 70 percent of the imported vegetables.

Visual I.3-3

Examples of Recent U.S. Multistate Foodborne Disease Outbreaks Associated with Fresh Produce

Year # of # of Pathogen Associated food States Cases 2001 6 >40 Salmonella Cantaloupe 2000 8 86 Salmonella Tomatoes 1998 3 >400 Shigella Parsley 1997 14 864 Cyclospora Berries 1997 3 305 Cyclospora Basil 1996 2 49 E.coli O157:H7 Leaf lettuce 1996 2 72 Shigella Scallions 1996 20 1,500 Cyclospora Raspberries 1993 3 84 Salmonella Tomatoes 1991 23 400 Salmonella Cantaloupe

Although the number of foodborne illness outbreaks associated with fresh produce is still relatively low, as produce consumption has increased, there has been a greater incidence of foodborne illness outbreaks associated with fresh fruits and vegetables (Guzewich and Salsbury, 2000). Some of these outbreaks have been associated with imported produce. However, the proportion of foodborne illness associated with imported produce is no greater than that from produce grown in the U.S.

I-20 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

When looking at the safety record of produce exported to the U.S., it is important to consider that although disease outbreaks may have been associated with produce from another country, the actual site of contamination may never be determined. This is because product contamination can occur anywhere in the production and marketing chain (Zepp et al., 1998). Furthermore, by the time an outbreak is traced to a farm, packinghouse or other site, the actual source of contamination may no longer be there. An example of this problem was seen in a 1991 Hepatitis A outbreak associated with frozen strawberries. The berries were grown in Mexico and processed and distributed in the United States. Outbreak investigators were unable to determine if the contamination occurred before the berries entered the U.S. or during processing and distribution (See Table 2 in Additional Resources section for a list of produce-related outbreaks in the U.S.).

Summary

1. Food and agricultural production plays an important role in the economy of many countries.

2. Exports of fruits and vegetables make up a large percentage of the export income of many countries in Latin America and the Caribbean.

3. Unsafe imports may pose a threat to the health of the people consuming them and result in significant economic loss for the exporting country.

4. Foodborne disease outbreaks in the U.S. have been associated with produce from both domestic and imported sources. The proportion of foodborne illnesses associated with imported produce is no greater than that from produce grown in the U.S.

I-21 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

REFERENCES

Beuchat, L.R. 1998. Surface decontamination of fruits and vegetables eaten raw: a review. World Health Organization. WHO/FSF/FOS/98.2. Available via the Internet at http://www.who.int/fsf/fos982~1.pdf

CDFA. 1997. Secretary praises strawberry industry for establishing voluntary quality assurance program. California Department of Food and Agriculture Press Release, 1/27/97.

Doores, S. 1999. Food Safety – Current Status and Future Needs. Amer. Academy of Microbiology Report. p. 21.

FAO. 1998. Food Quality and Safety System: A training manual on food hygiene and the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) system. Publishing Management Group, FAO Information Division, Rome.

FAO/WHO 1984. The role of food safety in health and development. Report of Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Safety. WHO Tech. Rep:705.

FAOSTAT. 2000. Agriculture Data. FAO. http://apps.fao.org/page /collections?subset=agriculture

FASonline. 1999. Fruit and Vegetable Imports – Calendar Year 1998. USDA/FAS Horticultural and Tropical Products Division. Available via the Internet at www.fas.usda.gov /htp2/highlights/1999/99-04/fvimp98/fvimpCY98.html

FDA. 1998. Guide to minimize microbial food safety hazards for fresh fruits and vegetables. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Available via the Internet at http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/prodguid.html

FDA. 2001. Foodborne Pathogenic Microorganisms and Natural Toxins Handbook – The “Bad Bug Book.” U.S. Food and Drug Administration- Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition. Available via the Internet at http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~mow/intro.cfm

Frazier and Westhoff, 1991. Microbiología de los Alimentos. Tercera Edición. Editiorial Acribia, S.A. Zaragoza, Spain. pp. 439.

Guzewich, J.J. and Salsbury, P.A. 2000. FDA’s role in traceback investigations for produce. Food Safety Magazine. December, 2000/January, 2001.

Kaferstein, F. K., Motarjemi, Y., and Bettcher, D. W. 1997. Foodborne disease control: A transnational challenge. Emerging Infectious Diseases 3(4) 503.

I-22 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Liang, A.P. 2000. The epidemiology of produce-related outbreaks in the United States. Presentation at the IFT Food Safety Conference, Orlando, FL.

Murray, P., Drew, W., Kobayashi, G. and Thompson, J. 1995. Medical Microbiology. Mosby-Doyma Libros, S.A. Madrid, Spain. pp. 423.

Olsen, S.J., MacKinon, L.C., Goulding, J.S., Bean, N.H. and Slutsker, L. 2000. Surveillance for Foodborne Disease Outbreaks --United States, 1993- 1997. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report Surveillance Summary 49(SS01): 1.

PAHO/WHO. 1998. Health in the Americas. 1998 edition – Vol. 1. Pan American Health Organization/World Health Organization Scientific Publication No. 569.

Tauxe, R.V. 1997. Emerging foodborne disease: An evolving public health challenge. Emerg Infect Dis 3(4):425.

WHO. 1999a. Basic Food Safety for Health Workers. World Health Organization. WHO/SDE/PHE/FOS/99.1.

WHO. 1999b. Food Safety – An Essential Public Health Issue for the New Millennium. Food Safety Program, Depart of Protection of the Human Environment, World Health Organization, WHO/SDE/PHE/FOS/99.4.

WTO. 2000. International Trade Statistics 2000. World Trade Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. Available via the Internet at www.wto.org/english/res_e/statis_e/stat_toc_e.htm

Zepp, G, Kucher, F. and Lucier, G. 1998. Food safety and fresh fruits and vegetables: Is there a difference between imported and domestically produced products? Vegetables and Specialties, Economic Research Service/USDA, VGS-274:23.

I-23 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

SECTION II GOOD AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES*

* Section prepared by: Carmen Hernandez-Brenes, Ph.D., ITESM-Campus Monterrey, Mexico

II-1 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

SECTION II

Good Agricultural Practices

Introduction*

Produce may become contaminated with pathogens anywhere in the farm-to- table chain. If produce becomes contaminated, there is no process other than thorough cooking to ensure elimination of the pathogens. Since cooking is not appropriate for produce bound for fresh markets, prevention of contamination is imperative to assure a safe product.

The use of Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs) during growing, harvesting, sorting, packaging, and storage operations for fresh fruits and vegetables is key to preventing pathogen contamination. Key areas of concern when implementing a GAP program are prior land use, adjacent land use, water quality and use practices, soil fertility management, wildlife, pest, and vermin control, worker hygiene and sanitary facilities, and harvesting and cooling practices.

The following modules provide a look at these operations and the GAPs associated with each. The intent of this manual is not to cover every detail of each operation in the production and handling of fresh produce but rather to educate on the importance of the topic and to use pertinent examples to illustrate some concerns. Because of the diversity of agricultural production practices and commodities, procedures recommended to minimize microbial contamination will be most effective when these general concepts are adapted to specific operations.

* Section prepared by: Carmen Hernandez-Brenes, Ph.D., ITESM-Campus Monterrey, Mexico

II-2 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Module 1 Soil and Water

Learning Outcomes

Ø Participants should be able to identify the potential for produce contamination resulting from current and prior uses of the soil.

Ø Participants should be able to recognize the potential for produce contamination associated with water quality and use practices.

Practical

Ø Laboratory Exercise: Water as a Contamination Agent

Additional Resources

Ø Part III – Disinfecting Contaminated Wells

In order to reduce risks associated with the production of fresh fruits and vegetables, it is necessary to first assess the potential hazards in the production environment. Once the potential sources of produce contamination have been identified, practices should be implemented to reduce or eliminate them.

For example, human and animal feces are one of the most important sources of contamination of soil and water. This contamination can be easily spread to fresh produce. When assessing the possible produce contamination associated with a production site, it is important to look at the potential for fecal contamination and, if it exists, to determine steps to eliminate this hazard source.

Soil

Agricultural land and land that has been used for activities other than agriculture can be contaminated with pathogenic organisms or toxic chemical substances. Obtaining a history of the prior use of the land is important because it helps identify these potential hazards. In addition, the failure of prior users to follow Good Agricultural Practices can offer risks of contamination to produce grown on the soil.

Visual II.1-1

Identification Of Hazards Associated With Soil History

As part of a Good Agricultural Practice (GAP) program it is necessary to identify possible sources of microbial and chemical contamination associated with the prior use of land that it is being used for agricultural production.

II-3 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

It is important to obtain information about the previous use of the land where agricultural production is taking place. This can be done through interviews with prior owners, a review of municipal permits or from other sources. This background information can help in the identification of situations that can increase the risk for fresh produce contamination (FDA, 1998).

Visual II.1-2

Cultivated Land Information

Important information that needs to be obtained about the history of the land includes if the land has been used: · For animal feeding · For domestic animal production · As a garbage or toxic waste disposal site · As a sanitary waste management site · For mining activities, oil or gas extraction · For the disposal of incinerated material, industrial waste or if mineral residues exist on the site · For barns and/or if farm animals are being produced on land adjacent to or a short distance from the cultivation site.

Other information that should be obtained include if the land has: · Experienced any serious flooding. · Been treated in an uncontrolled manner with organic or inorganic fertilizers and/or pesticides.

Prior use of the land for animal feeding or domestic animal production can greatly increase the risk of contamination of fruit and vegetables with pathogens commonly found in the intestinal tract of animals. The potential for contamination from this source is related to the time that has passed since the land was used for animal feeding or production. The risk of contamination will also be influenced by conditions such as atmospheric temperature, sunlight and relative humidity.

The presence of barns or farm animals a short distance from the cultivation site increases the risk of product contamination. Assessment of the location of the animals and their facilities and evaluation of drainage systems and water currents flowing near these areas will help determine the potential for contamination. In some instances it may be necessary to create physical barriers or channels to divert water which may carry contamination from the animals.

When the land has been used for garbage disposal or as a waste management site, it may contain decomposing organic matter and, perhaps, fecal material.

II-4 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Depending on the garbage contents, soil microbial loads can be extremely high and the soil may also contain harmful chemicals or toxic contaminants.

Land that has been used for mining or petroleum extractions can be contaminated with heavy metals or hydrocarbons. Even if the contamination is located on a small portion of the land, factors such as rainfall and subterraneous water flow should be evaluated. Analysis of toxic substances in the soil and a review of the environmental compliance of the extraction operation are recommended when the ground history indicates a high risk for chemical hazards.

Heavy flooding also can increase the sources of contamination. Water run-off can introduce pathogens and chemical contaminants from further regions. Dead animals and still water remaining after the floodwaters have receded can lead to significant bacterial hazards. Individual assessment of each flooding situation will be needed along with a review of the time that has passed since the flood and other conditions that can mitigate or reduce the risks. When there is concern about the safety of the growing site, microbiolgical analyses after a contamination has occurred (e.g. flooding or run-off) may assist in identifying contamination.

Even if the investigation of the prior use of the land indicates that it has been used solely for agricultural production, prior production practices should be reviewed. Improper use of organic fertilizers may result in microbiological contamination of the soil while inorganic fertilizer and/or pesticides used improperly can cause serious chemical hazards. Chemical compounds should have been used according to label recommendations and the products should be registered for use on the specific crop.

Visual II.1-3

Current or Prior Use of Adjacent Land

· Information about the use of land adjacent to the production site is critical since this helps identify situations that can increase the risk of contamination of fresh produce with pathogenic bacteria or toxic substances. · Contamination can reach produce through a variety of means including water or wind flow, workers, vehicles, or equipment.

The land owner or operator should research both the present and prior use of adjacent lands to identify potential produce contamination and precautions that need to be taken to prevent contamination of fresh produce in the field.

Contamination from areas away from the actual growing area can reach produce through a variety of means including water or wind flow, and workers, vehicles, or equipment moving from one area to another.

II-5 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Water Resources and Irrigation Practices

Visual II.1-4

Water used in the production of fruits and vegetables can be a source of pathogen contamination and dissemination.

During agricultural production of fruits and vegetables, water is used for numerous activities in the field, including irrigation and pesticide and fertilizer application (FDA, 1998). Other water uses during produce handling include cooling, washing, waxing and transportation. In addition to activities where water comes in direct contact with produce, field and packing shed workers use water for drinking and hand washing.

Visual II.1-5

Water used in agricultural activities can be contaminated with pathogenic bacteria that may cause severe health problems to consumers.

It can be a source of and vehicle for biological hazards such as:

Enterohemorrhagic and Salmonella spp. Enterovirulent Escherichia coli Shigella spp Vibrio cholerae Gardia lamblia Cryptosporidium parvum Toxisplasm gondii Cyclospora cayetanensis Hepatitis A virus Norwalk virus

Such microorganisms are associated with gastrointestinal diseases that, in severe cases, can cause death.

Poor quality water may be a direct source of contamination and also an important vehicle for spreading microorganisms in the production field (Bern et al., 1999). Every time water comes in direct contact with fruits or vegetables, the possibility of contaminating the produce with pathogens exists. This includes water used for produce production, fresh produce washing, in packaging facilities and during transportation. The severity of the hazard resulting from poor quality water will depend on the type and number of microorganisms in the water and their capacity to survive on the produce.

II-6 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Visual II.1-6

The chances of contamination of fruits and vegetables with microorganisms present in water can increase depending on factors such as:

· Product growth stage · Type of crop · Time between water application and harvest · Water and product handling practices

In addition to the quality of the water other factors that can increase the risk of contamination of produce by water include the stage of development and type of crop, the time between the contact of the produce with the water and harvest, and other water and produce handling practices. Fruits and vegetables with large surface areas, like leafy vegetables, or those where the surface structure allows pathogens to adhere easily are at a greater risk of contamination from water. This risk can be further increased when the contact with contaminated water takes place near harvest time or during post harvest handling.

Potential Produce Contamination Associated with Water Sources

Visual II.1-7

Usually, water for agricultural uses comes from: · Surface sources such as rivers, streams, and reservoirs · Ground water from wells (open or capped) · Public water systems such as those provided by towns or other municipalities

Among the most common sources of agricultural water are surface rivers, streams, open canals, etc. Other sources include reservoirs such as swamps, lakes, tanks, ground water from wells (open or capped) and, occasionally, public water systems.

Surface and reservoir sources vary considerably in their microbial content. Microbial loads of surface water range from several thousand organisms per milliliter after a rainfall to a relatively low number after auto purification, a normally occurring process in smooth waters.

Surface waters can be exposed to temporary or intermittent contamination. This contamination can come from raw human and animal wastes, sewage water discharges, and water coming from adjacent lots dedicated to animal production or other contamination. Surface water generally flows some distances before it reaches the crop. It is important to identify upstream sources of contamination to this flow. Elimination of this contamination may involve modification of the water’s route or the introduction of intervention methods, such as filters.

II-7 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Visual II.1-8

Water destined for agricultural production can easily become contaminated with human and/or animal feces.

To protect water sources: · Keep animals and children out of the fields; · Provide field workers with properly constructed and maintained restrooms or sanitary mobile units; · Properly develop wells and water systems.

Water destined for agricultural production can easily become contaminated with human and/or animal feces. It is important to keep animals and children out of the fields and to provide field workers with properly constructed and maintained restrooms or mobile sanitary units. Water contamination with human fecal material also can occur if wells and water systems are not properly developed, if septic systems fail or have deficiencies in their design, and from discharges that come from sewage treatment plants.

Wildlife, including insects, rodents, reptiles, and birds, can carry disease. Since these are found even in the most pristine environments, absolute protection of water is difficult and minimization of potential contamination by wildlife should be the goal.

Visual II.1-9

Ground water may be contaminated by a variety of biological and chemical hazards, which include: · Bacteria, viruses, parasites, and protozoans · Domestic waste · Nitrate nitrogen · Synthetic organic chemicals · Heavy metals · Petroleum residues · Combustion products from roadways

It is generally believed that ground water is less likely than surface water to be contaminated with pathogens since ground water generally loses much of its bacterial and organic compound content after filtration though rock and clay layers. (Buttler et al, 1993). The bacterial content of ground water may vary from a few to a few hundred organisms per milliliter. However, under certain conditions, such as with shallow, old, or improperly constructed wells, the potential for contamination of ground water by surface water is a great risk.

II-8 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Prevention of well contamination begins with proper placement of the well (Engel et al., 1998). The distance that the well must be from sources of contamination depends on many factors, such as geologic formations, depth of the aquifer, direction of groundwater flow, effects of well pumping on groundwater movement, and susceptibility of the site to flooding.

Both soil and slope characteristics make well location tricky. The following standards apply to the placement of wells (Engel et al., 1998): Ø The well should be located away from septic tanks, sewage disposal areas (such as a drain field), and other sources of contamination such as feed lots, manure piles, chemical storage, chemical mixing areas, dumps or landfills, fuel storage tanks, storm sewers, privies, or refuse dumps. Separating the well from a contamination source may reduce the chance of pollution, but it does not guarantee that it will be safe. Contaminants can come from great distances, depending on the depth of the aquifer and of the well. Ø The well should be in an area free from flooding or extra precautions to protect it must be planned. Floodwater can easily carry bacteria, oil products, and pesticides from one place to another. Ø Surface drainage should be planned to run water away from the well on all sides. Up-slope drainage should be diverted away from hillside wells. A well downhill from a barnyard, a leaking tank or a failing septic system runs a greater risk of contamination than a well on the uphill side of these contamination sources. Ø The well should be located above (higher in grade) disposal areas if possible. Surface land slope does not always indicate the direction a pollutant might flow once it gets into the ground. Groundwater often moves toward surface streams and lakes, but the aquifer supplying water to the well may be deep below the surface, and its slope may be different than the land surface. Finding out about groundwater movement on a farm may require special monitoring equipment.

Once the well site is selected and the well is in place, proper maintenance is important to assure the well water does not become contaminated. The well site should be kept clean and well casings, seals and caps should be maintained to prevent surface water and contaminants from entering the well. It is also important to consider that ground water is not inactive. Rain, snowmelt, or interchange with surface waters usually recharges a well. Because of this, human activities can lead to contamination of ground water.

Pesticide handling in the vicinity of wells may result in chemical contamination of ground water. The location of wells should be considered when mixing, applying, storing and disposing of pesticides. Vegetation or other barriers should be established as guard zones to help limit contact between the chemicals and water sources (Nesheim, 1993).

II-9 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Visual II.1-10

Summary of GAPs to Prevent Contamination of Water Sources

· Identify the primary and secondary sources of water, and be conscious of sources for possible pathogen contamination. · Identify sources of water shared with grass-lots, feed-lots and dairy farms. · Take necessary measures to prevent animal access to crop fields, water sources and other related areas. · Be aware of uncontrollable wildlife vectors and treat water accordingly. · Identify if any adjacent fields are using untreated animal manure as fertilizer. · Avoid manure storage near the crop fields. · Identify topography of the landscape, its effect on water flow and the rainfall pattern of the region. · Provide maintenance to water storage tanks. · Periodically verify water quality by submitting samples for microbiological testing. Tests for standard indicators of fecal pollution, such as E.coli can be performed but do not necessarily indicate the absence of protozoa and viruses.

Good agricultural practices also include the use of soil and water conservation practices, such as channel construction, drain control structures, diversion tanks, vegetation barriers, etc., which act as physical barriers in the event of a contaminated water run off.

Hazards Introduced by Irrigation Practices

Visual II.1-11

Irrigation

Controlled application of water to the land or field with the purpose of providing the moisture levels required for the appropriate development of the plant.

Irrigation is the controlled application of water to the land or field with the purpose of providing the moisture levels required for the appropriate development of the plant. Irrigation plays a major role in achieving cultivable lands, especially in arid and semi-arid regions.

Visual II.1-12

Irrigation methods commonly used include: · Surface (furrow or flood) · Overhead (sprinklers) · Trickle (drip or buried) · Micro-sprinklers

II-10 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Irrigation methods commonly used include (Solomon, 1988; ERS, 2001): · Surface (furrow or flood) – where soil surface is used as a conduit for water that is allowed to pond on the ground in furrows or throughout the field. · Overhead (sprinklers) – water is delivered through a pressurized pipe network to sprinklers, nozzles or jets which spray the water into the air, to fall onto the plants and soil in an artificial "rain". · Trickle irrigation - the slow, frequent application of water to the soil though emitters placed at or near the root zone of the plants. The term trickle irrigation is general, and includes several more specific methods. Drip irrigation applies the water through small emitters to the soil surface, usually at or near the plant to be irrigated. Subsurface or buried irrigation is the application of water below the soil surface. · Micro-sprinklers – are a cross between sprinkler and trickle irrigation. These systems use low-volume sprinkler heads located about 1 foot above the ground to spray water over a wide area when low volume overhead irrigation is desired. They are designed for areas where drippers are not practical, such as large areas of ground cover or under trees. Their low-volume spray does not reach high into the air so plant material not growing close to the ground is not directly exposed to the water.

Irrigation methods are selected according to the environment, water source, climate, soil characteristics, type of crop, and cost. The type of irrigation system chosen is important to product safety since this determines the amount of contact between the irrigation water and the produce. In general, the quality of water in direct contact with the edible portion of produce may need to be better than that with minimal product contact. Where water quality is unknown or cannot be controlled, growers may want to consider irrigation practices that minimize contact between water and the edible portion of the crop (FDA, 1998).

Visual II.1-13

Hazards associated with irrigation practices are influenced by: · Water source and quality · Amount of water applied · Irrigation program · Irrigation method - degree of contact with the edible portion of the fruit or vegetable · Soil drainage properties · Time to harvest date

The closer to harvest irrigation occurs, the greater the chance for survival of pathogens and for the presence of residual chemicals on the produce. Irrigation methods, like drip system, where the contact between water and plant is minimized, are generally less likely to lead to fresh produce contamination, however, the use of good quality water is still important. Sprinklers offer a greater

II-11 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers degree of contact between the edible portion of the fruit or vegetable and the water. Therefore, a greater risk of produce contamination may occur. With these systems, the use of good quality water and the proper use and maintenance of the equipment is especially important.

Visual II.1-14

Chemigation

Refers to the application of fertilizer or pesticides through irrigation systems.

Water used for the application of pesticides and foliar fertilizers can be a source of microbial contamination. For this reason, the microbiological quality of the water used for these activities should be considered.

In addition to biological hazards, water also can contain chemical contaminants. When chemigation systems are not properly designed, they can result in serious ground water contamination, increasing the risk of chemical contamination of fresh produce. Safety equipment is available that can prevent back-flow and subsequent groundwater contamination (Olexa, 1991). This equipment is relatively inexpensive and can prevent serious hazards.

Additional safeguards against contamination during chemigation include training and certification of applicators and water analysis at the source and at locations near the water source. In addition, it is important to identify the runoff direction, if runoff takes place. In the case of fertilizers, it important to know the plant toxicity of the specific fertilizer and to pay close attention to calculated and recommended dosage rates and schedules of application (Olexa, 1991).

Agricultural Water Microbiological Testing Procedures

Visual II.1-15

· Microbiological testing is used to track safety, not for daily monitoring activities. · It is important to document the frequency and results of each water test for comparison purposes. Changes may help identify problems. · These records would become very important in the event of a microbiological outbreak investigation.

Microbiological determinations are time consuming so are used to track safety trends, not for daily monitoring activities. They are generally used to verify that the appropriate preventive measures are in place. Microbiological analyses are generally performed as indicators of contamination, especially for the verification

II-12 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers of cleaning programs for tanks, wells, or when contamination from a specific source or event is suspected.

Proper records of water microbiological quality are an important good agricultural practice. It is important to document the frequency and results of each water test since changes in results may identify problems.

Testing for specific pathogenic bacteria in water may be inappropriate. They could be present in very small amounts and thus not detected. Furthermore, microbiological characteristics of water can vary considerably depending on such factors as the water source, season, and sampling time. Since waterborne disease is usually the result of fecal contamination of water supplies, it is more efficient to determine if fecal contamination is present than to actually look for the presence of pathogens.

The fecal indicator bacteria are used to identify when fecal contamination of water has occurred. The fecal indicator bacteria are natural inhabitants of the gastrointestinal tracts of humans and other warm-blooded animals. These bacteria are released into the environment with feces and, in general, cause no harm. However, relatively high numbers of fecal indicator bacteria in the environment, suggest an increased likelihood of pathogens being present as well. In the United States, coliform bacteria serve as the indicator organisms for fecal contamination.

Visual II.1-16

Laboratory assays commonly performed to determine the quality of water for agricultural usage include:

· Total and fecal coliform bacteria · Enumeration of Escherichia coli

To test if the water being used in agricultural production is contaminated with fecal material, the recommended laboratory tests should look for the presence of fecal coliform bacteria, specifically E. coli.

Visual II.1-17

MCL (Maximum contaminant level) for total coliforms in drinking water is Zero

An MCL does not exist for agricultural water, however growers are urged to minimize all hazards over which they have control.

II-13 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

The maximum contaminant level (MCL) for drinking water for total coliform/E.coli is zero (U.S. EPA, 2001b). An MCL does not exist for agricultural water, however growers are urged to take a proactive part in minimizing sources of microbial contamination over which they have control. If wells or water sources are contaminated with these organisms, possible alleviation measures include disinfecting with chlorine or another disinfectant or filtration of the water source. Part III in the Additional Resources section gives general procedures for disinfecting contaminated wells.

Visual II.1-18 Source Possible Water Testing Frequency Closed system, under the One annual test at the beginning of season ground or covered tank

Uncovered well, open Every three months during the season canal, water reservoir, collection pond

Municipal/District water Keep records from the municipality/district water system system (monthly, quarterly or annual report)

The type of water source will determine the recommended frequency of testing (CSC, 1998). With closed, covered, or underground systems, where contamination is less likely to occur, annual testing is sufficient if the well is properly developed. With open systems, like uncovered wells, open canals and ponds, testing every three months is recommended to track the water’s safety. Additional testing should be considered after a significant event that might cause water contamination such as heavy rain or flooding.

Visual II.1-19

Water Sample Collection · Sterile sample containers should be obtained from the testing laboratory because containers may be specially prepared for a specific contaminant. · Sampling and handling procedures will depend on the specific water quality concern and should be followed carefully. · If water has been chlorinated, the presence of residual chlorine or other halogens can prevent the continuation of bacterial action. To prevent this occurrence, sodium thiosulfate should be added to the collection tube. · If the water is collected from a tap, the water should be allowed to flow for 1-3 minutes before the sample is taken. · The sample should be analyzed as soon as possible and no more than 30 hrs after its collection. · Samples should be kept cool (<10oC) during transportation from the source to the laboratory.

II-14 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

When testing water, care should be taken in collecting and handling the sample to assure the integrity of the sample, to avoid contamination during the sampling process and to assure changes do not take place in the sample after it is collected. Some water conditions and/or treatments can affect tests for microorganisms so samples must receive special treatment if these conditions exist. For example, if water has been chlorinated, the presence of residual chlorine or other halogens can prevent the continuation of bacterial action. To prevent this occurrence, sodium thiosulfate should be added to the collection tube. Basic considerations for the collection of water samples (U.S. EPA, 2000) are described in the visual above, however, precise procedures should be obtained from the testing laboratory being used to assure appropriate samples.

Summary

1. Agricultural land and land that has been used for activities other than agriculture can be contaminated with pathogenic organisms or toxic chemical substances.

2. As part of a Good Agricultural Practice (GAP) program it is necessary to identify possible sources of microbial and chemical contamination associated with the prior use of land that it is being used for agricultural production. Use of adjacent land is also important and should be investigated.

3. Every time water comes in direct contact with fruits or vegetables, the possibility of contaminating the produce with pathogens exists. This includes water used for produce production activities like irrigation and chemical application, fresh produce washing, in packaging facilities and during transportation. The quality of water used to produce ice for cooling and other produce handling operations is also important since this can be a source of contamination.

4. The severity of the hazard resulting from poor quality water will depend on the degree of contact between the water and the produce, the type and amount of microorganisms in the water and their capacity to survive on the produce.

5. Water destined for agricultural production can easily get contaminated with human and/or animal feces. It is important to keep animals and children out of the fields and to provide field workers with properly constructed and maintained restrooms or mobile sanitary units.

6. The maximum contaminant level (MCL) for drinking water for total coliform/E.coli is zero. If wells or water sources are contaminated with these organisms, possible alleviation measures include disinfecting with chlorine or another disinfectant or filtration of the water source.

II-15 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Module 2 Organic and Inorganic Fertilizers

Learning Outcomes

Ø Participants should be able to identify potential produce contamination associated with the use of organic and inorganic fertilizers.

Ø Participants should be aware of recommended composting procedures for manure.

Practical

Ø Laboratory Exercise: Water as a Contamination Agent

Additional Resources

Ø Part IV – Composting Facility

Visual II.2-1

Fertilizer

Natural or synthetic substance added to the soil or plants to provide them with the necessary nutrients for plant development.

Fields used for agricultural production generally require the addition of plant nutritional supplements for soil enrichment. Fertilizers are natural or synthetic substances that are added to the soil or plants to provide them with the nutrients necessary for plant development. The use of fertilizers is a common practice to increase the soil quality, and consequently, the quantity and quality of the fruits and vegetables grown in it.

Visual II.2-2

Categories of Fertilizers

Fertilizers can be divided into two large categories: · Organic · Inorganic

Fertilizers can be divided into two large categories, organic and inorganic, depending on the source of the material.

II-16 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Organic Fertilizers

Visual II.2-3

Raw materials commonly used for the production of organic fertilizers include:

· Animal manure · Post-harvest material · Organic waste · Biosolids/sludge (human waste)

Organic fertilizers are derived from plant material or animals. They are obtained by the conversion of animal manure, post-harvest material or organic waste into compost. When properly treated, organic fertilizers can provide many advantages to public health because their production eliminates waste material that otherwise would constitute a source of bacterial contamination.

Associated Risks

Visual II.2-4

Hazards Associated with Animal Manure

· When fecal material is used for fertilizer without proper treatment, there is danger of contamination of fruits and vegetables with pathogenic bacteria. · These bacteria can cause gastrointestinal and other illnesses in humans. · Survival of viruses and protozoa in composted manure has not been clearly determined.

Human and animal fecal materials are important sources of microbiological contamination of produce. Organisms linked to these sources include Salmonella, anaerobes such as, Enterococcus, and other intestinal bacteria. One of the most infectious organisms prevalent in animal manure is E. coli O157:H7 that usually comes from the fecal material of ruminants like cows, sheep, and deer. Other significant hazards found in human and animal fecal material include Salmonella and Cryptosporidium (FDA, 1998).

Animal manure and solid biological waste may provide safe, effective fertilizer when properly treated. If the treatment is inadequate, or if no treatment is used, the risk of contamination of fruit and vegetables with pathogenic microorganisms is extremely high. The rate of survival of contaminants in manure and their transfer to crops depends on a number of factors. These include soil type, manure application rate, soil pH, composting method and time of application.

II-17 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Continued application of untreated manure on a site could lead to extended pathogen survival and buildup which increases the risk of both contamination at that site and the spread of contamination to nearby sites.

In addition to microbial hazards, the use of solid biological waste on land can also introduce chemical hazards, such as heavy metals and toxic organic compounds. These materials may accumulate to levels that will be harmful to plants grown on the land. Another harmful effect from improperly treated manure is decreased water quality due to the release of oxygen demanding substances, suspended solids, and nitrogen.

Treatments to Reduce the Risks

Visual II.2-5

Composting

Composting is a natural, biological process by which organic material is broken down and decomposed.

Because the fermentation process generates a lot of heat it reduces/eliminates biological hazards in organic matter.

To convert organic waste into safe fertilizers (compost), practices should be followed to reduce the presence of pathogenic bacteria. Composting is a natural, biological process by which organic material is broken down and decomposed. The composting process is carried out by bacteria and fungi which ferment the organic material and reduce it to a stable humus. Because the fermentation process generates a lot of heat it reduces/eliminates biological hazards in organic matter.

The principles of composting are quite simple -- just provide the microorganisms with an environment conducive to their growth -- a balanced diet, water and oxygen (Merka et al., 1994): · The microorganisms best at composting are aerobic (require oxygen). During the composting process oxygen is used up quickly by microorganisms inside the compost pile. Aerating the compost pile allows oxygen to be resupplied to these microorganisms so that the composting process continues at a rapid rate. · Composting microorganisms thrive in moist, but not soggy, conditions. Desirable moisture levels in the composting materials should be 40 to 60 percent. Too much water can cause the compost pile to become anaerobic; too little will prevent microorganisms from reproducing to adequately high numbers. · A temperature in the range of 130o to 150oF should be generated inside the compost pile. These high temperatures are produced by the biological activity

II-18 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

of the microorganisms that are breaking down the organic material in the pile and are beneficial to the composting process. High temperatures enhance the growth and reproduction of thermophilic (heat loving) bacteria that are especially good at digesting organic material. The heat produced by the microorganisms not only contributes to their own growth, but also speeds up the decomposition process and helps in killing pathogenic microorganisms.

The USDA´s Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) has prepared guidance on the development and use of a composting facility. This document is included as Part IV of the Additional Resources section of this manual.

Visual II.2-6

Composting treatments can be divided in two groups: · Passive · Active

Composting treatments can be divided in two groups, passive treatments and active ones.

Passive Composting Treatments

Visual II.2-7

Passive Composting Treatments

Passive treatments are based on maintaining organic waste under natural conditions. Environmental factors such as temperature, humidity and ultraviolet radiation, given enough time, encourage the composting process and a reduction in the numbers of pathogenic microorganisms.

Passive treatments are based on maintaining organic waste under natural conditions. The compost piles are not turned and free oxygen in the piles is quickly used up, resulting in anaerobic conditions in the pile, slowing the composting process. However, environmental factors, such as temperature, humidity, and ultraviolet radiation, given enough time, inhibit the growth of pathogenic organisms and eventually destroy them.

The biggest obstacle to this approach is that it takes a long time to significantly reduce the number of pathogens in the material and determining the time required for this process to take place is difficult. The amount of time needed depends on the climate, region and season, as well as the source and type of manure and organic waste used. Due to these uncertainties, passive composting treatments are not recommended.

II-19 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Active Composting Treatments

Active treatments are those in which piles of materials are managed so that conditions are created to speed up the process of converting waste materials to compost. Active treatment to convert organic material into compost is the treatment most widely used by farmers.

Visual II.2-8

Active Composting Treatments

· Artificially induce the environmental conversion of waste to compost. · Compost piles are turned frequently or other aeration is provided to maintain adequate oxygen (aerobic) conditions. · Temperature and moisture levels of the pile are monitored and supplements are added as necessary · When properly applied, these treatments require less time than passive treatments to reach the required microorganism reduction level.

With active composting compost piles are turned frequently or other aeration is provided to maintain adequate oxygen (aerobic) conditions within the pile. Temperature and moisture levels of the pile are monitored and supplements are added as necessary to obtain optimum moisture and proper carbon:nitrogen ratio for complete composting. The composting process is complete when the pile stops heating. Under appropriate conditions, the high temperature generated during the fermentation process destroys most of the pathogens in a relatively short time

Microbial analysis of the compost may be performed to determine if the procedure was effective in the eliminating pathogenic bacteria. The presence of E. coli and Salmonella are generally used as indicators since, if they are still present in the compost, the organic fertilizer should not be applied to crops and additional treatments of the fertilizer are needed.

Additional active treatments such as pasteurization, drying with heat, anaerobic digestion, stabilization with alkalis, aerobic digestion or a combination of these may be applied to speed the composting process.

II-20 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Figure1. Manure Composting Procedure currently being recommended by the Fresh Produce Safety Committee of the State of Guanajuato, Mexico (CESAVEG) (Ballesteros-Sandoval, 1999) Composting Materials: ü 1000 kg of fresh cow manure (other sources include pig, chicken, veal and other farm animals). Large agglomerations should be broken down. ü 10 stacks of hay (150 kg) - they could be made of wheat straw or from alternative sources such as corn, sorghum, green remains from harvest, or organic waste (paper and cardboard) ü 50 kg of sieved soil. It should not contain glass, plastic or metals. ü 10 kg of ground charcoal ü 2 bags of lime (45.4 kg) ü Activator: 5 kg of molasses or sugar can be used. It is mixed in solution with baker’s yeast ü Clean water ü Turning instruments ü Water hose ü Thermometer Active composting is generally performed away from the production site, protected from the sun, wind and animals.

The first layer Add manure over Add soil over Add lime, charcoal, should be the layer of straw the manure activation mixture made of straw and water to reach a humidity level of 60%

After 3 days the temperature at Form piles not to NO the center of the exceed a height of Mix the material pile should be 1.2m by 1.5 of width. between 55-70°C o Cover the piles with (131-158 F) dark plastic Re-activate by the addition of more fresh manure or lime YES if heating cannot be Cover the compost induced Start the turning again. Daily Every 8 days compost process, if the temperature should should be turned humidity level is be between 55- (minimum 5 times). It too high and 70°C (131-158oF). should be finished the temperature Fifteen days or when it stops heating, readings start longer at 55°C (aprox. 50 days). to fall, add o (131 F) or higher is more straw and a generally mII.2 again the required for material composting

Microbiological Testing Conducted (Most Probable Number- MPN) (E. coli < 1,000 MPN/gram and Salmonella < 3 MPN/4 grams)

II-21 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Good Agricultural Practices in the Management of Organic Fertilizers

To assure that pathogenic microorganisms do not reach fruits and vegetables and, ultimately, the consumers, it is necessary to follow certain practices when manufacturing organic fertilizers, during their application and during harvest.

Visual II.2-9

Hazards Associated with Manure Treatment and Storage Location

· The location for storage and treatment of animal manure should be away from the produce production areas. · Barriers or some type of physical containment should be used as part of the manure storage areas to prevent contamination of produce or production areas by pathogens spread by rain wash, subterraneous water flow or wind spread from the stored manure. · Contamination of ground water supplies can be minimized if animal manure is stored on a cement floor or in special holes lined with clay. · Manure piles should be covered with plastic or other materials and/or stored under a shed since rainfall on manure piles can result in run-off containing pathogenic bacteria that can contaminate fields, equipment, etc. · The minimum distance from the manure storage facility to the production field depends on many factors, such as the configuration of the plantation fields, land slope, existing barriers to entrap water, and the possibility of bacterial spread by wind or rain. · Treated manure should be kept covered and away from waste and garbage to prevent recontamination by birds or rodents.

Manure should be confined for treatment. The location for storage and treatment of animal manure should be far away from the produce production areas. Barriers or some type of physical containment should be used as part of the manure storage areas to prevent contamination of produce or production areas by pathogens from the stored manure spread by rain wash, subterraneous water flow or wind spread. Contamination of ground water supplies can be minimized if animal manure is stored on a cement floor or in special holes lined with clay. Rainfall on manure piles can result in run-off containing pathogenic bacteria that can contaminate the fields, equipment, etc. so manure piles should be covered with plastic or other materials and/or stored under a shed.

Equipment (tractors) that comes in contact with untreated manure can be a source of produce contamination. Equipment should be cleaned with high pressure water or vapor before it is allowed in the production areas. In a similar way, personnel handling manure should not go into the production fields without proper hygiene.

II-22 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Treated manure should be kept covered and away from waste and garbage to prevent recontamination by birds or rodents. It should be maintained away from the plantation fields and separated from product packaging material so it will not contaminate the fresh produce, water sources or packaged produce.

Visual II.2-10

Precautions for the Application of Organic Fertilizers

· Properly treated organic fertilizer should be applied pre-planting or in the early stages of growth of the plant. It should be applied near the roots and covered with soil. · Organic fertilizers should NOT be applied when the fruit or vegetable is nearing maturity or harvest. · Maximum time should be allowed between the application of organic fertilizers and harvest of the product. · It is also suggested that crops on adjacent fields be grown in a way that organic fertilizers are not applied near a field that is already cultivated or near its harvest time.

Properly treated organic fertilizer should be applied prior to planting or in the early stages of plant growth. It should be applied near the roots and covered with soil. Organic fertilizers should NOT be applied when the fruit or vegetable is nearing maturity or harvest. Maximum time should be allowed between the application of organic fertilizers and harvest of the produce. It is also suggested that crops on adjacent fields be grown in a way that organic fertilizers are not applied near a field that is already cultivated or near its harvest time.

To properly assess the severity of the risk of biological contamination, the type of fruit or vegetable that is being produced should be considered.

Visual II.2-11

Commodity specific considerations in determining the risk of disease from contamination with organic fertilizers:

· Characteristics of the crop (i.e. leafy vegetable vs. tuber) and mode of consumption · Physical contact of the edible portions of fruits or vegetables with the ground · Shape and texture of the fruit or vegetable

Produce that grows in or on the surface of the soil is more susceptible to contamination. Produce that grows close to the ground also is more easily

II-23 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers contaminated by the splash of water during rain or irrigation. Fruits and vegetables that are produced on plants where they are not in direct contact with the soil are not as susceptible to contamination provided they are not dropped on the ground. The risk of contamination increases if the characteristics of the fruit or vegetable make it easy for dust or bacteria to adhere to their surface.

Untreated Animal Manure

Visual II.2-12

The use of untreated animal manure (without composting) in the production of edible produce results in a greater risk of contamination than treated manure and is NOT recommended.

The use of untreated animal manure (without composting) in the production of produce results in a greater risk of contamination than treated manure and is NOT recommended.

Although raw manure is never recommended for use as a fertilizer, in some regions, it is used. When untreated manure is used, it should be introduced into the ground during soil preparation and prior to planting. Microorganisms in the soil may reduce the number of pathogenic organisms in the manure, however time is a critical factor. The manure should be incorporated into the soil and the ground turned periodically to facilitate pathogen reduction. A maximum amount of time should be allowed between application of manure and planting. The amount of time that pathogenic bacteria can survive in manure is unknown but some researchers estimate that, depending on environmental conditions, the survival period can extend to a year or more.

Applying untreated animal manure (without composting) on the fields during the cultivation period is not recommended.

Recommended Controls and Records

Keeping complete records of fertilizer preparation and use is part of a Good Agricultural Practices program.

II-24 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Visual II.2-13

Suggestions for information to record:

· Origin of the organic material (Source and physical make-up of composted material) · Date compost process started · Treatment applied · Turnings of windrows (minimum 5 times) · Temperatures during composting (daily temperature readings of 55°C (131°F) or higher recommended). · Times at 55°C (131°F) or higher for windrow composting. · Amount used · Place of application · Date of the application · Method of application · Person responsible for the application · Microbiological Testing Conducted (Recommended: E. coli <1,000 MPN/gram and Salmonella < 3 MPN/4 grams) [MPN= Most Probable Number]

Information should be kept about the preparation of the organic fertilizer, including the source of the material, details of the composting procedures, and the results of microbiological tests on the composted material. Information on the dates, amounts and methods of applying the fertilizer as well as the person responsible for the application should also be maintained. These records will help verify that appropriate steps were taken to assure safety of the produce and will be useful if a traceback is required.

Inorganic Fertilization

Inorganic fertilizers are obtained via commercial chemical processes. Although the products themselves are generally not a source of microbial contamination, care should be taken to assure that contamination is not introduced through the use of contaminated water to mix the products or unclean equipment used in their application.

II-25 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Summary

The following table identifies points to consider when assessing the safety of fertilizer selection and treatments.

Evaluating Contamination Risks of Fertilization “Organic and Inorganic Fertilization” Use of the following Type of product being cultivated: Organic Fertilizers yes – no – Inorganic Fertilizers yes – no –

Origin of the Organic Matter Type of composting treatment – Animal manure – Passive Animal type ______– Active Which one? – Post-harvest waste ______– Organic waste – None – Sewage sludge/biosolids

When are the fertilizers applied? Do you have microbiological tests – Before planting/during preparation and/or records that indicate that the of the ground organic fertilizer has been treated to – During production reduce pathogens? yes – no – – After harvesting

1. Is there a direct contact between edible portion of the fruit or vegetable and the ground? yes – no – 2. Does the product morphology facilitate biological contamination? yes – no –

Appropriate measures taken in the following areas to reduce risks at the production site – Adequate storage of manure – Adequate use of equipment or tractors. – Adequate traffic control through the field

II-26 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Module 3 Animal Exclusion and Pest Control

Learning Outcomes

Ø Participants should understand the potential for produce contamination associated with animals in the production areas.

Ø Participants should understand recommended practices for pest and vermin control.

Practical

Ø Experiments Using Artificial Germs: How Germs are Spread II Germs and Produce

Animal Exclusion

All animals including mammals, birds, reptiles and insects are considered vehicles for contamination with pathogenic organisms. A large number of microorganisms can be found on the surface of animals (hair, feathers, hide, etc.) and in their respiratory and gastrointestinal systems.

Visual II.3-1

Feces are usually considered the major source of pathogenic organisms from animals. However:

· Some pathogenic bacteria commonly associated with animal skin include Salmonella, Staphylococcus, and Streptococcus. · The feathers and other parts of domestic birds also can be contaminated with these organisms. · Wild birds, reptiles and amphibians are a potential sources of Salmonella.

Feces are usually considered the major source of pathogenic organisms from animals (Murray et al., 1995). However, since animals are in contact with the soil, manure and water, they can easily pick up contaminants from these sources on their hide, paws, hair, etc.

In addition to foodborne pathogens, animals can carry many spoilage microorganisms, which can greatly reduce the quality and shelf life of fresh produce. Quality deterioration also can be accelerated by physical damage to the surface of the fruit or vegetable caused by animals, birds and insects. In addition to lowering quality, the wounded surfaces become an open door to pathogenic

II-27 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers and spoilage organisms, greatly increasing the risk of contamination of the internal portions of the produce.

Visual II.3-2

All animals should be kept away from production and handling areas (agricultural fields, storage facilities, packaging areas, machinery, etc.) to prevent the contamination of fresh fruit and vegetables with biological hazards that can harm the consumer.

Domestic animals, such as pets and livestock, and wild animals are all potential sources of contamination of produce and should be kept out of production areas. The risk of contamination is greatly increased when there are large numbers of wild animals near the production field. This includes animals such as crows, migratory birds, bats, etc. The presence of these animals is common when there are large forests, rivers and/or prairies around the field. In such cases, there are a number of different measures that can be implemented to exclude animals from the fields.

Visual II.3-3

Keeping Animals Out of Production Areas

To reduce the presence of animals in the production areas it is important to follow common sense practices such as: · Maintaining domestic and farm animals away from the fruit and vegetable production fields (vineyards, orchards, etc.) and establishing physical barriers or vegetation to prevent entry of wild animals. These precautions are especially important near harvest time. · Field workers should not be allowed to bring dogs, cats or other domestic animals into the field, packaging areas or storage facilities. · Dead or trapped animals such as birds, insects, rats, etc., should be disposed of promptly to avoid attracting other animals. Proper disposal procedures are to bury or incinerate the animal.

Domestic and farm animals offer as much risk of produce contamination as wild animals. All animals, including pets, should be kept away from produce production and handling areas. Dead or trapped animals should be disposed of promptly to avoid attracting other animals. Proper disposal procedures are to bury or incinerate the animal.

The maintenance of animal-free areas, such as cleared land, around the production site is also an important control. Farmers often use homemade devices to repel animals. In many cases, these are very effective. These devices

II-28 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers range from scarecrows, to water guns, traps, and physical barriers. When selecting an animal exclusion method it is important to consider the country’s environmental and animal protection laws.

Visual II.3-4

Cleaning Considerations for Surrounding Areas

· Keep the grass short to avoid the presence of rats, reptiles and other pests. · Keep all areas free of garbage. · Remove all unnecessary equipment - old and broken equipment can provide protection for rats and insects. · Remove nests from fields and buildings

The topic of sanitation standard operating procedures (SSOPs) will be discussed in detail in Section III. However there are a few considerations regarding animal exclusion that are also related to good cleaning practices. All areas where produce is grown and handled should be kept clean and free of garbage, unused equipment or situations that might encourage animals to inhabit the area.

Visual II.3-5

Animals and Water

· Since animals are attracted by water, the presence of water in the field and packing building should be limited to that needed for specific uses · In the packinghouse, surfaces and floors should be kept clean and as dry as possible to avoid the availability of water for bacterial and pest growth. · Water tanks and storage containers should be capped to prevent animal access to water sources.

Since animals are attracted by water and water is needed for bacterial growth, the presence of water in the field and packing building should be limited to that needed for specific uses. In the packinghouse, surfaces and floors should be kept clean and as dry as possible to avoid the availability of water for bacterial and pest growth. Water tanks and storage containers should be capped to prevent animal access to water sources.

Pest Control

Visual II.3-6

Insects and rodents are the pests most commonly found in food handling facilities

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Insects (cockroaches, flies, etc.) and rodents are the pests most commonly found in food handling facilities. Rats and mice not only cause significant losses of fresh produce but also damage buildings. In addition, they can contaminate fresh produce with parasites and other diseases. Rodent feces and urine can contaminate produce since they can contain microbial pathogens.

Pest Control Programs

Visual II.3-7

Pest Control in Fresh Produce Operations

· In fresh produce operations the term “pest” applies to all organisms that can contaminate fruit and vegetables during field production, packaging, storage and distribution. · Insects, microorganisms, wild animals and weeds (which can also harbor insects, vermin, etc.) should all be considered in a pest control program. · This program should also extend to the packinghouse, storage facilities and transportation vehicles.

In fresh produce operations the term “pest” applies to all organisms that can contaminate fruit and vegetables during field production, packaging, storage and distribution. This includes insects, microorganisms, wild animals and weeds (which can also harbor insects, vermin, etc.). All of these should be considered when implementing a pest control program.

Although cleaning is an important step for controlling pests, it is also important to implement a pest control program. Many produce packaging operations prefer to use professional pest control services. However, packinghouse personnel play an important role in detecting when a pest problem exists. Therefore it is recommended that an in-house pest control program be implemented to prevent fresh produce contamination.

Pest control programs should include a series of scheduled inspections to identify situations that can encourage the introduction of pests, identify the presence of pests and quantify their number.

II-30 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Visual II.3-8

Important Components of a Pest Control Program

· Periodic inspection of facilities to identify pest outbreaks and/or contamination with animals and to identify pests, including insects, rodents, and wild and domestic animals. · Scheduled inspection activities that include all areas of the operation/facility. · Identification of the type(s) of pests and quantification of their numbers. · Record keeping of all the inspections performed, indicating dates and problems that were observed with specific information on the identification of the pest detected and corrective actions taken. · Verification of the effectiveness of corrective and preventive actions included in the company’s pest control plan. · Establishment of facility maintenance program to repair cracks and holes and to remove places where a pest can get established.

A sound pest control program will help assure pests are not a problem in the produce production and handling areas. Records should be kept of all inspections, pests identified and pest control treatments used. These records will aid in determining that pest control methods were appropriate for produce protection. It is also important to verify the effectiveness of corrective and preventive actions. This documentation can save time, money and help prevent small problems from becoming large ones.

Facility maintenance is important in controlling pests. Repairing cracks and holes will help keep pests from entering while eliminating places where pests can get established discourage them from becoming permanent residents.

Common Pest Control Procedures

Pest control can be accomplished by either non-chemical or chemical methods, or through a combination of both (Table II.3-1). When selecting a pest control method, choose one that is approved for local, regional and/or national level use and then apply it appropriately.

II-31 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Table II.3-1. Summary of control measures used to prevent or lessen the crop damage caused by pests (U.S. EPA, 2001c).

METHOD DESCRIPTION BIOLOGICAL CONTROL Uses living organisms for pest control. Biopesticides fall into 3 major classes: (1) Microbial pesticides contain a microorganism (e.g., bacterium, fungus, or virus) that generally attacks a specific pest. (2) Plant pesticides are substances that plants produce from genetic material that has been added to the plant. (3) Biochemical pesticides are naturally-occurring substances that control pests by non-toxic mechanisms (e.g., pheromones).

Some plant growth regulators are naturally-occurring biopesticides. Biological control also includes the release of parasitic and predaceous insects to control insect pests or weed species. PLANT RESISTANCE Crop plants are bred to produce varieties that resist insects and other pests. Crop plants are also genetically altered to allow them to withstand herbicides so that only weed species are killed when treated with chemical pesticides. CULTURAL METHODS Methods include crop rotation, soil tillage, use of trap crops, change in planting or harvesting time, intercropping with other crops or with varieties which repel pests. MECHANICAL AND Techniques such as collecting pests with traps, suction PHYSICAL METHODS devices or by hand, using fire, heat, cold, sound, barriers or screens. CHEMICAL METHODS EPA defines conventional pesticides as synthetic chemicals which are intended to prevent, destroy, repel or mitigate any pest, or intended for use as a plant regulator, defoliant or desiccant. INTEGRATED PEST IPM is a pest management approach that uses all MANAGEMENT (IPM) available pest control methods, including but not limited to the judicious use of pesticides, to optimize a crop's ability to resist the pest with the least hazard to man and the environment.

II-32 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Pesticide Use and Misuse

Visual II.3-9

Pesticides

Pesticides are used to protect crops and stored grains, control household pests and nuisance insects, and eliminate vectors (organisms that carry pathogens from one host to another) of human and animal diseases (U.S. EPA, 2001c). They are toxic (poisonous) chemicals used to control pests. Classes of pesticides are commonly named after the pests that they help to control (insecticides control insects; herbicides control weeds; fungicides control fungi; and rodenticides control rodents).

Since pesticides can be extremely harmful, they should be applied, handled and stored in accordance with the instructions given on the label or on the manufacturer's safety data sheet for the product. Because of the potential health hazards associated with pesticides, application rates should be controlled to limit the amount of residues on produce and only pesticides approved for use on a specific product or in food processing facilities should be used.

Visual II.3-10

Registration of a pesticide is a scientific, legal and administrative process to enable authorities to control quality, use levels, labeling, packaging and advertising. Data required for registration include: · chemical and physical properties · effectiveness · toxicity for assessment of human health hazards · prediction of environmental effects

Pesticides used on products for import into the U.S. must be registered with the Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA, 2001c). Registration of a pesticide is a scientific, legal and administrative process through which EPA examines the chemical and physical properties of the pesticide, it’s effectiveness, its potential for causing toxic human health effects, and environmental effects resulting from its use. The producer of the pesticide must provide data from tests done according to EPA guidelines when seeking registration. Registration enables authorities to control quality, use levels, efficacy claims, labeling, packaging and

II-33 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers advertising. Registration also helps to ensure that the interests of end-users are well protected.

Pesticides should be used only on crops for which they are registered. The use of pesticides on other crops or at inappropriate levels can result in produce being refused for importation thus leading to significant loss of income for growers, packers and shippers.

Selection of Pesticides

Visual II.3-11

· A particular pesticide should be used only for the purposes or crops that it was approved for, and only under authorized conditions, doses and intervals. · The use of unauthorized pesticides is a common barrier to international trade.

Pesticides should be used only when needed and only in the amounts that will adequately control pests. Minimizing the amount of pesticide used reduces costs and helps to protect the environment (Nesheim, 1993). The pesticide label is the ultimate source of information for determining the proper application rates for a specific pesticide. It is recommended that growers document and verify that the pesticides used come from certified distributors, and that competent authorities approved their usage.

Pesticide Handling

Pesticide handling should be controlled through every phase of use from acquisition through storage to use in the fields. It is very important that the persons in charge of handling these products carefully follow the instructions printed on the label or on the information page that usually accompanies the product (Material Safety Data Sheet- MSDS).

Pesticide Application in the Field

The instructions for application of a particular pesticide should be read carefully before using the product. Information such as restrictions for its use, application rates, approved doses, number of applications and minimal intervals between applications should be carefully considered.

Pesticides can be applied in liquid, solid, or gaseous forms. It is important to follow label instructions for the mixing, loading and handling of the specific pesticide being used and the actual conditions of use. The amount of pesticide concentrate needed to treat a specific site should be carefully calculated. The water used to prepare pesticides should be free of pathogenic organisms.

II-34 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Special attention should be paid to spray equipment, pumps and nozzles used to apply pesticides. To minimize the potential for over or under treatment, accidents and spills, they should be calibrated for accuracy and checked frequently for malfunctions. Spray equipment should be regularly washed to prevent possible contamination of fruits or vegetables with compounds not authorized for that commodity and to avoid accidentally overdosing.

Warning signs should be posted on fields that have recently been treated with pesticides to prevent workers or visitors from inadvertently coming in contact with treatment chemicals. Such signs should only be removed after the established re-entry period into the field has passed so that residual levels are at an acceptable level.

Pesticide Storage

The amount of pesticide on hand should be kept to a minimum by buying only what is needed for the season or for the specific application.

Visual II.3-12

The pesticide storage facility should: · Be properly identified · Be away from children, animals, and all water sources · Be away from all water sources · Have a concrete floor to facilitate clean up in the event of a spill or leak.

All pesticides should be stored safely away from children, animals, and anyone who might misuse them (U.S. EPA, 2001c). Pesticides should be stored in clearly labeled containers; storage in the original containers is preferable. Containers should be kept in a safe storehouse that is well ventilated and can be closed off to prevent unauthorized entry. The storehouse should be located away from populated areas, on well-drained land, and away from domestic water supplies. It should be constructed with non-combustible material, and have a leak-proof floor and emergency exits. Any pesticide spillage should be cleaned thoroughly with large amounts of water. Pesticides and food should never be transported in the same vehicle.

Pesticide Residues

Visual II.3-13

Maximum Residue Limit (MRL) - the maximum level of residue that is legally permitted to remain in or on a crop in commerce.

II-35 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

High levels of pesticide residues on crops may be a hazard to humans who eat the produce. To regulate pesticide residues, a legal limit known as the maximum residue limit (MRL) is developed for each pesticide (U.S. EPA, 2001c). The MRL is the maximum level of residue that is legally permitted to remain in or on a crop in commerce. This limit is used to provide reasonable assurance that no adverse effects to the consumer will result over a lifetime of dietary exposure. Although strict adherence to MRLs might not be feasible for some countries because of economic constraints, those countries relying on food export profits should monitor for and comply with these MRL levels in order to maintain credibility as responsible exporters.

Pesticide Disposal

Instructions and restrictions on pesticide disposal are available from the product’s manufacturer and may also be established by local environmental regulators. These should be followed. Empty pesticide containers should be washed multiple times, then returned to the supplier or taken to an appropriate place for disposal (Nesheim, 1993). Excess spray and rinse water from equipment cleaning can be sprayed on sites or crops listed on the label. Never dispose of pesticides or pesticide containers in unused wells or near water sources. Empty, properly rinsed pesticide containers can be disposed of at most sanitary landfills. In view of the persistent, volatile nature of many pesticides, disposal by burning or burying on the farm is discouraged.

Training and Documentation

Visual II.3-14

Records of pesticide handling training activities should include: · Employee’s name · Experience or hire date · Position or job performed by the employee · Date of training · Training topics · The institution responsible for training and instruction records or certificates · Signature of trainer

Thorough training of personnel responsible for using and applying pesticides is critical. They should be aware of the dangers that can result from improper use of the product. They also should be trained in the use of safety equipment and application devices. Field workers should be reminded that adverse health effects caused by pesticides are often not noticeable in the short term, but can develop over time if exposure is not reduced.

The producer or person responsible for the pesticide application should have the following information:

II-36 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Ø Technical data sheets on the pesticides to be used Ø Pesticide permits issued by authorized regulatory organization. If the product is not listed as authorized for the crop being treated, it should not be used.

Visual II.3-15

A pesticide record sheet should contain information on: · Crop data (variety, planting date, product code, etc.) · Name of pesticides used · Place of application · Dosage · Application dates · Period of time before harvest · Name of the person responsible for the application · Date of last equipment calibration

A producer should critically evaluate the need for a pesticide and, when possible, use alternate methods of pest control. Careful records should be kept on pesticide usage and should include the information listed on the visual above (Buttler et al, 1993).

For a more information on considerations when selecting and using pesticides, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Technical Information Package (TIP) – Pesticide Use and Disposal (available via the Internet at www.epa.gov/oia/tips/pestint.htm) is recommended. This document was prepared to provide on-line information for international audiences on key environmental and public health issues related to pesticide use and to provide a summary of pertinent technical publications, databases, models, websites, and software programs related to this issue.

Summary

1. All animals including mammals, birds, reptiles and insects are considered vehicles for contamination with pathogenic organisms that can cause illness and death. In addition to foodborne pathogens, animals can carry many spoilage microorganisms, which can greatly reduce the quality and shelf life of fresh produce.

2. Animals, both domestic and wild, should be kept away from production and handling areas (agricultural fields, storage facilities, packaging areas, machinery, etc.) to prevent the contamination of fresh fruit and vegetables with pathogens that can cause illness and death. The maintenance of animal- free areas, such as cleared land, around the production site is an important control.

II-37 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

3. Good sanitation is key to controlling animals and pests in produce production and handling areas. All areas where produce is grown and handled should be kept clean and free of garbage, unused equipment or situations that might encourage animals to inhabit the area.

4. In addition to cleaning procedures it is important to implement a pest control program. Pest control programs should include a series of scheduled inspections to identify situations that can encourage the introduction of pests.

5. Pest control can be accomplished by either non-chemical or chemical methods, or through a combination of both. When selecting a pest control method, choose one that is approved for local, regional and/or national level use and then apply it appropriately.

6. Pesticides are used to protect crops and stored grains, control household pests and nuisance insects, and eliminate vectors (organisms that carry pathogens from one host to another) of human and animal diseases. Because of the potential health hazards associated with pesticides, application rates should be controlled to limit the amount of residues on produce and only pesticides approved for use on the produce or in food processing facilities should be used.

7. Good quality water should be used for mixing and applying pesticides to minimize the risk of microbial contamination of produce.

8. Pesticides used on produce for import into the U.S. must be registered with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

9. High levels of pesticide residues on crops may be a hazard to humans who eat the produce. To regulate pesticide residues, a legal limit known as the maximum residue limit (MRL) is developed for each pesticide. Countries relying on food export profits should monitor for and comply with these MRL levels in order to maintain credibility as responsible exporters.

II-38 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Module 4 Worker Health and Safety

Learning Outcomes

Ø Participants should recognize the relationship between worker health and hygiene and food safety.

Ø Participants should recognize the key components of a worker hygiene training program.

Practical

Ø Laboratory Exercise: Handwashing Demonstration GloGerm Handwashing

Visual II.4-1

Relationship between Worker Health and Hygiene

· Assuring worker health both increases worker productivity and aids in preventing potential microbial contamination of crops · An infected employee (showing symptoms or not) can easily contaminate fresh produce if they don’t practice good hygiene such as washing their hands after sneezing, touching hair or other body parts, or using the restroom.

Assuring worker health increases worker productivity and aids in preventing potential microbial contamination of fruits and vegetables. An infected employee (showing symptoms or not) can easily contaminate fresh produce with microbial pathogens if they don’t practice good hygiene such as washing their hands after sneezing, touching hair or other body parts, or using the restroom. These pathogens can then be transmitted to consumers who handle or eat the contaminated produce.

Visual II.4-2

General symptoms that flag an employee with the potential for causing microbial contamination of produce include: · Diarrhea · Vomiting · Dizziness · Abdominal cramps · Exposed or open wounds · Hepatitis or jaundice (yellow color of the skin)

II-39 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Employees with gastrointestinal distress or open wounds can contaminate fresh fruits and vegetables through handling. General symptoms that flag an employee with the potential for causing biological contamination of produce include diarrhea, vomiting, dizziness, abdominal cramps, exposed or open wounds, hepatitis or jaundice (yellow color of the skin).

Persons that do not show any symptoms of disease can transmit microbial pathogens. Many microorganisms can be “guests” in the human body without evidence of disease and can be spread to others by the human “hosts”.

Visual II.4-3

· Workers should be trained to report any disease symptoms to supervisors. · Sick employees should not participate in activities that involve direct contact with the fresh produce or with packaging material until they have clearance from a licensed healthcare provider.

Supervisors should train workers to recognize disease symptoms and to report any appearance of symptoms. Workers with symptoms of disease should be assigned to activities that do not involve contact with the produce. Supervisors should be provided with training on pathogens and disease symptoms so that they are able to make judgements regarding the best actions for dealing with ill employees. Workers removed from produce handling tasks because of illness should not be returned to these jobs until they provide written medical documentation from a licensed healthcare provider stating that they are free of the infectious agent that is suspected of causing their symptoms or causing foodborne illness, or stating that the symptoms experienced result from a chronic noninfectious condition.

Visual II.4-4

Health Programs

· Ideally, agricultural workers should have access to a health care system. · Employers should provide fruit and vegetable handlers with a training program on good food handling and hygiene practices

Ideally agricultural workers should have access to a health care system. It is also important for employers to provide fruit and vegetable handlers with a training program on good food handling and hygiene practices. The possibility of produce contamination is directly related to the quality of the worker training program. This training should be reinforced constantly. Demonstrations of procedures are usually more effective than simple verbal instructions. Feedback to the trainer is

II-40 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers important to assess the effectiveness of the training. Like with any food safety assurance program, commitment of administration to the program is essential.

Visual II.4-5

Worker Hygiene Training Program

· Proper hygiene procedures should be established and included in hygiene and health training programs. All employees including supervisors, temporary personnel, part-time and full time workers should participate in these activities. · The level of knowledge required should be set according to the type of operation, responsibilities and type of activities in which the employee participates. · Training should be in the language/dialect of the employees to ensure comprehension and trainers should consider cultural aversions and ingrained practices when planning training.

Proper hygiene procedures should be established and included in hygiene and health training programs. All employees including supervisors, temporary personnel, part-time and full time workers should participate in this training.

The level of knowledge an employee should achieve will vary according to the type of operation and the responsibilities and type of activities in which the employee participates. In order to ensure employees comprehend and implement the training, it should be in the language/dialect of the employees and trainers should consider cultural aversions and ingrained practices of the trainees when planning training.

Visual II.4-6

First-Aid Kit

A first aid kit should be kept near the production site. It should contain: · adhesive bandages · hydrogen peroxide · bandages · gloves · other wound protecting material.

Any worker with exposed wounds that can directly contaminate fresh produce should have these wounds properly disinfected and covered before participating in production and handling activities. A first aid kit with supplies for treating worker injuries should be readily available at the work site. The simple procedures for disinfecting and covering a wound should be included in

II-41 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers employee training. Disposable gloves should be used to cover bandages, adhesive bandages and other objects that could easily fall into the product. Procedures used to treat injuries of workers should be documented.

When properly used, gloves are an effective way of preventing contamination and protecting the employee. However, gloves can become a means of spreading pathogens when they are not appropriately disinfected or changed after a potential contamination (e.g. using the bathroom or answering a phone). It should be clearly understood by workers and supervisors that the use of gloves is not a substitute for handwashing or other good hygiene practices.

If gloves are used, the disposable kinds (latex, plastic, etc) are better than multiple use ones since frequent replacement of gloves can help assure cleanliness and reduce the potential for growth of microorganisms in wet/dirty rubber gloves. Gloves should be changed anytime bare hands would be washed. This includes after using the restroom, smoking or eating, taking a break, covering coughs or sneezes, touching skin or wounds, touching floors or other dirty surfaces or equipment, or handling or mixing agricultural chemicals or cleaning materials.

Proper records should be kept on training activities, medical reports, and gastrointestinal disease reports. In this way the health of personnel can be assessed and corrective actions can be implemented to minimize the risk of produce contamination. Such records will also be useful to facilitate a traceback of a disease outbreak (See Section IV, Module 2).

Drinking Water

Water for human consumption should be potable - that is, free of microorganisms and/or chemical substances that can jeopardize the health of the person consuming it. Ensuring the availability of potable drinking water for field workers can minimize the risk of them developing disease and consequently contaminating the fresh produce.

Visual II.4-7

Pathogenic microorganisms that can be present in contaminated water include:

· Escherichia coli O157:H7; Salmonella; Shigella spp. · Hepatitis A and Norwalk viruses · Parasites such as Giardia lamblia, Cryptosporidium and Cyclospora cayetanesis

II-42 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Contaminated drinking water may contain pathogenic organisms such as hemorrhagic Escherichia coli, Salmonella, and Shigella. Other microbiological contaminants include viruses such as Hepatitis A and Norwalk virus and harmful protozoa such as Giardia lamblia, Cryptosporidium and Cyclospora cayetanesis. The presence of these organisms in water is generally associated with fecal contamination.

Coliform bacteria are common in the environment and are not normally harmful. However, the presence of these bacteria in drinking water indicates that the water may be contaminated with harmful organisms. If the total coliform test on a sample of drinking water is positive (1 or more coliforms per 100 mL of water), either a fecal coliform test or an Escherichia coli test should be performed to determine if the coliform bacteria found are of fecal origin. Positive results on either of these two tests is a strong indication that the water may be contaminated with fecal material. Since potable water should be free of total and fecal coliform bacteria and E. coli, an investigation of the water treatment and distribution system is advised following a positive test which indicates their presence. In addition, water should be boiled as a precaution. Most countries have regulations about the microbiological characteristics of drinking water, and they also include maximum permissible levels of chemical substances and heavy metals.

To prevent contamination, it is important that water used for hand washing should be drinking water quality.

Visual II.4-8

Common Sources of Drinking Water

· Treated surface water that comes from rivers, creeks, canals, lakes and reservoirs (i.e. lakes, ponds, etc). · Ground water, which comes from underneath the surface and generally is pumped up and out for use (i.e. well water) or flows naturally to the surface (i.e. spring water). · Municipal system which comes from a city water treatment plant

Untreated surface water is more likely than ground water to contain pathogenic microorganisms because of the possibility of direct contamination with animal feces or sewage run-off from adjacent land or higher locations.

Drinking water should be of higher quality than that used for agricultural processes. It is recommended that water used for human consumption be from municipal sources only. When this is not an option, water treatment systems are needed.

II-43 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Major water treatment processes include filtration, disinfection, and treatment to remove organic and inorganic contaminants (U.S. EPA, 2001a). Often before filtration, processes are used to clean up the water by removing solids and turbidity. These processes may include chemical addition, rapid mixing, coagulation and flocculation, and sedimentation. Filtration to remove the remaining solids as well as microorganisms like Giardia and Cryptosporidium can be accomplished using conventional filtration systems (e.g., rapid sand, slow sand, diatomaceous earth, or membrane) or through cartridge filtration systems.

The three most commonly used disinfection technologies are chlorine, ozone, and chloramines (U.S. EPA, 2001a). Other disinfectants that may be used include chlorine dioxide and ozone. Unfortunately chlorine-based formulations are not effective against Cryptosporidium which has been implicated in some foodborne outbreaks from fresh produce. Additional research is needed to determine the efficacy of ozone and other alternative treatments being developed (WGWC, 1997). Regardless of the water treatment system used, it is necessary to verify the quality of the water to determine if it is adequate for human consumption.

Visual II.4-9

Precautions for handling drinking water in the fields and packing areas

· Water supply systems should be in good condition and operating properly (requires constant monitoring) · Water should be stored in clean, previously sanitized containers and tanks · Water containers should be washed and sanitized on a daily basis · Water storage containers should be closed at all times · Container should be kept away from the sun and excessive heat · Disposable cups should be provided and each person should use a different cup

If drinking water is stored in tanks or other devices before consumption it is important to clean the storage containers frequently. It also is recommended that drinking water be treated before consumption. There are different systems on the market to treat drinking water just before use. Some examples are chlorine injection units, microbiological filters and ultra-violet light treating units.

Constant monitoring is needed to assure supply systems for drinking water in the fields and packing areas are in good condition and operating properly. This water should be stored in clean, previously sanitized containers and tanks that are washed and sanitized on a daily basis and closed at all times. Water storage containers should be kept away from the sun and excessive heat. Disposable cups should be provided and each person should use a different cup.

II-44 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Visual II.4-10

· Frequent microbiological and physical evaluation should be performed on drinking water when the water is being stored or treated on site. · Simple organoleptic evaluations (color, odor and taste) of water should be performed as part of the daily monitoring procedures. · If any of the water quality tests indicate the quality is not adequate, the water should be replaced to reduce the chances of infection and the proper authorities should be notified of the problem.

Frequent microbiological and physical evaluation should be performed on drinking water when the water is being stored or treated on site. Records of these evaluations should be part of the sanitation program and kept as evidence of the effectiveness of the water treatment and distribution systems. If municipal water is used, records from the municipal water system should be obtained and kept as record of the quality of the water being supplied.

Simple organoleptic evaluations (color, odor and taste) of water should be performed as part of the daily monitoring procedures. If any of the water quality tests indicate the quality is not adequate, the water should be replaced to reduce the chances of infection and the proper authorities should be notified of the problem.

Worker Hygiene Practices and Sanitation Facilities

The responsibility for reducing or avoiding contamination during primary production falls heavily on agricultural workers. Employers can provide training and other resources to educate workers, but, in the end, the effectiveness of the program relies on the worker’s understanding and implementation of personal hygiene and safety practices. Therefore, management should provide workers with information about acceptable hygiene practices, ensure it is understood and send a clear signal to workers about the importance of these practices.

Visual II.4-11

Personal hygiene of agricultural workers is important to minimize contamination. Some of these basic practices include: · Regular bathing · Using toilets even in the fields (Portable units should be provided in locations without a municipal sewage system. Units should be maintained in a condition to encourage their use.) · Washing hands in the correct manner and after any possible contamination · Wearing clean clothes · Using hairnets · Keeping nails clean and short

II-45 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Some of basic hygiene practices that should be used by agricultural workers to minimize produce contamination include: · Regular bathing · Using toilets even in the fields (Portable units should be provided in locations without a municipal sewage system. Units should be maintained in a condition to encourage their use.) · Washing hands in the correct manner and after any possible contamination · Wearing clean clothes · Using hairnets · Keeping nails clean and short

Visual II.4-12

Correct hand washing procedure 1. Wet hands with warm water then vigorously apply soap, rubbing hands together for 20 seconds 2. Scrub the whole hand surface, including the back, wrists, between fingers and under nails 3. Rinse thoroughly with warm running water 4. Dry hands with paper towels 5. Turn off water faucet using a paper towel 6. Open the exit door with a paper towel then dispose of the towel in the provided container

Note: When nails contain accumulated dirt, scrub them with a nail brush (the nail brush is usually used at home since it is a personal item)

Handwashing is considered a basic procedure that children learn at an early age. However, each person has a different background and a different concept of proper handwashing. Therefore, personnel should be well trained in these practices no matter how basic they sound.

The proper technique for washing hands involves wetting hands with water (warm water is more effective), soaping and vigorously scrubbing the whole surface of the hand, under the nails and between the fingers for at least 20 seconds (Martínez-Téllez et al., 2000). After these steps, the hands are thoroughly rinsed and dried with disposable paper towels. To avoid recontaminating clean hands, a paper towel is used to turn off water faucets and to open exit doors.

II-46 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Visual II.4-13

Hand washing is required:

· At the beginning of the work day · After going to the restroom · After smoking or eating · After breaks · After sneezing, coughing or touching the nose · After touching or scratching the skin or wounds · After touching dirty equipment and utensils · After touching trash on the floor or after handling waste material · After touching or handling fertilizers, pesticides, chemicals or cleaning materials

Hands should be washed after using the restroom, smoking or eating, taking a break, covering coughs or sneezes, touching skin or wounds, touching floors or other dirty surfaces or equipment, or handling or mixing agricultural chemicals or cleaning materials. Paper towels and toilet paper should be disposed of properly. Toilets and hand washing stations should be inspected frequently to ensure their cleanliness and the availability of soap and paper products. Neatness of the installations should be part of the sanitation program and should be accurately documented. Trashcans should be provided, and workers need to be instructed to deposit trash and food items in the appropriate containers.

It also is important that produce inspectors, buyers and other visitors follow the established hygiene and safety practices. Signs indicating proper hand washing and trash disposal procedures are recommended to prevent contamination of doorknobs and other surfaces by visitors. Supervisors and the workers themselves should be asked to report dirty sanitary facilities or other situations that may be a source of contamination.

II-47 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Visual II.4-14

Basic requirements for sanitary field stations:

· Toilets should be connected to an evacuation or sewage system adequately constructed to avoid contamination of fields, water sources or product. · Sanitary stations should be in good, clean and sanitary. They should have clean water, soap and paper towels. · There should be an adequate number of toilets for the number of employees working. It is recommended that there be at least one toilet for every 20 persons of the same sex. · Toilets should be accessible for the personnel. This means close to their working area - at a maximum distance of 400 meters (1,300 feet) or a 5 minute walk. · Toilet facilities should be separated from the water sources (at least 400 meters (1,300 feet) away). · Water stations with potable water for drinking should be in place during the harvest season.

Toilets located in the fields should not be close to water sources or in places where rain can wash out contaminants or cause spills. Any inadequate sanitary facility increases the risk of contamination of the water, soil, produce and the working personnel. Maintenance and servicing of toilets should be performed away from the field to protect soil, water, and workers in case leaks or spills occur.

The more accessible the sanitary stations are, the greater the probability that they will get used. Use of these facilities by workers should be permitted whenever it is necessary, not just during break periods. This practice reduces the possibility of urination or defecation in the woods near the fields.

Providing sufficient toilet paper also is very important. Toilets and hand washing stations should be cleaned and inspected regularly and periodically checked for adequate supplies. Provisions should be made to dispose of handwashing rinse water away from the field to avoid produce contamination. Containers used for water transport and storage should be periodically emptied (preferable daily), cleaned and disinfected. Potable water bottles should be replaced regularly.

Summary

1. Assuring worker health both increases productivity and aids in preventing potential biological contamination of crops since an infected worker can transmit many biological pathogens to fruits and vegetables. An infected employee (showing symptoms or not) can easily contaminate fresh produce if

II-48 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

they don’t practice good hygiene. Workers with symptoms of disease should be assigned to activities that do not involve contact with the produce.

2. Water for human consumption should be potable - that is, free of microorganisms and/or chemical substances that can jeopardize the health of the person consuming it. Ensuring the availability of potable drinking water for field workers can minimize the risk of them developing disease and consequently contaminating the fresh produce.

3. The three most commonly used disinfection technologies for water are chlorine, ozone, and chloramines.

4. Personal hygiene of agricultural workers is important to minimize contamination. Management should provide workers with information about acceptable hygiene practices, ensure it is understood and send a clear signal to workers about the importance of these practices. Some of these basic practices include: · Regular bathing · Using toilets even in the fields (Portable units should be provided in locations without a municipal sewage system. Units should be maintained in a condition to encourage their use.) · Washing hands in the correct manner and after any possible contamination · Wearing clean clothes

5. Toilets located in the fields should be properly maintained and supplied. They should not be close to water sources or in places where rain can wash out contaminants or cause spills. Maintenance and servicing of toilets and disposal of hand washing rinse water should be performed away from the field in case leaks or spills occur. Any inadequate sanitary facility increases the risk of contamination of the water, soil, produce and the working personnel.

II-49 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Module 5 Harvesting and Cooling

Learning Outcomes

Ø Participants should be aware of food safety considerations related to produce harvesting and to cooling practices.

Practical

Ø Experiment: Product Integrity and Produce Contamination Fruit Spoilage Demonstration

Additional Resources

Ø Part V - Storage Conditions for Fruits and Vegetables

Safety Hazards Associated with Harvesting

Most fresh fruits and vegetables are extremely perishable. The safety and quality of the produce when it reaches the retail market is strongly influenced by the safety and quality of the produce at harvest. Additional factors that affect safety and quality of fresh produce at market include handling, storage temperature, transportation conditions and the time period between harvest and retail marketing.

Maintaining safe, high quality produce with an adequate shelf life depends on both the pre-harvest factors discussed in earlier modules and the control measures taken throughout the distribution chain. This chain begins with harvesting the produce.

Visual II.5-1

Harvesting Procedures · Mechanical · Manual

The selection of a harvesting procedure will depend on the produce characteristics. Mechanical harvesting is recommended for produce that can withstand physical handling (i.e., carrots, potatoes and radishes). It is generally used to harvest produce destined for the processing industry.

For commodities destined for the fresh market, integrity and appearance are important. Therefore, manual harvesting is widely used for these products. This

II-50 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers is especially true for commodities such as lettuce, berries, grapes, peppers, apples etc. that can be damaged easily. With manual harvest, worker hygiene is especially important since there is a great deal of hand contact with the product that could lead to produce contamination. Proper sanitation of harvest tools is also critical to produce safety.

Visual II.5-2

Physical damage caused by mechanical harvesting methods may lead to:

· Water loss · Increased respiration rate · Initiation of ethylene synthesis · Production of undesirable colors (browning) · Penetration of microorganisms (both foodborne and plant pathogens)

Damage during mechanical harvest can lead to a number of undesirable changes in produce. Most fresh fruits and vegetables are harvested manually, since this can minimize damage and also allows for sorting by size and other desirable produce characteristics during harvest. Training and supervision of field workers is important to maximize yields and minimize damage to the produce.

Microbial contamination of fresh produce can occur easily during harvest. This contamination may result from contact with field workers and from the physical environment of the produce. Environmental contaminants include the soil, water, air, hands, containers, etc. Preventing contamination of produce with pathogens is critical, since their presence increases the risk of illness in those consuming the produce.

In-field Packaging Operations

Visual II.5-3

Recommendations for products packed in the production field:

· All workers involved in field packing operations should be encouraged to follow good hygiene and sanitation practices · Avoid the direct contact of packages, containers or products with the soil. · All containers, baskets or empty boxes should be clean and free from visible signs of dirt, oil/grease and chemical contaminants · Packing containers should be stored in a clean dry place away from the field and should be transported and handled with the same sanitary considerations

II-51 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Some products like grapes and strawberries are not cooled or washed. They are packed in the field immediately after harvest. Packing in the field generates a situation where contamination can occur easily. All workers involved in field packing operations should be encouraged to follow good hygiene and sanitation practices. Containers and packing materials should be handled with care and kept clean and free from dirt and contaminants. (Procedures described in Section III for maintenance, cleaning and sanitation of containers and packaging materials should also be followed by in-field packaging operations).

Post-Harvest Water Quality

Water is key to a number of postharvest operations. It is used in dump tanks to reduce physical injury to produce as field containers are emptied onto a packing line. It may be used for rinsing at any point on a packing line. In hydrocoolers, cold water is used as a drench or in tanks to remove field heat from fruits and vegetables. It is needed for mixing of solutions of waxes and/or fungicides. Finally, hot water treatment is a quarantine measure used for insect pest control in some commodities.

Water quality is important in reducing contamination during post-harvest cooling, washing and sanitizing operations. The water used for post-harvest operations should be potable and free of disease-causing organisms. Water taken and used directly from rivers or holding ponds should not be used for postharvest washing or cooling.

Visual II.5-4

Some U.S. EPA specifications for drinking water include:

Property Specification Total Coliforms 0 CFU1/100 ml Fecal Coliforms 0 CFU/100 ml Cryptosporidium 0 mg/ml Giardia lamblia 0 mg/ml Turbidity 5 NTU2 pH 6.5 to 8.5

1CFU = Colony forming units 2NTU = Nephelometric turbitiy unit

As indicated by the FDA (1998), processing water should be of such a quality that it does not contaminate produce. Water quality consistent with U.S. EPA requirements for drinking water, or similar standards is recommended since water that meets the microbial standards for drinking water is considered “safe and sanitary.” In addition to confirming pathogens are not present in the water, it

II-52 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers is also useful to look at levels of turbidity and pH since these are indicators of conditions that might effect the presence of pathogens in the water. Turbidity is a measure of water cloudiness and indicates water quality and filtration effectiveness. Higher turbidity levels are often associated with higher levels of pathogenic organisms (U.S. EPA, 2002). A pH less than 8 is preferable for effective disinfection with chlorine (WHO, 1996).

Visual II.5-5

Examples of practices to reduce the risk of contamination of produce by post- harvest processing water:

· Perform periodic water sampling and microbial testing. · Follow appropriate guidelines for packinghouse water sanitation. · Change water as necessary to maintain sanitary conditions (this requirement needs to be determined for each operation). · Clean and sanitize water contact surfaces, such as dump tanks, flumes, wash tanks and hydrocoolers as often as necessary to ensure the safety of produce. · Install backflow devices and legal air gaps to prevent contamination of clean water with potentially contaminated water. · Routinely inspect and maintain equipment designed to assist in maintaining water quality, such as chlorine injectors, filtration systems, and backflow devices.

Pathogens present on freshly harvested fruits and vegetables accumulate in water handling systems such as dump tanks, flumes and hydrocoolers in which the water is recirculated (Sargent et al., 2000). Even healthy looking produce coming in from the field can harbor large populations of pathogens, particularly during warm, rainy weather. When fruits and vegetables are immersed in water containing pathogens, they can become infected.

Many postharvest contamination problems result from the incorrect use of sanitizers in packinghouse dump tanks and hydrocoolers (Sargent et al., 2000). Whenever produce is dumped into water or washed with recirculated water that is not maintained properly there is a good probability that produce contamination will occur.

Maintaining water sanitation usually involves the addition of an approved sanitizer to the water. Sanitizers such as sodium hypochlorite, calcium hypochlorite or liquid chlorine are frequently used to prevent the accumulation of pathogens. Many packers routinely add chlorine to their water handling systems. A 50-200 ppm chlorine concentration can destroy most viable microorganisms. However higher concentrations are needed to kill spores. The effectiveness of this treatment in reducing produce contamination can be decreased or even nonexistent due to failure to follow appropriate guidelines for packinghouse water

II-53 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers sanitation. Considerations in the use of sanitizers are discussed in Section III of this manual.

If chlorine is used to sanitize processing water, it is important to monitor the free (unreacted) chlorine concentration at all times during use. Chlorine product must be added to the water to replace the chlorine lost to reactions with organic matter, chemicals, microorganisms (known as the chlorine demand). Samples should be taken at least on an hourly basis to monitor chlorine concentration. All recirculated water should be changed on a daily basis, or more frequently if the water becomes extremely dirty due to build up of organic matter that reduces the effectiveness of the chlorine treatment. Local environmental codes must be consulted for proper disposal of chlorinated water.

Other factors which affect chlorine efficacy include the initial level of inoculum present on the fruit surface and the exposure time of the crop to the water. In the case of tomato dump tanks, the water should be heated 10°F (about 5°C) above the pulp temperature to reduce infiltration of the water (and pathogens) into the fruit. The tomatoes should not be in the tank for more than three minutes.

Cooling Considerations

Visual II.5-6

Eliminating Field Heat:

· Immediately after harvest fresh produce temperature is high. To extend the shelf life and quality of fresh fruits and vegetables, products are generally cooled within 24 hrs after harvesting. · Heat elimination is commonly applied to highly perishable commodities such as fruits. · There are many different types of cooling systems available.

Highly perishable commodities are cooled to extend their shelf life. The cooling operation is generally for quality, however temperature control also can be used to inhibit the growth of pathogenic bacteria in the fresh produce. Products are generally cooled within 24 hrs after harvesting. Recommendations for cooling methods and optimum storage conditions for a variety of fruits and vegetables are presented in Part V in the Additional Resources section.

When possible, harvesting at night or in the early morning can minimize exposure to high daytime temperatures. The harvested crop should be collected and held in the shade with adequate ventilation. If shading is achieved by placing produce under a tree, care must be taken to prevent produce contamination by bird droppings. Under no circumstances should freshly harvested produce be left in direct sunlight or stored in containers where solar heat buildup is likely.

II-54 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Visual II.5-7

Benefits of a Produce Cooling Operation:

· Reduction of field heat · Reduction of respiration and ethylene production rates · Minimization of spoilage · Reduction of water losses · Limitation of the growth of microorganisms

When produce are cooled promptly after harvest, the shelf-life is extended, appearance is more attractive and products are of higher quality. The amount of heat that needs to be eliminated during the cooling step depends on the weight, specific heat, and initial and final temperature of the produce.

Commercial Cooling Methods

There are two main heat transfer mechanisms for produce cooling - conduction and convection. These are the mechanisms used to remove excessive heat from produce at the field. With conduction, the heat is transferred within a product to its coldest surface. With convection, the heat is transferred away from the surface of the product via a cooling medium such as moving water or air.

Visual II.5-8

Common Cooling Media for Fresh Produce

Media for reducing heat from produce include: · Air (Room cooling and Forced air cooling) · Water (Hydro-cooling and Package icing)

Regardless of the cooling method used, care must be taken to assure the cooling medium does not contaminate the produce.

II-55 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Visu al II.5-9

Hazards Associated with Air Cooling Methods

· Of the common commercial produce cooling methods, the ones using air and vacuum present the lowest risk for contamination. However, the air introduced in the cooling systems can represent a potential microbial hazard. · Microorganisms found in dust and tiny water droplets can be introduced onto product using these cooling systems. Such microorganisms can come from outside dust, soil, equipment, and waste products. · These microorganisms cannot develop in the air, but air can serve as the vehicle through which they can reach the product.

When using an air-based cooling system, it is important to maintain sanitary conditions in the facility. Special attention should be given to the air source area. The air system should be properly maintained and the filters changed regularly. Animals should be excluded from the surrounding areas, compost storage deposits should be located far from air sources, and any other pathogen sources that could potentially contaminate the air used in cooling systems should be eliminated.

Visu al II.5-10

Hazards Associated with Water and Ice Cooling Methods

· Cooling methods using water and ice as the cooling mediums have the greatest potential for contamination of fruits and vegetables. · Water and ice used for cooling operations are potential contamination sources. Water used in hydro-cooling systems and for ice making should be potable – i.e. free of pathogenic bacteria, protozoa and viruses. · Ice should be made and held under sanitary conditions.

Cooling methods using water and ice as the cooling mediums have the greatest potential for contamination of fruits and vegetables. Cooling water can become a contamination problem, therefore the water should be replaced regularly (at least once a day, depending on the amount used and produce conditions). It is essenti al that ice used in cooli ng be prod uced from chlor in ate d, pota ble wate r and stored in a sanitar y man ner , so that it doesn’t contamina te the produ ce durin g the cool ing process.

II-56 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Visual II.5-11

To reduce the possibility that water-based cooling systems will become a contamination source, it is important to: · Use good quality water · Provide adequate equipment maintenance · Consider using disinfectants in the cooling water · Regularly monitor the concentration of disinfectants · Maintain the sanitary condition of cooling water and ice

Water and ice used for cooling systems should be free of bacterial contamination. It is important to perform microbiological tests on water used in cooling and ice cooling systems. The most commonly used tests are for total coliforms, fecal coliforms, and E. coli since these tests are good indicators of water contamination.

The addition of chlorine derivatives to cooling water is a common practice and the use of chlorinated water to make the ice is recommended. Because chlorine loses effectiveness when it reacts with organic compounds, its concentration should be monitored frequently. A 50-200 ppm chlorine concentration can destroy most viable microorganisms. However higher concentrations are needed to kill spores. It is important to place a water settling and filtration device in the cooling water treatment system to remove organic material.

Cooling equipment should be cleaned and inspected frequently. Maintenance of equipment and use of appropriate sanitary procedures is critical to assuring the safety of the produce.

Visu al II.5-12

Importa nt Conside ra tions Rega rding Wate r Temper at ure and Microbia l Infiltra tion

· Pathogens present on freshly harvested fruits and vegetables accumulate in water handling systems such as dump tanks and flumes in which the water is recirculated. · For some commo ditie s (e.g. apple s, cele ry, mang oe s and toma toe s) , it has been obse rve d that when the warm fruit or vegetab le is placed in cold wate r a pressu r e differe ntial is gen era te d that results in infil tr ati on of the water into the produ ct. · This is an imp ortan t issue becau se contami na nts in the wate r can get drawn into the interior of the comm odi ty wher e they are protected from further disi nfectin g trea tme nts.

Pathogens present on freshly harvested fruits and vegetables accumulate in water handling systems such as dump tanks and flumes in which the water is

II-57 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers recirculated (Sargent et al., 2000). For some commo ditie s (e.g. apple s, cele ry, mang oes and tomatoe s), it has been obse rve d that when the warm fruit or vege tab le is placed in cold wate r a pre ssu re differe ntial is gen era te d. This creates a suction effe ct that resu lts in infiltra tio n of the water into the fruit.

More rese arch is neede d to identify the comm odi ti es that can exp eri en ce cooli ng wate r infiltra tio n and to docume nt the practica l impor tan ce of this issu e. Alth oug h defi nitive soluti on s to this probl em have not bee n establ ished , the use of good qual ity wate r for coolin g is criti cal to assuri ng prod uce safety. Proced ur es shoul d be in place to monitor and maintain wate r quali ty whene ve r water is used in prod uce prod uctio n.

One recommen da tio n to reduce potentia l produ ce conta mi natio n associ ated with wate r infiltra tio n has been to adj ust coolin g/w ash water tempe ra tur e to 5°C (9 oF) above the temp era tu re of the flesh of the fruit (Sho wa lte r, 1993 ). This could be an impo rta nt precautio n for wash ing systems, however , for cool ing systems it inte rfe re s with the remo val of field heat. Therefore , for commod iti es that can have this prob lem , the reco mm end ation is to cool with air or oth er cooli ng meth ods or to comb ine hydr o- coo li ng with an initial air cooli ng step to mini mi ze the temper ature differe ntial betw ee n pro duce flesh and water temp era tu re. The use of disinfecta nts, such as chlori ne, in the cool ing wate r also could help to redu ce the risks associa te d with path oge n internal izati on .

A variety of methods are used commercially to cool produce. It is important to know the principle of each cooling method so potential hazards associated with them can be identified.

Visu al II.5-13

Common Cooling Methods for Fresh Produce

Methods for reducing heat from produce include: · Room cooling · Forced air cooling · Hydro-cooling · Package icing · Vacuum cooling

Room Cool ing

In room coolin g hea t is transfer re d slowly from the mass of a produ ct (by convectio n) to the cold air bein g circu lated arou nd stacked contain er s of the prod uce . Room cooli ng is used for a wid e ran ge of comm odi ti es, but is a slow meth od of cool ing . The slow coolin g rate is a maj or drawb ack to room cooli ng since prod ucts are ofte n loade d for ship men t before they are adeq uatel y cooled .

II-58 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

The cooli ng rate may be speed ed up slig htl y by incre asing air circu la tio n with large r or addi ti ona l fans. Howe ver , this will add more heat (ene rg y) to the room. Ceil ing jet cooli ng is a slig htl y faster mod ifi ca tio n of room cooli ng . The ceil ing jets dire ct cold air dow n ove r the stacked prod uce.

Forced Air Coo lin g

In this meth od , the cool ing air is pull ed or push ed throu gh prod uce container s, providi ng grea ter air circu la tio n aroun d the prod uce and resul ti ng in faster cooli ng . This meth od is comm onl y used on such crops such as gra pes, berri es, and other frui ts.

A faste r rate of force d air cooli ng can be obtained by increa si ng the circul ation rate of the cold air per unit weig ht of prod uce . This may be accomp li she d by a large r fan capa city or by incr easin g the amou nt of contain er venting throug h whi ch the coolin g air passes.

Vents should be design ed and constructe d so that the stacking strength of the contain er s is maintain ed . Red uci ng the numbe r of stacks of conta ine rs thro ugh which the cool ing air passe s reduces the coolin g time. Howe ver , this requi res more space and may reduce the amou nt of prod uce cooled per unit of time (Hold swo rth, 1985 ).

Hydro-C oo lin g

Hydro-coo lin g is a rapid cool ing meth od that uses wate r shower in g dow n ove r the prod uce as the cool ing medi um . The meth od is base d on the prin ci ple that a poun d of wate r can abso rb more heat than a pound of air . Hydro-coo lin g can only be use d for commo ditie s and ship pin g conta ine rs that tole rate wetting.

Hydro-coo ler s gener all y use mech an ica l refriger ation , high water circula ti on rates and a min ima l water rese rvo ir to provid e fast, unifo rm cool ing . Systems shoul d be desi gne d to allow dail y clean ing and sanitation . Sanitation of the hydro-cooling water is critical, since it is recirculated (Sargent et al., 2000). Organisms present on the produce can accumulate in the water, inoculating subsequent produce being hydro-cooled. Chl ori ne concentra tio ns of 200 ppm (fr ee chlor in e) are gene ral ly used in hydr o- coo le rs, howe ve r chlori ne has a tenden cy to brea k down so concentra tio n shoul d be monitore d frequ ently. Cooling water should be changed frequently.

Hydro-coo lin g is used for commod ities that may be cool ed in bulk or in packed contain er s. There are two basic types of hyd ro- co ole rs: 1. Flow throug h - the produ ce move s on a conveyor belt thro ugh the showe r. 2. Batch type - stationary, stacked containers of produce are showered with ice water.

II-59 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

With a hydro-cool er , the cool ing rate can be incr eased by · Redu cin g the wate r tempe ratur e (ad ditio n of crush ed or flaked ice to the wate r rese rvo ir ) · Incr easin g the wate r circul ation rate · Incr easin g the exposur e of the pro duce to the water.

Package Icing

This is one of the oldest method s of prod uce coolin g and is used on commod ities that can toler ate contact with ice , e.g . roo t and stem vege tab le s, broccol i, and brussel s sprou ts . The direct contact of the pro duce with the ice provi de s fast, initi al cond uctio n coolin g. Howe ver , as the ice melts, an air space is create d betwee n the ice and the produ ce , and cond uctio n coolin g stops. Subseq ue nt cooli ng is by radi ati on and conve cti on , both slower processes than conductio n.

Conventio nal icin g involves packin g finely crushed or flake d ice over the packaged prod uce . An alter na tive proce ss uses liqui d ice as the cool ing medi um . This is comp ose d of 60% ice and 40% wate r. Liqu id ice gives a much greater initi al contact betw een the produ ce and the ice and it can be app lie d after the boxes have been pall eti ze d. It may be used to distrib ute ice arou nd the pro duce in the shippi ng contain er s. The amo unt of ice adde d should be adj usted to initia l pro duce temp era tu re, prod uce wei ght, and the expected amb ien t tempe ratur es durin g tran sit.

Vacu um Cooli ng

In this meth od the produ ce is placed in a strong, airtigh t steel cham ber . Air is pump ed out of the chambe r to reduce the atmosph er ic pressur e, causi ng the water in the produ ce to vapori ze. Cool in g occurs beca use the heat ener gy for vapo rization comes from the prod uce. The coolin g rate is related to the surfa ce area to volume rati o of the prod uce. Thus, loose leafy vege tab le s cool faster than tigh t-h ea ded cauliflow er or celery. This method is use d pri mar il y for cool ing leafy vege tab le s, celer y, caul ifl ow er, and to a limited extent, sweet corn, carr ots, and swee t pep per s.

A disad va nta ge of vacuum cool ing is that dur ing coolin g 1% of the pro duce weigh t (pri mar il y water) is lost for each 5-6 oC drop in prod uce temper atu re (Ho ld swo rth, 1985 ). Hydro-vacu um cool ing , a patented modi fication of vacuum coolin g, preve nts this weig ht loss by providi ng a water shower at specific times duri ng the cooli ng cycle. As with hydro-coo lin g, moni tor in g and main tai ni ng water qual ity is impor tan t when using this pro cess.

Alth oug h vacuum chambe rs may be large enou gh to hold enti re boxcar loads of prod uce , most vacuum cooler s are portab le. They can be move d to differen t ship pin g points as the grow in g season prog re sse s.

II-60 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Summary

1. Most fresh fruits and vegetables are harvested manually, since this minimizes damage and allows for sorting by size and other desirable produce characteristics during harvest. Damage during mechanical harvest can lead to undesirable changes in produce including: · Water loss · Increased respiration rate · Initiation of ethylene synthesis · Production of undesirable colors (browning) · Penetration of microorganisms (both foodborne and plant pathogens)

2. Microbial contamination of fresh produce can occur easily during harvest. This contamination may result from contact with field workers and from the physical environment of the produce. Environmental contaminants include the soil, water, air, hands, containers, etc. Preventing contamination is critical, since their presence increases the risk of illness in those consuming the produce.

3. Packing in the field generates a situation where contamination can occur easily if containers and materials are not handled with care. Good sanitation procedures should be followed in handling containers and packing materials to prevent produce contamination.

4. Water quality is important in reducing contamination during post-harvest cooling, washing and sanitizing operations. Pathogens present on freshly harvested fruits and vegetables accumulate in water handling systems such as dump tanks, flumes and hydrocoolers in which the water is recirculated. Water used for post-harvest operations should be potable and free of disease-causing organisms. Post-harvest water can become contaminated easily and it quickly becomes saturated with organic matter (e.g. soil, solids leaching from the fruit, etc), therefore, procedures to assure good wash water quality are critical. These include frequent filtering, changing wash water often and the use of disinfectants.

5. If chlorine is used as to sanitize processing water, it is important to maintain the free (unreacted) chlorine concentration at all times during use. Samples should be taken at least on an hourly basis to monitor chlorine concentration. All recirculated water should be changed on a daily basis, or more frequently if the water becomes extremely dirty due to build up of organic matter which can reduce the effectiveness of the chlorine treatment.

6. Highly perishable commodities are cooled to extend their shelf life. The cooling operation is generally for quality, however temperature control also can be used to inhibit the growth of pathogenic bacteria in the fresh produce.

II-61 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

7. When using an air-based cooling system, the air system should be properly maintained so that the air is clean and free of pathogens. Animals should be excluded from the surrounding areas, compost storage deposits should be located far from air sources, and any other pathogen sources that could potentially contaminate the air used in cooling systems should be eliminated.

8. Water used for cooling systems and to make cooling ice should be free of pathogenic contamination. Use of chlorinated water is recommended and samples should be taken at least on an hourly basis to monitor chlorine concentration.

9. Cooling equipment should be cleaned and inspected frequently. Maintenance of equipment and use of appropriate sanitary procedures is critical to assuring the safety of the produce.

II-62 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

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Martínez-Téllez, M.A., Vargas-Arispuro, I., Acedo-Félix, A. 2000. Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo, A.C. (CIAD), Manual para el manejo de alimentos frescos no procesados.

Merka, B, Lacy, M., Savage, S. Vest, L. and Hammond, C. 1994. Composting poultry mortalities. Cooperative Extension Service, University of Georgia. Circular 819-15. Available via the Internet at http://www.ces.uga.edu/pubcd/c819-15w.html

Murray, P., Drew, W., Kobayashi, G. and Thompson, J. 1995. Medical Microbiology. Mosby-Doyma Libros, S.A. Madrid, Spain. pp. 423.

II-63 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Nesheim, O.N. 1993. Best management pesticides to protect ground water from agricultural pesticides. University of Florida, Florida Cooperative Extension Service. Fact Sheet PI-1, June, 1991.

Olexa, M.T. 1991. Agricultural chemicals and water pollution. University of Florida, Cooperative Extension Service. Fact Sheet FRE-77.

Sargent, S.A., Ritenour, M.A. and Brecht, J.K. 2000. Handling, cooling, and sanitation techniques for maintaining postharvest quality. University of Florida, Cooperative Extension Service, HS719. Available via the Internet at http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/CV115.

Showalter, R.K. 1993. Postharvest water intake and decay of tomatoes. Hort. Technol. 3:97-98.

Solomon, K.H. 1988. Irrigation system selection. In Irrigation Notes, California State University, Fresno. January. Available via the Internet at http://cati.csufresno.edu/cit/rese/88/880105/index.html

U.S. EPA. 2000. Total Coliform Rule – Approved Methods for Coliform Assay. Office of Water, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Available via the Internet at http://www.epa.gov/safewater/methods/tcr_tbl.html

U.S. EPA. 2001a. Ensuring Safe Drinking Water. Technical Information Packet. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Available via the Internet at http://www.epa.gov/oia/tips/drinkwat.htm

U.S. EPA. 2001b. National Primary Drinking Water Standards. Office of Water, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Pub. EPA 816-F-01-007. Available via the Internet at http://www.epa.gov/safewater/mcl.html

U.S. EPA. 2001c. Pesticide Use and Disposal. Technical Information Packet. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Available via the Internet at http://www.epa.gov/oia/tips/pestint.htm

WGWC. 1997. Cryptosporidium and Water: A Public Health Handbook. Atlanta, GA. p4-1. Working Group on Waterborne Cryptosporidiosis.

II-64 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

SECTION III GOOD MANUFACTURING PRACTICES FOR HANDLING, PACKING, STORAGE AND * TRANSPORTATION OF FRESH PRODUCE

* Section prepared by: Carmen Hernandez-Brenes, Ph.D., ITESM-Campus Monterrey, Mexico

III-1 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

SECTION III

GOOD MANUFACTURING PRACTICES FOR HANDLING, PACKING, STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION OF FRESH PRODUCE

Introduction*

The aim of Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs) is to reduce the risk of contamination of fresh produce during handling, packing, storage and transportation. In this Section, Modules 1 and 2 provide information on measures to prevent and reduce contamination on produce surfaces by proper cleaning and use of sanitizers and by implementing other GMPs during packing, storage and transportation of the produce. Module 3 discusses measures to clean and sanitize equipment that comes in contact with fresh produce.

Module 1 Produce Cleaning and Treatment

Learning Outcomes

Ø Participants should be aware of recommended cleaning procedures for fresh produce.

Ø Participants should understand safety considerations for water used in produce cleaning operations.

Ø Participants should be familiar with the use of sanitizing agents and new technologies for reducing levels of microbial contamination on fresh produce.

Practical

Ø Experiment/Demonstration: Water as a Contamination Agent Ø Experiment/Demonstration: Chlorine and Water Quality Management

This Module addresses cleaning and treating produce with sanitizing agents to reduce contamination. It is important to note, however, that once produce is contaminated with human pathogens there are currently no available agents or

* Section prepared by: Carmen Hernandez-Brenes, Ph.D., ITESM-Campus Monterrey, Mexico

III-2 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers processes, other than thorough cooking, that can ensure complete elimination of pathogens. This is why preventing contamination in the first place is so important.

Microbes are everywhere in the growth environment of produce. Even though produce operations may have in place and conscientiously employ good agricultural practices, it is inevitable that fresh fruits and vegetables will have microorganisms on their surface.

As discussed previously, surface microorganisms of fresh produce vary widely and are highly dependent on the type of commodity and the agricultural practices used. Natural microflora on fresh produce include species of Pseudomonas, Alcaligenes, Flavobacterium, Micrococcus, and lactic acid bacteria. These natural microflora are mostly harmless. However, soil, water, sewage, air and animals in the field can contaminate the external surfaces of produce with pathogenic organisms. Microorganisms from these sources compete with the natural flora.

In many instances the outgrowth of microbiological contaminants does not take place until conditions are appropriate. During and after harvesting many conditions come together that can favor the growth of microorganisms. Some of these include handling, cross contamination, temperature abuse, and increases in product respiration rates leading to heat production.

The reduction of pathogens on produce is important to reduce foodborne illness, to decrease spoilage, and to improve appearance and nutritive value. Washing and sanitizing fruits and vegetables is a common practice to reduce surface contamination. However, the application of such treatments is dependent on the ability of the commodity to tolerate water. The shelf life of some delicate produce is reduced after they get wet. This is especially true for commodities with large water-adhering surface areas, like strawberries, other berries and grapes. Another cleaning media, air, may be preferred for removal of dust and other debris from these delicate products.

Visual III.1-1

A four-step procedure is recommended for cleaning fruits and vegetables

1. Remove surface soil by dry cleaning (brushing or vacuuming). 2. Initial water wash to remove surface dirt 3. Washing with a sanitizing agent (chemical agent generally) 4. Final rinsing

Before the washing step, and with commodities that cannot tolerate wetting, it is essential to remove surface soil by dry cleaning, brushing air blowers or vacuum (if the item will physically tolerate it). Subsequent washing steps then reduce

III-3 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers remaining surface dirt. A thorough spray wash with chlorinated water or multiple washes are generally more effective than one soaking wash.

Water used for produce washing must be potable and free of pathogenic organisms. Clean wash water is critical since organic matter in the water can react with many sanitizing agents and decrease their decontamination efficiency. The initial wash to remove surface dirt can be with hot water alone or with water containing food grade detergents or permanganate salts (Beuchat, 1998).

The characteristics of the commodity will determine the selection of wash equipment. Soft fruits are generally washed on conveyor belts using water sprayers. More solid fruits like citrus, apples, and pears may be washed in rotating devices or by fluming. Root crops are typically cleaned with brush washers which contain cylindrical rotating brushes. Brushes must be cleaned and disinfected often because they can become a vehicle for spreading contaminants. Air cleaning may be effective for removing debris, loose soil or other foreign material from very delicate commodities.

Visual III.1-2

Sanitize means to treat clean produce by a process that is effective in destroying or substantially reducing the numbers of microorganisms of public health concern, as well as other undesirable microorganisms, without adversely affecting the quality of the product or its safety for the consumer.

A sanitizing step, generally with the application of chemical agents, follows washing. To sanitize, means to treat clean produce by a process that is effective in destroying or substantially reducing the numbers of microorganisms of public health concern, as well as other undesirable microorganisms, without adversely affecting the quality of the product or its safety to the consumer (FDA, 1998). It is important to remove dirt prior to sanitation, since dirt can hinder contact between the sanitizing agent and the microorganisms. A chlorine solution is the most common sanitizer, but there are many new sanitizing agents on the market. These will be discussed in more detail later in this Section.

Visual III.1-3

· Sanitizing agents currently available can reduce microbial contaminants but cannot eliminate them completely.

· New technologies that can further reduce and eliminate foodborne pathogens on fresh fruits and vegetables are under active investigation.

III-4 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

It is important to note that sanitizing agents currently available can only reduce microbial contaminants and cannot ensure they are completely eliminated.

New technologies are currently being researched to further reduce and eliminate pathogens from fresh produce but these are not yet available.

For QUALITY purposes a common industry practice is to wash and sanitize produce in cold water. Low temperatures slow the respiration rate of fresh commodities and retard the changes in texture and other quality factors.

From a SAFETY point of view, the use of cold water can be an important issue. As was discussed in the cooling module (Section II, Module 5), placing some warm produce in cool water results in a pressure differential. This creates a suction effect that can cause surface conta min an ts or contami na nts in the wate r to be draw n into the flesh of the commod ity whe re they are pro tecte d from subsequ en t disinfectin g treatmen ts (Bartz and Show alter , 198 1).

Maintaining the water temperature 5°C above the internal temperature of the produce will help prevent this suction effect (Zhuang et al., 1995). A further precaution would be to use an initial air- co oli ng step prio r to washing or sani tizin g to mini mi ze the temper ature differ entia l betwee n the fruit flesh and the wate r temp era tu re. Produce that is more dense (i.e. carrots) is less likely to have this problem.

For those commodities that cannot be exposed to water, prevention of contamination is critical and GAPs and GMPs become the only way of controlling microorganisms on the surface of the fresh produce. This is the case for some berries and other commodities that cannot get wet.

Sanitizing Agents

Sanitizing agents should be used on clean produce. Soil must be removed from the produce prior to the application of a sanitizing agent. Dirt and debris can protect the microorganisms from contact with the sanitizer, or react with chlorine and other sanitizers reducing their antimicrobial activity. Water is the cleaning medium most frequently used for soil removal. This water must be clean since impurities in water can drastically alter the effectiveness of a detergent or a santizer. Water used for sanitizing should be potable and pathogen-free.

Sanitizers are chemical substances that can destroy or substantially reduce the numbers of microorganisms in wash and cooling water thereby reducing cross contamination. They may also reduce but not eliminate pathogens on the surface of produce. Sanitizers and chemical substances are not effective if the pathogens have become internalized.

III-5 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

The scope of action depends on the sanitizing compound. Their effectiveness varies with concentration since lower concentrations are needed for destroying vegetative cells than are required for spores. The effectiveness of each individual sanitizer is influenced by many factors including water temperature, pH, contact time, organic matter content and the surface morphology of the fruit or vegetable. Produce sanitizers can reduce the number of surface organisms but do not achieve commercial sterility. Manufacturer’s instructions should always be strictly followed when using sanitizers. When in doubt about proper sanitizer use or for new applications of a product, contact the manufacturer.

Visual III.1-4

Sanitation vs. Sterilization

· The application of chemical sanitizers can reduce the number of vegetative cells of bacterial pathogens but may not be effective for the destruction of the more resistant spores. · Commercial sterility refers to the complete elimination of pathogenic microorganisms, including the spores of foodborne pathogens (i.e. Clostridium botulinum). This can be achieved through heat treatments such as canning but not through the application of common disinfectants.

The use of sanitizing agents should not be a substitute for the Good Agricultural Practices discussed Section II. Sanitizers should be used as an additional measure to minimize the risk of microbial hazards on fresh produce.

Visual III.1-5

Sanitizing agents used to treat fruits and vegetables include: · Halogens · Ionic compounds · “Active” oxygen · New Technologies · “Hurdle” Technology

A number of different agents/treatments have been used to sanitize fresh fruits and vegetables. These include halogens and halogen compounds, ionic compounds, active oxygen, new technologies and hurdle technology.

III-6 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Halogens and Halogen Compounds

Visual III.1-6

Examples of halogens and halogen compounds: · Chlorine · Chlorine dioxide · Bromine · Iodine

Chlorine

Chlorine is the most widely used sanitizer in the food industry. It is used for the treatment of drinking, processing and wash water, equipment and other surfaces. Recently, concerns have been raised about its use due to the formation of chlorinated by-products (Richardson et al., 1998).

The ability of chlorine to destroy microorganisms depends on the amount of free residual chlorine, i.e. the chlorine remaining after it reacts with organic matter, in the water (Gavin and Weddig, 1995).

Visual III.1-7

Total chlorine = Chlorine demand + Free residual chlorine

Chlorine reacts with impurities in the water, such as minerals and organic solids from the commodities being washed. The amount of chlorine that reacts is generally called the “chlorine demand” of the water. Once the chlorine demand has been satisfied there is a break point where further additions of chlorine will exist as free residual chlorine. A commonly used analogy to explain this reaction is to suppose the chlorine solution is added to a sponge. The maximum holding capacity of the sponge would be equivalent to the chlorine demand of the wash water. After this point, further addition of chlorine would run through the sponge. This would be equivalent to the free residual chlorine. The sum of the two would be the total chlorine added. Disinfectant properties are provided by free chlorine only (Gavin and Weddig, 1995).

Visual III.1-8

Using chlorine to treat fresh fruits and vegetables:

Chlorine is commonly used at concentrations of 50-200 ppm with a contact time of 1-2 minutes to sanitize produce surfaces.

III-7 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

To treat produce surfaces, chlorine is commonly used at concentrations of 50- 200 ppm with a contact time of 1-2 minutes (CFSAN/FDA, 2001).

Visual III.1-9

Considerations for the use of chlorine solutions as sanitizing agents for fresh produce: · Metal containers and processing equipment can suffer corrosion if the pH of the chlorine solution is too low. · A pH of 6.0 -7.5 at 20°C (68°F) is a good compromise since there is enough HOCl available to sanitize the product but equipment corrosion can be minimized. · Chlorine evaporates when the wash temperature is raised · Chlorine loses its effectiveness when the wash water contains large amounts of organic matter or when the solution is exposed to air, light or metals. The amount of free chlorine can be monitored with automated units or with commercial kits that can be purchased at any swimming pool supply store. · Because chlorine can cause skin irritation after extended exposure, the use of protective equipment is recommended.

Chlorine solutions contain molecules of HOCl (hypochlorous acid) and its ions H+ and –OCl in equilibrium. Of these, the non-dissociated form of the acid HOCl is the form that exerts the lethal effect upon microorganisms. The equilibrium among these chemical forms is affected by pH. Chlorine sanitizers themselves change the pH. As the pH of the solution is lowered, equilibrium favors the lethal form of the acid (HOCl). Therefore, pH is an important factor in the sanitizing effect of chlorine solutions. However, low pH favors metal-corroding reactions, therefore, using these pH levels is harder on equipment.

Temperature control should be part of the Sanitation Standard Operating Procedures for the proper preparation and use of this sanitizer. Water pH should also be monitored - the optimum range is 6.0 to 7.5. When pH values are outside this optimum range they can be adjusted by the addition of organic or inorganic acids to lower pH. Typically chlorine gas is injected into a stream of water that passes through a bed of crushed oyster shells or other alkaline material which brings the pH up to near neutral. The water then passes into the mail reservoir after this pH adjustment has occurred. Other alkaline materials such as sodium bicarbonate or diluted lye (hydroxide) may also be used to raise pH.

III-8 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Table III-1 Chlorine as a Sanitizing Agent

Advantages Disadvantages · Relatively inexpensive · Unstable during storage · Rapid action · Affected by organic matter content · Wide action against many (loss of germicidal effect) microorganisms · Viruses tend to be resistant · Colorless · Corrosive · Easy preparation and use · Efficacy is lowered when the pH of · Easy to determine concentration the solution increases · Toxic at high levels

Chlorine Dioxide (ClO2)

Chlorine dioxide has received a lot of attention in the last few years because its effectiveness is less affected by pH and organic matter content than that of chlorine. Another advantage is its high oxidative action, which has been observed to be 2.5 times greater than chlorine (Benarde et al., 1967). However there are some disadvantages also. These include its poor stability, virus resistance, and its tendency to explode at high concentrations. Chlorine dioxide decomposes at temperatures above 30°C (86°F) and when it is exposed to light (Beuchat, 1998).

Despite these disadvantages, use of chlorine dioxide has been increasing because of new technologies that permit shipment to areas of use instead of onsite generation. Concentrations should not exceed 5 ppm for treating unpeeled fruits and vegetables. Chlorine dioxide is approved as a wash treatment for uncut produce, and is being reviewed for approval as a wash treatment for pre-cut produce.

Bromide

Bromide has had limited use in treating wash water. It may be used alone or in combination with chlorine, where a synergistic effect has been observed. Little information is available regarding the effectiveness of bromine alone or combined with chlorine as a fruit and vegetable sanitizing agent.

Iodine

Iodine solutions are less affected by the organic matter content of wash water than chlorine, however they may stain equipment used to handle fruits and vegetables and react with starch to form a blue-purple color. For this reason their application in fruits and vegetables is limited to non-starchy commodities.

III-9 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Ionic Compounds

Visual III.1-10

Examples of ionic compounds: · Trisodium phosphate (TSP) · Quaternary ammonium compounds (Quats) · Organic acids

Trisodium Phosphate (TSP)

A wash solution of 15% TSP for a contact time of 15 seconds as been shown to be effective for the elimination of Salmonella in tomatoes (Zhuang and Beuchat, 1996) However, there is little information in the literature documenting TSP’s effectiveness as a sanitizing agent under commercial conditions. Pathogens appear to vary in their resistance to TSP, with Listeria monocytogenes being resistant and E.coli O157:H7 being sensitive. More research is needed to learn about TSP’s spectrum of action and effect on the quality characteristics of the produce being treated.

Quaternary Ammonium Compounds (Quats)

These compounds are generally used for the sanitation of walls, floors, drainage, equipment and other food-contact surfaces in fruit and vegetable processing plants. Although they are not approved for direct food contact, quats may have some limited usefulness in treating fresh fruits and vegetables that must be peeled before consumption (CFSAN/FDA, 2001). These compounds have several advantages, which make them interesting as sanitizing agents. They are not corrosive to metals and are stable at high temperatures. They are effective against yeast and molds and against L. monocytogenes but are less effective against coliforms, Salmonella, E.coli, Pseudomonas, and viruses.

Quats are relatively stable in the presence of organic matter. Since their effectiveness is greatest in a pH range of 6-10, their application is limited in highly acidic environments (Beuchat, 1998). A rinsing step is recommended after their application.

Organic Acids

Organic acids are produced from the natural metabolism of fruits and vegetables. Acetic, citric, succinic, malic, tartaric, benzoic and sorbic acids are the major organic acids that occur naturally in fresh produce. Their decontamination activity has been attributed to a reduction in bacterial cell membrane permeability.

III-10 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Fruit and vegetable organic acids provide some natural protection against the growth of bacterial pathogens, since these organisms cannot grow at a pH below 4. However several pathogens can adapt to survive at lower pH and cause illness. Pathogens are able to grow in many vegetables and in fruits like melons, papaya, and mango that are not very acidic. The effectiveness of organic acids as sanitizing agents varies widely with the type of acid and the microorganism being inhibited. Their application may have negative effects on sensory properties such as flavor and aroma of the commodities being treated.

Although organic acids have had limited use with produce, washes and sprays containing organic acids have been used successfully to disinfect meat. Because the addition of organic acids directly or in washes can lead to reductions in pathogenic microorganisms, applying vinegar or lemon juice holds promise as an inexpensive treatment for decontamination of fresh fruits and vegetables (Castillo and Escartin, 1994; Zhang and Faber, 1996).

Active Oxygen Compounds

Visual III.1-11

Examples of “active” oxygen compounds: · Hydrogen peroxide · Peracetic acid · Ozone

Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2)

Hydrogen peroxide has shown promise as a sanitizer for fresh and cut produce (Sapers and Simmons, 1998). It has also shown positive results for the sanitation of cantaloupes, grapes, and some nuts. pH, temperature, and other environmental factors influence the sanitizing effects of hydrogen peroxide.

Hydrogen peroxide’s application as a sanitizing agent is limited for some fruits and vegetables due to the bleaching of anthocyanin pigments in commodities such as strawberries and raspberries and to the oxidation of mushroom phenolic compounds causing a loss of color.

Peracetic Acid

This acid is formed by the reaction of acetic acid and hydrogen peroxide with catalysts. It has been reported to be effective in reducing microbial counts in produce wash water and on fruit surfaces (Hei, 1998). Sanitizers using peracetic acid at 40-80 ppm significantly reduced Salmonella and E. coli 0157:H7 populations on cantaloupe and honey dew melon (Park and Beuchat, 1999),

III-11 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Peracetic acid is approved in the U.S. for use either in wash water or for direct application to whole or cut fruits and vegetables.

Ozone

Ozone destroys microorganisms much faster than chlorine due to its high oxidation potential. This allows it to be used at much lower concentrations (less than 1 ppm). It is highly effective for treating processing water, but has variable results when used as a sanitizing wash for fresh produce. The lethal effect of ozone on microorganisms is through its oxidative action. Salmonella typhimurium, Y. enterocolitica, S. aureus, and L. monocytogenes are sensitive to treatment in ozonated water at a concentration of 20 ppm (Restaino, et al., 1995). Many viruses and the cysts of protozoa such as Cryptosporidium parvum are also sensitive to ozone (Korich, et al., 1990). In addition, ozone has been shown to be effective for the prevention of decay in broccoli, carrots and pears.

It may be necessary to adjust the ozone dosage to prevent damage to the treated commodity. For example, maintaining a concentration of 25-30 ppm gaseous ozone has resulted in some undesirable physiological effects such as the appearance of black spots on bananas.

From a safety perspective there are many advantages to the use of ozonated water. There are some quality benefits as well, including prolonging the shelf life of oranges, strawberries, raspberries, grapes, apples and pears (Beuchat, 1998).

The high oxidizing power of ozone, which makes it very effective against microorganisms, can also cause some problems with its use. These include the corrosion of metal processing surfaces and ozone’s reactivity with organic matter. Handling is also a major concern because of potential toxic effects.

New Technologies

Visual III.1-12

New technologies to treat fresh fruits and vegetables include: · Irradiation · Pulsed light · Edible coatings

Many new technologies for treating fresh fruits and vegetables are currently under investigation and some are already available but are not yet used commercially.

III-12 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Irradiation

A treatment with ionizing radiation at doses up to I kGy can be applied to fresh fruits and vegetables. Irradiation is generally applied to inhibit post-harvest pathogens and to protect produce quality. Irradiation may be effective for eliminating pathogenic microorganisms from the surfaces of produce. An irradiation dose of 1 kGy has been reported to be effective for the destruction of Listeria monocytogenes on cut bell peppers. Unfortunately doses much greater than 1 kGy are necessary for destroying spores, viruses, yeasts and molds (Farkas et al., 1997) and these higher doses can cause softening and off-flavor development in fresh produce.

Additional factors to consider when using irradiation sanitation are the resistance of specific microorganisms to the treatment, other post harvest treatments, humidity, and produce temperature. A concern when irradiating produce in closed packages is that irradiation may lead to the elimination of competing microflora allowing germination of pathogenic bacterial spores.

Pulsed Light

Pulsed light treatments (i.e. a combination of 25% ultra-violet, 45% visible and 30% infrared light) are effective when the light can penetrate food surfaces or transparent media such as clear juices. Shelf life extension of some fresh fruits and vegetables has been reported after treatment with pulsed light, however the effectiveness of the treatment is limited on produce with opaque and/or irregular surfaces (Dunn, 1996).

Edible Coatings

Edible films can be made of many different polymers (pectin, proteins, oils, etc.) and there are many commercial brands of these films on the market. They are generally applied to fresh fruits and vegetables to improve appearance and to prevent moisture losses. They also can serve as a carrier for antimicrobial compounds such as organic acids (Beuchat and Golden, 1989), methyl jasmonate (Buta and Moline, 1998) and bacteriocins onto the produce surface. More research is needed to determine the effectiveness of films in controlling microbial growth. It also remains to be determined how microorganisms can mutate and adapt to the new environment created by the application of the film to the surface of the produce.

Hurdle Technology

Visual III-1.13

Hurdle technology uses a combination of treatments such as controlling pH, humidity, and temperature with preservatives to create multiple obstacles to microbial growth.

III-13 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Hurdle technology uses a combination of treatments such as controlling pH, humidity, and temperature with preservatives to create multiple obstacles to microbial growth. In many cases, the multiple treatments have a synergistic effect enhancing the actions of each. Many of the treatments previously discussed can be applied in combination to fresh fruits and vegetable to maximize the treatment effects or to offer additional protection.

Summary

1. Surface microorganisms of fresh produce vary widely and are highly dependent on the type of commodity and the agricultural practices used. Organisms present include both natural microflora and contaminants from soil, water, air, sewage and animals. During and after harvesting many conditions come together that can favor the growth of microorganisms. Some of these include handling, cross contamination, temperature abuse, and increases in product respiration rates leading to heat production.

2. The reduction of pathogens on produce is important to reduce foodborne illness and decrease spoilage and to improve appearance and nutritive value. Washing and sanitizing fruits and vegetables is a common practice to reduce surface contamination.

3. Before the washing step, and with commodities that cannot tolerate wetting, it is essential to remove surface soil by dry cleaning, brushing air blowers or vacuum (if the item will physically tolerate it).

4. A washing step reduces surface dirt. Water used for produce washing must be potable and free of pathogenic organisms. Impurities in water can drastically alter the effectiveness of a detergent or a sanitizer.

5. A sanitation step, generally with the application of chemical agents, follows washing. Sanitation involves the reduction of microorganisms of public health concern, as well as other undesirable microorganisms, without adversely affecting the quality of the product or its safety to the consumer.

6. The effectiveness of each individual sanitizer is influenced by many factors including water temperature, pH, contact time, organic matter content and the surface morphology of the fruit or vegetable. Chlorine is the most common sanitizer, but there are many other sanitizers on the market including chlorine dioxide, bromide, iodine, trisodium phosphate, quaternary ammonium compounds, organic acids, hydrogen peroxide, peracetic acid, and ozone. New technologies such as pulsed light, irradiation, and edible coatings are also proving useful in sanitizing produce. For many types of produce, the use of hurdle technology, multiple procedures that supplement and enhance each other, has been most effective in reducing microbial contamination.

III-14 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Module 2 Packing, Storage and Transportation

Learning Outcomes

Ø Participants should understand recommended practices for maintenance of packing and storage facilities and equipment and for proper trash and waste handling

Ø Participants should be aware of considerations for safety during produce transportation

Practical

Laboratory Exercise: Experiments with Artificial Germs – Germs and Produce

Additional Resources

Part V – Storage Conditions for Fruits and Vegetables

Many of the sanitation considerations discussed for the production field can be extended to the packing facility. While a discussion of these may seem repetitive, this discussion is included to point out that there are steps in the packinghouse process that require implementation of monitoring procedures. During packing it is important to consider Good Manufacturing Practices for packing and storage facilities, equipment, containers, trash handling, worker health and hygiene, and storage of produce and packing material.

Packing Facilities

Visual III.2-1

Sanitary Construction Considerations for Packing and Storage Facilities

· Facilities should be designed and constructed for easy cleaning and sanitation. · Buildings should be well screened with barriers designed to exclude vermin, domestic and wild animals, birds, and insects. · Windows should be closed or covered with mesh. · Walls, floors and ceilings should be in good condition, and easy to clean and sanitize. · Lamps and bulb lights should be covered so that, if they should break, the product and the work area will not be contaminated with broken glass. · The floor should be constructed with a slight slope to avoid water accumulation in production areas. · The sewage system should be constructed to prevent water accumulation in packing and storage rooms.

III-15 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Packing and storage facilities will vary depending on the produce being processed and the size of the operation. The packinghouse can be a small shed near the field or a large-scale building with many different processing and storage areas. Regardless of the size of the operation, good manufacturing practices are essential to prevent the physical facility from becoming a source of microbial, physical or chemical contamination and to ensure consistent fresh produce quality.

Visual III.2-2

Additional recommendations for the proper maintenance of packing and storing facilities include:

· All chemical agents, such as fuels, additives, fertilizers, pesticides, sanitizers, etc. must be packed in durable containers, properly labeled, and stored in dry, clean, closed places, separated from food products and packing material. These supplies must be handled only by authorized personnel and should never come in direct contact with the fruits or vegetables. · Packing and storage areas should be separated and, ideally, different personnel should handle separate tasks to avoid cross-contamination. · Comprehensive Sanitation Standard Operating Procedures (SSOP’s) and maintenance programs should be implemented. · Pest control and monitoring should be in place.

Packing and storage areas should be separated. Ideally, different personnel should handle tasks in each of the areas to avoid cross-contamination. It is important to keep all packing and storage areas free from chemicals, trash, machinery, harvest residues and waste materials to discourage pests and prevent produce contamination. Comprehensive Sanitation Standard Operating Procedures (SSOP’s) and maintenance programs should be implemented and pest control and monitoring should be in place.

III-16 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Equipment

Visual III.2-3

Sanitary Considerations for Equipment

· All equipment and containers that come in direct contact with produce or ingredients should be stainless steel or plastic, if possible, since these materials can easily be cleaned, disinfected and hygienically maintained. · Equipment must have smooth surfaces and be placed in locations that can facilitate adequate cleaning. · Equipment should not have loose bolts, knobs, or movable parts that could accidentally fall off. · If equipment has any paint on it, the paint should be approved for food processing equipment and it should not chip easily. Rust should be removed so it will not flake off onto the product. · Oil leaks and over-lubrication must be avoided. Only food grade oil and lubricants should be used.

All equipment used for washing and sorting of fresh produce should be designed for easy cleaning and maintained properly to prevent contamination. If possible, all equipment and containers that come in direct contact with produce or ingredients should be stainless steel or plastic since these materials can easily be cleaned, disinfected and hygienically maintained. Equipment should have smooth surfaces and be placed in locations that can facilitate adequate cleaning. There should be no loose bolts, knobs, or movable parts that could accidentally fall off and, if the equipment has any paint on it, the paint should be approved for food processing equipment and it should not chip easily. Rust should be removed so it will not flake off onto the product. Oil leaks and over-lubrication must be avoided. Only food grade oil and lubricants should be used.

Visual III.2-4

Additional considerations for packing equipment:

· A complete equipment cleaning and maintenance program should be implemented to prevent hazards to the operator and the consumer. · Equipment malfunctions should be reported as soon as they start to develop, so that the necessary precautions can be taken before a small problem can become something more serious. · It is a good practice to assign a responsible individual to each piece of equipment so that person can become familiar with the equipment and its proper operation.

III-17 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

A complete equipment cleaning and maintenance program should be designed and implemented. Such a program prevents hazards to the operator and the consumer. Equipment malfunctions should be reported as soon as they start to develop, so that the necessary precautions can be taken before a small problem can become something more serious. It is a good practice to assign a responsible individual to each piece of equipment so that person can become familiar with the equipment and its proper operation.

Containers

Visual III.2-5

Good Manufacturing Practices for containers:

· Containers should be made of non-toxic materials and constructed so they can be cleaned and sanitized easily. · Damaged containers should be discarded when cleaning becomes difficult or when the damage is such that they might break and pieces fall into the produce. · Containers used for transporting produce should be cleaned and disinfected after each use. · Containers that have been in direct contact with soil, mud, compost or fecal material should be properly marked and should not enter the receiving or packing facility at any time. A second set of crates can be used for produce entering the packing facility. · Containers used for fresh produce should not be used to transport any other items including lunches, tools, combustibles, pesticides or any other materials. These practices can result in chemical or microbial hazards to the consumer. · Within the packing facility, it is a good practice to color code or label containers that are used for transporting the product before and after washing and keep them well separated to avoid cross contamination. · Pest control and monitoring of infestation should be considered during container inspections.

To prevent contamination of produce, containers used for fruit and vegetable harvesting, transportation from the fields and during packing or storage should be clean and sanitized. The integrity of the container is important since many of the physical contaminants in fresh produce are introduced from the containers being used (i.e. fibers, wood or plastic chips/pieces, etc.). Containers used for fresh produce should not be used to transport any other items including lunches, tools, combustibles, pesticides or any other materials. Within the packing facility, it is a good practice to color code or label containers that are used for transporting the

III-18 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers product before and after washing and keep them well separated to avoid cross contamination.

Trash and Waste Handling

Visual III.2-6

Good Manufacturing Practices related to trash and waste handling:

· It is important to designate a specific secure, confined area outside the processing facility for the temporary holding of trash and produce waste. · The trash and waste collection center should be constructed to facilitate cleaning and to avoid accumulation of residue and bad odors. This area must be well outside the production perimeter. It is important to use closed containers and to consider dominant winds to avoid bad odors in the production and packing facilities and the surrounding neighborhood. · Trash containers and wastebaskets used inside the production and packing areas must be conveniently located, properly identified, should be able to be tightly closed, and not easily overturned. · Trash and waste material should be removed often. It is important to include a trash collection schedule in the daily cleaning activities. · Separation of organic and inorganic waste material with appropriate recycling is recommended.

Trash and fruit or vegetable waste can be a source of microbiological contaminants. Decomposing organic matter can serve to spread microorganisms around the facility, produce offensive odors, and attract insects and other pests bearing pathogenic organisms. Trash and waste materials should be stored in designated sites and should be removed daily. The collection site should be constructed for easy cleaning, should use closed containers, and should be located so that winds do not blow odors into the production and packing facilities or the surrounding neighborhood. Separation of organic and inorganic wastes with appropriate recycling is recommended.

III-19 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Storage of Packing Material

Visual III.2-7

Selection of a packing material storage location:

· The storage area must be clean, dry, and free from trash, insects, and animals. · The ceiling should be checked for leaks before placing the material in the storage location. · The storage location should be well separated from all chemical agents and from storage areas used for chemicals or other hazardous materials. · Storing packing materials on pallets is a good practice to avoid direct contact of the packing materials with floors. · Select a storage location away from restrooms and wet production areas.

Packing material such as cardboard boxes, plastic bags, etc. must be stored in a place designated for this purpose. This area should be clean, dry, and free of trash, insects, and animals. The packing materials should be kept away from any contamination sources.

During packing operations it is important to avoid damage to containers. Boxes should not be stapled since staples can damage packages and may contaminate the produce. New boxes and bags should be used at all times. Plastic bags and food contact surfaces should be made of food grade plastics to prevent the migration of chemical contaminants to the fresh produce.

Produce Storage

Visual III.2-8

Good Manufacturing Practices related to fresh fruit and vegetable storage: · All products should be stored in a clean location using an organized system. Codes and inventory rotation are important to minimize the time that the commodity is stored and to facilitate recall, in case of problems later in the food chain. · Boxes of product should be placed on pallets to avoid direct contact with floors. · There must be a minimum separation between pallets and walls of 45 cm (17.5 inches). Allow 10 cm (4 inches) between pallets and floors. Such separation allows adequate ventilation and facilitates cleaning and inspection for rodents and insects. · Chemicals, trash, waste or odorous material must not be stored near products. · Fruit and vegetable storage areas or chambers should have accurate, recorded temperature and humidity control to prevent or delay microbial growth. The proper storage temperature and relative humidity will vary considerably depending on the commodity and its specific requirements. · Walls, floors and ceilings must be systematically and periodically cleaned to avoid filth accumulation.

III-20 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

As with all produce-handling areas, hygiene and temperature control in storage rooms are critical factors in minimizing contamination and maintaining produce safety and quality. There should be an established cleaning and sanitation schedule for all produce storage areas.

Transportation

Proper handling of fruits and vegetables during transportation is critical to the safety of the produce. All of the time and effort taken to minimize microbial contamination and to monitor quality during field production, harvest, washing and packing will be wasted if the conditions for transportation are not appropriate.

Visual III.2-9

Shipping Container Sanitation is Critical · It is important to ask the freight company to keep a detailed log of previous loads and to clean and sanitize containers between loads. This needs to be checked before fresh fruits or vegetables are placed in the unit. · A complete inspection of the trailer or container should be performed before the product is loaded. Be aware of bad smells, visible dirt or traces of organic matter.

Fresh produce is generally transported in trailers or in overseas containers. It is important to remember that freight companies also transport other materials. In the best case scenario, shipping containers would be food grade, only used to transport the same food, and thoroughly cleaned and sanitized between loads. However, every producer should ask what type of food was previously transported in containers offered for their produce. Produce should not be transported in containers that have been used to transport fish, raw meat, eggs and other commodities that are significant sources of foodborne pathogens unless these containers have been adequately cleaned and sanitized.

In an ideal situation the transportation unit would be sanitized after each load. However, since transport companies have other priorities, they may be unaware of sanitation requirements for fresh produce. Sanitation frequency will often be dictated by previous load history, type of produce and type of package, among other aspects.

III-21 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Visual III.2-10

Important considerations for fruit and vegetable transportation units · Trailers and containers must be free of visible filth, odors and food particles. · Transportation units should not have any water condensation and should not be wet. · Hermetic seals are highly recommended to avoid pest access and environmental contamination during transportation. · If the fresh commodity requires refrigeration during transportation, refrigeration equipment should be functioning appropriately. Temperature monitoring devices should be used to monitor the performance of the refrigeration system.

If the previous load history indicates that the transportation unit has been used recently for transporting animals, raw foods, or chemical substances the produce should not be placed in the unit until appropriate cleaning and sanitizing measures have been taken. The trailer or container should be washed and decontaminated using procedures similar to those described for food processing equipment. Trailers and containers must be free of visible filth and food particles. Odors are a sign trucks additional cleaning is needed since bad smells can be an indication of microbiological contamination and poor cleaning practices. Many of the cleaning and sanitizing chemicals described for use in disinfecting produce can be used as long as they don’t cause corrosion of the unit.

Refrigerated Transportation

Visual III.2-11

· When products are stored at their optimum temperature, the shelf life is extended, appearance is more attractive and higher quality is maintained.

· In addition to these quality benefits, keeping a low temperature during transportation also can inhibit or greatly retard the growth of pathogens. The optimum storage and transportation temperature will depend on the sensitivity of the commodity to chill injury and on the reduced growth of pathogens at lower temperatures.

Storage and transportation temperatures that are too low can damage some tropical fruits and other highly perishable commodities (i.e. bananas and tomatoes). For these products, the industry uses storage and transportation temperatures between 10 to15°C (50 to 59 °F). For non-chill sensitive commodities, the optimum temperature range is as low as possible, without causing freezing, usually from 0 to 5°C (32 to 41 °F). In addition to temperature, the relative humidity of the transportation unit should be considered to prevent either dehydration or condensate build-up. Recommended temperature and

III-22 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers humidity for storage of many produce products are provided in Part V of the Additional Resources. These recommendations also would apply to transportation conditions.

Visual III.2-12

Additional GMPs for refrigerated transportation units: · Refrigeration and cooling systems should be inspected before each trip to ensure they are working properly. They should also be under a scheduled maintenance plan. · Minimize staging time (time between removal from cold storage and loading into refrigerated containers). Consider turning on refrigeration units and cooling transportation container before loading. · Allow for proper air circulation in the trailer or container by properly stacking, and not overloading the product. · Temperature records should be maintained during transportation. · Temperature recorders must be calibrated and tamper-proof to ensure that the proper storage temperature is being maintained. · Refrigeration coils should be clean and should not drip condensate on the load.

Training of drivers and other transportation and handling personnel is important. They should be sensitized to the importance of temperature control and transit time on maintaining the safety and quality of the fresh commodity. Maintenance of trucks to ensure that they reach their destination without delay is also important. Temperature records during transportation help ensure the produce is maintained at the proper temperatures.

Summary

1. Regardless of the size of the production operation, good manufacturing practices are essential to ensure consistent fresh produce quality and to prevent the handling environment from becoming a source of microbial, physical or chemical contamination.

2. It is important to keep all packing and storage areas free from chemicals, trash, machinery, harvest residues and waste materials to discourage pests and prevent produce contamination in these facilities.

3. All equipment used for washing and sorting fresh produce should be designed for easy cleaning and maintained properly to prevent contamination.

4. To prevent produce contamination, any containers used for fruit and vegetable harvesting, transportation from the fields and during packing or storage should be clean and sanitized and maintained intact. Plastic containers should be of food grade plastic.

III-23 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

5. Trash and fruit or vegetable waste can be a source of biological contaminants. Trash and waste materials should be stored in designated sites and should be removed daily. The collection site should be constructed for easy cleaning, should use closed containers, and should be located so that winds do not blow odors into the production and packing facilities or the surrounding neighborhood.

6. Hygiene and temperature control in storage rooms is critical factors in minimizing contamination, reducing pests, and maintaining produce safety and quality. There should be an established cleaning and sanitation schedule for all produce storage areas.

7. Produce should not be transported in containers that have been used to transport fish, raw meat, eggs and other commodities that are significant sources of foodborne pathogens unless these containers have been adequately cleaned and sanitized. Refrigerated units should maintain proper temperatures for produce safety and quality.

III-24 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Module 3 Equipment Cleaning and Sanitation

Learning Outcomes

Ø Participants should be aware of proper cleaning and sanitizing practices for equipment, containers, utensils and facilities in produce handling operations.

Practical

Ø Laboratory Exercise: Experiments with Artificial Germs: How Germs are Spread II Germs and Produce

To reduce the risk of contaminating fruits and vegetables, strict cleaning and sanitizing procedures must be followed on all equipment, utensils, containers and in handling facilities.

Visual III.3-1

What should be cleaned and sanitized?

· All facility equipment, containers, utensils and facilities. · The same procedures should be applied for the sanitation of tools, containers and all surfaces that come in contact with the fruit or vegetable during production in the field, harvesting, field packaging or transportation.

Cleaning Procedures

Cleaning includes the use of both physical methods, such as scrubbing, and chemical methods like detergents, acids or alkalis to remove dirt, dust, food residues and other debris from surfaces. These methods may be used separately or in combination.

Visual III.3-2

Detergent

· Material that reduces surface tension of water increasing its ability to interact with organic and aqueous media. · This property gives detergents the ability to remove and/or eliminate undesirable contaminating substances present on surfaces.

III-25 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

A detergent is a material that reduces surface tension of water. The reduction of water surface tension allows detergent penetration. This helps the detergent displace and suspend particles from processing surfaces and equipment. Water rinsing then moves particles away.

Visual III.3-3

Characteristics of a Good Cleaning Agent (Detergent):

· Complete and rapid solubility · Non-corrosive to metallic surfaces · Good moistening action · Good dispersion or suspension properties · Good rinsing properties · Germicide action · Low cost · Non toxic

A good detergent should have complete and rapid solubility, be non-corrosive to metallic surfaces, have good moistening action and offer good dispersion or suspension, and rinsing properties, germicidal action and low cost. When selecting the proper cleaning product, it is important to know what surface material it will act on and which material(s) it will remove. The following visual offers recommendations for selecting of cleaning compounds based on the surface being cleaned.

Visual III.3-4 TYPE OF SURFACE RECOMMENDED FREQUENCY OF USE CLEANING SUBSTANCE Stainless steel Alkaline, not abrasive Daily Acid, not abrasive Weekly

Metals (copper, Moderately alkaline Daily aluminum, galvanized substances with corrosion surfaces) inhibitors

Wood Detergents with Daily surfactants

Rubber Alkaline Substances Daily

Glass Moderately alkaline Daily substances

Concrete Floors Alkaline Daily

III-26 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

To prevent produce contamination, all equipment and utensils must be cleaned and sanitized following the guidelines and frequency established in the Sanitation Standard Operating Procedures (SSOPs), or when the circumstances require it.

Visual III.3-5

To clean effectively, it is necessary to use appropriate tools. Examples of common tools used to clean processing and packaging equipment and food processing facilities include: · Sponges · Brooms · Scrapers · Scrubs · Pressure water guns

Cleaning tools can be a major source of biological hazards when not handled properly. Cleaning tools should be rinsed and sanitized after use, and replaced regularly to avoid the development of microorganisms on their surfaces.

Cleaning tools are necessary to clean effectively. However, cleaning tools can be a major source of biological hazards when not handled properly. Cleaning tools should be rinsed and sanitized after use, and replaced regularly to avoid the development of microorganisms on their surfaces.

Cleaning procedures cannot guarantee the reduction of microorganisms, however, they can minimize the formation of bio-films. To eliminate microorganisms, it is necessary to treat surfaces with chemical agents generally called equipment sanitizers or disinfectants.

Sanitizing Procedures

Visual III.3-6

Sanitize food contact surfaces means to adequately treat clean food-contact surfaces by a process that is effective in destroying or substantially reducing the numbers of microorganisms of public health concern, as well as other undesirable microorganisms, without adversely affecting the quality of the product or its safety to the consumer. It means the application of cumulative heat or chemicals on cleaned food-contact surfaces that, when evaluated for efficacy, is sufficient to reduce populations of representative microorganisms by 99.999%.

To sanitize food contact surfaces means to adequately treat clean food-contact surfaces by a process that is effective in destroying or substantially reducing the numbers of microorganisms of public health concern as well as other undesirable

III-27 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers microorganisms, without adversely affecting the quality of the product or its safety to the consumer. It means the application of cumulative heat or chemicals on cleaned food-contact surfaces that, when evaluated for efficacy, is sufficient to reduce populations of representative microorganisms by 99.999% (U.S. Public Health Service, FDA,1997).

Sanitizing is not a substitute cleaning procedure. Organic and inorganic matter affects the germicidal action of many sanitizers therefore cleaning to remove dust, dirt and food residues should always be done before the application of a sanitizing agent. Good manufacturing practices also can prevent the formation of bio-films which bacteria may develop to protect themselves from the action of sanitizers.

Visual III.3-7

Factors to consider when selecting a sanitizing agent · Type of equipment and kind of surface being sanitized · Water hardness · Sanitizing equipment available · Effectiveness against important pathogens associated with the types of products being processed or to the processing environment · Effectiveness under practical conditions

The selection of a sanitizer for produce handling equipment will depend largely on the target microorganism, the type of produce being processed and the material of the surfaces that come in direct contact with the produce. Other important considerations are the type of water and the cleaning procedure being used.

A sanitizing agent with a broad action spectrum is recommended for the destruction of pathogenic microorganisms on different equipment surfaces. For some sanitizing activities it is necessary to use alternate agents. Developing a rotation schedule for cleaning and sanitizing agents should lessen the likelihood of pathogens developing resistance to a specific sanitizing agent.

Visual III.3-8

Common Agents Used for Equipment Sanitation Include: · Chlorine and chlorinating agents, including hypochlorite compounds · Quaternary Ammonium Compounds (Quats) · Strong acids and alkali

III-28 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Sanitizers and their use on produce were discussed in Module 1. The following discussion identifies some special considerations when using sanitizers on processing equipment.

Chlorine and Chlorine Compounds

When properly used, these substances can be considered among the most useful equipment sanitizing agents. However, pH, temperature and organic load dramatically affect the activity of chlorine. Chlorinating agents have a rapid effect over a large variety of microorganisms and are relatively inexpensive. This group of disinfectants is highly corrosive to metals and can also bleach equipment therefore, rinsing equipment surfaces immediately after the proper contact time is strongly recommended.

Visual III.3-9

Free Residual Chlorine

The amount of free residual chlorine is very important for plant sanitation since the rate at which bacteria are killed is proportional to the residual chlorine concentration.

The amount of free residual chlorine is very important for plant sanitation since the rate at which bacteria are killed is proportional to its concentration (Gavin and Weddig, 1995). As discussed in Module 1, sanitation waters must be chlorinated to a point where free residual chlorine concentrations of significant germicidal power exist. Sanitizers containing a concentration of 2-7 ppm free residual chlorine are considered to have significant bactericidal power. These can be applied to conveyor belts and equipment using continuous/intermittent sprayers or by flooding. Solutions of higher concentration (20-50 ppm) can be used for equipment and cleanup.

The length of contact time, pH and temperature of the sanitizer are also important considerations in achieving effective sanitizing. Increasing the temperature of the chlorinated water can cause considerable depletion of chlorine unless the solution contains organic nitrogen to interact with the chlorine to form chloramines, which have germicidal power.

Many operations inject chlorine gas into the water to prepare sanitizing solutions. When this is done, it is important to consider the water temperature as this affects the solubility of the chlorine gas (Gavin and Weddig, 1995).

Iodine Compounds (Iodophores)

Iodine compounds are widely used to sanitize food processing equipment and surfaces. The most commonly used are ethanol-iodine solutions, aqueous iodine

III-29 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers solutions and iodophors, which are combinations of elemental iodine with anionic surfactants of nonyl-phenol ethoxylates or carriers such as polyvinylpyrrolidone.

At concentrations of 6-13 ppm of free iodine (pH 6.6- 7.0) for a contact time of 3- 15 seconds the population of vegetative bacterial cells can be reduced 90%. Bacterial spores are more resistant to iodine than vegetative cells (Beuchat, 1998). For cleaning equipment surfaces, a solution with 25-50 milligrams of iodine per liter (ppm) at a pH 3-4 is normally recommended.

Iodophors are the iodine compounds most frequently used in the food industry (Gorny, 2001). They have a wide spectrum of action, are effective against yeasts and molds and are very convenient if an acid cleaner is needed. Their effect is fast and they have wide antimicrobial activity. Iodophors have the advantage of being less corrosive than chlorine at low temperatures. However, they vaporize at temperatures above 50°C (122°F) where they can be highly corrosive and their effectiveness is reduced at low temperatures (Beuchat, 1998). Iodophors are most effective in a pH range of 2-5 but they can remain active under mildly alkaline conditions depending on other conditions.

Iodophores lose their effectiveness in the presence of organic material and at pH 7 or greater. It is possible to visually observe the efficacy of iodophores, since they lose their color when residual iodine reaches ineffective levels.

Depending on solution composition and the nature of the surface to which it is applied, iodophores at high concentrations may have a corrosive action on metals. For this reason, it is important to thoroughly rinse treated surfaces with water after iodophore application. For surfaces that don’t damage easily, iodophores can be applied without a final rinse.

Quaternary Ammonium Compounds (Quats)

Quats have good detergent characteristics. They are colorless, have relatively low corrosiveness with metals, and are non-toxic. Quats are good sanitizers although they are selective for some types of bacteria (i.e. not effective against E. coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa). Because of this selectiveness, an occasional chlorine treatment is useful to maintain adequate plant sanitation.

Quaternary ammonium solutions should be used at levels between 200-1200 milligrams per liter. When hard water is used, higher concentrations are needed. Quats are not affected by organic matter but also are not compatible with soaps or anionic detergents. Quats tend to adhere to equipment surfaces, thus it is necessary to rinse thoroughly with potable water after their application.

Because of their low corrosive nature, quats are generally used to sanitize floors, walls, ceilings and other parts of refrigerated compartments. However, they have

III-30 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers the unfortunate limitation of inactivation by wood, cotton, nylon, cellulose sponges and some plastics (Gavin and Weddig, 1995).

Other Sanitizing Agents

In addition to having detergent properties, strong acids and bases possess considerable antimicrobial activity. When these materials are applied to processing equipment it is important to avoid contamination of foods since the acid or base can harm the consumer. All treated surfaces must be rinsed with abundant amounts of water after treatment.

Ultraviolet light (UV) has some applications as a surface sanitizer. However, because of its low penetration power, it is mainly used to kill airborne microorganisms especially mold spores in air circulation systems, above packaging areas, in cool rooms, etc.

Ozone has some use as a plant sanitizer. It is used to treat water and storage rooms. Ozone is effective against microorganisms in cold water and in recirculated water systems.

Water Quality and Sanitizers

Water is the main component of sanitizing solutions and it can be a factor in the effectiveness of the sanitation procedures. Water used to mix sanitation solutions, must be of good quality. Organic load, turbidity, and presence of pathogens in the water used in sanitizing solutions can alter the effectiveness of sanitation procedures.

Handling of Sanitizing Substances

Visual III.3-10

Recommendations for the safe handling of sanitizing agents: · When using alkaline or acid substances employees must wear goggles and protective clothing. · Sanitizers must be stored in a separate facility, away from fresh produce and packaging material. · The specific handling and usage instructions for each product must be carefully followed. · Sanitizing agents are classified as pesticide chemicals therefore they are subject to usage and disposal regulations, specific for each country.

Legally in the U.S. sanitizers intended for use on semi-permanent or permanent food contact surfaces (other than food packaging) are “pesticides” and must be registered with the Environmental Protection Agency (Gorny, 2001). Residues

III-31 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers that remain on the food contact surfaces are pesticide chemical residues that are subject to EPA tolerance regulations.

The recommendations for handling chemical pesticides discussed in Section II, Module 3 apply to the use of sanitizing agents. Protective equipment such as gloves, boots, goggles and, in some cases, masks, should be used. Operators must be trained on the proper handling and preparation of sanitizing solutions.

Visual III.3-11

Dangerous mixtures of sanitizing agents

· To avoid abrupt neutralization reactions, alkaline and acid sanitizing products should not be mixed (e.g. chlorine mixed with ammonia is extremely dangerous). · Acid products should not be mixed with hypochloric solutions since they can produce chlorine gas, which can be toxic

Different sanitizing substances should not be mixed because dangerous reactions may occur. To avoid abrupt neutralization reactions that can result in splattering and/or noxious fumes, alkaline and acid sanitizing products should not be mixed (e.g. chlorine mixed with ammonia is extremely dangerous). Acid products should not be mixed with hypochloric solutions since they can produce chlorine gas, which can be toxic.

Summary

1. To reduce the risk of contaminating fruits and vegetables, strict cleaning and sanitizing procedures must be followed on all equipment, utensils, containers and in handling facilities.

2. Cleaning includes the use of both physical methods, such as scrubbing, and chemical methods like detergents, acids or alkalis to remove soil and many surface contaminants. These methods may be used separately or in combination. When selecting the proper cleaning product, it is important to know what surface material it will act on and which material(s) it will remove.

3. The selection of a sanitizer will depend largely on the target microorganism(s), the type of produce being processed and the material of the surfaces that come in direct contact with the sanitizer. Common agents used for equipment sanitation include chlorine and chlorinating agents, including hypochlorite compounds, iodine, quaternary ammonium compounds (Quats), and strong acids and alkali.

III-32 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

References

Bartz. J.A. and Showalter. R.K. 1981. Infiltration of tomatoes by bacteria in aqueous suspension. Phytopathology, 71:515.

Benarde, M.A., Snow, W.B., Olivieri, P. and Davidson, B. 1967. Kinetics and mechanism of bacterial disinfection by chlorine dioxide. Appl. Microbiol. 15:2167.

Beuchat, L.R. 1998. Surface decontamination of fruits and vegetables eaten raw: A review. World Health Organization. WHO/FSF/FOS/98.2 Available via the Internet at http://www.who.int/fsf/fos982~1.pdf

Beuchat, L.R. and Golden, D.A. 1989. Antimicrobials occurring naturally in foods. Food Technol. 43:135.

Buta, J.G. and Moline, H.E. 1998. Methyl jasmonate extends shelf life and reduces microbial contamination of fresh-cut celery and peppers. J. Agric. Food Chem. 46:1253.

Castillo, A. and Escartin, E.F. 1994. Survival of Campylobacter jejuni on sliced watermelon and papaya. J. Food Prot. 57:166.

CFSAN/FDA. 2001. Analysis and evaluation of preventive control measures for the control and reduction/elimination of microbial hazards on fresh and fresh-cut produce. U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition. September 30, 2001. Available via the Internet at http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/ ~comm/ift3exec.html

Dunn, J. 1996. Pulsed light and pulsed electric field for foods and eggs. Poultry Sci. 75:1133.

Farkas, J., Saray, T., Mohacsi-Farkas, C., Horti, K. and Andrassy, E. 1997. Effects of low-dose gamma radiation on shelf-life and microbiological safety of pre-cut/prepared vegetables. Adv. Food Sci. 19:111.

Gavin, A. and Weddig, L.M. 1995. Canned Foods: Principles of Thermal Process Control, Acidification and Container Closure Evaluation. The Food Processors Institute, Washington, D.C., p. 35.

III-33 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Gorny, J.R. 2001. Chapter 6 – Plant cleaning and sanitation: Materials and systems. In Food Safety Guidelines for the Fresh-Cut Produce Industry, Fourth Edition. International Fresh-cut Produce Association.

Hei, R.D. 1998. Peracetic acid applications to vegetable and fruit flume transport waters improved storage stability, and yielded superior reduction of microbial contaminants during processing. Abstract 65-3, Annual Meeting of the Institute of Food Technologists, Atlanta, GA.

Korich, D.G., Mead J.R., Madore M.S., Sinclaire N.A., Sterling C.R. 1990. Effects of ozone, chlorine dioxide, chlorine, and monochloramine on Cryptosporidium parvum oocyst viability. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 56:1423-1428.

Park, C.M. and Beuchat, L.R. 1999. Evaluation of sanitizers for killing Escherchia coli 0157:H7, Salmonella and naturally occuring microorganisms on cantaloupes, honeydew melons, and aspararagus. Dairy Food Environ sanit 19:842.

Restaino L., Frampton E.W., Hemphill J.B., and Palnikar P. 1995. Efficacy of ozonated water against various food-related microorganisms. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 61:3471.

Richardson, S.D., Thruston, A.D., Caughran, T.V., Collete, T.W., Patterson, K.S. and Lykins, B.W. 1998. Chemical by-products of chlorine and alternative disinfectants. Food Technol. 52:58.

Sapers, G.M. and Simmons, G.F. 1998. Hydrogen peroxide disinfection of minimally processed fruits and vegetables. Food Technol. 52:48.

U.S. Public Health Service, FDA. 1997 Food Code, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Food and Drug Administration, Washington, DC.

Zhang, S. and Faber, J.M. 1996. The effects of various disinfectants against Listeria monocytogenes on fresh-cut vegetables. Food Microbiol. 13:311.

Zhuang, R.Y. and Beuchat, L.R. 1996. Effectiveness of trisodium phosphate for killing Salmonella montevideo on tomatoes. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 22:97.

Zhuang, R.Y., Beuchat, L.R. and Angulo, F.J. 1995. Fate of Salmonella montevideo on and in raw tomatoes as affected by temperature and treatment with chlorine. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 61:2127.

III-34 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

FOOD LAWS AND REGULATIONS

COPYRIGHT © 2002 UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND. THIS WORK MAY BE REPRODUCED AND REDISTRIBUTED, IN WHOLE OR IN PART, WITHOUT ALTERATION AND WITHOUT PRIOR WRITTEN PERMISSION, FOR NONPROFIT ADMINISTRATIVE OR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES PROVIDED ALL COPIES CONTAIN THE FOLLOWING STATEMENT: “© 2002 UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND. THIS WORK IS REPRODUCED AND DISTRIBUTED WITH THE PERMISSION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND. NO OTHER USE IS PERMITTED WITHOUT THE EXPRESS PRIOR WRITTEN PERMISSION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND. FOR PERMISSION, CONTACT JIFSAN, UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND, SYMONS HALL, COLLEGE PARK, MD 20742

IV-1 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

SECTION IV FOOD LAWS AND REGULATIONS

Module 1 The U.S. Food Safety System*

Learning Outcome

Ø Participants will be aware of the agencies involved in the U.S. food safety system and their role in the safety of food imports.

Practical

Ø Discussion Question 7

Food Safety in the U.S. - A Shared Responsibility

Visual IV.1-1

All foods imported into the U.S. are required to meet the same standards as domestic products. They must be: · Pure · Wholesome · Safe to eat · Produced under sanitary conditions · Properly labeled

In the U.S., food safety is a shared responsibility with several departments of the United States government sharing jurisdiction over ensuring the safety of the American food supply (Rawson and Vogt, 1998). These agencies assure that all foods are pure, wholesome, safe to eat and produced under sanitary conditions. They also assure that all imported foods meet the same requirements as those produced domestically.

* Prepared by: Pamela Brady, Ph.D., IFSE, University of Arkansas

IV-2 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Visual IV.1-2

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration

· Regulates both domestic and imported foods, except meat and poultry · Has primary responsibility for enforcing food safety laws including food import and export regulations

The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is charged with protecting consumers against food that is impure, unsafe, produced under unsanitary conditions, or fraudulently labeled (FDA, 1998a). Through its Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition (CFSAN) and the Office of Regulatory Affairs (ORA), the FDA regulates both domestic and imported foods, except meat and poultry and processed eggs and has primary responsibility for enforcing food safety laws including food import and export regulations.

Some of the activities of the FDA with particular impact on imported produce include: Ø Inspecting food production establishments and food warehouses and collecting and analyzing samples for physical, chemical, and microbial contamination. Ø Establishing good agricultural practices and good manufacturing practices and other production standards, such as plant sanitation, packaging requirements, and Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point programs. Ø Sampling and inspection of imported foods. Ø Working with foreign governments (and with FDA counterparts in these countries, if they exist) to ensure safety of imported foods. Ø Taking appropriate enforcement actions. Ø Educating industry and consumers on safe food handling practices.

Visual IV.1-3

Other U.S. Federal Agencies with Roles in Safety of Imported Foods

· Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) · U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) · Agricultural Marketing Service (AMS) · Foreign Agricultural Service (FAS) · Food Safety Inspection Service (FSIS) · Economic Research Service (ERS) · Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) · U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) · U.S. Customs Service

IV-3 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) work closely with state and local public health epidemiologists and laboratories to identify illnesses and clusters of illnesses that may be foodborne. CDC surveys and studies various environmental and chronic health problems and administers national programs for prevention and control of vector-borne diseases (diseases transmitted by a host organism) and other preventable conditions.

The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) has several agencies that may play a role in assuring food safety by establishing the safety of imported fruits and vegetables.

Ø The Agricultural Marketing Service (AMS) carries out a wide range of programs aimed at facilitating the marketing of agricultural products, assuring consumers a quality food supply, and ensuring fair trading practices. Certain agricultural commodities (including fresh tomatoes, avocados, mangoes, limes, oranges, grapefruit, green peppers, Irish potatoes, cucumbers, eggplants, dry onions, walnuts and filberts, processed dates, prunes, raisins, and olives in tins) must meet United States import requirements relating to grade, size, quality, and maturity. These commodities are inspected and the AMS must issue an inspection certificate to indicate import compliance.

Ø The Foreign Agricultural Service (FAS) has primary responsibility for the USDA's overseas programs, including market development, international trade agreements and negotiations, and the collection of statistics and market information.

Ø The Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) regulates meat, poultry and egg products and maintains a comprehensive system of import inspection and controls.

Ø The Economic Research Service (ERS) provides estimates of costs of foodborne disease and conducts benefit/cost analyses of alternative regulatory options.

Ø USDA’s Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) inspects imported agricultural products for disease and pests which might infect plants and animals. Through monitoring activities at airport terminals, seaports, and border stations, it guards U.S. borders against the entry of foreign agricultural pests and diseases.

The duties of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) include regulating pesticides and assuring that drinking water meets standards for health. Through the Office of Pesticide Programs (OPP), EPA determines the safety of new pesticide products, sets tolerance levels for pesticide residues in foods,

IV-4 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers which FDA then enforces, and publishes directions for the safe use of pesticides. As with other requirements, imported produce must meet the same standards for residues as products produced domestically.

The U.S. Customs Service serves as the point of entry for products imported into the U.S. Working with the FDA, the Customs Service participates in the effort to assure produce safety (see section below on Import Regulations and Restrictions).

U.S. Import Regulations and Restrictions

The following description of the FDA’s Import Program is adapted from the document, “U.S. Food and Drug Administration Import Information” (FDA, 1999).

Visual IV.1-5

Summary of FDA Import Procedures

1. Importer files entry notice with Customs

2. FDA, notified by Customs of the entry, makes a decision as to admissibility. a. The product is allowed to proceed into U.S. commerce, after applicable duties are paid OR b. FDA decides to examine an entry

3. After examination a. If the product is in compliance, it is released by Customs and allowed into U.S. commerce. OR b. If it appears violative, FDA issues a Notice of Detention and Hearing to the owner or consignee

4. If the product is refused, the importer is required to either re-export or destroy the article

To ensure that FDA is notified of all regulated products imported into the United States, the importer, or his/her representative, must file an entry notice and an entry bond with the U.S. Customs Service (Customs). Specific information on U.S. Customs procedures, requirements, forms, etc., are available from local Customs offices. When FDA is notified by Customs of the entry, a decision is made as to the article's admissibility. If FDA does not wish to examine the entry, the product is allowed to proceed into United States commerce.

IV-5 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Generally, if FDA decides to examine an entry, an FDA representative will collect a sample from the shipment for laboratory evaluation. If the analysis indicates the product is in compliance with U.S. requirements, the shipment may be released into United States commerce. If there is a violation, the product will be refused admission.

When a sample of an article offered for import has been requested by FDA, the owner or consignee shall hold the shipment and not distribute it until further notice is received regarding the results of the examination of the sample. If it appears that the article is violative, FDA issues a Notice of Detention and Hearing to the owner or consignee of the article specifying a place and period of time whereby the individual may introduce testimony either verbally or in writing. The importer is provided an opportunity to submit a petition to recondition the product to bring it into compliance. The owner or consignee may submit an application to FDA to relabel or perform other actions to bring the article into compliance or render the article other than a food, drug, device, or cosmetic. An application for authorization to relabel or perform other actions to bring the article into compliance shall contain a detailed proposal and specify the time and place where such operations will be carried out and the approximate time for completion as specified by regulation. All petitions to recondition a product are subject to FDA review and approval.

If the product is refused, the importer is required to either re-export or destroy the article under U.S. Customs or other approved supervision. If the refused product is not destroyed or re-exported, Customs issues a notice for redelivery to the importer of record. Failure to redeliver the refused product may result in Customs assessing liquidated damages against the importer's bond.

Visual IV.1-6

Detention Without Physical Examination (DWPE)

A product may be detained as soon as it is offered for entry into the United States based on past history and/or other information indicating the product may be violative

In some instances a product may be detained as soon as it is offered for entry into the United States. This procedure is the administrative act of detaining a product without physical examination and is based on past history and/or other information indicating the product may be violative. A product may be subject to a detention without physical examination (DWPE) recommendation until the shipper or importer proves that the product meets FDA guidelines or standards. Occasionally, FDA identifies products from an entire country or geographic region for DWPE when the

IV-6 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

violative conditions appear to be geographically widespread. Detention recommendations of this breadth are rare and are initiated only after other avenues for resolving the problem have been exhausted. It must be emphasized that DWPE matters must be settled well before shipment of fresh produce. All perishable produce must adhere strictly to all import requirements. Delays of questionable items easily result in spoilage, even if the item is subsequently cleared for commerce.

Pesticide Residues on Raw Agricultural Commodities

Tolerances for pesticide residues on many raw agricultural commodities have been established under Section 408 of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FDA, 2001). The term "raw agricultural commodity" means any food in its raw or natural state, including all unprocessed fruits, vegetables, nuts, and grains. Foods that have been washed, colored, waxed, or otherwise treated in their unpeeled natural form are considered to be unprocessed. Products of this kind containing pesticide residues are in violation of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act unless: (1) the pesticide chemical has been exempted from the requirement of a residue tolerance; or (2) a tolerance has been established for the particular pesticide on the specific food and the residue does not exceed the tolerance (Sec. 408).

The Environmental Protection Agency establishes, revokes or changes tolerances, as the facts warrant such action. Firms considering offering foods for entry into the United States that may contain pesticide residues should determine if there are tolerances for the pesticides on the product in question. This determination can be made by contacting the EPA (see Additional Resources for contact information).

APHIS Import Authorization System

USDA through the Animal Plant Health and Inspection Service (APHIS) requires permits for certain fresh fruits and vegetables that are imported from any foreign country. Only approved plant parts of the fresh fruits and vegetables are allowed entry. Entry requirements can be obtained from the Import Authorization System available on USDA’s website http://www.aphis.usda.gov/oa/new/at.html.

Summary

1. All foods imported into the U.S. must meet the same requirements as those produced domestically.

2. In the U.S., food safety is a shared responsibility with several departments of the United States government sharing jurisdiction over ensuring the safety of the American food supply. Agencies involved include:

IV-7 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

· The Food and Drug Administration - regulates both domestic and imported foods, except meat, poultry and processed eggs, and has primary responsibility for enforcing food safety laws including food import and export regulations. · The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention - works closely with state and local public health epidemiologists and laboratories to identify Illnesses and clusters of illnesses that may be foodborne. · The U.S. Department of Agriculture -has several agencies that carry out a wide range of programs that may play a role in assuring food safety by establishing the safety of imported fruits and vegetables. · The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency - regulates pesticides and assures drinking water meets standards for health. · The U.S. Customs Service - serves as the point of entry for products imported into the U.S.

3. Firms considering offering foods for entry into the United States that may contain pesticide residues should determine if these residues are within the tolerances for the pesticides on the product in question established by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

IV-8 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Module 2 Investigating Foodborne Disease Outbreaks*

Learning Outcome

Ø Participants should be familiar with the procedures used to investigate foodborne disease outbreaks.

Practical

Ø Problem Solving: Traceback Investigation Ø Discussion Question 5

Additional Resources

Ø FDA Publications: Farm Investigation Questionnaire

When foodborne illness occurs, identification of the organisms involved and the food that carried these organisms is important both to assure adequate treatment of infected persons and to protect the public from the risk of continued spread or reoccurrence of the illness.

Possible outbreaks of disease are identified in a variety of ways (Reingold, 1998). Frequently consumers who suspect that a food they ate was associated with illness report the illness to local health departments. Sometimes medical personnel notice unusual numbers of disease cases and report their occurrence to public health officials.

Officials reviewing reports of surveillance data may also detect outbreaks. In the U.S., two surveillance networks, FoodNet and PulseNet, monitor foodborne disease outbreaks on a national level (Guzewich and Salsbury, 2000). The Foodborne Diseases Active Surveillance Network (FoodNet) is a collaborative project of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), nine state sites, the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The project involves active surveillance for foodborne diseases and is designed to help public health officials better understand foodborne disease in the U.S. PulseNet is a national network of public health laboratories that perform DNA “fingerprinting” on bacteria that may be foodborne. The network permits rapid comparison of these “fingerprint” patterns through an electronic database at CDC. The system is used to exchange “fingerprints” when outbreaks of foodborne disease occur (CDC, 1999).

* Prepared by: Pamela Brady, Ph.D., IFSE, University of Arkansas and Juan Silva, Ph.D., Mississippi State University

IV-9 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Once a disease outbreak is recognized, investigation is begun to identify the cause of the outbreak. The main reason to investigate an outbreak is that by identifying and eliminating the source of infection, it may be possible to prevent additional cases of the disease (Reingold, 1998). However, even if the outbreak has reached a point where no further cases are appearing, it may still be important to investigate the outbreak. Such an investigation may provide information which will be useful to (1) prevent similar outbreaks in the future, (2) describe new diseases and learn more about existing ones, (3) evaluate prevention strategies, and (4) address public concern about the outbreak.

Visual IV.2-1

Foodborne Disease Investigations

· Epidemiological investigation · Laboratory investigation · Environmental investigation

Foodborne disease investigations have three components: epidemiological, laboratory, and environmental.

Epidemiological investigations verify a diagnosis; identify the range of onset of symptoms; provide case definitions; and determine the association between exposure to a specific food and the occurrence of illness. Epidemiological investigations are usually used to link specific foods and illnesses and can suggest sources of contamination.

The laboratory component of the investigation involves analysis of clinical samples, food samples (if remaining implicated portions or lots are available) and environmental samples. The laboratory analysis of clinical specimens is conducted in order to identify the pathogen causing the disease and may aid in linking cases. Additionally, clinical results are compared with food and environmental results and with epidemiological findings to aid in determining the source of contamination.

Environmental investigations focus on aspects in the environment of the food that may have led to contamination. Areas investigated include food preparation methods, the potential for temperature abuse or cross contamination, and the location of preparation.

Should the epidemiological or environmental investigation determine that the contamination most likely did not occur at the point of food preparation, then a traceback investigation may be initiated.

IV-10 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Rapid Response Programs for Foodborne Disease Outbreaks

With globalization of the food supply and increased transport and trade between states, nations, and continents, foodborne disease outbreaks may involve large populations and spread rapidly. Moreover, many pathogenic organisms have a low infective dose and are sometimes not isolated from the food product.

Visual IV.2-2

Investigating Foodborne Outbreaks

· Early identification of the outbreak · Rapid and coordinated response to the outbreak · Confirmation/identification of source(s)/product(s) · Investigation and confirmation of outbreak · Determine cause to prevent future outbreaks

Rapid response to a foodborne outbreak will rely heavily on epidemiological data, shared by county, state, national, and international agencies, to insure control and stop the exposure (Majkowski, 1997). Guidelines for improving the coordination and communication on multistate foodborne outbreaks have been developed in the U.S. (FDA, 2001).

International efforts to allow rapid detection of foodborne disease outbreaks require a constant exchange of information and surveillance data. This involves coordination and open channels between various agencies within a country through to the international level, coupled with accurate sampling and rapid laboratory sub-typing. Moreover, industry and others need to have accurate information about the source of the product (i.e. a traceback system).

Fruit and Vegetable Outbreak Traceback

Visual IV.2-3

Traceback

A traceback investigation is a method used to: · Determine the source(s) and distribution of food(s) implicated in a foodborne disease outbreak · Identify potential points where contamination could have occurred

Traceback investigations are conducted to determine the source and distribution of products that were implicated in a foodborne disease outbreak and to identify

IV-11 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers potential points where contamination may have occurred (Guzewich and Salsbury, 2000).

Despite the best efforts by produce operators, products may never be completely free of microbial hazards. However, an effective traceback system can give investigators clues that may lead to a specific region, packing facility, even cultivated field, rather than an entire commodity group. Narrowing the potential scope of an outbreak could lessen the economic burden on those industry operators not responsible for the problem. Traceback also can serve as an important complement to good agricultural and manufacturing practices since information gained from a traceback investigation may be useful in identifying and eliminating a hazardous situation.

From a public health perspective, improving the speed and accuracy of tracing implicated food items back to their source may help limit the extent of an outbreak. Tracing implicated food items also may help public health officials determine potential causes of contamination, thereby providing data for growers, shippers, and others for identifying and minimizing microbial hazards.

Visual IV.2-4 Overview of the Traceback Process

Ill Person(s)

Consumption of contaminated food

Point of Service

Distributor A Distributor B Distributor C

Distributor D Distributor E

Importer Domestic Importer Importer Domestic A Producer A B C Producer B

The purpose of traceback is to determine and document the distribution and production chain for a product that has been implicated during an epidemiological

IV-12 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers investigation of foodborne illness. By tracing the implicated product back to its source, steps can be taken to halt its further distribution. Currently fresh fruits and vegetables are extremely difficult to trace back because, in most instances, lot numbers/grower identifications are not used or recorded on receipt/shipping records so it is difficult for the distributor to identify specific shipments and their source. However efforts are being made to encourage better record keeping that can be used to assist in traceback activities.

Investigators initially visit the Point-of-Service (POS) establishment where the product was sold or prepared to determine when the product was purchased or prepared, and determine receiving, stock rotation, inventory, handling, and shipping procedures (FDA, 1998b). Records are collected covering all suppliers and shipments of implicated product to the POS over the shelf life of the implicated product. Data relating to distribution is charted and analyzed. Following analysis at each distribution level, distributors who supplied suspect shipments of product are visited and interviewed. Distributor interviews and data collection and analysis are repeated for each level of distribution until investigators identify the source of the product.

Produce offers a number of unique challenges to the traceback process. Fresh produce has a relatively short shelf life so is often gone by the time an outbreak is reported. This makes it extremely difficult to identify the item causing the foodborne illness. If fresh produce is linked to an outbreak, current industry practices in the marketing and distribution systems, such as co-mingling during distribution or at retail, make a direct identification of the source of a product very difficult. If an implicated source (for example, a field or packing facility) is identified, the source of contamination may no longer be present when investigators arrive at the site. This variability and lack of a direct determination of cause have resulted in a high degree of uncertainty, and, in some cases, false associations. The economic burden of a false association is especially troublesome for those industry segments that may later be proven not to have been involved in the actual outbreak.

Because of the diversity of handling practices throughout the produce distribution and marketing chain, a traceback system may be easier to implement for some market segments than for others. For example, traceback systems may be more easily implemented by larger operations that have more direct control over a greater number of steps in the growing/packing/distribution chain. However, industry associations, growers, and operators are encouraged to consider ways to provide this capability, where feasible.

IV-13 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Visual IV.2-5

Documentation for effective traceback: · Date of harvest · Farm identification · Who handled the product from grower to consumer · Identifying codes/lots at each distribution level for retail.

It is important for a company to examine current procedures and, if necessary, to develop new ones to track individual containers from the farm, to the packer, distributor, and retailer. At a minimum, an effective traceback system should have documentation to indicate the source of a product and a mechanism for marking or identifying the product so that it is possible to follow the product from the farm to the consumer. Documentation should include: a. Date of harvest, b. Farm identification c. Who handled the produce from grower to consumer d. Identifying codes/lots at each distribution level for retail.

Many growers, especially smaller operations, have little control over what happens to produce after it enters the distribution and marketing chain. Therefore, it is critical that growers, packers, and shippers work with their partners in transportation, distribution, and retail to develop technologies that will allow tracking of fresh produce from the grower to the retailer and consumer. Some industry trade groups are developing technologies (such as bar codes, stamps, stickers, tags, etc.) to aid in identifying the source of produce and software to assist retailers in providing more accurate traceback to the grower/packer level.

Farm or Source Investigations

If a traceback identifies the farm(s) as the source(s) of an outbreak, a farm or source investigation may be conducted. Efforts in this investigation are focused on locating possible sources of contamination. Investigators may look at factors such as water management and drainage, flooding or other weather-related contamination, waste management and manure usage, sanitation and handling of tools and equipment, worker health and hygiene, and management of both domestic and wild animals.

The FDA has developed a Farm Investigation Questionnaire that provides an outline of the factors that are studied to determine where product contamination may have occurred on the farm. An abbreviated version of this Questionnaire can be found in the FDA Publications portion of the Resources Section at the end of

IV-14 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers this manual. Controls for on the farm factors affecting product contamination are discussed in Sections II and III of this manual.

Regional and Local Considerations

To assist participants in relating to the importance of training to improve the safety and quality of fresh fruits and vegetables, trainers may want to include a discussion of issues related to specific regional and/or local products.

Summary

1. When foodborne illness occurs, identification of the organisms involved and the food that carried these organisms is important both to assure adequate treatment of infected persons and to protect the public from the risk of continued spread or reoccurrence of the illness.

2. In the U.S., two surveillance networks monitor foodborne disease outbreaks: · The Foodborne Diseases Active Surveillance Network (FoodNet) involves active surveillance for foodborne diseases and is designed to help public health officials better understand foodborne disease in the U.S. · PulseNet uses a national computer network to alert public health officers to possible outbreaks of foodborne disease using bacteria “fingerprinting” that can link cases/clusters occurring in multiple sites.

3. Foodborne disease investigations have three components: epidemiological, laboratory, and environmental. · Epidemiological investigations verify a diagnosis; identify the range of onset of symptoms; provide case definitions; and determine the association between exposure to a specific food and the occurrence of illness. · Laboratory investigation involves analysis of clinical samples, food samples (if leftovers are available) and environmental samples. · Environmental investigations focus on aspects in the environment of the food that may have led to contamination.

4. Should the environmental investigation determine that the contamination most likely did not occur at the point of food preparation, then a traceback investigation may be initiated. Traceback investigations are conducted to determine the source and distribution of products that were implicated in a foodborne disease outbreak and to identify potential points where contamination may have occurred. Produce offers a number of unique challenges to the traceback process.

5. If a traceback identifies the farm(s) as the source(s) of an outbreak, a farm or source investigation may be conducted to locate possible sources of contamination.

IV-15 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Module 3 International Food Laws and Regulations*

Learning Outcomes

Ø Participants will gain insight about the international agreements and regulations affecting trade in food.

Practical

Ø Discussion Question 3

Sanitary (human and animal health) and phytosanitary (plant health) standards are necessary to ensure that food is safe for consumers, to prevent the spread of pests and diseases among animals and plants and to ensure fair practices in trade. In recent years, world food trade has been profoundly altered by the adoption of agreements that provide a more precise framework for trade, and define the rights and the obligations of all partners. These agreements served to strengthen the status of institutions like the Codex Alimentarius Commission and the International Plant Protection Convention since these were used as a basis for harmonization.

The Uruguay Round Agreements

The Uruguay Round of Multilateral Trade Negotiations, which concluded in 1994, established the World Trade Organization (WTO) to replace the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). The Uruguay Round negotiations were the first to deal with the liberalization of trade in agricultural products, an area excluded from previous rounds of negotiations. They also included negotiations on reducing non-tariff barriers to international trade in agricultural products and concluded with two binding agreements: the Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS Agreement) and the Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT Agreement). Members of WTO will apply these agreements and the general terms are also applicable to countries that are not WTO members.

The Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures confirms the right of WTO member countries to apply measures necessary to protect the life and health of humans, animals and plants (FAO, 2000).

* Prepared by: Catherine Bessy, Consultant, Food Quality and Standards Service, FAO, Rome

IV-16 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Visual IV.3-1

Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS)

· States that measures (laws, regulations, and procedures) adopted by governments to protect animal, plant, or human health should not be maintained without sufficient scientific evidence. · Requires that WTO members base their national requirements on international standards, guidelines and other recommendations adopted by the FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Commission, the IPPC (International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) and International Office of Epizootics where they exist.

This agreement sets rules in an area previously excluded from GATT disciplines. The purpose of the SPS Agreement is to ensure that measures established by governments to protect human, animal and plant life and health (in the agricultural sector only) are consistent with requirements prohibiting arbitrary or unjustifiable discrimination in trade between countries where the same conditions prevail. It also attempts to establish that these measures are not disguised restrictions on international trade.

The SPS requires that, with regard to food safety measures, WTO members base their national requirements on international standards, guidelines and other recommendations adopted by the FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC), where they exist. This does not prevent a member country from adopting stricter measures, if there is scientific justification for doing so or if the level of protection afforded by the Codex standard is inconsistent with the level of protection generally applied and deemed appropriate by the country concerned.

The SPS Agreement covers all food hygiene and food safety measures including control of pesticides and other chemicals. In addition, it covers plant quarantine measures. The SPS Agreement recognizes the IPPC (International Plant Protection Convention) as the relevant international organization responsible for the establishment of international standards for phytosanitary measures and encourages countries to base their phytosanitary measures on IPPC standards, guidelines or recommendations to promote global harmonization of phytosanitary measures in trade. The SPS Agreement recognizes the International Office of Epizootics as the organization to set benchmarks for meeting SPS requirements related to animal health. The WTO Committee on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures guides this work.

The SPS Agreement states that any measures taken that conform to international Codex standards, guidelines or other recommendations are deemed to be appropriate, necessary and non-discriminatory. Furthermore, the SPS

IV-17 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Agreement calls for a program of harmonization of national requirements based on international standards.

Visual IV.3-2

Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT)

Seeks to ensure that technical regulations and analytical procedures for assessing conformity with technical regulations and standards do not create unnecessary obstacles to trade.

The Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade was established with the objective of preventing the use of national or regional technical requirements, or standards in general, as unjustified barriers to trade (FAO, 2000). The agreement covers standards relating to all types of products including industrial and agricultural products. Not covered are food standards related to sanitary and phytosanitary measures. It includes numerous measures designed to protect consumers against deception and economic fraud. Examples of food standards covered by the TBT Agreement are those related to quality and labeling.

The TBT Agreement basically provides that all technical standards and regulations must have a legitimate purpose and that the impact or cost of implementing a standard must be proportional to the purpose of the standard. It also says that if there are two or more ways of achieving the same objective, the least trade-restrictive alternative should be followed. The agreement also places emphasis on international standards and WTO members are obliged to use international standards or parts of them except where the international standard would be ineffective or inappropriate in the national situation. The TBT Agreement does not include a program for harmonizing national standards.

Codex Alimentarius

The adoption of the SPS and TBT Agreements resulted in new emphasis and importance being placed on the work of Codex in establishing international food quality and safety standards.

Visual I.3-3

Codex Alimentarius

A code of international food standards. The purpose of Codex is

· To guide and promote the elaboration of definitions and requirements for foods and assist in their harmonization · To facilitate world trade · To promote consumer protection

IV-18 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

The name Codex Alimentarius is taken from Latin and translates literally as “food code” or “food law”. The Codex Alimentarius is a series of food standards, codes and other regulations adopted by the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) that countries can use as models in their domestic food legislation and regulations, and which can be applied to international trade. Codex provides the assurance that any foods produced according to its codes of hygienic practices and complying with its standards are safe and nutritious and offer adequate health protection.

The CAC was created in 1962 by two United Nations organizations, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the World Health Organization (WHO). Its main purpose is to promote consumer protection and to facilitate world trade in foods through the development of food standards, codes of practice and other guidelines (FAO/WHO, 1999). Since it’s inception, the CAC has been responsible for implementing the Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Program (FAO, 2000).

The CAC is an intergovernmental body with a current membership of 165 Member governments. Membership is open to all Member Nations and Associate Members of FAO and WHO. In addition, observers from international scientific, food industry, food trade and consumer associations may attend sessions of the Commission and of its subsidiary bodies. While observer organizations can fully participate in the proceedings of the meeting, by statute, only Member governments can participate in any decision process.

Visual I.3-4

Codex Alimentarius Commission Alimentarius Codex

Executive Committee Executive Secretariat

Regional

Coordinating

Committees

(6)

General Subjects General Commodities hoc ad

Committee Committees Intergovernmental

(9) (12) Forces Task (3)

An Executive Committee, six Regional Coordinating Committees and a Secretariat assist the Commission in administering its work and other activities. The work of the CAC is divided between two basic types of committees. The first

IV-19 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers type deals with general subject matter(s) that cuts across all food classes or groups. The work of the second type of committee, the Codex Commodity Committees, is specific for foods within a class or group. In addition, three ad hoc Intergovernmental Codex Task Forces were established by the 23rd Session of the CAC to develop standards, guidelines and recommendations for foods derived from biotechnology, for animal feeding and for fruit juices.

There are nine general subject matter committees, each with different responsibilities. These Committees deal with matters such as hygiene, veterinary drugs, pesticides, food additives, labeling, methods of analysis, nutrition, and import/export inspection and certification systems. For example, one Committee is responsible for developing standards, recommendations and guidelines related to microbiological contamination (Codex Committee on Food Hygiene). This Committee also develops general hygienic (sanitation) practices and conditions for food manufacturing, processing, production, handling, storing and transporting. The subject matter committees interact with the Commodity Committees. For example, the Committee on Food Labeling proposes standards for labeling and for specific labeling requirements of commodities in co-operation with the specific commodity committees.

The second type of Committee is one that deals with a specific type of food class or group, such as dairy and dairy products, fats and oils, or fishes and fish products. There are 12 Commodity Committees. Each works on a specific food or class of food. Since its beginning, the CAC has adopted 204 different standards for food in all of the main groups of food traded at the international level. The Codex Committee on Fresh Fruits and Vegetables has elaborated a number of standards for fresh fruits and vegetables that primarily address quality issues. These are discussed further in Section V.

Codes of Practice provide guidance on acceptable manufacturing, food processing and handling practices during production, transport and storage. The CAC has elaborated 43 Codes. Some of these have a general application across food product classes or groups, while others are specific for certain commodities or foods. These Codes serve as a means of providing recommendations to producers and to government regulatory organizations on specific Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs) for the commodities they address. These Codes, when used appropriately, can serve to enhance compliance with Codex standards and international trading requirements.

The Codex Committee on Food Hygiene is currently developing a code of hygienic practice for fresh fruits and vegetables entitled “Draft Code of Hygienic Practice for Fresh Fruits and Vegetables” (ALINORM 03/13, Appendix II). This is available via the Internet at http://www.codexalimentarius.net/Reports.htm. The draft code is due for adoption as final text by the 25th Session of the CAC to be held in 2003. The draft code addresses GAPs and GMPs that will help control microbial, chemical, and physical hazards associated with all stages of the

IV-20 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers production of fresh fruits and vegetables from primary production to packaging. Particular attention is given to minimizing microbial hazards.

Related to contaminants, CAC has established guidelines for the maximum tolerable levels for 25 common industrial and environmental contaminants of foods. Food additive evaluations have resulted in establishing acceptable use levels (with no appreciable health risk over a lifetime) for 1300 additives used in food. The review of pesticides for approved use in agricultural pest control resulted in the evaluation of 197 pesticide chemicals, and establishing 2516 maximum residue levels for these pesticides in various foods.

All Codex standards are developed according to the same procedure. The CAC decides that a standard should be developed and determines which subsidiary body should undertake the work. Subsidiary bodies of the Commission also may make the decision to elaborate standards, subject to the approval of the Commission or the Executive Committee. The Secretariat of the Commission then arranges for the preparation of a “proposed draft standard” which is circulated to the Member countries for comments. The subsidiary body reviews and revises the “proposed draft standard” in light of the comments received, then may present the text to the Commission as a “draft standard.” If the Commission adopts the “draft standard,” it is again sent to Member governments for further comments. In the light of the comments received and after further consideration by the subsidiary body concerned, the Commission reconsiders the draft and may adopt it as a “Codex standard”.

Call for Harmonization

Visual IV.3-5

Harmonization

Establishing national measures consistent with international standards, guidelines and recommendations.

To facilitate international trade, it has been necessary for efforts to be made to harmonize food standards. Those involved in harmonization efforts recognized that countries have the right to adopt standards they feel are appropriate to protect human, animal and plant health and the environment. They also have the right to take the steps necessary to assure these standards are met. However, preventing these standards from becoming barriers to trade is important to promote trade between countries (FAO, 1998).

The TBT Agreement does not specifically name the international standard setting bodies whose standards are to be used as benchmarks for judging compliance

IV-21 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers with the provisions of the Agreement. However, the SPS Agreement specifically names the CAC as the only recognized international food standard setting body. The fact that the Codex Alimentarius is designated in the SPS Agreement indicates the value given to the Codex Standards in the negotiations of the Agreements and this spills over into the areas covered by the TBT Agreement.

National regulations that are consistent with Codex meet the requirements of SPS and TBT Agreements. When joining the WTO, countries agree to adhere to a number of agreements including the SPS and TBT Agreements. These two agreements set the standards necessary to assure the regulation of food quality and safety in international food trade. WTO Member governments agree to use Codex standards as their reference. As Codex standards have the full support of the SPS Agreement which advocates them as the basis for all national standards, they play a significant role in the harmonization of national food safety standards and may be used as a reference point for resolving trade disputes between WTO Members.

Summary

1. The Uruguay Round negotiations dealt with the liberalization of trade in agricultural products. They also included negotiations on reducing non-tariff barriers to international trade in agricultural products and concluded with two binding agreements: the Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS Agreement) and the Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT Agreement).

2. The Codex Alimentarius is a series of food standards, codes and other regulations adopted by the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) that countries can use as models in their domestic food legislation and regulations, and which can be applied to international trade. Codex provides the assurance that any foods produced according to its codes of hygienic practices and complying with its standards are safe and nutritious and offer adequate health protection.

3. The Codex Committee on Food Hygiene is currently developing a code of hygienic practice for fresh fruits and vegetables entitled “Draft Code of Hygienic Practice for Fresh Fruits and Vegetables (ALINORM 03/13, Appendix II)”. This draft code addresses GAPs and GMPs that will help control microbial, chemical, and physical hazards associated with all stages of the production of fresh fruits and vegetables from primary production to packaging.

4. To facilitate international trade, harmonization of food standards is necessary to prevent these standards from becoming barriers to trade between countries.

IV-22 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

References

CDC. 1999. PulseNet. The National Molecular Subtyping Network in Place to Combat Foodborne Illness. Press Release. Updated 2/18/99. Available via the Internet at http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dbmd/pulsenet/pulsenet.htm

FAO. 1998. Food Quality and Safety Systems. A Training Manual on Food Hygiene and the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) System. Food Quality and Standards Service, Food and Nutrition Division, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

FAO. 2000. Manual on Multilateral Trade Negotiations on Agriculture: A Resource Manual. SPS and TBT Agreements. FAO, Rome. 2000.

FAO/WHO. 1999. Understanding the Codex Alimentarius. Available via the Internet at http://www.fao.org/docrep/w9114e/w9114e00.htm

FDA. 1998a. Food Safety: A Team Approach. U.S. Food and Drug Administration FDA Backgrounder BG-98-7.

FDA. 1998b. Guide to traceback of fresh fruits and vegetables implicated in epidemiological investigations. Food and Drug Administration, Office of Regulatory Affairs. Available via the Internet at http://www.fda.gov /ora/inspect_ref/igs/epigde/epigde.html

FDA. 1999. Import Program System Information. Food and Drug Administration, Office of Regulatory Affairs. Available via the Internet at http://www.fda.gov/ora/import/ora_import_system.htm

FDA. 2001. National Food Safety System Project. Outbreak Coordination and Investigation Workgroup. Multistate Foodborne Outbreak Investigations. Guidelines for Improving Coordination and Communication. February, 2001. Available via the Internet at http://www.fda.gov/ora/fed_state/NFSS/Outbreak_coordination.pdf

FDA. 2001. Requirements of Laws and Regulations Enforced by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Available via the Internet at http://www.fda.gov/opacom/ morechoices/smallbusiness/ blubook.htm#baseinfo

Guzewich, J.J. and Salsbury, P.A. 2000. FDA’s role in traceback investigations for produce. Food Safety Magazine. December, 2000/January, 2001.

Majkowski, J. 1997. Strategies for rapid response to emerging foodborne microbial hazards. Emerg Infect Dis. 3(4): 551.

IV-23 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Rawson, J.M. and Vogt, D.U. 1998. Food Safety Agencies and Authorities: A Primer. Congressional Research Service Report 98-91 ENR. Available via the Internet at http://www.cnie.org/nle/ag-40.html

Reingold, A. L. 1998. Outbreak investigations – A perspective. Emerg Infect Dis. 4(1): 21.

IV-24 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

FOOD SAFETY AND QUALITY ASSURANCE ISSUES

V-1 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

SECTION V

FOOD SAFETY AND QUALITY ASSURANCE ISSUES

MODULE 1 * SAFETY AND QUALITY ASSURANCE

Learning Outcomes

Ø Participants will be able to describe the difference between quality and safety.

Ø Participants should be aware of programs used for food safety and quality assurance and the uses and limitations of such programs for the fresh produce industry.

Practical

Ø Experiment/Demonstration – Product Integrity and Produce Contamination

Additional Resources

Ø Part II. FDA Publications – FDA Publishes Final Rule to Increase Safety of Fruit and Vegetable Juices

Ø Part V. Fundamentals of HACCP

Safety vs. Quality

Visual V.1-1

FOOD SAFETY

Assurance that food will not cause harm to the consumer when it is prepared and/or eaten according to its intended use.

Food safety is defined as the assurance that the food will not cause harm to the consumer when it is prepared and/or eaten according to its intended use (FAO/WHO, 1997). Thus food safety assurance involves the reduction of risks

* Section prepared by Juan Silva, Ph.D. Mississippi State University, Carmen Hernandez-Brenes, Ph.D., ITESM-Campus Monterrey, Mexico and Pamela Brady, Ph.D., Institute of Food Science and Engineering, University of Arkansas.

V-2 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers which may occur in the food. Implementation of Good Agricultural Practices and Good Manufacturing Practices, as discussed in Sections II and III, are primary steps in reducing the risks associated with fresh fruits and vegetables.

Visual V-1.2

FOOD QUALITY

The totality of features and characteristics of a product that bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs.

Quality is defined by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) as “the totality of features and characteristics of a product that bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs.” In other words, good quality exists when the product complies with the requirements specified by the client (van Reeuwijk, 1998). This means quality is a term defined by the consumer, buyer, grader, or any other client based on a number of subjective and objective measurements of the food product. These may include measures of purity, flavor, color, maturity, safety, wholesomeness, nutrition, or any other attribute or characteristic of the product.

Using these definitions, safety is a component of quality. In fact, many experts have argued that safety is the most important component of quality since a lack of safety can result in serious injury and even death for the consumer of the product.

Safety differs from many other quality attributes since it is a quality attribute that is difficult to observe. A product can appear to be of high quality, i.e. well colored, appetizing, flavorful, etc. and yet be unsafe because it is contaminated with undetected pathogenic organisms, toxic chemicals, or physical hazards. On the other hand, a product that seems to lack many of the visible quality attributes can be safe.

Obvious quality defects can result in consumer rejection and lower sales, while safety hazards may be hidden and go undetected until the product is consumed. Since assuring safety is vital to public health, achieving safety must always take precedence over achieving high levels of other quality attributes.

Safety and Quality Assurance Programs

Visual V.I-3

V-3 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

A safety or quality assurance program should focus on the prevention of problems, not simply curing them.

Safety and quality assurance should be ongoing processes incorporating activities beginning with selecting and preparing the soil and proceeding through to consumption of the product. Both safety and quality assurance should focus on the prevention of problems, not simply curing them since, once safety or quality is reduced, it is virtually impossible to go back and improve it for that item. It is possible however, to assure that the same problem does not affect future products.

In order to assure adequate quality control of the product from seed to harvest to the consumer, a strong, semi-independent quality assurance (QA) program or department is needed. This program needs to be independent of production management. For companies large enough to have a separate QA department, it should report directly to the corporate president (Gould and Gould, 1993).

QA requires many diverse technical and analytical skills (IFT, 2001). QA personnel continually monitor inputs into production as well as the products to insure compliance with compositional standards, microbiological standards, and various government regulations. A QA manager can halt production, refuse acceptance of raw material, or stop the shipment of product if specifications for a product or process are not met.

Although safety is a component of quality, safety assurance frequently is not included in quality assurance programs. Sometimes safety and quality assurance may be separate but complementary programs to ensure safety issues receive appropriate emphasis. Although it is impossible with current technologies to eliminate all potential food safety hazards associated with fresh produce to be eaten raw, the importance of safety to consumer health makes it imperative that safety programs be a primary component of all produce production and handling operations.

Development of produce safety programs involves looking at each unit operation individually from cultivation and harvest through the retail market. There will be some steps at which contamination may occur and can be controlled. In many cases the controls will be simple, common sense practices that the industry has followed for years. In others, the existing infrastructure and common practices will need modification in order to reduce or prevent contamination.

Good Agricultural Practices, Good Manufacturing Practices, Sanitation Standard Operating Procedures, and HACCP-like activities are programs which may be used at various stages in the farm to table chain to improve the safety of fresh fruits and vegetables.

V-4 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Good Agricultural Practices and Good Manufacturing Practices

The production of safe food products requires that the safety assurance system be built upon a solid foundation. Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs) and Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs) are key to providing a sound safety assurance program (FDA, 1998).

GAPs and GMPs are guidelines established to ensure a clean and safe working environment for all employees while eliminating the potential for contamination of the food products. When applied to fresh produce production, GAPs and GMPs address the issues of production site selection, adjacent land use, fertilizer usage, water quality and usage, pest control and pesticide monitoring, harvesting practices (including worker hygiene), packaging, storage, field sanitation and product transportation. The International Commission on Microbiological Specifications for Foods stated in 1986 that “Good agricultural practices in growing crops, combined with acceptable hygienic methods during harvesting, packing, and transporting of vegetables are more important than microbiological testing” in minimizing risks for microbial contamination of fresh produce (Food Science Australia, 2000). GAP and GMP programs were discussed in detail in Sections II and III of this manual.

Standard Operating Procedures and Sanitation Standard Operating Procedures

Visual V.1-4

Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs)

Detailed descriptions of each step in the flow of the product and the way that these steps are performed.

A Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) is a set of written instructions that document a routine or repetitive activity used by an organization (U.S. EPA, 2001). SOPs detail the work processes that are to be conducted or followed. They document the way activities are to be performed to facilitate consistent conformance to safety and quality system requirements. SOPs are intended to be specific to the organization or facility whose activities are described. They assist that organization in maintaining their safety and quality control and in ensuring compliance with regulations.

Visual V.1-5

Sanitation Standard Operating Procedures (SSOPs)

The procedures that must be followed in order to make sure that cleaning and sanitation activities are performed correctly. V-5 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

A key component of a safety plan is to establish Sanitation Standard Operating Procedures (SSOPs). This involves the development of detailed descriptions of the cleaning procedures and sanitation operations that must be performed to prevent contamination or adulteration of the product (FSIS, 1996). SSOPs also describe the frequency with which each procedure is to be conducted and identify the employee(s) responsible for the implementation and maintenance of each procedure.

Visual V.1-6

An SSOP usually includes: · Activity name · Place where it is performed · List of the equipment and material necessary to perform it · Frequency of performance · Approximate time to perform it · Responsible Individual · Description of every step necessary to perform the procedure

The establishment of standardized procedures for each sanitation activity helps assure that the activities are being performed properly. In addition, order and discipline are imposed, training is facilitated and dependence on an individual’s criteria of proper sanitation is reduced.

The SSOPs for an operation should detail the sanitation procedures to be used before (pre-operational sanitation) and during (operational sanitation) operation (FSIS, 1996). Pre-operational sanitation will result in clean facilities, equipment, and utensils prior to starting the operation. Information which might be included in pre-operational SSOPs: · Descriptions of equipment disassembly, reassembly after cleaning, use of acceptable chemicals, and cleaning techniques · The application of sanitizers to product contact surfaces after cleaning

Routine sanitation operations that must be performed during the product handling operations make up the operational SSOPs. Established procedures for operational SSOPs will vary with the operations but might include: · Equipment and utensil cleaning, sanitizing and disinfecting during production, and as appropriate, at breaks, between shifts, and at mid-shift. · Employee hygiene · Product handling

V-6 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point

Visual V.1-7

Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP)

HACCP is a systematic approach to the identification, evaluation, and control of food safety hazards. Preventing problems from occurring is the paramount goal underlying any HACCP system.

A food safety assurance program often used by the food processing industry is the Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) system. HACCP is a systematic approach to the identification, evaluation, and control of food safety hazards. Preventing problems from occurring is the paramount goal underlying any HACCP-like system. These systems focus attention on the parts of the process that are most likely to affect the safety of the product.

Visual V.1-8

Use Of The HACCP System In Production Agriculture Is Limited

When fruits and vegetables are to be consumed fresh, there are no steps that can eliminate or reduce biological hazards to acceptable levels after contamination. Basically, controlling contamination through the application of Good Agricultural Practices and Good Manufacturing Practices are the only ways to reduce hazards.

HACCP has limited usefulness in fruit and vegetable production since, with present technologies, verifiable control of hazards may not be feasible. In addition, when fruits and vegetables are to be consumed fresh, there are no steps that can eliminate or reduce biological hazards to acceptable levels after contamination. For this reason, HACCP is not mandated for fresh produce production and handling activities.

Although HACCP has limited usefulness in the production of fresh fruits and vegetables, it is a useful process for reducing hazards when produce is processed. For this reason, HACCP has been mandated in the U.S. for fruit and vegetable juice processors (FDA, 2001). Under the regulation, juice processors must incorporate HACCP principles into their safety assurance program when processing juice. (Further information about this requirement is included in the FDA Publications listed in the Additional Resources section.)

V-7 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Visual V.1-9

Hazard Analysis

The process of collecting and evaluating information on hazards associated with the food under consideration to decide which are significant and must be addressed in the safety assurance program.

Although a formal HACCP program is not appropriate for fresh fruit and vegetable production and handling operations, there are steps in the production chain where hazards can be minimized. So, the use of “hazard analysis” as a series of logic steps to identify and solve potential problems is one approach to fruit and vegetable safety programs. The identification of hazards in a process is a valuable tool to recognize any control measures that can be implemented. In many instances, these measures are already in place or are common sense practices. However making a conscious effort to strengthen preventative actions can minimize or prevent the hazard’s occurrence. HACCP and its applicability to the produce industry are discussed in detail in Part V of the Additional Resources section of this manual.

Programs such as GAPs, GMPs, SSOPs and HACCP-like approaches provide the basic environmental and operating conditions that are necessary for the production of safe, wholesome fruits and vegetables. Many of the conditions and practices are specified in federal, state and local regulations and guidelines. The Codex Alimentarius Food Hygiene Basic Texts (FAO/WHO, 1997) describe the basic conditions and practices expected for foods intended for international trade.

Summary

1. Food safety is defined as the assurance that the food will not cause harm to the consumer when it is prepared and/or eaten according to its intended use. Implementation of Good Agricultural Practices and Good Manufacturing Practices are primary steps in reducing the risks associated with fresh fruits and vegetables.

2. Quality is the totality of features and characteristics of a product that bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs. It is a term defined by the consumer, buyer, grader, or any other client based on subjective and objective measurements of the food product.

3. Safety is a component of quality. Many experts believe that safety is the most important quality component since a lack of safety can result in serious injury and even death for the consumer of the product.

V-8 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

4. Safety and quality assurance should be on-going processes incorporating activities beginning with selecting and preparing the soil and proceeding through to consumption of the product. Both safety and quality assurance should focus on the prevention of problems, not simply curing them.

5. Although safety is a component of quality, safety assurance frequently is not included in quality assurance programs. Sometimes safety and quality assurance may be separate but complementary programs to ensure safety issues receive appropriate emphasis. The importance of safety to consumer health makes it imperative that safety programs be a primary component of all produce production and handling operations.

6. Programs such as GAPs, GMPs, SSOPs and HACCP-like approaches provide the basic environmental and operating conditions that are necessary for the production of safe, wholesome fruits and vegetables.

V-9 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Module 2 Quality Attributes, Grades and Standards

Learning Outcomes

Ø Participants should understand the types of quality attributes associated with fresh produce and measurement methods for these.

Ø Participants should understand the purpose of food standards, grading and inspection.

Practical

Experiment/Demonstration – Fresh Produce Quality Discussion Question 4

QUALITY ATTRIBUTES

There are a number of ways of studying the quality attributes of food products. One way is to look at the occurrence of the characteristics as the product is encountered and consumed. Using this system, quality attributes are often classified as external, internal, or hidden.

Visual V.2-1

QUALITY ATTRIBUTES

External Internal Hidden

Appearance (sight) Odor Wholesomeness Feel (touch) Taste Nutritive Value Defects Texture Safety

External quality attributes are those that are observed when the product is first encountered. These attributes are generally related to appearance and feel. They are perceived by the senses of sight and touch. The smell of a product, particularly for very aromatic fruits and vegetables, may be an external attribute but usually is more closely related to internal attributes. External attributes are often play an important role in a consumer’s decision to purchase produce.

Internal quality characteristics are generally not perceived until the product is cut or bitten. Acceptable levels of these attributes often affect the consumer’s decision to repurchase a product. These internal attributes are related to aroma, taste, and feel (for example, mouthfeel and toughness), and they are perceived

V-10 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers by the senses of smell, taste, and touch. The combination of external and internal attributes determine the acceptability of a product (Pattee, 1985).

The third set of quality attributes, “hidden attributes”, are more difficult for most consumers to measure or differentiate but the perception of these contribute to the consumer’s decision to accept and to differentiate food products (Kramer and Twigg, 1970; Pattee, 1985; Shewfelt, 1987). Hidden quality attributes include wholesomeness, nutritional value, and safety of a product (Shewfelt, 1990).

Measurement of Quality Attributes

The list below provides a brief discussion of the predominant quality attributes and how they are measured. Understanding this can provide growers, shippers, and other produce industry personnel with a means of determining how well a product meets consumer expectations of quality. It should be remembered that consumers will evaluate quality mainly with their senses so objective methods used for quality evaluations must relate to these sensory assessments.

External Attributes Ø Appearance includes factors such as size, shape, gloss, color, and absence of defects. · Size and shape are measurements often used as grade standards or to differentiate between items. The assessment of size and shape is often a subjective process although, for many products, visual guides have been developed. · Color is a primary indicator of maturity and is the result of the type and quantity of pigments in the product. Changes in color are often related to “freshness” or deterioration of the product. Color can be measured by many visual or mechanical methods (i.e. colorimeters and spectrophotometers). Ø Firmness, or how the product feels when touched, is related to softening of the product. Firmness results from the cell wall structure and internal pressure (turgor) within the cells. Loss of firmness may result from bruising, ripening, or other breakdown mechanisms. · Firmness is usually measured by mechanical means (i.e. texture analyses). Ø Defects may be due to production, handling, environment, diseases, and other factors. · Defects are usually measured visually, though some mechanical methods are being developed (i.e. ultrasound and machine vision).

Internal Attributes Ø Odor or aroma is the sum of the compounds perceived by the nose. It is very difficult to determine objectively since it is a combination of qualitative (predominant) and quantitative traits in a food product. Fruits and vegetables are rich in aromatic compounds, many of which are yet to be identified.

V-11 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

· Limited measurements of odor can be done with gas chromatographs/mass spectrometers or similar mechanisms. Ø Taste is the perception of chemical compounds on the tongue and other nerve endings of the mouth. The basic tastes are sweet, sour, bitter, and astringent. · Sweetness is directly related to sugars in the food and to the sugar to acid ratio. Sourness is the result of the organic acids present. Compounds such as those in citrus fruits or coffee usually impart bitterness, whereas astringency is often the result of tannins such as the phenolic compounds found in grapes. There are numerous methods of quantifying taste compounds including spectrophotometric and gravimetric methods, liquid and gas chromatography. Ø Texture is “the composite of those properties which arise from the structural elements of a product, and the manner in which this composite registers with the physiological senses” (Szczesniak, 1977). Most textural characteristics, except firmness, are evaluated as mouthfeel, i.e. the impression on the tongue, palate and teeth. · In produce, common textural characteristics include tenderness, crispness, crunchiness, chewiness, and fibrousness. Texture is generally determined by measuring force applied to the food.

Hidden Attributes Ø Wholesomeness is usually thought to be related to “freshness.” Defects in wholesomeness may be brought about by the food itself or external factors such as environment (temperature, humidity, etc.) or handling (bruising, cutting). · Wholesomeness is a relatively difficult attribute to measure objectively, but it is often taken into account in the grading and pricing of the product. This attribute also involves a “sanitary” component (how clean/hygienic is the product) and the presence of foreign materials. Microscopic, microbiological, and x-ray technologies are among the many techniques used to measure these attributes. Ø Nutritive value is related to the presence and levels of components that support life. · Fruits and vegetables are valued as sources of essential vitamins and minerals, as well as fiber. In recent years, they have also been recognized as sources of antioxidants and other phytochemicals that are being studied for their role in preventing or controlling certain human diseases. The quality and quantity of these nutritional components is very important, and is essential to consumer well-being. Wet chemistry, various chromatographic methods, and other chemical and physical tests measure nutritional value. Ø Safety is defined as the assurance that a food will not cause harm to the consumer when it is prepared and/or eaten according to its intended use (FAO/WHO, 1997).

V-12 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

· Microbiological examination is the main method used to identify and quantify the type and numbers of pathogenic microorganisms. · Production and handling practices may be evaluated to assure steps were taken to minimize the risk of microbial contamination.

Food Standards

Food standards give precise criteria to ensure that products are fit for their stated purposes. They provide common frames of reference for defining the product. This makes standards useful to consumers, the industry and regulatory authorities (Boutrif and Bessy, 1999). Included in standards may be specifications for labeling, packaging, methods of analysis and sampling.

Visual V.2-2

Food standards are used to: · Provide consumers with information about the product · Maintain product quality uniformity · Establish market value · Prevent economic fraud

Standards are used to provide consumers with information about the product, to maintain product quality uniformity, to establish market value, and to prevent economic fraud. Without standards, different foods could have the same names or the same foods could have different names (FDA, 2000).

In order to be successful, a produce company must sell their product. Continued sales result from satisfaction during initial experiences with the product. It is therefore in the best interest of a company to establish internal standards and/or respond to client standards for products to assure client satisfaction.

Visual V.2-3

Areas in which produce industry standards may be established include: · Safety · Nutrition · Quality · Value

Areas in which produce industry standards may be established include (Gardner, 1993):

· Safety – standards for toxicological and microbiological hazards, and procedures and practices to ensure that these standards are achieved

V-13 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

· Nutrition – maintaining nutrient levels through practices that promote high quality product · Quality – providing product with desirable levels of flavor, aroma, palatability, and appearance · Value - attributes such as convenience, packaging, and shelf-life.

There are various bodies that set food standards. For products sold internationally, these include the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC), the International Standards Organization, ISO (ASQ, 2000), and various markets, such as the European Union. Many individual countries like Australia and the U.S. have been leaders in setting product standards. For Latin American and Caribbean markets, standards have been established by organizations such as Mercosur, Caricom, and the Andean Pact (Silva, 2000). Many of these standards can be accessed via the Internet (IAFIS, 1999).

INTERNATIONAL (CODEX) STANDARDS

The Codex Committee on Fresh Fruits and Vegetables is responsible for elaborating worldwide standards and codes of practice for fresh produce. A code of practice for the “Quality Inspection and Certification of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables” has been adopted by the Codex Alimentarius Commission (Rees and Watson, 2000). This code of practice contains provisions for packing, shipment, control, and inspection of fresh fruits and vegetables (CX/FFV 00/12, Codex, 2000). Inspection and certification are conducted at the point of origin or the point of destination by a national official or an officially recognized service person. Codex standards are a combination of grading for quality and inspection for wholesomeness, safety and freedom from economic fraud.

The objective of the Codex standards is to protect consumers' health and ensure fair practices in the trade of food (Lindenmayer, 1999). The Codex Committee on Food Import and Export Inspection recommends that, in consideration of standards, public health protection issues be given the highest priority.

Systems for creating standards for imported foods are established by individual countries. The imported food control system should ensure that imported products are treated neither in a more nor less favorable manner than domestic products. International norms for food import controls have been put forward by FAO in Principles for Food Import and Export Inspection and Certification. CAC/GL-20, 1995. These principles are designed to assist in assuring safety, wholesomeness and quality of product in international trade without resulting in unnecessary barriers to trade.

The Codex standards, guidelines and recommendations are recognized in the World Trade Organization (WTO) Agreements, however, there is no legal obligation on WTO Members to adopt them into domestic law (Lindenmayer, 1999). The Agreements do, however, impose a legal obligation on WTO

V-14 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers members to explain and justify a domestic measure that is more trade restrictive than the relevant Codex standard, guideline or recommendation. Consequently, members must take these international norms into account when developing domestic food law.

Fruit and Vegetable Grading and Inspection

Visual V.2-4

Grading Vs. Inspection · Grading refers to a voluntary program of classification of a product based on certain characteristics, usually related to aesthetics. Grades usually do not pertain to safety. · Inspection is usually a mandatory process done by government or other agencies to insure a product’s wholesomeness, safety, and adherence to regulations.

Grading is usually a voluntary program used by industry. Grade standards describe the quality requirements for each grade of product, giving industry a common language for buying and selling (USDA, 2000). This assures consistent quality for consumers. Although not limited to the following, the U.S. grade standards provide: · a voluntary means for determining levels of quality and value as a basis for: sales quotations, buyers’ offers, damage claims, loan values, futures trading, military and other government purchases, and market news reporting. · a common language for trading where the commodity cannot be readily displayed or examined by the prospective buyers. · a guide for packing which enables packers and processors to: purchase suitable quality, use raw materials effectively, and pack products for diverse domestic and international markets. · a means of marking official USDA quality levels on product labels.

In the U.S., the USDA Agricultural Marketing Service (USDA-AMS) provides grading services for fresh fruits, vegetables, and nuts. Users pay a fee to cover the cost of the service. Grading is voluntary except for commodities that are regulated for quality by a marketing order or marketing agreement, or that are subject to import or export requirements. Grading may be conducted at the shipping point as produce is being packed for shipment to market, or at the destination, for the receiver's use in handling the lot or to settle questions that may arise between the shipper and the receiver.

As the basis for its fresh product grading services, USDA has developed over 150 official grade standards for fresh fruits, vegetables, tree nuts, peanuts, and related commodities (Copies of the U.S. grade standards can be viewed or printed from the Internet at http://www.ams.usda.gov/standards). USDA also has

V-15 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers developed a number of specific guidelines to ensure that the grades are applied uniformly. If a request for official grading is based on U.S. grade standards, the official certificate covering the shipment will show which USDA grade the product met.

This service is different from the one conducted by the USDA Agricultural Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS). The APHIS program inspects fruits and vegetables for the presence of unwanted pests. Thus, inspection is a mandatory program by a government branch, to insure wholesomeness and safety and to prevent economic fraud in the food industry.

Summary

1. Quality attributes are often classified as external, internal, or hidden. External quality attributes are those that are observed when the product is first encountered. These attributes are generally related to appearance and feel. Internal quality characteristics are generally not perceived until the product is cut or bitten. Internal attributes include aroma, taste, and feel (for example, mouthfeel and toughness). Hidden quality attributes include wholesomeness, nutritional value, and safety of the product.

2. Food standards give precise criteria to ensure that products are fit for their stated purposes. Standards are used to provide consumers with information about the product, to maintain product quality uniformity, to establish market value, and to prevent economic fraud. There are various bodies that set food standards. For products sold internationally, these include the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC), the International Standards Organization, ISO (ASQ, 2000), individual countries, and various markets, such as the European Union. For Latin American and Caribbean markets, standards have been established by organizations such as Mercosur, Caricom, and the Andean Pact.

3. Grading is usually a voluntary program used by industry. Grade standards describe the quality requirements for each grade of product, giving industry a common language for buying and selling. In the U.S., the USDA Agricultural Marketing Service (USDA-AMS) provides grading services for fresh fruits, vegetables, and nuts. Users pay a fee to cover the cost of the service. Grading is voluntary except for commodities that are regulated for quality by a marketing order or marketing agreement, or that are subject to import or export requirements.

4. Inspection is usually a mandatory process done by government or other agencies to insure a product’s wholesomeness, safety, and adherence to regulations.

V-16 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Module 3 Quality Attributes and Spoilage

Learning Outcomes

Ø Participants should become aware of the causes of spoilage and deterioration of fresh produce and their effect on food safety.

Practical

Ø Discussion Question 4

Mechanisms of Produce Deterioration and Spoilage

Visual V.3-1

Fruit, vegetables and root crops are very perishable and, if care is not taken in their harvesting, handling and transport, they will soon decay and become unfit for human consumption.

Fruit, vegetables and root crops are very perishable and, if care is not taken in their harvesting, handling and transport, they will soon decay and become unfit for human consumption. Estimates of production losses in developing countries are hard to judge, but some authorities put losses of sweet potatoes, plantain, tomatoes, bananas and citrus fruit as high as 50 percent, or half of what is grown (FAO, 1989). This figure is even higher for underdeveloped countries. Reduction in these losses, particularly if they can be avoided economically, would be of great significance to growers and consumers alike.

All fruits, vegetables and root crops are living plant parts containing 65 to 95 percent water and they continue their life processes after harvest (FAO, 1989). The post-harvest life of produce depends on the rate at which stored food reserves are used up and the rate of water loss.

The changes that occur not only lead to reduced quality but can also make the product more susceptible to contamination with microorganisms. Although the microorganisms involved in produce deterioration may be of public health significance, their effects on human health are often limited since the physiological deterioration of the product often makes the product unfit for consumption. However, the potential for the growth of harmful microorganisms along with the loss of product quality make it important to not only understand the factors involved in product deterioration, but also the steps needed to maintain the best possible quality for the life of the product.

V-17 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

The nature of the product itself, along with the handling and storage treatments it receives, dictates the life of the product. The table below identifies some of the principle causes of post harvest losses and poor quality for the various groups of fruits and vegetables.

Table V-2. Principle Causes of Post-harvest Losses and Poor Quality for Various Groups of Fruits and Vegetables (Kitinoja and Kader, 1995)

Product Group Principle Causes Of Postharvest Losses And Poor Quality Root Vegetable · Mechanical injuries (carrots, beets, onions, garlic, potato, · Improper curing sweet potato) · Sprouting · Water Loss · Decay · Chilling injury Leafy Vegetables · Water loss (lettuce, chard, spinach, cabbage, green · Loss of green color onions) · Mechanical injuries · Relatively high respiration rates · Decay Flower Vegetables · Mechanical injuries (artichokes, cauliflower, broccoli) · Discoloration · Water loss · Abscission of florets Immature Fruit Vegetables · Decay (cucumbers, squash, eggplant, peppers, · Overmaturity at harvest okra, snap beans) · Water loss · Bruising and other mechanical injuries · Chilling injury Mature Fruit Produce · Decay (tomatoes, melons, bananas, mangoes, · Bruising apples, grapes, stone fruit) · Over-ripeness at harvest · Water loss · Chilling injury · Compositional changes

Deterioration, or undesirable quality changes, may be the result of biological, microbiological, biochemical/physiological, or physical changes in the product. Factors identified as causes of deterioration usually encourage the conditions that lead to quality losses. These factors are usually the result of inadequate training of product handlers, inadequate or non-existent storage structures, unsuitable or inadequate technologies for handling and storing product, ineffective quality control, and adverse/extreme environmental conditions (Satin,

V-18 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

2000). In addition, time is an important factor in the spoilage of produce (Potter and Hotchkiss, 1995).

Table V-3. Causes of Deterioration/Spoilage Factors in Fruits and Vegetables Deterioration Factor Cause Biological · Pests (insects, rodents, birds) Inadequate GMPs · Microbiological Inadequate controls · Physiological Respiration Heat Ethylene production Environment (temp, gas atm.) Growth, development Time, environment Maturation, ripening, senescence Time, environment Transpiration and water loss Packaging, RH, air velocity Disorders, injury Chilling, heat, freezing, gas comp.

Chemical/Biochemical · Enzymic Environment, handling/bruising · Oxidation Oxygen · Non-enzymic changes Packaging, composition, heat · Light oxidation Packaging

Physical · Bruising, crushing Handling, packaging · Wilting Relative humidity, packaging · Texture changes Environment, packaging · Moisture change Relative humidity, packaging, environment

Time

Biological Causes of Deterioration

Visual V.3-2

Pests such as insects, rodents and birds, are often identified as causes of biological deterioration of produce.

Pests such as insects, rodents and birds, are often identified as causes of biological deterioration of produce. The presence of pests and/or their droppings is cause for alarm. They can result in product that is unsightly and can produce a significant food safety hazard. Pests can spread disease-causing organisms to produce. They also cause damage to the surfaces of fruits and vegetables

V-19 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers leading to greater susceptibility to invasion by microorganisms that can cause product spoilage and/or disease to consumers. Proper sanitation in all produce handling and storage areas is the most effective weapon against these pests.

Visual V.3-3

Spoilage microorganisms including bacteria, fungi, and viruses are major causes of food deterioration.

Spoilage microorganisms including bacteria, fungi, and viruses are major causes of food deterioration. These organisms may cause softening, off-color, and off- flavor in produce. Some microorganisms, called pathogens, will result in illness of those consuming the product if present in sufficient quantity in the foods. In general, fruits and vegetables offer considerable resistance to microbial activity. However, the softening that usually accompanies aging of products and mechanical injuries increase the susceptibility of produce to microorganisms.

Visual V.3-4

Respiration is the process by which plants take in oxygen and give out carbon dioxide.

Respiration is the process by which plants take in oxygen and give out carbon dioxide (FAO, 1989). Oxygen from the air is involved in the process of breaking down carbohydrates in the plant into carbon dioxide and water. This reaction produces energy in the form of heat. Respiration is a basic reaction of all plant material, both in the field and after harvest. Product respiration is important to fresh produce handling since the energy released as heat affects refrigeration and ventilation requirements for the products.

The rate of deterioration of fruits and vegetables is usually proportional to their rate of respiration. Lowering temperatures, minimizing bruising and damage, and increasing CO2 in the gas atmosphere are steps to control respiration.

V-20 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Table V-4. Classification of horticultural commodities according to their respiration rates (Wilson et al., 1995).

Class Range at 5oC Commodities (mg CO2/Kg-hr) Very low <5 Nuts, dates, dried fruits and vegetables Low 5 –10 Apple, citrus, grape, kiwifruit, garlic, onion, potato (mature), sweet potato Moderate 10-20 Apricot, banana, cherry,

High 20-40 Strawberry, blackberry, raspberry, cauliflower, lima bean, avocado Very high 40-60 Artichoke, snap bean, green onion, brussel sprouts, cut flowers Extremely high >60 Asparagus, broccoli, mushroom, pea, spinach, sweet corn

Ethylene (C2H4) regulates many aspects of plant growth and development, including aging and ripening. This hormone, produced by plant tissue, is physiologically active in trace amounts (<0.1 ppm), and its rate of activity is increased by ripening, injury, disease, high temperatures (>30oC), and water stress. Ethylene production is slowed/inhibited by storing produce at low temperatures, reducing oxygen in the environment surrounding the product to less than 8% and increasing CO2 to greater than 2%. A number of technologies, such as ethylene absorbers, have been developed to help lower the ethylene around produce.

Visual V.3-5

Based on ethylene production and respiration rates, the ripening behavior of fruits and vegetables is designated as non-climacteric or climacteric

Based on ethylene production and respiration rates, the ripening behavior of fruits and vegetables is designated as non-climacteric or climacteric (FAO, 1989): · Non-climacteric ripening refers to products that ripen only while still attached to the parent plant. The eating quality of such products suffers if they are harvested before they are fully ripe because their sugar and acid content does not increase after harvest. Respiration rate slows gradually during

V-21 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

growth and after harvest. Maturation and ripening are gradual processes. Examples are cherry, grape, lemon, and pineapple. · Climacteric products that can be harvested when mature but before ripening has begun. These fruits may be ripened naturally or artificially after harvest. The start of ripening is accompanied by a rapid rise in both respiration rate and ethylene production, called the respiratory climacteric. After the climacteric, the respiration slows down as the fruit ripens and develops good eating quality. Examples are apple, banana, papaya, and tomato.

In addition to respiration rate and ethylene production, other factors related to growth, development, maturation and ripening/senescence contribute to a product’s deterioration. Sprouting (rooting) of roots, bulbs and tubers, and elongation and curvature may lead to problems in quality during plant development. Increased lignin content (fibrousness) and browning reactions during the maturation process may lead to reduced produce quality.

Plant material is constantly losing water through a process called transpiration. In the living plant, this water is replaced by water taken up through the roots. When produce is harvested, it loses its source of replacement water. Transpiration after harvest can lead to shrinking, wilting, shriveling, softening, and loss of crispiness, juiciness, and nutritional quality of produce. Adequate coating (waxes) or packaging and controlling the environment around the product through maintenance of high relative humidity, and control of circulation rate (air velocity) may control transpiration.

Visual V.3-6

Freezing injury, chilling injury, heat injury, and CO2 injury may cause physiological damage that can contribute to produce deterioration.

Physiological damage may result from pre-harvest environmental conditions or inadequate post-harvest storage and handling. Freezing injury (when the product is held below the freezing point), chilling injury (occurring in many tropical and sub-tropical crops held below 5-15oC), heat injury (exposure to very high temperatures), and CO2 injury (high CO2 concentrations in the surrounding atmosphere) may cause physiological damage that can contribute to produce deterioration. Some of the resulting symptoms are surface and internal discoloration (browning by phenoloxidases), pitting/hardcore, water soaked areas, failure to ripen/uneven ripening, off-flavor, accelerated decay, bleaching, surface burning, and desiccation. These and other disorders due to physiological damage can be prevented by proper harvest and post-harvest handling of the products.

V-22 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Chemical Factors of Deterioration

Enzymes are proteins that occur naturally in plant tissues and catalyze a number of important biochemical reactions. Some enzyme-catalyzed reactions are beneficial while others result in quality deterioration. Enzyme-catalyzed reactions can result in softening of tissue due to the breakdown of structural material; development of off-flavors through the breakdown of lipid components; and loss of color and undesirable browning. Enzymes also may catalyze fermentation of sugars, breakdown of ascorbic acid, and many other deterioration reactions. Bruising, ripening, cutting, temperature, and presence of co-factors (e.g. Fe and Mg) increase the rate of degradative enzyme activity.

Degradative oxidation is initiated by the presence of oxygen. Oxidation can result in ascorbic acid breakdown, some pigment (color) loss and the formation of off- flavors. Non-enzymatic browning and light-induced oxidation are not very common deterioration factors in horticultural products.

Physical Causes of Deterioration

The high moisture content and soft texture of fruits and vegetables make them susceptible to mechanical injury, which can occur at any stage from production to retail marketing (FAO, 1989). This damage may occur because of: · poor harvesting practices · unsuitable field or marketing containers and crates, which may have splintered wood, sharp edges, poor nailing or stapling · overpacking or underpacking of field or marketing containers · careless handling, such as dropping or throwing or walking on produce and packed containers during the process of grading, transport or marketing.

Physical injuries are not only unsightly but also accelerate water loss, provide sites for fungal and microbial infection, and stimulate the product’s production of carbon dioxide and ethylene leading to more rapid decay. Cushioning, good handling practices, and proper packaging are some of the ways to minimize physical damage.

Time is a factor that plays a very important role in product decay. All products eventually lose their minimum acceptable quality (MAQ), thus, age becomes a very important factor in product deterioration and rapid transport to the consumer is essential.

Summary

1. All fruits, vegetables and root crops are living plant parts containing 65 to 95 percent water. They continue their life processes after harvest. The changes that occur not only lead to reduced quality but can also make the product more susceptible to contamination with microorganisms. The nature of the

V-23 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

product itself, along with the handling and storage treatments it receives, dictates the life of the product.

2. Deterioration, undesirable quality changes, may be the result of biological, microbiological, biochemical/physiological, or physical changes in the product

3. Pests such as insects, rodents and birds, are often identified as causes of biological deterioration of produce. They can result in product that is unsightly and can produce a significant food safety hazard. Pests can spread disease- causing organisms to produce. They also cause damage to the surfaces of fruits and vegetables leading to greater susceptibility to invasion by microorganisms that can cause product spoilage and/or disease to consumers. Proper sanitation in all produce handling and storage areas is the most effective weapon against these pests.

4. Spoilage microorganisms including bacteria, fungi, and viruses are major causes of food deterioration. These organisms may cause softening, off-color, and off-flavor in produce. Some microorganisms, called pathogens, will result in illness of those consuming the product if present in sufficient quantity in the foods. In general, fruits and vegetables offer considerable resistance to microbial activity. However, the softening that usually accompanies aging of products and mechanical injuries increases the susceptibility of produce to pathogens.

5. Respiration rate, ethylene production, transpiration, and other factors related to growth, development, maturation and ripening/senescence contribute to produce deterioration.

6. Injury due to freezing, chilling, heat, and CO2 buildup may cause physiological damage that can contribute to produce deterioration. These and other disorders due to physiological damage can be prevented by proper harvest and post-harvest handling of the products.

V-24 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

References

ASQ. 2000. ISO 9000 Standards for quality. Amer. Soc. Qual. Available via the Internet at http://www.iso-9000-2000.com

Boutrif, E. and Bessy, C. 1999. Basic approaches to consumer protection – FAO/WHO Model Food Act – Control procedures. Presented at Conference on International Food Trade – Beyond 2000: Science-based Decisions, Harmonization, Equivalence, and Mutual Recognition, Melbourne, Austrailia October 11-15.

Codex. 2000. Codex committee on fresh fruits and vegetables. Available via the Internet at http://www.codexalimentarius.net

FAO. 1989. Prevention of post-harvest food losses: Fruits, vegetables, and root crops a training manual. FAO Training Series No. 17/2, Rome, Italy. Available via the Internet at http://www.fao.org/inpho/vlibrary/ t0073e/T0073E00.htm

FAO/WHO. 1997. Codex Alimentarius Food Hygiene Basic Texts. Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme, Codex Alimentarius Commission. Pub. # M-83.

FDA. 2000. Food standards. Available via the Internet at www.fda.gov/opacom/morechoices/smallbusiness/blubook/ foodstds.htm

FDA. 2001. FDA publishes final rule to increase safety of fruit and vegetable juices. Food and Drug Administration News Release, U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Available via the Internet at http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/NEWS/2001/NEW00749.html

Food Science Australia. 2000. Packaged minimally-processed fresh-cut vegetables. In Food Safety and Hygiene- A Bulletin for the Australian Food Industry, Food Science Australia. May. Available via the Internet at http://www.dfst.csiro.au/fshbull/fshbull21.htm

FSIS. 1996. FSIS Pre-HACCP Standard Sanitation Operating Procedures Reference Guide. Food Safety and Inspection Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture.

Gardner, S. 1993. Consumers and food safety: A food industry perspective. In Food, Nutrition, and Agriculture – Consumer participation in food control.

V-25 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

J.L. Albert, ed. FAO, Rome. Available via the Internet at http://www.fao.org/docrep/v2890t/v2890t00.htm

Gould, W.A. and Gould, R.W. 1993. Total Quality Assurance for the Food Industries. 2nd ed. CTI Publications, Baltimore, MD, USA.

IAFIS. 1999. Food standards library. Available via the Internet at www.iafis.org/fiic/stan/stan1.htm

IFT. 2001. Introduction to the Food Industry – Lesson 1. Food Quality and Safety Assurance. Edited by Claus, L., Montecalvo, J., and Pappas, A. Available via the Internet at http://www.ift.org/education/food_industry/ lesson1.shtml

Kitinoja, L. and Kader, A.A. 1995. Small-scale postharvest handling practices – A manual for horticultural crops. 3rd Edition. University of California, Davis. Available via the Internet at http://www.fao.org/wairdocs/x5403e/ x5403e00.htm

Kramer, A., and Twigg, B.A. 1970. Quality Control for the Food Industry. 3rd ed. AVI, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., New York.

Lindenmayer, I. 1999. Harmonization of food regulations and food quality/safety measures based on Codex standards, guidelines, and recommendations. Presented at Conference on International Food Trade – Beyond 2000: Science-based Decisions, Harmonization, Equivalence, and Mutual Recognition, Melbourne, Austrailia October 11-15.

Pattee, H. E. 1985. Evaluation of Quality of Fruits and Vegetables. AVI, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., New York.

Potter, N. N., and Hotchkiss, J.H. 1995. Food Science. 5th ed. Chapman & Hall, New York.

Rees, N. and Watson, D. 2000. International Standards for Food Safety. Aspen Publishers, Gaithersburg, MD.

Satin, M. 2000. Trends in post-production technology. FAO, Rome, Italy. Available via the Internet at http://www.fao.org/inpho/vlibrary/grey_lit/ g0002e/g0002e.htm

Shewfelt, R.L. 1987. Quality of minimally processed fruits and vegetables. J. Food Qual. 10:143.

Shewfelt, R.L. 1990. Quality of fruits and vegetables. Food Technol. 44(6):99- 100.

V-26 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Silva, J.L. 2000. Food laws and regulations in Latin America and the Caribbean. Presented at IFT Annual Meeting, Dallas, TX. June 10-14.

Szczesniak, A.S. 1977. An overview of recent advances in food texture research. Food Technol. 31(4): 71-75.

USDA. 2000. Fruit and vegetable programs. Available via the Internet at www.ams.usda.gov/fv/fvstand.htm

U.S. EPA. 2001. Guidance for Preparing Standard Operating Procedures. Office of Environmental Information, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. EPA/240/B-01/004. Available via the internet at http://www.epa.gov/quality1/qs-docs/g6-final.pdf van Reeuwijk, L.P. 1998. Guidelines for quality management in soil and plant laboratories. FAO, Rome. Publication #M-90. Available via the Internet at http://www.fao.org/docrep/w7295e/w7295e00.htm

Wilson, L.G., Boyette, M.D., and Estes, E.A. 1995. Postharvest handling and cooling of fresh fruits, vegetables, and flowers for small farms. Part I: Quality maintenance. Horticultural Information Leaflet #800, North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service. Available via the Internet at http://ces.ncsu.edu/depts/hort/hil/hil-800.html

V-27 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

DEVELOPING AN EFFECTIVE TRAINING COURSE

VI-1 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

SECTION VI

DEVELOPING AN EFFECTIVE TRAINING COURSE

Introduction*

This section is aimed at assisting trainers in implementing the steps for planning, organizing and evaluating a training course. It complements the other sections on good agricultural practices for improving the safety and quality of fresh fruit and vegetables by providing information that can be useful in the preparation of a training course. This section is based primarily on cited FAO publications related to training methods and planning for effective training.

Module 1 Planning for Effective Training: Identifying Needs and Setting Objectives

Learning Outcomes:

Ø To assist trainees in applying the key steps in planning effective training

Ø To provide practical information on identifying training needs and setting training objectives

Practical:

Ø Problem Solving Exercise: Planning an Effective Training Course on Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs): 3 Scenarios (Questions 1-2)

Training is a complex activity and must be carefully planned. Too often when technical experts are hired to conduct a workshop or a training session little thought is given to careful planning and design of the instruction. Design and preparation of a training course usually consumes more time than delivery of the material. This module reviews steps for effective planning and delivery of a training course.

* Prepared by Mary Kenny, Nutrition Officer, Food Quality and Standards Service, Food and Nutrition Division, FAO and Lydda Gaviria, Communication for Development, Education and Extension Officer, FAO Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean

VI-2 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Visual VI.1-1

Definitions

Training - extends and develops capabilities for better job performance. It involves transfer of new knowledge, skills, behaviors and attitudes to perform specific roles in the workplace

Trainers – include extension educators, university faculty, government officials, industry personnel and consultants

Trainees – are the people responsible for producing or handling fresh fruit and vegetables

Training extends and develops capabilities for better performance on the job. It involves transfer of new knowledge, skills, behaviors and attitudes to perform specific roles in the workplace. Persons charged with training to improve the quality and safety of fresh fruits and vegetables include extension educators, university faculty, government officials, industry personnel and consultants. The audience, or trainees, are the people responsible for producing or handling the fresh fruit and vegetables, i.e. the farmers (both managers and workers) and packinghouse and warehouse personnel.

Visual VI.1-2

Trainee Motivation

People are motivated to learn when they see that

· through learning they can satisfy a need or a want

· they may earn prestige, and/or increase their income and therefore provide a better livelihood for themselves and their family

In all training/learning environments trainee motivation is essential for receptivity and learning. Research has shown that learning is at a maximum when people are motivated to learn (Knowles et al., 1998). For example, fresh food that is produced using good agricultural practices can result in more income to all involved in the production process.

VI-3 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

To highlight the importance of improving the quality and safety of fresh fruit and vegetables, trainers may outline the following points: Ø agriculture makes an important contribution to the economy of most countries; Ø fresh fruit and vegetables have been associated with outbreaks of foodborne illness, some of which have resulted in deaths; Ø food produced for rural and urban communities and for the export market must be safe to avoid human illness and lost trade opportunities; Ø safe food is vital in protecting consumer health and the reputation of the exporting country; Ø safety and quality controls are required at all stages in the food chain, including that of the primary producer: the farmer or grower.

During implementation of training, continually referring to these practical considerations will help trainees recognize the importance of the subject matter and motivate them to learn.

Planning for Effective Training Visual VI.1-3

Planning for Effective Training

· Identify the participants and set a date for the training course (Module 1) · Assess training participants needs (Module 1) · Set training objectives (Module 1) · Prepare and organize training content (Module 2) · Select training methods and prepare materials (Module 2) · Organize the training course (Module 3) · Develop evaluation strategy (Module 3)

Successful training requires careful planning by the trainer. Planning helps the trainer determine that the appropriate participants have been invited to the training course and that the training is designed to meet their needs in an effective way.

Identify the Participants

Target audiences may be identified by the trainer or by other professionals as an observed group needing assistance. Alternatively, trainers may be approached

VI-4 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers by a group of several individuals seeking help to address a common problem or need.

To address a common need it may be necessary to provide two different levels of training: one for workers and one for management. It is important to ensure that all of the trainees have received the appropriate level of information to bring about the desired change and achieve training objectives.

Visual VI.1-4

Adult learning is strengthened when:

· the message is pitched at the right level · the message adds to or builds on the existing knowledge of the audience · the learner is motivated and has a desire to learn

Research indicates that learning by adults is strengthened when: (Zemke and Zemke, 1984):

Ø the message is pitched at the right level; Ø the message adds to or builds on the existing knowledge of the audience; Ø the learner is motivated and has a desire to learn.

Farmers carry out many of the tasks that affect quality and safety of fresh produce. Therefore, they are a primary audience for training on improving the safety of fresh fruits and vegetables. Farmers generally have a great deal of life experience and knowledge about farming practices and can build on this base knowledge through access to information. Recognition of their existing knowledge by the trainer is important for a productive learning environment. A trainer should respect the expertise of the farmers in order not to appear insulting. Farmers may come to the training environment with strong fixed ideas on the subject matter. These ideas may interfere with their acceptance of new information or new skills. A respectful attitude and presentation of training material that adds to existing knowledge will help ensure acceptance of new ideas.

To ensure the information is delivered at the appropriate level, the trainer needs to listen and learn from the target audience about their existing level of knowledge. A formal assessment of their understanding of the subject matter can be made as indicated below.

Once the target audience is identified, the trainer should ensure that they are invited and able to attend the training course. The trainer may need to determine the most appropriate season, days of the week and time to conduct the training course to ensure the participation of the identified group.

VI-5 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Assess Participants’ Needs

Visual VI.1-5

Needs Assessment

A needs assessment:

· Identifies the gap between “what is” and “what should be” · Indicates what training should focus on · Helps to define the training objectives and the selection of the training activities

Perhaps one of the most important and most often overlooked aspects of the planning stages of a training course is needs assessment. A needs assessment identifies the gap between “what is” and “what should be.” It indicates what training should focus on and helps to define the training objectives. It also aids in the selection of the training activities. (Swanson et al., 1997)

The assessment indicates what the participants want and need from the training so that the training course is useful to the participants (Swanson et al., 1997). Based on this, the training objectives for the course can be established.

Visual VI.1-6

A needs assessment helps avoid common mistakes in training, such as:

· Including a topic that is already familiar to the trainees · Including a topic that has little relevance for the trainees · Omitting a topic that is important to the trainees

The trainer may have a perception of the needs of the trainees, but validation of these needs is essential. A realistic look at the situation of the trainees will help the trainer focus the presentation to the needs and realities of the participants. A needs assessment will also indicate additional information that should be presented, identify problems trainees may have with the topic and provide information on possible constraints that could prevent trainees from applying the new information and practices.

An assessment of the trainees’ needs can be carried out by meeting with the trainees, administering questionnaires and/or reviewing key materials such as policy documents, annual reports and evaluations. The needs assessment can be conducted in advance of the training or in the initial stages of the training course. The trainer should be alert to any new needs or problem areas the trainees may identify during the course.

VI-6 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

A trainer who is less familiar with the specific circumstances and working environment of their trainees may need to conduct a more in-depth needs assessment. It might include gaining an increased familiarity with the trainees’ concerns through field visits, discussions with their supervisors and/or more in- depth interviews with the trainees.

Set Training Objectives

Training objectives state what will be accomplished as a result of the training and are defined in light of the needs identified. They arise out of gaps and deficiencies identified in the process of needs assessment. Training objectives may indicate that trainees will display an understanding of certain concepts, demonstrate a given skill or show a change in attitude. Content, method of instruction, reading material, lab exercises and forms of evaluation strategies are all derived from identifying the training objectives. Without measurable training objectives, learning cannot be successfully planned or evaluated.

Visual VI.1-7

Clear training objectives provide a sound basis for:

· Organizing the trainer’s work · Informing trainees of the learning expected · Selecting the training materials and methods · Delivering an effective training program · Evaluating the success of the training course

Well-defined training objectives will keep all involved on the right track throughout the training. They provide an important link between the needs assessment and the design and preparation of the training materials. The trainer can assess if the objectives were met, indicating whether the training was successful in meeting the needs of the trainees. The training objectives therefore provide the basis of evaluation.

Visual VI.1-8

Objectives for training may involve

· Improving Skills · Increasing Knowledge · Changing Attitude

In converting needs into objectives, three areas of performance may be identified: skills, knowledge and attitude (Swanson et al., 1997). Skills-related

VI-7 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers objectives indicate what the trainee can do, demonstrate or perform as result of the training. Knowledge-related objectives refer to the participants’ ability to identify, define or describe given concepts as a result of the training. Attitude objectives are less easy to measure although it may be useful to make explicit the desired attitudinal change.

The trainer and the trainees should understand and agree on the objectives of the training course. It is a useful technique for the trainer to refer to the course objectives at key times in the course to ensure that the trainees recognize how the training is progressing towards achieving the objectives. When participants know what is expected of them they can organize their efforts more effectively.

Summary

1. Training involves transfer of new knowledge, skills, behaviors and attitudes to perform specific roles in the workplace.

2. In order for training to be effective, trainees must recognize the importance of the subject matter and be motivated to learn. With regard to the safety of fresh fruits and vegetables, training is important because: · Agriculture makes an important economic contribution to most countries; · Fresh fruit and vegetables have been associated with outbreaks of foodborne Illness, some of which have resulted in deaths; · Food produced for local use and for the export market must be safe; · Safe food is vital in protecting consumer health and the reputation of the exporting country; · Safety and quality controls are required at all stages in the food chain.

3. The steps in planning for effective training include: · Identify the participants and set a date for the training course · Assess training participants needs · Set training objectives · Prepare and organize training content · Select training methods and prepare materials · Organize the training course · Develop evaluation strategy

4. A needs assessment identifies the gap between “what is” and “what should be.” It indicates what the training should focus on, helps to define the training objectives and aids in selection of the training activities.

5. Training objectives state what will be accomplished as a result of the training and are defined in light of the needs identified. They arise out of gaps and deficiencies identified in the process of needs assessment.

VI-8 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Module 2 Preparing and Organizing the Training Content

Outcomes:

Ø To assist trainees in applying key steps in planning effective training

Ø To provide trainees with practical information on organizing the content of the training course

Ø To provide trainees with practical information on selecting training methods and teaching aids

Practical:

Ø Problem Solving Exercise: Planning an Effective Training Course on GAPs: 3 Scenarios (Questions 3 and 4)

Ø Field Site Visit Guide

Additional Resources:

Ø Choosing the Correct Training Aids

The content of the training course should link directly with problem areas identified in the needs assessment and the training objectives. The training content can be organized in outline form to help prioritize and sequence the material (Swanson et al., 1997). The end result should be that the training content is presented at the correct level to meet the objectives of the trainees.

Visual VI.2-1

Preparing and Organizing the Training Content

· The training content and flow of information should maintain the interest of the audience · The training content can be organized in outline form · Each step in the outline should contain a distinct message that may be presented in introduction, body and conclusion form

VI-9 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

In some instances the trainer may have a very clearly defined objective, even before the needs assessment. For example, when a new law is being introduced, certain groups may need to be informed about the new law, how it will affect them and their responsibilities under it.

Outlining the training content will help identify the key messages to be presented. Presentation of a message is usually organized into the three main parts: introduction, body and conclusion (Carey, 1999). One or more messages may be covered in each meeting session.

Introduction – Opening statements should attract attention. The introduction should include such key points as the purpose of the session, an outline of the information to be covered, how the information will be presented, how it will achieve the purpose of the session and the personal benefit to the trainers. A primary consideration in planning the introduction of a talk is to acknowledge what the trainees have been exposed to prior to this presentation and to address what information will follow.

Body- The information presented should flow in a logical way. The message should not be overloaded. A few well-developed points are more effective than too many.

Conclusion – A summary of the main points should be made. Trainees can be asked what specific action should be taken following this course. Close with a strong final statement. New information should not be presented at this time.

A trainer has the attention of the participants primarily at the beginning and end of a session. Therefore, for greatest impact, it is good practice to make key points in the introduction of the topic and to summarize them again at the end. An adage often used to advise public speakers says “Tell them what you’re going to tell them, tell them, and tell them what you told them.”

Select Training Methods

Once the training content has been outlined and the messages have been identified, training methods can be selected. A training method is a strategy or tactic that a trainer uses to deliver the message so that the trainees achieve the objectives of the program (Wentling, 1993). One or more training methods can be used in the presentation of a message. It is good to use a variety of training methods throughout a training course to maintain the interest of the trainees.

Lecturing is the most frequently used method for delivering a message. There are, however, a variety of other techniques for conveying information to trainees. These are described in the following table.

VI-10 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Table VI-1. Common Training Methods (adapted from Carey, 1999)

Lecture · Mostly an oral presentation, but may be supplemented with visual aids or handouts · The technique is generally confined to presenting only the expert’s point of view · Often used because it is easier to organize and a great deal of information can be presented in a short period of time · Useful when there are a large group of trainees Lecture/Discussion · Variation of the lecture where the trainer increases trainee participation through facilitation of discussion at set times during the session · Discussion is often initiated through the use of questions · Trainer must plan the discussion and carefully choose the questions to lead the discussion Demonstration · Oral explanations combined with visual activities · Method demonstrations show processes, concepts and facts and are especially effective in teaching a skill that can be observed · A result demonstration shows the outcome of some practice or innovation, such as field tests of soil treatments or product sanitation procedures and water treatments Group discussion · Trainer leads the trainees as a group through a discussion of a given topic · May or may not be preceded by a short explanatory lecture Symposium · A series of lectures presided over by a moderator · Allows for the presentation of several points of view or several related topics Panel · A dialogue among several experts sitting in front of the room · A moderator coordinates the discussion · Differs from a symposium because panel members have an opportunity to discuss and interact with each other’s ideas and views Forum · Following one or more presentations, the audience interacts and discusses the topic(s), bringing up a wider range of views Discussion groups · Involves every member of the audience in a small group (4 to 20 people per group) · Groups may have a pre-selected or self-elected leader · The groups may be given a specific topic or asked to develop a list of problems, issues, priorities, questions, etc. and report back to the main group

VI-11 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

· Discussion groups encourage/allow everyone to participate, even if the audience is large · Group should be monitored to insure that one person is not dominating the activities Case studies · Information is given to the trainees detailing a specific situation or problem and the trainees are assigned (as individuals or discussion groups) the task of making recommendations for the most appropriate action to solve the problem · Introduces a practical aspect to the training environment and creates a problem solving situation similar to that many trainees may face after returning to work Field visits · A visit to an organization or workplace, such as a farm or packinghouse, that demonstrates the practical application of the ideas under discussion · Care must be taken that the place to be visited is aware of the objectives of the field trip · Adds a practical aspect to the training · Trainees need to be properly prepared for the visit and should be encouraged to make specific observations that will be discussed upon return to the classroom (See Field Site Visit Guide – Practical)

Selection of the method most appropriate for the participants in a training session and for the information to be presented is an important part of planning the training session.

Visual VI.2-2

Factors to Consider when Selecting a Training Method:

· Size of audience · Maintaining attention through interaction · Variety · Available resources/infrastructure · Duration of the training session and amount of information to be covered in it · Experience of the trainer · Training aids required to support each method and the time and resources to prepare and use them

Factors to consider when selecting a training method include:

Ø Size of audience: larger audiences often require more formal training methods with less audience participation

VI-12 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Ø Maintaining attention through interaction: methods which involve the trainees in the instruction have the advantage of maintaining attention and involving all participants

Ø Variety: selection of different types of methods often maintains the interest of trainees

Ø Available resources/infrastructure: where resources are limited, the opportunity to use resource intensive techniques like field visits and demonstrations may also be limited

Ø Duration of the training session and amount of information to be covered in it: methods that involve discussion and casework take longer than more lecture- oriented methods

Ø Experience of the trainer: the trainer must be comfortable using the chosen method

Ø Training aids required to support each method and the time and resources to prepare and use them

Visual VI.2-3

In preparing a presentation, remember the 5 “P”s :

· Proper · Planning · Prevents · Poor · Performance

The organization of the training content and the selection of the appropriate training method for delivering the messages require careful planning. Planning enables the trainer to project confidence and control throughout the training session and to work with the trainees to achieve training objectives.

An example of an approach that incorporates maximum trainee involvement might be to start with a lecture introducing the reasons why workers should be encouraged to use field sanitation units. The lecture could be followed by a group discussion about the practical difficulties preventing use of these units and how these difficulties can be overcome. The trainees could then implement the new sanitation practices in the field. After a suitable time, a review could assess sanitation unit usage by workers. In a follow-up meeting, trainees might discuss

VI-13 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers the benefits of the new practices and highlight any other areas of concern that may require further advice and training.

Select and Prepare Materials

Research shows that most people learn things through at least three of the five senses. The trainer should try to use training methods that appeal to the senses of sight, hearing, smell, taste and touch.

In general, instruction by spoken or written word is more effective when it is supported by methods that stimulate the other senses (OSHA, 1996). When participatory, hands-on methods are used, they serve to convert the symbolism of words into images in the learners’ mind. Visual aids and hands-on exercises help make an abstract concept into a practical reality. This improves the chance for storage in long-term memory (improved retention and recall). The more senses to which instruction appeals, the stronger the impact of the message.

Visual VI.2-4

Retention of Information

65%

35%

10%

Visual Alone Visual Visual & & Visual Oral Oral

Training aids refer to all forms of support prepared for and used in training. As most training courses rely principally (though not exclusively) on the spoken word, carefully chosen well-prepared materials can make an important contribution to effective learning. They often make it easier for trainees to understand the message as the information can be arranged in a logical, clear manner with emphasis on the most important points.

Training aids improve the effectiveness of the trainer (Cheek and Beeman, 1990). To develop effective aids, the trainer must think through their message from the receivers’ viewpoint. The trainer can feel more relaxed as the aids help

VI-14 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers insure the flow of information. Aids may also help trainers feel less pressure as the trainees are focused on the training aid for part of the time.

Visual aids are especially useful in reinforcing the key points made by the trainer in an oral presentation. They can be very useful in describing points that are difficult to explain verbally. Anything that can be quantified or is factual can be presented visually. Visual aids should be tested on others before using them in the training room. It is also important to check the availability of equipment needed for visuals both in planning for their use and on the day of the presentation.

A variety of print materials can be used to enhance the learning process. These may include handouts, summary notes, workbooks or manuals. They have a clear advantage in that they provide a summary and/or can present additional information and can reduce note taking. They can be made available to the trainees for reference after the training session. A disadvantage is that these materials may distract from the trainer. Care must be taken to insure that trainees are not overwhelmed by so many print materials that they lose focus on the trainer.

A detailed discussion on selecting and using visual aids is presented in the Additional Resources section at the end of this manual.

Organize the Training Course

The trainer should envision the flow of the training course before it begins. The more the trainer can visualize the format of the training course, the more prepared he/she is for any questions or problems that may arise. A prepared trainer is a relaxed and more effective trainer.

Questions that should be addressed when organizing a training course include:

Ø How will the topics be introduced? Ø Would a question be a good way to start? Ø Which training methods will strengthen the message? Ø What questions are the trainees likely to ask? Ø What questions should the trainer ask the trainees? Ø When should breaks be planned in the session?

Planning will also involve developing the schedule or program for the course. This will set out the course duration and the division of training sessions for each day.

A program for the training course is useful to:

VI-15 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Ø Guide the trainers in leading the course Ø Organize the flow of information Ø Ensure a balance between theoretical information and practical sessions Ø Prevent repetition of information between different trainers Ø Include adequate breaks Ø Allow adequate time for all sessions Ø Ensure the interest and motivation of the trainees Ø Summarize and conclude the session and look ahead to the following session

Attention spans will vary from person to person, with the subject matter involved and with the situation. In lecture-oriented training sessions, the presentation should not exceed 20 minutes. Trainers often allow 40–45 minutes for practical and casework sessions. Trainers need to allow time for adequate interaction with the audience when using questions, exercises and visual aids. Breaks in a lecture presentation such as demonstrations, illustrations or question periods have the effect of refreshing the training session. It is important however that the breaks support the main body of the message. Also, time must be allowed periodically (every 1-2 hours) to allow trainees to stretch their legs and use the facilities.

Summary

1. Outlining the training content will help identify the key messages to be presented. Presentation of a message is usually organized into three main parts: · Introduction – should include key points such as the purpose of the session, an outline of the information to be covered, how the information will be presented, how it will achieve the purpose of the session and the personal benefit to the trainees. · Body- the main message presented as a few well-developed points flowing in a logical manner · Conclusion – summary of the main points. May include specific action that should be taken following this course.

2. A training method is a strategy or tactic that a trainer uses to deliver the message so that the trainees achieve the objectives of the program. Lecturing is the most frequently used method for delivering a message. There are, however, a variety of other techniques for conveying information to trainees. These include: lecture/discussion, demonstrations, group discussion, panels, forums, discussion groups, case studies, and field site visits.

3. Instruction by spoken or written word is more effective when it is supported by methods that stimulate the other senses. Visual aids and hands-on exercises help make an abstract concept into a practical reality. Print materials are useful to supplement lectures since they reduce note taking and provide a reference after the class has ended. Care should be taken that supplemental

VI-16 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

material does not distract the trainees, taking attention away from the message.

4. Developing a program for the training course helps the trainer organize the flow of information, avoid repetition between trainers, ensure interest and motivation of trainees, and assure continuity between trainers and between sessions.

VI-17 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Module 3 Conducting and Evaluating the Course

Learning Outcomes:

Ø To assist trainees in applying key steps in planning effective training

Ø To identify considerations in using a team teaching approach

Ø To assist trainees in applying key elements of evaluation to training activities.

Practical:

Ø Problem Solving Exercise: Planning an Effective Training Course on GAPs; 3 Scenarios (Question 5-7)

Using a Training Team

Visual VI.3-1

Using a Training Team

When the training course takes place over several hours or a number of days and different types of information are covered a team of trainers may be used.

When the training course takes place over several hours or a number of days and different types of information are covered a team of trainers may be used. An advantage of a team approach is that the diversity of different trainers makes the course more interesting. It can become difficult to maintain attention if trainees have to listen to one trainer for an extended period.

The members of a training team should be chosen to ensure they have complementary styles, skills and knowledge. All trainers should be technically competent in their subject and have experience as a trainer. Team members must have credibility with the trainees. In addition to being technically competent trainers must be familiar with the real circumstances in which the trainees work and the problems they face. Trainers need to be willing to participate in the total training activity. They may be called on to add comment to a co-trainer’s topic during the discussion sessions, prepare for an additional training session if required, interact with the trainees during free time between the training sessions and contribute as needed to practical exercises.

VI-18 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Visual VI.3-2

Tasks of the Training Team Leader

· Brief trainers on their role in the training course · Facilitate introductions and allow time for trainers to become familiar with each other’s strengths · Create a teamwork atmosphere · Discuss the training objectives · Provide information on the participants and local circumstances · Hold regular meetings to assess progress of the training and any improvements required

In team teaching it is common to have a leader or facilitator to coordinate the training course. This person may be responsible for the selection of the training team. They should assure that all trainers are familiar with the other members of the teaching team and that they are working together to assure the training objectives are met. The team leader may need to hold meetings or arrange conference calls to assess the progress of planning and training and to determine when improvements are needed. The lead trainer should also provide leadership in developing the schedule or program for the course.

Logistical Support

The steps above have focused on aspects of training related to content development and presentation and the preparation required before training begins. In addition to these issues there are logistical arrangements that need to be considered before, during and after the training course. The trainer should ensure that the logistical support arrangements are in place and satisfactory to accommodate each session of the training course.

The following sample list includes key points that the trainer may consider.

Before the Training:

Ø Identify and engage appropriate instructors Ø Select suitable training venues (well-lit and well-ventilated with adequate space away from sources of noise) Ø Select and notify the trainees, through the proper channels, of the dates, time and location Ø Prepare training materials: handouts, overheads, etc. Ø Arrange for appropriate training equipment (may include microphone, chalkboard and chalk, flipchart paper, writing materials, slide and/or overhead projector, LCD projector and computer, video equipment, screen, spare bulbs, etc.)

VI-19 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Ø Arrange training room, seating arrangements, name cards, position of chalkboard, screen, etc. Ø Arrange coffee and meal breaks during course Ø Arrange transportation/accommodation as needed for outside speakers/trainers

During the Training:

Ø Remind other trainers of their sessions Ø Introduce and thank trainers Ø Meet emergencies (rearrange or cover sessions) Ø Check facilities and equipment (projects, boards, chalk, etc.) Ø Ensure trainees receive course materials Ø Have trainees introduce themselves Ø Introduce visitors

Following the Training:

Ø Leave room tidy – return equipment and aids to proper place Ø Compile feedback/evaluations from course participants Ø Prepare thank you letters as needed for guest speakers, volunteers, etc. Ø Prepare reports on course

Checklists:

Visual VI.3-3

Sample Checklist for the day before your session

¨ Visit the training room and be sure you know how to control the lights and ventilation ¨ Check the arrangement of the tables and chairs. The trainees should be able to see trainers and visual aids clearly ¨ Confirm the catering arrangements for coffee breaks, lunch and/or other refreshments ¨ Arrange the projector to have the largest, most focused picture possible ¨ Check supplies – handouts, visual aids, flipcharts, makers, pens, etc.

Since there are many details to remember when making the final arrangements for the training course, trainers may wish to develop more detailed checklists to support them in their preparation for the training. Examples of checklists that may be developed include ones to assist the trainer in assuring required facilities, equipment, supplies and materials.

VI-20 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Visual VI.3-4

Sample Checklist: For a field demonstration

¨ Fix a time for the training session ¨ Visit the farm or food plant the day before the training session ¨ Ensure that work will be conducted during the time of the training session ¨ Verify the practices that you want the trainees to observe ¨ Explain the objectives to the farm or plant manager ¨ Agree with the manager on the conduction of the training session, number of trainees, what they will observe, etc.

Evaluating Training

Although evaluation is presented as the final portion of the discussion on developing effective training, it is important to plan the evaluation strategy well before the training takes place. Evaluation is not merely an activity at the end of the training course, but is an on-going process throughout the training that allows the trainer(s) to assess how well the course is progressing and that objectives are being met.

Visual VI.3-5

Training Evaluation

“A systematic process of collecting information for and about a training activity which can then be used for guiding decision making and for assessing the relevance and effectiveness of various training components.”

Training evaluation has been described as a systematic process of collecting information for and about a training activity which can then be used for guiding decision making and for assessing the relevance and effectiveness of various training components (Raab et al., 1987). Training evaluation gives a measure of the extent to which the training has been successful in accomplishing the training objectives. Evaluation methods result in feedback from the trainees. Proper evaluation allows for continual improvement of the training program.

VI-21 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Visual VI.3-6

Evaluation Strategies

· Pre-training · Process · Terminal · Follow-up

The choice of evaluation strategy depends on the purpose of the evaluation (Hakimian and Teshome, 1993):

Ø Pre-training evaluation occurs during course development and allows for pre- testing of the adequacy, scope and coverage of the training program under preparation. This type of evaluation checks outs shortcomings of the training and allows corrective steps at an early stage. Pilot tests of presentations and materials are part of pre-training evaluation. Ø Process evaluation is conducted while the course is in progress. This on- going assessment allows for adaptations to be made during the course as needs are identified. This evaluation may involve a formal evaluation where feedback is sought from trainees at the end of each day, each session or on a particular schedule. Also included may be observations by the trainer regarding trainees’ responses. Ø Terminal evaluation occurs upon completion of the course. This type of evaluation allows trainers and trainees to assess how well course objectives were met and where adjustments are needed for future training efforts. Ø Follow-up evaluation is usually conducted at some point after the training. Since a training program is often conducted to bring about changes in behavior or attitudes related to the working methods of the trainees, training effectiveness is best assessed following a lapse of time, for example two months, after the training course. By this time trainees have had time to re- think the training that they received and to incorporate the information into their work.

Terminal evaluation, at the end of a training course, is most common and is used to allow trainees an opportunity to provide feedback on the usefulness of the training and on aspects of the training that could be improved for future training courses. Four criteria have been suggested to evaluate training programs: reaction, learning, behavior and results (Kirkpatrick , 1976). Each criterion is used to measure different aspects of the training program. Reaction measures how the trainees liked the program in terms of content, methods, duration, trainers, facilities and management. Learning measures the trainees’ skills and the knowledge they were able to obtain during the training. Behavior is concerned with the extent to which the trainees were able to apply their knowledge to real field situations. Results are concerned with the tangible impact

VI-22 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers of the training program on individuals, their job environment or the organization as a whole.

Evaluation can be informal or formal. Informal methods involve feedback provided by trainees through language, questions, interest and enthusiasm for the topic. The trainer may request formal feedback by asking questions to assess the trainees understanding and appreciation of the subject discussed. Common formal evaluation methods include written evaluations or questionnaires completed by the trainee or a structured interview with the trainee about training techniques and information gained.

Feedback should be analyzed. This will allow the trainer to amend and improve materials for subsequent training. It may also identify gaps in training that need to be addressed. It is essential that the best use is made from all feedback received and that it is not simply an exercise on paper.

In addition to feedback received from the trainees on the use and effectiveness of the training course, self-evaluation by the trainer is essential. Every time training is conducted, the trainer should assess how he/she functioned as a trainer and make adjustments before the next training program. If a team teaching approach is used, team members should be asked for input regarding training organization and effectiveness. A meeting of the teaching team after the course to assess the training is a good way to conduct this evaluation.

Although trainers often view evaluation as a necessary exercise with very little value, effective evaluation can be a valuable tool. Benefits of conducting evaluation include:

Ø Measuring how well the course objectives were achieved Ø Improving the efficiency of training to allow better use of limited resources Ø Highlighting the value of the training and increasing the organizations’ commitment to training Ø Fostering interest in training at all levels of the organizational structure

Summary

1. When the training course takes place over several hours or a number of days and different types of information are covered using a team of trainers desirable. An advantage of a team approach is that the diversity of different trainers makes the course more interesting.

2. A training team leader may be identified. This person may be responsible for the selection of the training team; for assuring that all trainers are working together to assure the training objectives are met; for assessing the progress of planning and training; and for developing the schedule or program for the course.

VI-23 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

3. Since there are many details to remember when making the final arrangements for the training course, trainers may wish to develop detailed checklists to support them in their preparation for the training.

4. Training evaluation is a systematic process of collecting information for and about a training activity. This information can then be used for guiding decision making and for assessing how well the course is progressing and that objectives are being met. Evaluation is not merely an activity at the end of the training course, but is an on-going process throughout the training.

5. The choice of evaluation strategy depends on the purpose of the evaluation. · Pre-training evaluation occurs during course development and allows for pre-testing of the adequacy, scope and coverage of the training program under preparation. · On-going process evaluation throughout the course allows for adaptations to be made during the course as needs are identified. This evaluation may involve a formal evaluation where feedback is sought from trainees and/or observations by the trainer regarding trainees’ responses. · Terminal evaluation, the most common evaluation strategy, occurs upon completion of the course and allows assessment of how well course objectives were met and where adjustments are needed for future training efforts. · Follow-up evaluation after the training looks at training effectiveness following time for trainees to re-think the training that they received and to incorporate the information into their work.

VI-24 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

References

Carey, H.A. 1999. Communication in Extension: A Teaching and Learning Guide. FAO, Rome.

Cheek, J.G. and Beeman, C.E. 1990. Using visual aids in extension teaching. University of Florida, Cooperative Extension Service Pub SS-AEE-01. Available via the Internet at http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/MG098

Hakimian, H. and Teshome, A. 1993. Trainers’ Guide: Concepts, Principles, and Methods of Training With Special Reference to Agricultural Development. Vol. 1. FAO, Rome.

Kirkpatrick, D. 1976. Evaluation of training. In R.L. Craig (ed.), Training and Development Handbook. McGraw Hill, New York.

Knowles, Malcolm S., Holton, E.F., III, and Swanson, R.A. 1998. The Adult Learner. Houston: Gulf Publishing.

OSHA, 1996. Presenting effective presentation with visual aids. Construction OSHA Office of Training and Education. Available via the Internet at www.osha-slc.gov/doc/outreachtraining/htmlfiles/traintec.html

Raab, R.T., Swanson, B.E., Wentling, T.L., and Dark, C.E. (eds) 1987. A Trainer’s Guide to Evaluation. FAO, Rome.

Swanson, B.E., Bentz, R.P. and Sofranko, A.J. (eds). 1997. Improving Agricultural Extension: A Reference Manual. FAO, Rome. Available via the Internet http://www.fao.org/docrep/w5830e/w5830e00.htm#Contents

Wentling, T.L. 1993. Planning for Effective Training: A Guide to Curriculum Development. FAO, Rome.

Zemke, R. and Zemke, S. 1984. 30 things we know for sure about adult learners. Innovation Abstracts, VI(8).

VI-25 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

PRACTICAL

P-1 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Introduction ...... P-3 Experiments/Demonstrations

· Water as a Contamination Agent ...... P-4 · Product Integrity and Produce Contamination ...... P-6 · Handwashing ...... P-8 · Chlorine Concentration and Water Quality Management ...... P-10 · Fruit Spoilage ...... P-13 · Experiments Using Artificial “Germs”: Handwashing ...... P-15 How Germs are Spread - I...... P-16 How Germs are Spread – II ...... P-16 Germs and Produce ...... P-16 · Fresh Produce Quality ...... P-18 Discussion Questions ...... P-19 Problem Solving

· Traceback Investigation ...... P-20 · Planning for an Effective Training Course on GAPs: 3 Scenarios ...... P-22 Field Site Visit Guide ...... P-24

P-2 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Introduction

The most serious gap in food safety training is often the lack of practical activities to reinforce the passive lecture. Frequently, the need to provide lab space and limited instructional time and supervision prevents inclusion of activities. In addition, trainers are often reluctant to sacrifice time needed for presenting new concepts to allow time for activities.

However, if food safety training is to have a lasting impact, involvement of the trainees is essential. All participants (as groups or individually) should take part in practical activities such as experiments, discussion groups and problem solving exercises. Time also should be allowed for feedback from these activities. In addition to critical listening, this leads to critical thinking.

Trainers are encouraged to use as many of the practical activities as possible to complement the lecture material. Activities associated with lesson content are identified at the beginning of many of the Training Modules. In determining the best ways to increase the trainees comprehension of the training material, trainers may decide to use the suggested activities, to select from others in this section or to use ones from other sources. Use of activities not only will increase comprehension of the material by those being trained as trainers, but will also provide them with ideas for involving the participants in training they conduct.

Types of activities presented in this section include: Ø Experiments/demonstrations – exercises to demonstrate lesson concepts. All experiments have been designed to be simple, inexpensive, and to use minimum equipment. Although some require a source of water, none require an actual laboratory so can be conducted in almost any training setting. Ø Discussion questions – provide an opportunity for input by course participants. These may be addressed by the group as a whole or may be discussed within small groups with a summary session for the whole group. Ø Problem solving – are brief story problems that allow trainees to apply lesson concepts as they work through the problem. Ø Field Site Visit Guide – brief outline of key points to observe during site visits.

Volume II, Commodity Specific Case Studies, which accompanies this manual provides situations in which course participants apply recommended GAPs and GMPs in examples relevant to Latin America and the Caribbean. These case studies have been developed with direct input from producers in the region to ensure that topics and presentation are appropriate. They are intended to build understanding and awareness of practices that may be presented to individual growers, packers, and shippers for consideration and incorporation into their own operations.

P-3 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Experiments/Demonstrations

Water as a Contamination Agent

Ø Purpose: To investigate how water can serve as a source of contamination for fresh produce

Ø Materials For each group: ¨ Fresh produce sample - need 2-3 whole pieces per group. (Note: Produce may be specific to that being grown by participants or may be representative of various types of products such as a leafy product, a product with an edible skin and a product with skin that is removed before eating). ¨ Knife ¨ Bowl ¨ 1 liter water ¨ Blue food coloring or dye ¨ Slotted spoon, tongs, or other way to remove fruit from water

Ø Procedure 1. Divide class into groups of 3 – 4 people. 2. Assign each group a produce product and give each 2-3 whole pieces of the assigned product. (Note: the same product may be assigned to more than one group) 3. Place water in bowl. Add 10 drops of food coloring (or dye) to the water. Stir to mix. 4. Submerge fruit samples in the water for 10 minutes. 5. Remove fruit from the water and allow it to drain for 10 minutes. 6. Observe the amount of dye on the outer surface of product. Record observations in chart below. 7. Using a sharp knife, remove a slice about 1 inch from the stem end of the product. Observe and record the amount of dye penetration. 8. Clean the knife to remove any dye. Cut the product in half. Observe and record the amount of dye penetration on the cut surface.

Ø Results

Use the following scale to record amount of dye penetration:

4 = lots of dye 3 = moderate dye 2 = some dye 1 = slight dye 0 = no dye

P-4 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Product Outer Surface Stem End Cut Surface

Ø Discussion Results

1. How much dye was on the surface of the product?

2. How much in the interior?

3. What kinds of barriers prevented the dye from penetrating throughout the product?

4. Suppose the dye represents microorganisms in the water. What conclusions can be drawn about water as a means for these organisms to contaminate produce?

P-5 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Product Integrity and Produce Contamination

Ø Purpose: To investigate how product integrity can affect water infiltration into the product.

Ø Materials For each group: ¨ Fresh produce samples - need 1-2 pieces of intact product and 1-2 pieces of damaged product (bruised, insect damaged, cut, etc.) per group. (Note: Produce may be specific to that being grown by participants or may be representative of various types of products such as a leafy product, a product with an edible skin and a product with skin that is removed before eating). ¨ Knife ¨ Bowl ¨ 1 liter water ¨ Blue food coloring or dye ¨ Slotted spoon, tongs, or other way to remove fruit from water

Ø Procedure 1. Divide class into groups of 3 – 4 people. 2. Assign each group a produce product and give each 1-2 pieces of intact product and 1-2 pieces of damaged product. (Note: the same product may be assigned to more than one group) 3. Place water in bowl. Add 10 drops of food coloring (or dye) to the water. Stir to mix. 4. Submerge the intact samples in the water for 10 minutes. 5. Remove fruit from the water and allow it to drain for 10 minutes. 6. Observe the amount of dye on the outer surface of product. Record observations in chart below. 7. Using a sharp knife, remove a slice about 1 inch from the stem end of the product. Observe and record the amount of dye penetration. 8. Clean the knife to remove any dye. Cut the product in half. Observe and record the amount of dye penetration on the cut surface. 9. Repeat steps 4-8 for the damaged samples. Clean the knife and cut into the damaged areas. Observe and record dye penetration.

Ø Results

Use the following scale to record amount of dye penetration:

4 = lots of dye 3 = moderate dye 2 = some dye 1 = slight dye 0 = no dye

P-6 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Product Outer Surface Stem End Cut Surface Damaged Area

Ø Discussion Results

1. How much dye was on the surface of the product?

2. How much in the interior?

3. What kinds of barriers prevented the dye from penetrating throughout the product?

4. What effect did damages to the surface of the product have on the amount of color penetration?

5. Suppose the dye represents microorganisms in the water. What conclusions can be drawn about product damage as a means for these organisms to contaminate produce?

P-7 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Handwashing

Ø Purpose

To look at the effect of washing time and use of soap on the removal of microorganisms from hands.

Ø Materials

¨ Facilities for washing hands ¨ Markers ¨ For each pair of students: - Two petri plates containing nutrient agar - Soap

Ø Procedure 1. On the bottom of the petri dishes, draw lines to divide each plate into four quadrants. a. Label the quadrants on each plate 1 through 4. b. Label one plate "Water," the other "Soap." 2. One student in each pair should work with the "Water" plate. a. Quadrant 1 should be touched lightly with one or more fingers. b. Hands are then rinsed with water (without soap), excess water is shaken off, and, while hands are still wet, Quadrant 2 is touched. c. Step b. is repeated twice more, touching Quadrant 3 and then 4. 3. The second student in the pair should use the plate labeled "Soap." Step 2 above is followed except soap is used in each of the washing steps. 4. Plates should be covered and incubated, inverted, at 35°C or room temperature for 24 to 48 hours.

Ø Results

Record the results in the table below using the scale:

4 = maximum growth 3 = moderate growth 2 = some growth 1 = a little growth 0 = no growth

Quadrants Plate 1 2 3 4

Water Soap

P-8 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Ø Discussing Results

1. How effective was rinsing with plain water for removing microorganisms from hands?

2. Was the effectiveness improved with more rinsing?

3. What was the effect of adding soap to the washing process?

4. In our experiment, each step added to the amount of time the hands were washed. Were more microorganisms removed by using a longer wash and more soap?

P-9 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Chlorine Concentration and Water Quality Management

(Demonstration originally prepared by Dr. Mark Ritenour, University of Florida; provided for this course by Dr. James Rushing, Clemson University)

Part A: Calculating Volume of Chlorine Needed

Ø Purpose: To provide experience in calculating the volume of chlorine (sodium hypochlorite) needed to provide the desire concentration of free chlorine (ppm) in a solution.

Ø Procedure

The following discussion would provide the class with a demonstration of how to calculate the amount of sodium hypochlorite concentrate to use to prepare a solution with a desired level of free chlorine.

The following formula would be used to determine how much sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) to add:

Volume of NaOCl needed = (desired ppm of free chlorine) X (total tank volume) (% NaOCl in concentrate) X (10,000)

For this small scale demonstration, we have the following criteria: · The concentrated NaOCl is 5.25% chlorine (approximately the concentration of household bleach). Since 5.25% is the same as 5.25 parts per hundred, we would multiple this number by 10,000 to get parts per million (ppm). · The desired free chlorine concentration in our processing water is 100 ppm. · We want to make a total volume of 500 ml for our processing tank.

To calculate the amount of NaOCl that would be needed, plug the above values into the formula and calculate as follows:

Volume of NaOCl needed = (100 ppm of free chlorine) X (500 ml) = 0.95 ml (5.25) X (10,000)

Taking it a step further:

Remember: This is a small demonstration. A more reasonable volume of water in a commercial setting might be 500 to 5,000 gallons in the processing tank. The values from this small scale calculation can be applied to any volume to prepare a solution with 100 ppm free chlorine from a 5.25% NaOCl concentrate by calculating a dilution factor. This factor is derived by dividing

P-10 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

the total volume of solution, in this case 500 ml, by the amount of chlorine concentrate to be added, which is 0.95 ml:

Dilution factor = 500 ml = 526, which is a unit-less term. 0.95 ml

Suppose there is a tank size of 8,000 liters. To determine how much chlorine concentrate would be needed to yield 100 ppm free chlorine, divide 8,000 by the dilution factor of 526.

8,000 liters = 15.21 liters 526

Therefore, 15.21 liters of chlorine concentrate would be added to the 8,000 liter tank to give 100 ppm free chlorine.

Part B: Influence of pH and organic matter on free chlorine levels.

Ø Purpose: To observe the effects of pH and organic matter on the free chlorine levels in a solution.

Ø Materials t 500 ml deionized water t chlorine test strips t pH meter or other method of determining pH t weak hypochlorous acid solution t tomato juice

Ø Procedure 1. Measure the pH of the 500 ml of deionized water. 2. Using the calculations from Part A above, add the proper amount of chlorine (0.95 ml) needed to give this 500 ml solution 100 ppm free chlorine. 3. Measure the chlorine concentration with a test strip. Was the calculation correct to give 100 ppm free chlorine? 4. Measure the pH of the solution. Recall that under these conditions most of the chlorine is in hypochlorite form. 5. Adjust the pH to about 7.0 with dilute acid. This establishes the desired equilibrium between hypochlorite and hypochlorous acid. 6. To simulate the addition of organic matter to the water, add a few drops of tomato juice. The tomato juice quickly lowers the pH to about 4.5, but most importantly it completely depletes the amount of free chlorine to near zero.

P-11 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Ø Results

Use the following table to record the results of the tests in the steps above.

(Instructor’s note: Column of values from previous experiments may be used as a guide for expected values or for discussion if teaching conditions do not allow actually performing the experiment)

Values Parameter obtained from Measure previous d experiments pH of deionized water (Step 1) 6.6 Chlorine concentration after adding 0.95 ml chlorine concentrate (Step 3) 100 ppm pH of the chlorinated solution (Step 4) 9.8 pH after adding organic matter (Step 6) 4.5 Chlorine concentration after adding organic matter (Step 6) about 0

Ø Discussion Questions:

1. What effect does adding chlorine have on the pH of water?

2. What effect does lowering pH and adding organic matter have on the chlorine concentration?

3. What are the implications of these effects to a fruit or vegetable operation using chlorine as a sanitizing agent?

Ø Conclusion: Any substantial adjustment of the chlorine concentration in water will require an adjustment of pH as well. Water quality management involves many parameters, not just chlorine.

P-12 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Fruit Spoilage

Ø Purpose

To demonstrate the effects of produce handling and storage conditions on product spoilage.

Ø Materials For each group: ¨ Produce – select kinds most likely to be encountered by class participants ¨ Knife ¨ Plastic bag

Ø Procedure (For a 1-day class, set up this experiment early in the day and look at the results at the end of the day. For a multiple day class, evaluate the products 24 to 48 hours after the experiment is set up.)

1. Divide class into groups of 3-4 people. 2. Provide each group with several pieces of the same product. Have participants assess the quality of the produce, noting the presence of any defects. 3. One piece of the product should be placed in the coolest possible place in the teaching area. If a refrigerator is available, this could be used. Place a second piece in a warm, sunny spot. A third piece should be placed in a plastic bag, the bag closed and placed in the sun. 4. A fourth piece of product should be cut into three pieces. Place one of the pieces in each of the locations described in step 3 above.

Ø Results

At the end of the experiment, look at the product. Evaluate its condition using the following scale:

4 = high quality product, good condition 3 = good quality, slight spoilage 2 = fair quality, moderate spoilage 1 = poor quality, extreme spoilage

P-13 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Storage Conditions Product Pre- Storage Cool Warm Packaged Intact Cut Intact Cut

Ø Discussing the Results

1. What spoilage/deterioration factors played a role in the changes observed in these products?

2. What are the implications of observations from this experiment on how produce should be handled during storage and transportation?

P-14 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Experiments Using Artificial “Germs”

GloGerm® and Glitterbug® are commercially available products that contain plastic “germs” which fluoresce when exposed to UV light1. The products come in both lotion and powder forms. They are useful to represent microorganisms in demonstrations. The following are ideas for experiments using these products. Instructors’ needs and situations may suggest additional ways these products can aid in demonstrating sanitation practices.

(Note: Because some people have expressed concerned about working with “germs” in these experiments, be careful to reassure participants that these are simulations and that the “germs” are not real nor are they in any way harmful.)

Handwashing

(Depending on class size, time and facilities, this experiment may be done with a few volunteers demonstrating to the class or it may be an activity for the entire class.) a) Participants apply a small amount of the lotion form of the product to their hands, rubbing it on like hand lotion. When they look at their hands under a UV light, they should be covered with glowing “germs.” b) Participants then wash their hands as they would normally. After washing, look at their hands under the UV light again. If handwashing was thorough, there should not be any “germs” remaining. Any areas not washed well will glow.

Discuss: · Was the handwashing procedure complete so that all of the “germs” washed off? · If not, where were problem areas (between fingers, around cuticles, etc)?

Describe for participants the correct handwashing procedure (Visual II.4-12).

Repeat the activity above with participants using this procedure.

1 GloGerm is available from: Glitterbug is available from: Glo Germ Company Brevis Corporation P.O. Box 537 3310 South 2700 East Moab, Utah, 84532 USA Salt Lake City, Utah 84109 USA Phone: 435-259-5831 Phone: 801-466-6677 Web address: www.glogerm.com. Web address: www.glitterbug.com

Sources of UV lights include either of the companies above, scientific supply companies, and novelty suppliers.

P-15 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Discuss: · Was this procedure more effective in removing germs? Why?

How Germs are Spread - I a) Prior to the arrival of class participants, the instructor rubs the Germ product on their instructor hands. As the class participants arrive, the instructor greets several with a handshake. b) After a period of time, a UV light is passed over participants. c) “Germs” spread from the instructor’s greeting should glow on participants’ hands and on articles they have touched. Likely places for glowing to appear include participants’ hands, pencils and paper, chairs, clothing, hair, etc.

Discuss: · Ease with which germs were spread from the instructor’s hands to the participant’s and then to anything they touched. · Implications of the easy spread of germs in produce production and handling situations.

How Germs are Spread - II a) Prior to the arrival of class participants, a light dusting of “germ powder” is placed in various areas of the teaching room - on tables, counters, etc. b) During the class session, students should move about the room normally. As this occurs, the powder will be spread to their hands, clothing, and other parts of the room. c) At the end of a suitable period, a UV light is used to look at where the “germs” are in the room.

Discuss: · Ease with which germs were spread · Implications of the easy spread of germs in produce production situations · Importance of proper cleaning and sanitation in preventing the spread of microorganisms

Germs and Produce a) Place several pieces of produce in 3 bags. Add a small amount of “germ powder” to one of the bags and shake to distribute the powder on the product. b) Ask class participants to look at the treated product under a UV light and to note the presence of “germs.” Ask them to compare this product with product from a bag that was not treated with the powder.

Discuss: · Were “germs” on the untreated product? How did they get there?

P-16 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

· Have participants look at their hands under the UV light? Are “germs” present on their hands? Where did they come from? · What are the implications of these observations in terms of product handling procedures? c) Place the product from all three bags into a fourth bag. d) Check the fruit under the UV light.

Discuss · What has happened to the fruit that was not treated with the “germs”? · Were “germs” on the untreated product? How did they get there?

Suggest to participants that this is similar to what happens when fruit from several locations are combined in a packinghouse. · What are the implications of these observations in terms of produce handling procedures?

P-17 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Fresh Produce Quality

Ø Purpose To look at attributes affecting produce quality.

Ø Materials Produce – samples of the same product from several different sources, such as farms, packinghouses, and grocery stores.

Ø Procedure · Divide the class into groups of 3-5. Assign a produce product to each group (be sure the same product is assigned to at least 2 groups). · Ask the groups to develop a set of Standards for their assigned product. · Have available samples of the products assigned to the participants. Provide groups with samples of their product from several sources - such as from farms, packinghouses, and grocery stores. Ask the groups to rate these based on their established standards. · Have groups with the same products compare their list of standards and the ratings assigned to products from the different sources. Provide time for the groups to discuss their lists and to explain why they chose the criteria they used. Multiple groups with the same product should be allowed time to discuss the items that on their standards lists and to reach agreement on items to include.

Ø Discussing results

1. What factors were considered in setting up the standards?

2. When standards were actually applied to produce, was there a need to alter or revise original criteria? Explain.

3. Was it easy for different groups to reach a consensus on a single set of standards? Why or why not?

4. The different groups with different ideas about quality standards would be similar to different countries setting up their own standards. What are some of the problems that might occur in attempting to harmonize standards between countries?

P-18 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Discussion Questions

1) Using your country as an example, how could application of programs to enhance the safety of produce enhance: a) The export potential for local agricultural products? b) The domestic market for fresh produce? c) Give examples of each.

2) An outbreak of foodborne illness may have serious effects on the health of those who ate the contaminated food. However, its long-term effects may go much further. Within your country, how would a foodborne illness outbreak affect a) The economy? b) The labor force?

3) With the goal of harmonizing your country’s food laws and regulations with those of trade partners (or Codex) how would you go about: a) Accessing information on national laws? b) Obtaining comparable data on trading partners or from international sources? c) Writing a step-by-step procedure for your industry on “How to export fresh produce to the U.S.”?

4) What fresh produce standards would you like to adopt for your local industry and why?

5) What components should be considered in developing for industry use: a) Inspection protocols for surveying the GAP compliance status of fresh produce farms. b) An industry protocol for monitoring and responding to fresh produce- induced food illness outbreaks.

6) Discuss the target groups you anticipate training. a) What characteristics are unique to this target group? b) What techniques will you employ to best get the message across to this group?

7) a) Describe the food safety system in your country. Identify the various government Agencies, Departments or Ministries involved in ensuring the safety of fresh fruits and vegetables and the responsibilities of each. b) Discuss how the produce industry should approach interacting with each of these? c) Discuss ways that you can obtain information from these groups that is relevant to your fresh produce industry. For areas that you are uncertain about, prepare a list of questions that you can take home with you for further research about obtaining this information.

P-19 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Problem Solving

Traceback Investigation

Multistate Outbreak of E. coli 0157:H7 Infection 1, 2

In the State of Michigan during June1997, 52 cases of E. coli 0157:H7 infections were reported compared to only 18 cases reported in June 1996. Based on laboratory testing, it was suspected that the cases of E. coli infection resulted from a common source. The cases were spread over 10 counties in Michigan indicating the source was relatively widespread. Onset of symptoms among known cases extended over approximately one month suggesting that the source of contamination was either a product with an appreciable shelf-life or that there was on-going production of a contaminated product. Interviews were conducted with a limited number of patients to explore all potential sources of infection. Interviews revealed that most patients had consumed lettuce and alfalfa sprouts in the week before they became ill. No single restaurant or special event was identified that all patients had attended. A traceback was triggered when further epidemiolgical studies indicated a statistically significant link between alfalfa sprouts and the outbreak.

Of the 16 patients who ate sprouts for whom the source of the sprouts could be traced, 15 led to a single sprouting facility in Michigan. Investigations of the source of the alfalfa sprouts led to a single sprouting facility. Sprouts grown in the facility at the time of the outbreak came from two lots of seeds: one from Idaho and one from Australia. At this point in the investigation, a concurrent outbreak of E. coli 0157:H7 infection was reported in the State of Virginia. Epidemiological studies also linked this outbreak to alfalfa sprouts. In Virginia the source of sprouts could be traced for 13 patients and all led to a single lot of seed harvested from Idaho. This was the same lot as the one used at the implicated facility in Michigan.

Traceback of the seed to the distributor identified it as part of a 17,000-pound lot of which 6,000 pounds still remained. The implicated seed lot was a blend of 5 lots from fields of four farmers and was harvested between 1984 and 1996. The seed processor and the farmers were located in Idaho. Because two sprouting facilities (in two states) were associated with the implicated alfalfa sprouts and a single lot of seeds (from Idaho) were common to both it was likely that the contamination of the seeds occurred before sprouting.

Immediate control measures were put into place, including removing the 6,000 pounds of seed from the marketplace. Meetings were held with public health officials explaining to seed growers the need to protect alfalfa seed in sprouting from contamination during growing, harvesting and packing. Public television and radio announcements were made to advice the public about the risks of

P-20 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers contaminated sprouting seeds. The sprout industry explored ways to treat sprouts to make them safe for human consumption.

Further Investigation:

Inspection of the alfalfa fields revealed three possible sources of contamination: cattle manure, irrigation water and deer feces. Although manure is not normally applied to alfalfa fields in Idaho, cattle feed lots were common in the area and alfalfa fields of one farmer were adjacent to a feed lot. Manure may have leaked or been illegally dumped into the alfalfa fields or run-off water from neighboring fields. Water contaminated by manure may have been used to irrigate the fields. In addition, three of four farmers occasionally saw deer in their fields and one field was located near a wildlife refuge. The seed from each farmer was harvested and mechanically cleaned at the same seed processing plant. The seeds were then placed in 50-pound bags. No further processing occurred. Most of the seed was produced to plant alfalfa fields (e.g., to produce hay for livestock feed): the relatively small amount of seed used for sprouting was not handled any differently than the raw agricultural commodity seed. In the situation described, the source of contaminated seed was identified.

1. Using visual I.5-3 in the manual, prepare a flow chart of this traceback.

2. What information did the investigators need at each step of the investigation to proceed to the next step? What difficulties might have prevented them from getting the information needed?

3. After identifying the source of the seeds, what additional steps would be needed to help prevent outbreaks from occurring in the future?

4. In inspecting the alfalfa fields and harvesting process, what possible points of contamination should be considered?

1 Information on this case study was taken from the Centers of Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Case Study: A Multistate Outbreak of E. Coli 0157:H7 Infection: Instructors Version. The case study was based on two-real life outbreak investigations undertaken in Michigan and Virginia in 1997. Some of the information on the actual traceback had been altered to better serve as a learning exercise. The complete case study is available on the CDC’s website: http://www.cdc.gov/phtn/casestudies

2 For more information on safe handling of sprouts, see FDA Publications in Additional Resources section.

P-21 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Planning for an Effective Training Course on GAPs: 3 Scenarios

The following exercise is designed to allow trainees to apply the ideas presented in Section IV. Sample situations are provided below. The information for each situation and the questions to be discussed should be printed on handouts or on a visual so the trainees can easily view them.

The exercise may be conducted as part of each of the training modules in this section or at the completion of the entire section. For the exercise, assign the trainees to small working groups. Each group can be presented with a separate training situation or the same situation may be discussed by all of the groups.

Situation 1: Cooperative – Farm Worker Supervisors The agriculture department wants assistance in developing and delivering a training course aimed at the supervisors of farm workers at a local snow pea cooperative.

Situation 2: Tomato Packinghouse Personnel The owner/operator of a large tomato packing facility has requested a training course for plant workers.

Situation 3: Fresh Produce Warehouse A training team of technical advisors has been asked to deliver a training course for warehouse workers and supervisors.

Groups should consider the following questions about the organization and delivery of a training course for their assigned situation:

1. How will the needs of the participants be identified/confirmed? 2. What are the training objectives? 3. What method of organization of the training content will be the most logical (outline form only)? 4. What training methods will be used and on what basis were they selected? 5. What type of training material will be used and why? 6. What is an interesting way to organize the training course? 7. How will the course be evaluated?

After the working groups have completed their summary, each small group should present its plan to the entire audience for discussion and feedback. Trainers should encourage discussion and refer trainees to appropriate sections/pages in the manual for guidance in answering the questions.

P-22 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

1. Methods to determine and validate participants need should be listed. 2. Training objectives should be measurable and should address changes in knowledge, behavior/practices and/or attitude. 3. Organization of the training content should have a logical flow. 4. The training methods selected should be specified and justified. 5. The type of training aids to be used should be justified. 6. The organization of the course should fit the time allotted and include meals and breaks. 7. An evaluation should include measures of reaction, learning, behavior and results.

P-23 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Field Site Visit Guide

The purpose of field site visits may vary depending on the needs of the participants and the focus of the training course. Once determined, the purpose of the field site visit should be made clear to the trainees prior to the visit and should serve to reinforce the Principle material presented in the course. Having trainees take an active role in making observations and in class discussion after site visits is useful to make the visits more meaningful.

Trainers are encouraged to visit the site prior to the visit by trainees. During this preliminary visit, the trainers can note practices and be prepared to point these out during the training visit. This preliminary visit would also offer a good opportunity for the trainers to obtain the information to answer trainees’ questions during the visit.

Trainees should be made aware of the sensitivities of visiting a produce growing or handling facility to avoid misunderstandings due to questions, comments or gestures made to the management, supervisors or workers at the site. Trainees should be reminded not to interrupt workers performing their job.

One approach to reinforce Principle material through a field site visit is to note the Good Agricultural Practices and Good Manufacturing Practices that are in place, or that may need to be strengthened to avoid contamination of fresh produce along the production and distribution chain. As a guide for information to note, the following worksheet/checklist can be used by trainees and adapted as appropriate for a site visit to a given operation or facility. Some of the information can be gathered through observation and some through questions directed to the tour guide for the facility. Prior to the visit, a spokesperson may be designated to ask questions of the tour guide on behalf of the group.

P-24 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Name of Farmer/Operation:

Location:

Date of Visit:

Crops Grown:

Agricultural Water

· What activities in this operation use water? What is the source of the water used? · Has the quality of the water been determined? How? Results? · Were treatments needed to improve the water quality? What treatments? When were they applied? · Were efforts made to identify possible sources of water contamination? What control measures were used to prevent water contamination?

Manure Management

· Is animal manure used for fertilizer? · Is the manure composted? How? · How is manure applied? · Are records kept of manure use, dates applied?

Animal/Pest Management

· What controls are in place to limit farm animals and domestic animals near production fields? · What controls are in place to limit wild animals (birds, rodents) from fields?

Treatments/Fertilizers/Pesticides

· Are chemical fertilizers used? · What records are kept of their use? · What is the source of water used to mix with chemical fertilizers? · What methods are used to control pests (use of pesticides, biological treatments, etc.)? · What is the water source for mixing and applying pesticides? · What records are kept on fertilizer and pesticide use?

Harvest Tools and Equipment

· What harvest methods are used? (i.e. bare hands, gloved hands, automated machines)? · How are harvest tools cleaned and sanitized?

P-25 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

· What types of harvest containers are used? (i.e., re-usable, made from what materials) · How are containers cleaned and stored when not in use? · How is large crop equipment cleaned? (i.e. blades, chutes, conveyors) · Is equipment used for hauling fresh produce also used for other tasks such as hauling garbage, manure? If so how is it cleaned?

Packing Facility

· How is packing facility cleaned? · What is the water source for cleaning the packing facility? · Does the packing facility recycle water? If so explain procedure. · Is the produce cooled? How is it cooled? (i.e. water spray, hydro-cooler, hydro-vac, forced air). What is the source of the water? · Is water with a disinfectant used in the packing facility? How are residues of the disinfectant monitored and recorded? · If hydro-coolers are used, are they cleaned and how often? How often is the water changed? · If ice is used, what is the source of the ice? · What is the disposal method for wastewater? · What controls are taken to limit reptiles/insects, birds inside the packing area? · What measures are taken to avoid cross-contamination within the packing facility?

Transportation: Vehicles and Equipment

· What types of vehicles are used to transport produce from the field to the packinghouse? Are the vehicles also used for transporting animals, manure, or chemicals? · What measures are taken to ensure trucks are clean and sanitary? Are they inspected? · Is the produce temperature monitored while it is being transported?

Worker Health and Hygiene

· Are there health and hygiene and sanitation training programs for workers? If so, are they in their own language? · Is there supervisory oversight for worker health/hygiene/sanitation? What measures are taken to ensure that ill workers are not handling produce? · What type of toilets and handwashing facilities are provided for workers? Where are they located? Are they being used? · What is the disposal method for wastewater/sewage? · What measures are taken to ensure handwashing and toilet facilities are well supplied with soap, water and drying devises and that workers use the facilities?

P-26 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

Part I. Foodborne Disease and Fresh Produce

· Table 1 – Pathogens Associated with Fresh Fruits and Vegetables ...Res-2 · Table 2 – Outbreaks of Foodborne Disease Associated with Fresh Fruits and Vegetables ...... Res-6 Part II. FDA Publications

· The Guide to Minimize Microbial Hazards for Fresh Fruits and Vegetables - In Brief ...... Res-10 · Farm Investigation Questionnaire ...... Res-14 · Do Your Own Establishment Inspection – A Guide to Self Inspection for the Smaller Food Processor and Warehouse...... Res-25 · Guidance for Industry: Reducing Microbial Food Safety Hazards for Sprouted Seeds ...... Res-36 · FDA Publishes Final Rule to Increase Safety of Fruit and Vegetable Juices ...... Res-39 Part III. Disinfecting Contaminated Wells ...... Res-41 Part IV. Composting Facility ...... Res-43 Part V. Storage Conditions for Fruits and Vegetables...... Res-46 Part VI. Fundamentals of HACCP...... Res-48 Part VII. Choosing the Correct Training Aids ...... Res-60 Part VIII. Glossary of Terms ...... Res-64 Part IX. Where to Find Additional Information ...... Res-68

Res-1 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

PART I Foodborne Disease and Fresh Produce

Table 1. Pathogens Associated with Fresh Fruits and Vegetables

Disease / Microorganism Source of Illness Symptoms

BACTERIAL ILLNESSES

Botulism Spores of this bacterium are wide- Onset: Generally 4-36 hours after spread. But they produce toxin only in eating. Botulinum toxin produced by an anaerobic (without oxygen) Clostridium botulinum environment with low acidity. Can Symptoms: Neurotoxic symptoms, cause problems in low-acid canned including double vision, inability to goods if the foods are not properly swallow, speech difficulty, and processed. Such products include progressive paralysis of the corn, green beans, soups, beets, respiratory system. asparagus, mushrooms, tuna, and liver pate. Problems have also been Get medical help immediately. identified in luncheon meats, ham, Botulism can be Fatal. sausage, stuffed eggplant, lobster, and smoked and salted fish. Potential hazard exists when fruit and vegetables are placed in packages with poor oxygen permeability.

Campylobacteriosis Bacterium on poultry, cattle, and Onset: Generally 2-5 days after sheep can contaminate meat and milk eating. Campylobacter jejuni of these animals. Raw food sources: raw poultry, meat, and unpasteurized Symptoms: Diarrhea, abdominal milk. Organism has been isolated from cramping, fever, and sometimes the surface of cucumbers. It can get bloody stools. Lasts 7-10 days. introduced to produce through cross contamination from infected animal products.

Listeriosis, meningitis encephalitis Found in some types of unpasteurized Onset: From 7-30 days after eating, soft cheese, unpasteurized milk, but most symptoms have been Listeria monocytogenes seafood products, frozen cooked reported 48-72 hours after crabmeat, cooked shrimp and cooked consumption of contaminated food. surimi (imitation shellfish), coleslaw and produce. Listeria is much more Symptoms: Fever, headache, resistant to heat, salt, nitrite, and nausea, and vomiting. Primarily acidity than many other micro- affects pregnant women and their organisms. They survive and grow at fetuses, newborns, the elderly, people low temperatures. Other potential with cancer, and those with impaired sources of contamination include immune systems. Can cause fetal and processing equipment, sewage and infant death. other inert surfaces.

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Infection by Escherichia coli Part of normal gastrointestinal tract Onset: From 8-44 hours after microflora of humans and other warm- consumption of contaminated food. blooded animals. Their presence in foods is generally used as an index of Enterotoxigenic E. coli- handling or post-heat processing Symptoms: Fever, abdominal spasms, contamination. shriveling, aqueous diarrhea, vomiting Illnesses associated with E. coli and dehydration. O157:H7 have been associated with unpasteurized apple juice and cider, Enterohemorrhagic E. coli (O157:H7)- lettuce, salads, salmon and cheese. most important in terms of foodborne disease. Symptoms: stools with blood, leading cause of renal failure in children, can cause damage to the brain. Mortality rate is very high.

Perfringens food poisoning In most instances, caused Onset: Generally 8-12 hours after by failure to keep food eating. Clostridium perfringens hot. A few cells are often present after cooking and multiply to toxic levels Symptoms: Abdominal pain and during cool down and storage of diarrhea, and sometimes nausea and prepared foods. vomiting. Meats and meat products are the foods most frequently implicated in Symptoms last for a day or less and outbreaks. are usually mild. Can be more serious Raw vegetables also have been in older or debilitated people. implicated in outbreaks.

Salmonellosis Raw produce sources implicated in Nontyphoid Infections (gastroenteritis) outbreaks include melons, tomatoes, Salmonella alfalfa sprouts and orange juice. Raw Onset: Generally 8-12 hours after meats, poultry, eggs, milk and other eating. dairy products, shrimp, frog legs, Symptoms: Abdominal pain and yeast, coconut, pasta, and chocolate diarrhea, and sometimes nausea and are most frequently involved. vomiting. Individuals carrying this organism but Symptoms last a day or less and are exhibiting no symptoms of illness usually mild. Can be more serious in could contaminate produce due to older or debilitated people. poor hygiene practices. Typhoid Fever Onset: 8 to 15 days incubation, fever continues for several days, septicemia 10 days or more after infection. Symptoms: Malaise, anorexia and headache, gradual increase in temperature.

Shigellosis (bacillary dysentery) Have been found in lettuce, green Onset: 1-7 days after eating. peas, milk, dairy products, poultry, Shigella and potato salad. Food becomes Symptoms: Abdominal cramps, contaminated when a human carrier diarrhea, fever, sometimes vomiting does not wash hands and then and blood, pus, or mucus in stool. handles produce. Organisms multiply in food left at room temperature.

Res-3 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Staphylococcal food poisoning Bacterium found everywhere in the Onset: Generally 30 minutes-8 hours environment. Toxin is produced when after eating. Staphylococcal enterotoxin produced food contaminated with the bacteria is by Staphylococcus aureus left too long at room temperature. Symptoms: Diarrhea vomiting, Most outbreaks are due to human nausea, abdominal pain, cramps, and food handling. High-protein foods are prostration. Lasts 24-48 hours. Rarely more commonly associated with toxin fatal. production. Such foods include meats, poultry, egg products, tuna, potato and macaroni salads, and cream filled pastries. Usually not a problem in raw produce due to competition by natural microflora.

Vibrio Infection Contaminated water has been Vibrio vulnificus associated with foodborne outbreaks. Onset: 1-7 days Vibrio vulnificus The bacterium lives in coastal waters Symptoms: Chills, fever, and/or Vibrio cholerae and can infect humans either through prostration. At high risk are people Vibrio parahaemolyticus open wounds or through consumption with liver conditions, low gastric of contaminated seafood. The bacteria (stomach) acid, and weakened are most numerous in warm weather. immune systems. Can reach raw fruits and vegetables through cross contamination or Vibrio cholerae handling. Onset: 24-72 hrs Symptoms: Profuse watery diarrhea and vomiting, which can lead to severe dehydration and death within hours.

Vibrio parahaemolyticus Onset: 2-48 hrs Symptoms: Watery diarrhea, abdominal cramps, nausea, vomiting.

PARASITIC ILLNESSES

Amebiasis Exist in the intestinal tract of humans Onset: 3-10 days after exposure. and are expelled in feces. Polluted Entamoeba histolytica water and vegetables grown in Symptoms: Severe cramp pain, polluted soil spread the infection. tenderness over the colon or liver, Infected handlers can also be sources loose morning stools, recurrent of contamination. diarrhea, loss weight, fatigue, and sometimes anemia.

Cryptoporidiosis Cryptosporidium sp. could occur, on Onset: 7 days average (2-28 days) any food touched by a contaminated Cryptosporidium parvum food handler. Fertilizing salad Symptoms: Severe watery diarrhea, vegetables with manure is another but may, alternatively, be possible source of human infection. asymptomatic. Pulmonary and Large outbreaks are associated with tracheal disease in humans is contaminated water supplies. associated with coughing frequently a low-grade fever, these symptoms often accompanied by severe intestinal distress. Lasts 2-4 days, has extended to 1-4 weeks.

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Cyclospora cayetanesis Contaminated water, berries and Onset: 1-11 days lettuce Symptoms: Fatigue, protracted diarrhea, often relapsing. Lasts from several days to several months.

Giardiasis Most frequently associated with Onset: 1-3 days. consumption of contaminated water. Giardia lamblia Have been found in vegetables Symptoms: Sudden onset of including carrots. May be transmitted explosive watery stools, abnormal by uncooked foods that become cramps, anorexia, nausea, and contaminated while growing or after vomiting. Especially infects, children, cooking by infected food handlers. travelers, and institutionalized Cool, moist conditions favor patients. organism’s survival.

VIRAL ILLNESSES

Hepatitis A Outbreaks have been associated with Symptoms and Onset: raspberries, strawberries, lettuce, mollusks (oysters, clams, mussels, Begin with malaise, appetite loss, scallops) and other foods that become nausea, vomiting, and fever. carriers when untreated sewage pollutes them. Raw shellfish are After 3-10 days patient develops especially potent carriers, since jaundice with darkened urine. Severe cooking does not always kill the virus. cases can cause liver damage and death.

Norwalk-like viruses Generally associated with poorly Onset: 24-48 hrs. cooked shellfish however can be transmitted through ready-to-eat foods Symptoms: Nausea, vomiting, watery touched by infected workers, salads, large-volume diarrhea, fever rare. ice, fruit.

Adapted from:

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2001. Diagnosis and Management of Foodborne Illnesses: A Primer for Physicians. MMWR, Vol. 50. RR-2

FDA. 2001. Foodborne Illness: Ten Least Wanted Foodborne Pathogens. U.S. Food and Drug Administration-Partnership for Food Safety Education - The Fight BAC!Ô campaign. Available via the Internet at: http://www.fightbac.org/10least.cfm

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Table 2 – Outbreaks of Foodborne Disease Associated with Fresh Fruits and Vegetables*

Agent Implicated/suspected Reference food Bacillus cereus Sprouts Portnoy et.al. ( 1976) Campylobacter Cucumber Kirk et al. (1997) Campylobacter jejuni Lettuce CDC (1998) Clostridium botulinum Vegetable salad PHLS (1978) Clostridium botulinum Bamboo shoots CDC (1999) Cryptosporidium Apple cider CDR (1991) Cyclospora Raspberries Herwaldt et al. (1997) Cyclospora Basil CDC (1997) Cyclospora Raspberries CDC (1998) E. coli O157 Radish sprouts WHO (1996) E. coli O157 Apple juice CDC (1996) E. coli O157 Apple cider Besser et al. (1993) E. coli O157 Iceberg lettuce CDR (1997) E. coli O157 Alfalfa sprouts CDC (1997) Fasciolia hepatica Watercress Hardman (1970) Giardia Vegetables, incl. Carrots Mintz et al. (1993) Hepatitis A virus Iceberg lettuce Rosenblum et al. (1990) Hepatitis A virus Raspberries Ramsey et al. (1989) Hepatitis A virus Strawberries Niu et al. (1992) Norwalk virus Tossed salad Lieb et al. (1985) Salmonella agona Coleslaw & onions Clark et al. (1973) Salmonella miami Watermelon Gayler et al. (1955) Salmonella muenchen Orange juice CDC (1999) Salmonella oranienburg Watermelon CDC (1979) Salmonella poona Cantaloupes CDC (1991) Salmonella saint-paul Bean sprouts O’Mahony et al. (1990) Salmonella stanley Alfalfa sprouts Mahon et al. (1997) Salmonella thompson Root vegetables & dried Kano et al. (1996) seaweed Shigella flexneri Mixed salad Dunn et al. (1995) Shigella sonnei Iceberg lettuce Kapperud et al. (1995) Shigella sonnei Parsley CDC (1999) Shigella sonnei Tossed salad Martin et al. (1986)

* Adapted from Beuchat, L. R.1998. Surface decontamination of fruits and vegetables eaten raw: A review. WHO/FSF/FOS/98.2. Available via the Internet at http://www.who.int/fsf/fos982~1.pdf

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References

Besser, R.E., Lett, S.M., Weber, J.T., Doyle, M.P., Barrett, T.J., Wells, J.G., and Griffin, P.M. 1993. An outbreak of diarrhea and hemolytic uremic syndrome from Escherica coli O157:H7 in fresh-pressed apple cider. Journal of the American Medical Association 269(17): 2217.

CDR. 1991. Outbreaks of Escherica coli O157:H7 infection and crytosporidiosis associated with drinking unpasteurized apple cider, Connecticut and New York, October, 1996. Communicable Disease Intelligence 15(17). 292.

CDR. 1997. Hospital outbreak of E. coli O157:H7 associated with a rare phage type, Ontario. Canada Communicable Disease Report 23(5): 33.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1979. Salmonella oranienburg gastroenteritis associated with precut watermelons – Illinois. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 28(44): 522.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1991. Multi-state outbreak of Salmonella poona infections – United States and Canada. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 40(32): 549.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1997. Outbreaks of Escherica coli O157:H7 infection associated with eating alfalfa sprouts – Michigan and Virginia, June-July, 1997. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 46(32):741.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1999. Outbreak of Salmonella muenchen infections associated with unpasteurized orange juice – United States and Canada, June, 1999. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 48(27): 582.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1996. Outbreak of Escherica coli O157:H7 infections associated with drinking unpasteurized commercial apple juice – British Columbia, California, Colorado, and Washington, October, 1996. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 45(44): 975.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1997. Outbreaks of Cyclosporiasis – Northern Virginia -Washington, D.C. - Baltimore, MD - Metropolitan Area, 1997. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 46(30): 689.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1998. Outbreaks of Cyclosporiasis – Ontario, Canada, May, 1998. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 47(38): 806.

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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1999. Foodborne botulism associated with home-canned bamboo sprouts – Thailand, 1998. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 48(27): 437.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1999. Outbreaks of Shigella sonnei infection associated with eating fresh parsley – United States and Canada, July – August, 1998. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 48(14): 285.

Clark, G.M. et al. 1973. Epidemiology of an international outbreak of Salmonella agona. Lancet, Spetember 1:490.

Dunn, R.A., Hall, W.N., Altamirano, J.V., Dietrich, S.E., Robinson-Dunn, B., and Johnson, D.R. 1995. Outbreak of Shigella flexneri linked to salad prepared at a central commissary in Michigan. Public Health Reports 110: 580.

Gayler, G.E., MacCready, R.A., Reardon, J.P., and McKernan, B.F. 1955. An outbreak of Salmonellosis traced to watermelon. Public Health Reports 70(3): 311.

Hardman, E.W. 1970. Fascioliasis – A large outbreak. British Medical Journal 3: 502.

Herwaldt, B.L., et al. 1997. An outbreak in 1996 of cyclosporiasis associated with imported raspberries. New England Journal of Medicine 336(22): 1548.

Kano, A. et al. 1996. Outbreak of S. thompson – suspected source, cross- contamination from soft turtle. Infectious Agents Surveillance Report 11(8):12(91).

Kapperud, G., Rorvik, L.M., Hasseltvedt, V., Hoiby, E.A., Iverson, B.G., Staveland, K., Johnson, G., Leitao, J., Herikstad, H., Andersson, Y., Langeland, Y., Gondrosen, B., and Lassen, J. 1995. Outbreak of Shigella sonnei infection traced to imported iceberg lettuce. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 33(3): 609.

Kirk, M., et al. 1997. A prolonged outbreak of Campylobacter infection at a training facility. Communicable Disease Intelligence 21(12): 57.

Lieb, S., et al. 1985. Norwalk virus gastroenterititis an outbreak assocaited with a cafeteria at a college. American Journal of Epidemiology 121(2): 259.

Mahon, B.E., Pönkä, A., Hall, W., Komatsu, K., Beuchat, L., Dietrich, S., Siitonen, A., Cage, G., Lambert-Fair, M., Hayes, P., Bean, N., Griffin, P. and Slutsker, L. 1997. An international outbreak of Salmonella infections caused by alfalfa sprouts grown from contaminated seeds. Journal of Infectious Diseases 175: 876.

Res-8 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Martin, D.L., Gustafson, T.L., Pelosi, K.W., Suarez, L., and Pierce, G.V. 1986. Contaminated produce – a common source for two outbreaks of Shigella gastroenteritis. American Journal of Epidemiology 124(2):299.

Mintz, E.D., Hudson-Wragg, m. Mshar, P., Cartter, M.L., and Hadler, J.L. 1993. Foodborne giardiasis in a corporate office setting. Journal of Infectious Disease 167: 250.

Niu, M.T., Polish, L.B., Robertson, B.H., Khanna, B.K., Woodruff, B.A., Shapiro, C.N., Miller, M.A., Smith, J.D., Gedrose, J.K., Alter, M.J., and Margoles, H.S. 1992. Multistate outbreak of hepatitis A associated with frozen strawberries. Journal of Infectious Disease 166: 518.

O’Mahony, M, Crowden, J., Smyth, B., Lynch, D., Hall, M., Rowe, B., Teare, E.L., Tettmar, R.E., Coles, A.M., Gilbert, R.J., Kingcott, E., and Bartlett, C.L.R. 1990. An outbreak of Salmonella saint-paul infection associated with beansprouts. Epidemiology and Infection 104: 229.

Portnoy, B.L., Goepfert, J.M., Harmon, S.M. 1996. An outbreak of Bacillus cereus food poisoning resulting from contaminated vegetable sprouts. American Journal of Epidemiology, 103(6): 589-594.

Public Health Laboratory Service. 1997. Outbreaks of foodborne illness in humans, England and Wales: Quarterly Report. Communicable Disease Rep. Weekly 7(24): 207.

Ramsey, C.N. and Upton, P.A. 1989. Hepatitis A and frozen raspberries. Lancet. 1:43.

Rosenblum, L.S., Mirkin, I.R., Allen, D.T., Safford, S., and Hadler, S.C. 1990. A multifocal outbreak of hepatitis A traced to commercially distributed lettuce. American Journal of Public Health 80(9): 1075.

World Health Organization. 1996. Enterohaemorrhagic Escherica coli infection. Weekly Epideminological Record 35(267.

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PART II FDA Publications The Guide at a Glance The Guide to Minimize Microbial Food Safety Hazards for Fresh Fruits and Vegetables In Brief

This Guide provides general, broad-based voluntary guidance that may be applied, as appropriate, to individual operations

The Guide · Is intended to assist domestic and foreign growers, packers, and shippers of unprocessed or minimally processed (raw) fresh fruits and vegetables by increasing awareness of potential hazards and providing suggestions for practices to minimize these hazards · Covers agricultural and postharvest water uses, manure and biosolids, worker health and hygiene, field and facility sanitation, transportation, and traceback · Does not impose any new requirements or supercede existing laws or regulations · Will be most effective when used to evaluate individual operations and to institute good agricultural and good manufacturing practices (GAPs and GMPs) appropriate to the individual operations

Basic Principles include · Prevention of microbial contamination of fresh produce is favored over reliance on corrective actions once contamination has occurred · Accountability at all levels of the agricultural and packing environments is important to a successful food safety program

Water

Wherever water comes into contact with fresh produce, its quality dictates the potential for pathogen contamination

Agricultural Water · Identify source and distribution of water used · Be aware of current and historical use of land · Review existing practices and conditions to identify potential sources of contamination. Consider practices that will protect water quality · Maintain wells in good working condition · Consider practices to minimize contact of the edible portion of fresh produce with contaminated irrigation water. Where water quality is good, risk is low regardless of irrigation method

Processing Water · Follow GMPs to ensure water quality is adequate at the start of and throughout all processes · Maintain water quality, such as by periodic testing for microbial contamination, changing water regularly, and cleaning and sanitizing water contact surfaces · Antimicrobial chemicals may help minimize the potential for microbial contamination to be spread by processing water; levels of antimicrobial chemicals should be routinely monitored and recorded to ensure they are maintained at appropriate levels · As organic material and microbial load increase, the effectiveness of many antimicrobial chemicals will decrease. Filtering recirculating water or scooping organic material from tanks may help reduce the build-up of organic materials

Cooling Operations · Maintain temperatures that promote optimum produce quality and minimize pathogen growth · Keep air cooling and chilling equipment clean and sanitary

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· Keep water and ice clean and sanitary · Manufacture, transport, and store ice under sanitary conditions

Manure and Municipal Biosolids

Properly treated manure or biosolids can be an effective and safe fertilizer. · If manure is used as a fertilizer, it should be managed to minimize microbial hazards · Federal regulations address the requirements for use of biosolids in the U.S.. Some states also have specific requirements for the use of biosolids. Foreign growers should follow these or similar requirements

Manure · Use treatments to reduce pathogens in manure and other organic materials. Treatments may be active (e.g., composting) or passive (e.g., aging) · Manure treatment and storage sites close to fresh produce fields increase the risk of contamination · Consider factors such as slope and rainfall and the likelihood of runoff into fresh produce production areas · Use barriers or physical containment to secure storage and treatment sites · Protect treated manure from being re-contaminated · When purchasing treated manure, get information about the method of treatment · Maximize the time between application of manure to production areas and harvest · Use of raw manure on produce during the growing season is not recommended

Animal Feces

While not possible to exclude all animal life from fresh produce production areas, many field programs include elements to protect crops from animal damage. · Domestic animals should be excluded from fields and orchards during the growing and harvesting season · Follow GAPs to ensure animal waste from adjacent fields, pastures, or waste storage facilities does not contaminate fresh produce production areas. Where necessary, consider physical barriers such as ditches, mounds, grass/sod waterways, diversion berms, and vegetative buffer areas · Control of wild animal populations may be difficult or restricted by animal protection requirements. However, to the extent feasible, where high concentrations of wildlife are a concern, consider practices to deter or redirect wildlife to areas where crops are not destined for fresh produce markets

Worker Health and Hygiene

Infected employees who work with fresh produce increase the risk of transmitting foodborne illness. · Train employees to follow good hygienic practices · Establish a training program directed towards health and hygiene – include basics such as proper handwashing techniques and the importance of using toilet facilities · Become familiar with typical signs and symptoms of infectious diseases · Offer protection to workers with cuts or lesions on parts of the body that may make contact with fresh produce · If employees wear gloves, be sure the gloves are used properly and do not become a vehicle for spreading pathogens · Customer-pick and road-side produce operations should promote good hygienic practices with customers – encourage handwashing, provide toilets that are well equipped, clean, and sanitary and encourage washing fresh produce before consumption

Sanitary Facilities · Poor management of human and other wastes in the field or packing facility increases the risk of contaminating fresh produce · Be familiar with laws and regulations that apply to field and facility sanitation practices · Toilet facilities should be accessible to workers, properly located, and well supplied · Keep toilets, handwashing stations, and water containers clean and sanitary · Use caution when servicing portable toilets to prevent leakage into a field · Have a plan for containment in the event of waste spillage

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Field Sanitation

Fresh produce may become contaminated during pre-harvest and harvest activities from contact with soil, fertilizers, water, workers, and harvesting equipment. · Clean harvest storage facilities and containers or bins prior to use · Take care not to contaminate fresh produce that is washed, cooled, or packaged · Use harvesting and packing equipment appropriately and keep as clean as practicable · Assign responsibility for equipment to the person in charge

Packing Facility

Maintain packing facilities in good condition to reduce the potential for microbial contamination. · Remove as much dirt as practicable outside of packing facility · Clean pallets, containers, or bins before use; discard damaged containers · Keep packing equipment, packing areas, and storage areas clean · Store empty containers in a way that protects them from contamination

Pest Control · Establish and maintain a pest control program · Block access of pests into enclosed facilities · Maintain a pest control log

Transportation

Proper transport of fresh produce will help reduce the potential for microbial contamination. · Good hygienic and sanitation practices should be used when loading, unloading, and inspecting fresh produce · Inspect transportation vehicles for cleanliness, odors, obvious dirt and debris before loading · Maintain proper transport temperatures · Load produce to minimize physical damage

Traceback

The ability to identify the source of a product can serve as an important complement to good agricultural and management practices. · Develop procedures to track produce containers from the farm, to the packer, distributor, and retailer · Documentation should indicate the source of the product and other information, such as date of harvest, farm identification, and who handled the produce · Growers, packers and shippers should partner with transporters, distributors and retailers to develop technologies to facilitate the traceback process

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Once good agricultural and management practices are in place, ensure that the process is working correctly. Without accountability, the best efforts to minimize microbial contamination are subject to failure.

Copies of the Guide to Minimize Microbial Food Safety Hazards for Fresh Fruits and Vegetables, October 1998, are available from: Food Safety Initiative Staff (HFS-32) U.S. Food and Drug Administration Center for Food safety and Applied Nutrition 200 C Street SW Washington, DC 20204 Or on the Internet at: http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/prodguid.html

The Guide to Minimize Microbial Food Safety Hazards for Fresh Fruits and Vegetables is available in English, Spanish, French, and Portuguese

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U. S. Food and Drug Administration Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition April 6, 2000 Farm Investigation Questionnaire The following form has been used in the domestic survey follow-ups, the imported survey follow-ups and outbreak tracebacks. This questionnaire has been developed by CFSAN and ORA for use on investigations of farms implicated in outbreaks or farms that grew produce that was found positive for pathogens by FDA testing. General Information:

Name of Farm Owner: Farm Address: Phone Number: Location of Suspect Fields: 1. Date of Farm visit: 2. Outbreak Name/Location/Number: 3. Implicated Food: 4. Agent in Outbreak: Reservoir(s) for this agent: 5. Planting date for implicated field: 6. Harvest date(s) for implicated field: 7. Interim steps (with dates) between planting and harvest (fertilizing, pesticide applications, irrigation): 8. Other crops/ foods raised on this or adjoining fields: Farm Diagram: 9. Obtain or draw a map of the farm layout. Use the farmer's or one you draw to identify any possible sources of contamination on the farm or in close proximity: e.g. slope of the land, type of soil, feedlots, sewage treatment plants, sewage disposal systems/latrines/cesspools, areas that would collect drainage, ponds/streams/rivers/ irrigation ditches, water wells, animal grazing/housing, manure storage/composting, accumulations of trash, waste, debris that would attract pests, housing for people. Attach the map to this report. Take photos to further document the layout. Use a geological survey map or global positioning device to describe the longitude and latitude of the suspect field(s). Take pictures of everything possible during your investigation. Weather: 10. Were there any unusual weather conditions during the growing or harvesting period e.g. drought, heavy rains, fog or humidity? N ____ , Y ____ Explain:

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Flooding: 11. Was the field exposed to flooding any time during the growing or harvesting period? N ____ , Y ____ If yes when in relation to harvest: What was the depth: How long did the water cover crops:

12. Could heavy rainfall or flooding have contained or spread sewage, manure or other contaminants? N ____ , Y ____ If yes list the sources and their distance from the farm: Manure Management: 13. Has animal manure been used for fertilizer within the last year? N ____ , Y ____

14. What kind of animals is the manure from? ____ Cattle ____ Swine ____ Poultry ____ Unknown

15. What/who is the source/supplier? Name: Address: Telephone: (Investigator: obtain copies of invoices of manure shipments and attach)

16. What were the delivery dates:

17. What were the application dates:

18. Where was the manure stored prior to application:

19. When is manure applied e.g. before planting (how far), at the time of planting, between planting and harvest?

20. How close to harvest was the last application?

21. Can applied manure blow onto downwind crops? N ____ , Y ____ Explain:

22. How is manure applied e.g. topical, side dressing, plowed or disked into the soil?

23. How close is manure/compost stored to crop field?

24. Is it covered to prevent drift or contained to prevent runoff (e.g., manure lagoons)? N ____ , Y ____

The following questions may have to be asked of the manure provider/seller: 25. Is the manure composted? N ____ , Y ____

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26. If manure is composted, for how long and how is the composting managed (e.g., is the manure turned to assure more complete breakdown?)?

27. Is manure treated? N ____ , Y ____ If yes, how was it treated e.g. composted, heat dried, treated with lime, aged, anaerobic digestion, treated in a waste lagoon?

28. Was the treated manure tested? N ____ , Y ____ If yes what was it tested for and what were the findings: Animal Management: 29. Are farm animals or domestic animals, e.g. cattle, dogs, housed or grazed anywhere near the field? N ____ , Y _____

30. Is there a field lot or dairy farm within 1 mile of the field? N ____ , Y ____ If yes to either question, what animals and how far away? Describe relevant topography (e.g., animal production uphill from fields):

31. Are there fences to keep them out of crops and away from water sources? N ____ , Y ____

32. Would animal production areas drain into the field or water source? N ____ , Y ____ If yes explain:

33. What wild animals have been observed in the area (e.g., deer and other mammals, birds):

34. Describe the number of animals and the frequency that they are in the area:

35. Are they excluded or discouraged in anyway? If so how?

36. Is there any evidence of animal feces in the field? N ____ , Y ____ Explain:

37. Are amphibians or reptiles (e.g. frogs, snakes, alligators) possible sources of contamination in the field or in agriculture water sources? N ____ , Y ____ If yes explain:

38. Are farm animals (e.g. horses, donkeys) used in the fields? N ____ , Y ____

39. Are Domestic animals intentionally introduced into crop production areas (e.g., for weed or pest control, to eat residual produce after harvest?) N ____ , Y ____ If yes explain. Include time between animals in production area and subsequent harvest:

40. Are there any relevant health problems in the farm animals? N ____ , Y ____ Explain:

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Further follow-up animal health may be required with the farmer that owns the animals. Sewage Use: 41. Is human waste used as fertilizer? N ____ , Y ____

42. Is sewage (sewage sludge or biosolids) use on this crop? N ____ , Y ____ If so where is it from?

43. How was it treated (e.g., composted, heat dried, treated with lime, aged, anaerobic digestion, treated in a waste lagoon)?

44. On what crops are the sludge/biosolids used?

45. How close to harvest was it applied?

46. Is recycled (sewage plant treated) water used? N ____ , Y ____ If yes when was it applied: How was it applied:

47. Is grey water e.g. non-human wastewater used for irrigation? N ____ , Y ____ If yes, what is the source of the grey water, how is it applied and how close to harvest is it applied? Treatments/Fertilizers/Pesticides: 48. Are chemical fertilizers used? N ____ , Y ____

49. How many days prior to harvest were the chemicals applied?

50. What crops are treated with chemical fertilizers?

51. How is it applied?

52. Was water used to mix with the chemicals applied? N ____ , Y ____ If yes what was the source of the water?

53. Are biological treatments used e.g. bees for pollination, mites for competitive exclusion, Bacillus thuringiensis for pest control? N ____ , Y ____ If yes explain which ones are used, for how long, and how close to harvest:

54. Does the farm apply pesticides or herbicides to crops? N ____ , Y ____ Explain:

55. How are they applied: ____ Truck or tractor mounted spray rig ____ Airplane ____ Manual spray ____ Other

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56. What is the water source used for mixing and applying pesticides?

57. How close to harvest are pesticides applied? 58. Are pesticide mixing tanks, mixing paddles, spray tanks clean? N ____ , Y ____ Explain:

59. Where is pesticide equipment stored when not in use e.g. on ground, protected from contamination? Harvest Tools and Equipment: 60. Harvest method: ____ Bare hand ____ Bare hand with utensil (e.g., knife) ____ Gloved hand ____ Gloved hand with utensil ____ Automated/machine (no hand contact) ____ Other Explain:

61. What tools are used in harvesting the crop e.g. knives, clippers?

62. Are they designed and constructed to allow for cleaning? N ____ , Y ____ Explain: Are they clean? N ____ , Y ____ Explain:

63. How are they cleaned and sanitized, by whom and how often?

64. Are re-usable harvest containers used? N ____ , Y ____

65. What materials are they made from? ____ Wood ____ Plastic ____ Cardboard ____ Other

66. How are they cleaned before and during use?

67. How and where are they stored when not in use (e.g., on the ground, in a shed)?

68. How is large crop equipment that comes in contact with eatable crops cleaned (e.g. blades, chutes, and conveyors)?

69. Is harvest equipment leased or contracted out? N ____ , Y ____ If yes who is the contractor and what other crops are harvested with this equipment?

70. Answer the equipment design, condition, cleaning and sanitizing questions for this equipment.

71. Is equipment used to haul crops used for other tasks such as hauling garbage, manure? N ____ , Y ____ Explain:

72. How is this equipment cleaned prior to use for hauling harvested crops?

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73. Are crops washed/processed in the field? N ____ , Y ____ Explain: Packing Facility: 74. Characterize the size of the operation (e.g., number of employees, stability of work force, season of operation):

75. Draw a diagram and flow chart of the packing facility/shed and identify any possible sources of contamination (include location of restrooms, break areas, storage areas for equipment, chemicals, packaging, and personal items).

76. Is the packing equipment designed and constructed and maintained to facilitate cleaning and sanitization? N ____ , Y ____ Explain:

77. Is the packing equipment cleaned? N ____ , Y ____ And sanitized? N ____ , Y ____ If so how, how often, using what compounds? Explain:

78. Does the plant recycle water? N ____ , Y ____

79. Does recycled water flow go from relatively clean to relatively dirty operations? N ____ , Y ____ Explain:

80. Is the crop cooled? N ____ , Y ____ How is it cooled (e.g., is a water spray, hydro-cooler, hydro-vac, forced air used)? Explain:

81. Is water with a disinfectant used in the packing facility/shed? N ____ , Y ____ Where is it used, what chemical, and how much is used?

82. What residual of disinfectant is in the cooling water at the time of inspection? ____ ppm

83. How was the residual measured?

84. How does the operator monitor disinfectant residual in the process water? Are records kept of the test findings? N ____ , Y ____

85. How and how often is the hydro-cooler cleaned?

86. How and how often is the water changed in the hydro-cooler?

87. How and how often is flume water changed?

88. Measure the temperature of the product immediately before it is washed/processed by water. ____ degrees

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89. Measure the temperature of the water when it is used to wash/process produce? ____ degrees Record the location where these temperatures were taken. (For some produce (e.g., tomatoes, celery, apples), it is recommended that the water be 10 degrees F warmer than the product to prevent uptake of the water by the produce.)

90. What is the source of ice used in the packing facility/shed?

91. Is ice produced, stored and used in a sanitary manner? N ____ , Y ____ Explain:

92. Describe how sewage and wastewater are disposed of.

93. Is there evidence of amphibians, reptiles, insects or other birds inside the packing area? N ____ , Y ____ Explain including proximity to product.

94. What is the temperature of product refrigeration rooms? ______What is the temperature of product under refrigeration? ______

95. How long has the product been stored?

96. Examine the refrigeration rooms for condensate problems, pest control, cleanliness: Transportation: 97. Are vehicles used to transport produce from the field to the packing shed and from the farm to market also used to transport animals, manure or other sources of contamination? N ____ , Y ____ Explain:

98. Is someone assigned responsibility for ensuring trucks are: clean and sanitary? N ____ , Y ____ ; precooled (if appropriate for crop)? N ____ , Y ____ Is someone aware of previous load hauled? N ____ , Y ____

99. Are the transport vehicles cleaned and sanitized prior to being used for produce? N ____ , Y ____ Explain:

100. Are transport vehicles inspected prior to each use? N ____ , Y ____ Explain:

101. Are the transport vehicles onsite at the time of inspection clean and sanitary? N ____ , Y ____ Explain:

102. Is the product temperature monitored while being transported? N ____ , Y ____

103. How is product temperature monitored in vehicles transporting the produce from farm to market (e.g., do they use temperature monitoring devices)?

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Environmental and Product Sampling: Prior to your visit determine whether the samples are for regulatory or epidemiological purposes or both. Determine with laboratory, regulatory and epidemiology consultants what should be sampled (e.g., produce, soil, water, workers, food contact surfaces, wild life, domestic animals) prior to visiting the farm. These discussions should also cover what tests should be run on samples, who has the expertise to collect and analyze the samples, how the sample findings will be interpreted, and what will be done with positive findings. If surface waters are used for irrigation or other product contact use, use Moore swab tests to identify the pathogen. Water Sources: Complete one copy of this form for each water source used for growing, processing or transportation. Date: Name of source: How used (e.g., irrigation, cooling, and pesticide application)?: Complete one copy of this page for each water source (e.g., use a separate page for agricultural and process water). In addition complete the appropriate forms* from the attached forms for each water source: Form G2 - "Record Review of On-site Investigations and Test Results Prior to and During Outbreak" Form G3 - "Source and Mode of Contamination of Surface Waters" Form G4 - "Source and Mode of Contamination of Ground Waters" Form G5a - "Disinfection Failures That Allowed Survival of Pathogens or Toxic Substances" Form G5b - "Source of Contamination and Treatment Failures That Allowed Survival of Pathogens or Toxic Substances" Form G6 - "Sources and Modes of Contamination During Distribution and at Point of Use"

*From "Procedures To Investigate Waterborne Illness - Second Edition - 1996" International Association of Milk Food and Environmental Sanitarians Inc. Des Moines, Iowa.

104. Draw a diagram of the water systems using Form G1- "Illustration of Contamination Flow".

105. What are the state, local, regional water quality standards for agricultural water?

106. Does the water used on this farm meet the state standard? N ____ , Y ____ Explain:

107. If this water is used for irrigation, how is it applied e.g. drip, flood, overhead spray/sprinkler?

108. Does the agricultural water come in contact with the edible portion of the crop?

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N ____ , Y ____ Explain:

109. Has the water been treated? N ____ , Y ____ If so explain:

110. Has the water been tested for bacterial contamination/indicators? N ___ , Y ____

111. What were the test results?

112. When was the test conducted?

113. What lab did the testing? Attach a copy of the test report. Worker Health and Hygiene: Complete one form for field workers and one for packing facility workers. Investigators should speak with local/regional medical/public health officials regarding the following questions:

114. What kind of surveillance and reporting are conducted by local/regional public health authorities for the agent in this outbreak?

Investigators should request copies of summary surveillance reports from the local/regional public health authorities for the agent of concern for the past year or two. This will allow for an evaluation of disease trends.

115. Has there been any enteric disease in the farm workers or their families? N ____ , Y ____ If so, explain what disease(s), and what testing was done.

116. Do workers seek medical attention when they are ill? N ____ , Y ____ Explain:

Investigators should ensure that any workers with enteric disease are tested for the agent of concern by a public health agency or the operator. Investigators should attempt to obtain isolates from recent positive worker tests performed by clinical labs. for comparison to isolates from outbreak victims.

117. What is the prevalence/incidence of enteric disease in the community and what agents are involved?

118. Are there cases of the disease under investigation among household contacts of workers? N ____ , Y ____ Explain:

Ask the following questions at the farm and packing shed. Complete one form for field and one for the packing shed.

119. Is there health and hygiene training of workers in their own language? N ____ , Y ____ Explain:

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120. Is there training in sanitation practices for farm workers in their own language? N ____ , Y ____ Explain:

121. Is there supervisory oversight for worker health/hygiene/sanitation? N ____ , Y ____ Explain:

122. What toilet facilities are provided for workers (e.g., pit latrines, portable toilets, flush toilets)?

123. Does the worker housing area provide toilet facilities and handwashing facilities? Explain: Are the toilets and handwashing facilities clean and supplied with soap, towels, toilet paper? N ____ , Y ____ Explain:

124. Is dirty handwash water collected in a waste tank or sewage system? N ____ , Y ____

125. Does dirty handwash water drain on to the ground? N ____ , Y ____

126. Are toilet facilities provided convenient for workers in the fields? N ____ , Y ____ Explain: Are workers given time to use the facilities as needed? N ____ , Y ____

127. Is there any evidence that the toilet facilities are used? N ____ , Y ____

128. Where are portable field toilets serviced (e.g., emptied)?

129. Is this done in a way that protects crops from contamination? N ____ , Y ____ Explain:

130. How is the sewage collected from the holding tanks disposed of?

131. Is there evidence of human feces in or adjacent to the fields? N ____ , Y ____ Explain:

132. Are handwashing facilities provided for field workers and are they supplied with water, soap and drying devices? N ____ , Y ____ Explain:

133. Is there evidence that workers use the handwashing facilities after they use the toilet? N ____ , Y ____ Explain:

134. Is liquid hand sanitizer used in place of handwashing? N ____ , Y ____ Explain:

135. Do workers touch the produce with their bare hands? N ____ , Y ____ Explain:

136. Do workers wear disposable gloves when touching produce? N ____ , Y ____

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Who provides them? Explain:

137. Are there children in the fields? N ____ , Y ____

138. Do they come in contact with the produce? N ____ , Y ____

139. Do they use toilet facilities vs excreting in the fields? N ____ , Y ____

140. Do they wash their hands? N ____ , Y ____ Explain:

141. Where are diapers changed and how are the soiled diapers disposed of?

142. Are worker's clothes, including mothers of small children, worn in the field or packing shed clean? N ____ , Y ____ Explain:

143. Do farm workers or other persons frequent the fields at times when they are not working on the crops (e.g., is there loitering in the fields by persons who could contaminate the crops? N ____ , Y ____ Explain:

144. Do the field or plant workers have animals at home? N ____ , Y ____ If yes, do they have any relevant health problems? N ____ , Y ____ Explain:

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U.S. Food and Drug Administration Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition Industry Activities Section 1994

Do Your Own Establishment Inspection A Guide to Self Inspection for the Smaller Food Processor and Warehouse Why This Booklet? The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) considers establishment inspection one of its prime enforcement tools. During 1980, FDA made over 25,000 inspections of food plants and warehouses. Clearly, this is an important way of determining whether or not food firms are in compliance with the FDA's law and regulations. Many of the regulatory actions FDA takes against food firms are based on FDA's findings during inspections.

But inspecting your own establishment, you can see if your operation could face regulatory problems. This booklet will aid you in performing a check of your own operations so that the FDA inspection will not necessarily surprise you with its findings. While not a substitute for the FDA establishment inspection, conducting your own "self inspection" can help you to detect and solve compliance problems you might have before they get out of hand.

This booklet tells you -- · why you should be fully aware of your firm's problem areas · what problems you will face as you conduct your inspection · how to make your own establishment inspection

Why You Should Be Fully Aware of Your Plant's Problem Areas

· It's Good Business No one wants to deal with poor merchandise. If your business gets a reputation for being shoddy, dirty or otherwise negligent, your prospective customers will seek greener--at least, cleaner--pastures. It makes good business sense to keep your operation healthy and reputable. Safe, quality foods help you do this.

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· It's Your Responsibility The food laws and regulations that FDA enforces apply to firms that receive or ship food in interstate commerce. The requirements place the prime legal responsibility for safe, quality foods, adequately labeled, upon you, the food processor. If you just store foods, you too are legally bound to prevent contamination of the food while it is in your possession. This is the law. · It Can Keep You Out of Trouble The FDA does enforce the law. If your facilities are found to be out of compliance with the Federal requirements for proper food processing and warehouse storage practices, you can face any number of Federal actions. These include:

Notice of Adverse Findings Letter: Issuance of this official correspondence, while not considered a regulatory action, indicates FDA's awareness of a violation that must be corrected.

Regulatory Letter: A formal notification that the FDA is prepared to take a legal action if the violations cited in the letter are not corrected immediately.

Seizure: This is a civil court action against a specific lot of goods to remove them from the channels of commerce. Seizure actions are concerned primarily with the confiscation of food products which are in violation of the law and with the condemnation and destruction or reconditioning of these products.

Prosecution: Criminal action taken against a firm responsible for causing the charged violations of law. A first offense can draw one year in prison, $1,000 fine, or both, on each count or proven violation. A second offense can mean a sentence of three years in prison and $10,000 for each count. A first offense with intent to defraud or mislead is subject to imprisonment for not more than three years, or a fine of $10,000, or both for each offense.

Injunction: A decree that restrains the defendants from engaging in violative food processing or warehouse practices and remains in force until termination. This would occur if the firm has a history of insanitary problems or when there is a health hazard involved with the operation. · It Isn't That Hard In terms of cost and manpower, self inspection is the most resonable means of helping to ensure a satisfactory food processing and storage operation, and a "clean bill of health" from the FDA. By taking the time and effort to inspect your operations on a regular basis, you have the opportunity to correct potential problems and safeguard your investment. The Problem Areas: What You Are Up Against There are seven problem areas that, if left unwatched and unchecked, can become severe hindrances in your efforts to maintain a sanitary food operation free of compliance problems.

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First is the rodent (usually, rats and mice). Rodents carry many diseases and parasites which, because of their biological similarity to people, can be transmitted to man. These diseases and parasites include leptospirosis (Weil's Disease), salmonellosis, tapeworms, trichinosis and others.

Rodents will deposit excreta, urine and other filth on food products and around your facilities. They will also gnaw on materials in order to build nests. Rodents contaminate much more than they eat.

Against rodents, you cannot take the security of your plant or firm for granted. Some rodents can walk along telephone wires or leap horizontally 18 feet. They can squeeze through gaps the width of a pencil or drop 50 feet without being killed. Their instinct for survival is high, and they can deviate from "normal" behavior patterns to trick man. They are extremely prolific creatures, and once they've infiltrated your operations, your problems will multiply!

Birds also carry diseases and parasites potentially hazardous to people. They are capable of flying through any open window, door or other gaps in your building, and, like rodents, will leave insanitary droppings that can contaminate your plant and your food products.

Insects seek heat, moisture and darkness, and once in, can be even more elusive than rodents or birds. However, they aren't invisible--they leave trails in the dust, and can also be spotted around likely insect hideouts: holes, damp places, behind boxes and in seams in bags and folds of paper. Like rodents, some insects--notably cockroaches--have a highly developed survival instinct and they are adaptable--they can develop an immunity to poisons you use within a few insect generations. They are even more prolific than rodents. With their hairy legs, they spread dirt, debris and bacteria around your firm. They carry either within or outside of their bodies the causes for many serious diseases and ailments such as boils, food poisoning and typhoid fever.

In dealing with any of the above pest problems, you may want to try to cope with them on your own, but it is highly recommended that you seek the help of a good pest control operator, or "exterminator." The results will probably be better, and in the long run, this may be a more cost effective method.

If you were to take all the rodents and insects in the world, they would be outnumbered by the bacteria to be found in one vat of spoiled egg batter. Bacteria are a worse problem than any of the previously mentioned creatures because they can't be seen, yet they can sicken or kill just the same.

Bacteria cannot be eliminated, but they can be defeated. Like any creatures, bacteria need a combination of food, water and the proper temperature to survive. By regulating the availability of each, you can take a big step toward keeping their population down.

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Molds will grow on almost anything, especially where there is moisture. The presence of mold in a product is an indication that the product contains excessive decomposed material and may also indicate insanitary practices on the part of the processor. Molds can make you ill, and scraping off mold or getting rid of the one "bad apple" doesn't always solve the problem.

While the other problem areas are active, aggressive opponents, chemical contaminants can only become a problem through misuse or neglect--yet the end result of their presence can be equally disastrous. Still, this is one of the easier problems to control. This brings us to the seventh problem area--ignorance and carelessness. As a problem, this can be just as dangerous as any of the preceeding, but it can combatted by applying the guidelines given in this booklet, and by just using common sense. Now, let's get on with the tactics for waging an offensive against the problems. Police the Area--Know What's in Your Plant Self-inspection is a most cost effective way for you to maintain a firm that is in compliance with federal requirements for food processing and storage. By assuming the role of an investigator, you can uncover potential problems and solve them before they become big problems.

Let's "walk" through an operation--your operation--using the following checklist to investigate major areas of concern. This checklist can serve as a basic guide to help you maintain or improve compliance with federal requirements and to ensure that only safe, quality products reach the consumers.

Here are some pointers for using the checklist:

9. Check the box to the left of each item to indicate a situation that is ok, or the box to the right of each item that “Needs Attention”.

10. At the end of each topic section to note what you intend to do to correct an identified problem, and to note any compliance problems you face that are not addressed by the checklist. This checklist is a guide to be developed according to the needs of your operation.

11. Feel free to photocopy this checklist and to use it regularly during your inspections.

Employees

We'll begin the check with your employees. They are your most important resource.

OK Needs Attention Are the employees well-trained in what they do? You can avoid many problems by making sure that your employees clearly understand their functions.

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In handling food products, do your employees wear the proper hair covering and clean uniforms? Are your employees wearing jewelry, bandages, or have any illnesses, infections or injuries (i.e., boils, cuts) which can contaminate foods? Do your employees wash after each visit to the toilet? · Do you have washing facilities available for your employees near their work stations, and do they use them when their hands become soiled or contaminated? · You must display "reminder" posters in your rest rooms for employees to wash their hands. Do your employees maintain clean personal habits? They should keep their hands away from body surfaces, which are loaded with bacteria. Is the traffic within your plant controlled to prevent contamination of the processing areas? Have your employees been told the reasons why they should undertake the above precautions? Other Employee practices that need attention:

Plant/Grounds OK Needs Attention Is the area around your firm clear of weeds, grass and brush? This sort of foliage can be an effective cover for pests to infiltrate your firm. Is there any standing water on your ground which also attracts pests? Other outside Plant conditions that I want to look into:

Building/Facility OK Needs Attention Do windows and doors seal tightly to ward off pests and contaminants? Do windows have fine mesh screens to keep out insects? Will a pencil pass under the door? That's all the space required for a rodent to enter. Have all holes and cracks been filled so as not to provide hiding places or entry points for pests? Not only should your firm be free of vermin and pests--there shouldn't even be evidence of the presence of domestic animals such as cats and dogs. Are rest rooms cleaned regularly?

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Are the hand-washing facilities furnished with paper or air hand dryers and soap? · The hand-washing facilities should be furnished with running water at a suitable temperature for washing hands. · They should provide effective hand-washing and sanitizing preparations. Does the roof leak? This can add to the problems of humidity, standing water and product contamination. Are the overhead lights covered with shields to prevent contamination of products by broken glass in case the lamps burst? Other Building/Facility problems that need to be addressed:

Equipment OK Needs Attention Is all equipment which comes in contact with food cleaned and sanitized as often as necessary to prevent contamination of the product? You should follow appropriate cleaning schedules for each piece of equipment. Is the equipment designed, or otherwise suitable, for use in a food plant? For example, equipment for handling or processing foods cannot contain polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB's), which are very toxic (this does not apply to electrical transformers and condensers containing PCB's in sealed containers). Is there a build-up of food or other static material on the equipment? This can serve as a breeding place for insects and bacteria. Is there any build-up or seepage of cleaning solvents or lubricants on your equipment which can contaminate foods? All repairs on equipment should be of a permanent nature (e.g., no bobby pins in place of cotter pins), as temporary repair parts can break or rupture and get in the food product. Is the equipment hard to disassemble for clean-up and inspection? The more difficult it is, the less inclined you or an employee will be to clean it. Is there a lot of "dead space" in or around the machinery where food and other debris can collect as a nest for insects and bacteria? Can the surface of the equipment be sanitized? Wood is one material that cannot. Other Equipment cleaning and maintenance issues that should be covered:

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Housekeeping OK Needs Attention Are trash, debris, and clutter picked up so as not to provide hiding places for pests? Do employees eat and smoke only in designated areas? Is the food spilled or uneaten by employees cleaned up quickly so as not to attract pests or breed bacteria? Has old rodent excreta been cleaned up so you can spot any new activity? Additional Housekeeping duties that must be attended to:

Garbage OK Needs Attention Is garbage quickly removed and dumped in appropriate bins? It should not sit around your facilities to attract pests. Is the garbage kept covered? An open garbage pile is an excellent breeding ground for insects and rodents. Other Garbage-handling problems that should be explored:

Plumbing OK Needs Attention Is the water used in your firm from an approved source (either municipal supply or tested private source)? Have you made sure there are no hoses left dangling in sinks or on the ground? Loss of pressure can cause a back flow that will contaminate your water supply. Do your facilities have back flow and vacuum breaker valves to prevent contaminate your water supply? Avoid standing water around your firm. Other Plumbing needs that require attention:

Humidity OK Needs Attention Does your building have dripping condensation or leaky plumbing which can contaminate foods? Are you keeping the humidity in your operation low? Molds, insects and bacteria thrive in damp climate.

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Other problems to attend to regarding Humidity:

Temperature OK Needs Attention Are storage areas intended for room temperature subject to extremes of temperature, either hot or cold? This can damage foods. · For refrigeration storage, coolers should be kept at or below 40 degrees F. · For freezer storage, the temperature should be kept at or below 0 degrees F. Are you keeping a record of temperatures for all storage areas on a regular basis? Are you keeping your facilities at the proper temperature range? Insects love high temperatures, and their activity will pick up as the temperature goes up. Additional Temperature-related difficulties to explore:

Incoming Raw Materials OK Needs Attention Have you checked to see that the compartment door seals on the truck are intact? Is there a clean smell when the compartment doors are opened, or are there signs of contamination such as petroleum distillate, putrefaction, or other off-odors? Is any refrigerated compartment set at the proper temperature? Are boxes properly stacked and intact? Is there evidence of activity by insects, rodents or birds? Is there evidence of the misuse of pesticides such as DDT tracking powder, 1080, or insect sprays? Additional problems that should be dealt with on Incoming Raw Materials:

The FDA publication Inspecting Incoming Food Materials will provide further information on conducting an inspection of incoming food materials.

Storage of Raw Materials and Products OK Needs Attention Is the storage area over-crowded? Such a condition prevents adequate inspection and clean-up and also increases the

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likelihood of damage to products during handling. Are products stored on pallets and at least 18 inches away from the walls? It is important to leave space for inspection aisles so that rodent and insect activity can be seen more readily. You might consider painting a white line on the floor along the walls to indicate inspection aisles. Other Storage problems that should be corrected:

Rotation OK Needs Attention Are products stored on a first-in, first-out basis to reduce the possibility of contamination through spoilage? · Are old products kept in front of the new to help in the rotation process? Are all incoming products dated to ensure a proper rotation of stocks? Are items overstocked? This increases the chances of spoilage and contamination. When checking containers for contamination, are dusty, faded or discolored containers checked first? They are obviously the most suspect items. Additional issues to address on the Rotation process:

Quarantine OK Needs Attention Are all products spoiled by damage, insects, rodents or other causes stored in a designated "Quarantine Area" to prevent their contact with safe products? Are such quarantined items disposed of quickly to prevent the development of pest breeding places? Are incoming materials inspected for damage or contamination so that they can be rejected? Other problems to address in the Quarantine procedure:

Pest Control OK Needs Attention If you hire an outside pest control operator you should: Check regularly on what the pest control operator is doing. Don't accept what he's doing on faith. Check to see what poisons he is using. Make sure the poisons do not contaminate foods. Learn where and how many bait stations there are. · They should be placed so as not to present any chance

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of food contamination. · They should be checked regularly. Check to see if fumigators are being used. Do they represent a hazard to employees or food safety? If doing your own exterminating, you should: Know there is no such thing as an all-purpose pesticide, especially where foods are concerned. Get qualified advice before using any poisons. Make a map showing locations of all traps, bait stations, etc., and check them regularly. Put money into building maintenance if that will help solve your pest problems. For instance, don't rely solely on rodenticides to control your pest problem and leave gaps in the doors for the rodents to enter. Make sure those gaps are sealed. Extermination is a poor second choice, and will cost you as much, or more, in the long run. Other Pest Control situations to explore:

Storage and Handling of Hazardous Materials OK Needs Attention Are materials such as pesticides, herbicides, cleaning solvents, lubricants and boiler compounds accessible for use only by authorized employees? This will help prevent accidents such as food contamination and employee injuries due to ignorance and misuse. Additional situations to consider regarding Hazardous Material Storage:

Labeling OK Needs Attention Are all hazardous materials kept in bottles, or drums, or boxes that reflect their dangerous nature? Even non-hazardous materials should be labeled correctly. Several babies died in a hospital because salt was mistakenly used for sugar in their formulae. Make sure that any labels you market comply with the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act and Fair Packaging and Labeling Act. Other questions on Labeling that need to be considered:

FDA does not have the authority to approve labels prior to marketing, but it does have jurisdiction once the label is in interstate commerce. FDA will take legal action if a product is not labeled in accordance with the law. FDA is willing to provide comments on your labeling prior to marketing, if you desire.

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Food Additives OK Needs Attention Make certain that the food additives you use are suitable and safe for the intended purposes. Other issues regarding Food Additives to be resolved:

Product Codes OK Needs Attention Do you have an effective recall procedure set up? Other considerations on Product Codes:

By completing this brief inspection "patrol," you now have an idea of what the FDA investigator will generally look for when he visits your firm. This "short course" is far from complete, but it should provide a foundation to help you maintain a safe, quality food processing and storage operation.

Here are some last-minute hints to help you in your inspection and sanitation efforts:

1. As you inspect, use the checklist to make a record of the problems you encounter so you won't forget them. You can then make corrections based on the checklist. 2. Formulate inspection, clean-up and maintenance schedules and stick to them.

3. Define your employees' responsibilities; make sure each one understands his duties so that no essential details are ignored.

4. Be diligent in your sanitation efforts. The struggle to control pests, bacteria and the other problem areas is a fulltime effort.

You've just taken your first big step in the campaign for better food processing and storage. By reading this booklet, you've gained an awareness of the problems you might face, tactics for dealing with them, and knowledge that FDA is ready to help you with advice and further information on how you can deal with specific problems you encounter.

By taking preventive measures now, you can avoid potentially costly, mandated adjustments that might arise when the FDA investigator pays you a visit--and you can ensure that only quality, safe food products find their way to the consumers...a move we all want.

Document available via the Internet at: http://www.cfsna.fda.gov/~dms/selfinsp.html

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Food and Drug Administration Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition October 27, 1999

GUIDANCE FOR INDUSTRY Reducing Microbial Food Safety Hazards For Sprouted Seeds1 All parties involved in the production of sprouts -- seed producers, seed conditioners, and distributors, and sprout producers -- should be aware that seeds and sprouted seeds have been recognized as an important cause of foodborne illness. The following recommendations identify the preventive controls that the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) believes should be taken immediately to reduce the risk of raw sprouts serving as a vehicle for foodborne illness and ensure sprouts are not adulterated under the food safety provisions of the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (the act). Failure to adopt effective preventive controls can be considered insanitary conditions which may render food injurious to health. Food produced under such conditions is adulterated under the act (21 U.S.C. 342(a)(4)). FDA will consider enforcement actions against any party who does not have effective preventive controls in place, in particular, microbial testing. These recommendations are based on the recommendations of the National Advisory Committee on Microbiological Criteria for Foods (NACMCF, 1999) and elaborate on Compliance Policy Guide 7120.28 (CPG 7120.28). Seed Production: Seeds for sprout production should be grown under good agricultural practices (GAPs) in order to minimize the likelihood that they will contain pathogenic bacteria. For more information on GAPs, see FDA's 1998 "Guidance for Industry: Guide to Minimize Microbial Food Safety Hazards for Fresh Fruits and Vegetables". Copies of this guidance are available on the internet (http://www.foodsafety.gov/~dms/prodguid.html) or by calling the number listed in the references and resources at the end of this guidance. Seed Conditioning, Storage, and Transportation: Seeds that may be used for sprouting should be conditioned, stored, and transported in a manner that minimizes the likelihood that the seeds will be contaminated with pathogens. For example, seed should be stored in closed or covered containers in a clean dry area dedicated to seed storage. Containers should be positioned off the floor and away from walls to reduce the possibility of contamination by rodents or other pests and to facilitate regular monitoring for pest problems. Sprout Production: Sprouters should implement appropriate practices to ensure that sprouts are not produced in violation of the act which prohibits the production of food under insanitary conditions which may render food injurious to health (21 U.S.C. 342(a)(4)). In addition to seed treatment and testing for pathogens (see below), sprouters should maintain facilities and equipment in a condition that will protect against contamination. Facilities with poor sanitation can significantly increase the risk of

Res-36 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers contaminating product. Sprouters should employ good sanitation practices as a standard operating procedure to maintain control throughout all stages of sprout production. Inadequate water quality and poor health and hygienic practices can all increase the risk of food becoming contaminated with pathogens. Sprouters may wish to review 21 CFR Part 110 which sets forth good manufacturing practices (GMPs) in manufacturing, packaging, or holding human food that cover these aspects of food production. Seed Treatment: Seeds for sprouting should be treated with one or more treatments (such as 20,000 ppm calcium hypochlorite) that have been approved for reduction of pathogens in seeds or sprouts 2. Some treatments can be applied at the sprouting facility while others will have to be applied earlier in the seed production process. However, at least one approved antimicrobial treatment should be applied immediately before sprouting 3. Sprouters should carefully follow all label directions when mixing and using antimicrobial chemicals. Testing for Pathogens: Because currently approved antimicrobials have not been shown to be capable of eliminating all pathogens from seed, sprout producers should conduct microbiological testing of spent irrigation water from each production lot to ensure that contaminated product is not distributed. Because testing for pathogens can be done with irrigation water as early as 48 hours into what is generally a 3 to 10 day growing period, producers who plan accordingly can obtain test results before shipping product without losing product shelf-life. Testing, whether done by the producer or contracted out, should be done by trained personnel, in a qualified laboratory, using validated methods. Additional information on sample collection and microbial testing, including how to sample and test sprouts when testing spent irrigation water is not practicable (as may be the case with soil-grown sprouts), can be found in a companion guidance document referenced below. Traceback: Traceback cannot prevent a foodborne illness outbreak from occurring. However, being able to trace a food back to it's source quickly can limit the public health and economic impacts of an outbreak, if it occurs. Information gained in traceback investigations may also help prevent future outbreaks. Sprout producers, seed producers, conditioners and distributors should develop and implement systems to facilitate traceback and recalls in the event of a problem. All parties should test their systems in advance of a real problem. References and resources: 1. Food and Drug Administration. 1982. Compliance Policy Guide Sec. 555.750 Seeds for Sprouting Prior to Food Use, i.e., Dried Mung Beans, Alfalfa Seeds, etc. (CPG 7120.28 ) can be viewed and printed from the WWW at the following address http://www.fda.gov/ora/compliance_ref/cpg/cpgfod/cpg555-750.html 2. Food and Drug Administration. 1998. Guidance for Industry -- Guide to Minimize Microbial Food Safety Hazards for Fresh Fruits and Vegetables can be viewed and printed from the WWW at the following address http://www.foodsafety.gov/~dms/prodguid.html or may be obtained by calling 202-401- 9725. 3. Food and Drug Administration, 1999. Press Release -- Consumers Advised of Risks Associated with Raw Sprouts. P99 - 13. http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/NEWS/NEW00684.html

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4. FDA, 1999. "Guidance for Industry: Sampling and Microbial Testing of Spent Irrigation Water During Sprout Production" can be viewed and printed from the WWW at http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/sprougd2.html 5. National Advisory Committee on Microbiological Criteria for Foods. 1999a. Microbiological Safety Evaluations and Recommendations on Sprouted Seeds. http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/~mow/sprouts2.html 6. National Advisory Committee on Microbiological Criteria for Foods. 1999b. Microbiological Safety Evaluations and Recommendations on Fresh Produce. Food Control. 10:117 - 143. 7. Copies of Federal regulations in the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) may be purchased from the U.S. Government Printing Office or by telephone at (202) 512 - 1800. The CFR is also available at local branches of U.S. Government Printing Office Bookstores. Information on location of regional branches is available on the WWW at the following address: http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/~lrd/ob-reg.html 8. Sections of the CFR, such as 21 CFR Part 110 Current Good Manufacturing Practices in Manufacturing, Packing, or Holding Human Food, can be viewed and printed from the WWW at the following address: http://www.access.gpo.gov/nara/cfr/index.html.

Footnotes: 1. This guidance has been prepared by the Office of Plant and Dairy Foods and Beverages in the Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition at the Food and Drug Administration. This guidance represents the agency's current thinking on reducing microbial food safety hazards for sprouted seeds. It does not create or confer any rights for or on any person and does not operate to bind FDA or the public. An alternative approach may be used if such approach satisfies the requirements of the applicable statute and regulations. Following the recommendations in this guidance will not shield any person or any food from appropriate enforcement under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act if adulterated food is distributed in interstate commerce. 2. In 1998, the Environmental Protection Agency issued a "section 18" for the temporary use of 20,000 ppm calcium hypochlorite to disinfect seed for sprouting. In the fall of 1999, the exemption was renewed for another year. However, in order to ensure continued availability of this treatment, registrants should be actively pursuing a full registration under section 3 in 2000. 3. Antimicrobials are either pesticides chemicals or food additives, depending on where they are used. As such their use on seeds for sprouting must be approved by EPA or FDA. To find out what antimicrobials have been approved by EPA or FDA for use on seeds for sprouting, you can call 202-418-3098.

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FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE FOOD AND DRUG ADMINISTRATION P01-03 Print Media: 301-827-6242 January 18, 2001 Broadcast Media: 301-827-3434 Consumer Inquiries: 888-INFO-FDA

FDA PUBLISHES FINAL RULE TO INCREASE SAFETY OF FRUIT AND VEGETABLE JUICES The Food and Drug Administration today announced a final rule designed to improve the safety of fruit and vegetable juice and juice products. Under the rule, juice processors must use Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) principles for juice processing. Implementation of a HACCP system will increase the protection of consumers from illness-causing microbes and other hazards in juices. "This rule will help ensure the safety of the juice that American families consume each day," said Jane E. Henney, M.D. Commissioner of Food and Drugs. "It is another step in protecting the public health through the safety of our food." The rule comes after a rise in the number of foodborne illness outbreaks and consumer illnesses associated with juice products during the past several years, including a 1996 E. coli O157:H7 outbreak associated with apple juice products and two citrus juice outbreaks attributed to Salmonella spp. in 1999 and 2000. The apple juice outbreak sickened 70 people in the western United States and Canada, including a child who died from hemolytic uremic syndrome caused by the infection. The Salmonella Enteritidis outbreak in 2000 was caused by unpasteurized orange juice and resulted in 88 illnesses in six western states. The Salmonella Muenchen outbreak in 1999 was caused by unpasteurized orange juice and resulted in 423 illness in 20 states and 3 Canadian provinces and contributed to one death. Foodborne infections are especially dangerous for young children, older adults and those with weakened immune systems. FDA estimates that there are between 16,000 to 48,000 cases of juice-related illnesses each year. It is estimated that the action taken due to the rule will prevent at least 6,000 illnesses per year. HACCP systems call for a science-based analysis of potential hazards, determination of where the hazards can occur in processing, implementing control measures at points where hazards can occur to prevent problems, and rapid corrective actions if a problem occurs. Firms will be required to maintain records in association with implementation of their HACCP plans and verification of those plans. HACCP systems are already federally required for seafood, meat processors and poultry processors. The juice HACCP regulation applies to juice products in both interstate and intrastate commerce. Juice processors will be required to evaluate their manufacturing process to determine whether there are any microbiological, chemical, or physical hazards that could contaminate their products. If a potential hazard is identified, processors will be required to implement control measures to prevent, reduce, or eliminate those hazards. Processors are also required to use processes that achieve a 5-log, or 100,000-fold, reduction in the numbers of the most resistant pathogen in their finished products compared to levels that may be present in untreated juice. Juice processors may use microbial reduction methods other than pasteurization, including approved alternative

Res-39 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers technologies (such as the recently approved UV irradiation technology) or a combination of techniques. Citrus processors may opt to apply the 5-log pathogen reduction on the surface of the fruit, in combination with microbial testing to assure that this process is effective. Processors making shelf-stable juices or concentrates that use a single thermal processing step are exempt from the microbial hazard requirements of the HACCP regulation. Retail establishments where packaged juice is made and only sold directly to consumers (such as juice bars) are not required to comply with this regulation. Large companies will have one year after publication of the regulation to implement HACCP programs. Small companies must comply 2 years after publication and very small companies must comply 3 years after publication. Processors must continue to use the previously required warning label statement until they implement HACCP programs. In the interim, FDA will continue to inspect juice processing facilities to assure that they are producing safe juice and juice products.

This is a mirror of the page at http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/NEWS/2001/NEW00749.html

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Part III Disinfecting Contaminated Wells

When microbiological analysis indicates that a well is contaminated, a disinfecting procedure should be carefully applied. An example of the decontamination procedure recommended by the California Strawberry Commission (1998) is described in the following steps. The procedure is placed in this manual for educational purposes; however, in the event of a contamination the trainer is advised to recommend that the grower contact regional government authorities for information on procedures that may need to be adjusted for specific needs or country requirements.

Ø Step 1- Addition of Chlorine Solution. Contaminated water sources should be treated with a dose of at least 50mg/L (parts per million) of available chlorine. Visual IIII.1-20 indicates the quantities of various commercial chlorine compounds required to treat 100 feet (30 meters) of a water-filled casing with 50 ppm chlorine for diameters ranging from 2-24 inches (5-60 cm). Some authorities recommend a minimum concentration of 100 ppm available chlorine. To obtain that concentration, the amounts indicated in the visual can be doubled.

Visual III.1-20 Chlorine compound required to dose 100 ft (30 meters) of water-filled casing at 50 mg/L (ppm)1 70% Calcium 25% Chloride of 5.25% Sodium Diameter of Casing Hypochlorite Lime Hypochlorite3 (dry weight)2 (dry weight) (liquid measure) inches Cm Amount Amount Amount 2 5 7 g 14 g 59 ml 4 10 28 g 57 g 266 ml 6 15 57 g 113 g 0.6 L 8 20 85 g 0.2 Kg 1.0 L 10 25 113 g 0.3 Kg 1.7 L 12 30 0.2 Kg 0.45 Kg 2.4 L 16 40 0.3 Kg 0.9 Kg 3.8 L 20 50 0.45 Kg 1.4 Kg 6.3 L 24 60 0. 7 Kg 1.8 Kg 8.8 L 1 Water pH should be 6.5-7.5 2 Commercial brands include HTH, Perchloron, Pittchlor, etc. 3 Commercial household bleaches such as Chlorox, Purex, etc.

Note: If dry chloride is being used, it should be mixed with water to form a chloride solution prior to placing it in the well. Dry chloride should always be added slowly to water, not vice versa, to prevent a violent chemical reaction. (The exothermic reaction can produce sufficient heat to boil and splash added water.)

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Ø Step 2- Rinsing of the pump column. It is recommended that the pump column or drop pipe be rinsed with the chlorine solution as it is lowered into the well.

Ø Step 3- Mixing the disinfectant with water in the well. The pump should be turned on and off several times (surged) to mix the chlorine with the water in the well. Repeat this procedure several times at one-hour intervals until the water discharged has the odor of chlorine. Heavily chlorinated water should not be dumped into sewage disposal systems (septic tanks). Such strong disinfectants can inactivate the bacteria used to treat the sewage and can also damage the soil absorption system. Chlorination can be an effective sanitation measure, but may represent a source of chemical contamination, if misused.

Ø Step 4- Allow enough time for disinfecting. The well should be allowed to stand without pumping for 24 hours.

Ø Step 5- Test for residual chlorine. The water should be pumped to waste until the presence of chlorine is no longer detectable. The absence of chlorine is best determined by testing for available chlorine residue using a test kit designed for this purpose. Test kits can be obtained from chemical supply houses, swimming pool suppliers, etc. and they are relatively inexpensive.

Ø Step 6- Collect a sample for microbiological analyses. A sample should be collected according to the previously described sampling procedures and submitted to a laboratory for analysis.

Ø Step 7- Repetition of the disinfecting procedure if the contamination persists. When the laboratory analysis indicates that the water is not free of contamination, the process should be repeated. If repeated attempts to disinfect the well are unsuccessful, a detailed investigation should be undertaken to identify the cause of contamination.

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PART IV COMPOSTING FACILITY NATURAL RESOURCES CONSERVATION SERVICE

CODE 317

DEFINITION Facility Siting. The bottom elevation of the composting facility shall be above the seasonal high water table and on This is a treatment component of an agricultural management soils with an acceptable permeability that does not allow system for the biological stabilization of organic material. materials to contaminate the ground water, and meets all applicable regulations, or the facility shall be installed on concrete slabs or other appropriate liners. PURPOSES Ideally, compost facilities should be located outside of To reduce the pollution potential of organic agricultural floodplains. However, if site restrictions require location wastes to surface and ground water. within a floodplain, they shall be protected from inundation or damage from a 25-year flood event, or larger. CONDITIONS WHERE PRACTICE APPLIES Locate compost facilities so prevailing winds and landscape This practice applies where: elements such as building arrangement, landforms, and vegetation minimize odors and protect the visual resource. · Organic waste material is generated by agricultural production or processing; Direct surface runoff away from the compost facility. · A composting facility is a component of a Direct contaminated runoff from compost facilities to an planned agricultural waste management appropriate storage or treatment facility for further system; and, management. · A composting facility can be constructed, operated and maintained without polluting Compost Mix. Develop a compost mix that encourages air and/or water resources. aerobic microbial decomposition and avoids nuisance odors.

CRITERIA Carbon-Nitrogen Ratio. The initial compost mix shall result in a Carbon to Nitrogen ratio between 25:1 and 40:1. Compost General Criteria Applicable To All Purposes with a greater carbon to nitrogen ratio can be used if nitrogen immobilization is not a concern. Laws and Regulations. The installation and operation of the composting facility shall comply with all federal, state, and Carbon Source. A dependable source of carbonaceous local laws, rules, and regulations. material with a high carbon to nitrogen ratio (C:N) shall be stored and available to mix with nitrogen rich waste materials. Safety. Safety and personal protection features and practices shall be incorporated into the facility and its operation as appropriate to minimize the occurrence of equipment hazards and biological agents during the composting process.

Bulking Materials. Add bulking materials to the mix as necessary to enhance aeration.

The bulking material may be the carbonaceous

I Conservation practice standards are reviewed periodically, and updated if needed. To obtain the current version of this standard, contact the Natural Resources Conservation Service. March 2001 Res-43 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

material used in the mix or a non-biodegradable material that Sizing of facilities for composting dead animals shall be is salvaged at the end of the compost period. If a based on normal mortality loss records for the operation. Or, non-biodegradable material is used, provision shall be made if not available, locally established mortality rates for the type for its salvage. of operation shall be used.

Moisture Level. Provision may be made for maintaining Compost Period. Continue the composting process long adequate moisture in the compost mix throughout the enough for the compost mix to reach the stability level where compost period within the range of 40 to 65 percent (wet it can be safely stored without undesirable odors. It shall also basis). possess the desired characteristics for its use, such as lack of In high precipitation climatic regions, care shall be taken to noxious odor, desired moisture content, level of prevent excess moisture from accumulating in the compost. decomposition of original components and texture. The Facility covers may be required to provide for a suitable compost period shall involve primary and secondary product composting as required to achieve these characteristics. Test the finished compost as appropriate to assure that the Temperature of Compost Mix. Manage the compost to required stabilization has been reached. attain and then maintain the internal temperature for the duration required to meet management goals. Use of Finished Compost. Land application of finished When the management goal is to reduce pathogens, the compost shall be in accordance with Conservation Practice compost shall attain a temperature greater than 130°F for Standards 590, Nutrient Management, and 633, Waste at least 5 days as an average throughout the compost Utilization. mass. This temperature and time criterion may be achieved during either primary or secondary composting stages or as the CONSIDERATIONS cumulative time of greater than 130°F in both stages.

Develop an initial compost mix with a Carbon to Nitrogen Turning/Aeration. The frequency of turning/aeration ratio of at least 30:1 to reduce most offensive odors. shall be appropriate for the composting method used, and to attain the desired amount of moisture removal and Minimize odors and nitrogen loss by selecting carbonaceous temperature control while maintaining aerobic material that, when blended with the nitrogenous material, degradation. provides a balance of nutrients and porous texture for aeration. Facility Type. Selection of the composting facility/method shall be based on the availability of raw material, the desired Maximize solar warming by aligning piles north to south quality of final compost, equipment, labor, time, and land configured with moderate side slopes. available. Facility structural elements such as permanent bins, concrete In humid areas, do not locate piles (windrows) across the slabs, and roofs shall meet the requirements of Conservation slope to prevent ponding and sogginess. Practice Standard 313, Waste Storage Facility.

Protect compost facilities from the wind in cold climates. Facility Size. Size the compost facility to accommodate Wind protection may help prevent excess drying of the the amount of raw material planned for active compost in dry climates. composting plus space required for curing.

Dimensions selected for elements of the compost facility shall accommodate equipment used for loading, unloading, and aeration PLANS AND SPECIFICATIONS

Plans and specifications shall be prepared in accordance with the criteria of this standard and shall describe the requirements for applying the practice to achieve its intended use.

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OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE Manage the compost piles for temperature, odors, moisture, and oxygen, as appropriate. Make adjustments throughout Develop an operation and maintenance plan that is consistent the composting period to insure proper composting with the purposes of this practice, and the life of the processes. composting facility. Recipe ingredients and sequence that they are layered and mixed shall be given in the plan. Closely monitor temperatures above 165°F. Take action Safety requirements for operation of the immediately to cool piles that have reached temperatures composting facility shall be provided. above 185°F.

The operation and maintenance plan shall state that composting is a biological process. It requires a combination of art and science for success. Hence, the operation may need to undergo some trial and error in the start-up of a new composting facility

Source: Natural Resources Conservation Service, Conservation Practice Standard 317 (March 2001), “Composting Facility” in National Handbook of Conservation Practices. Available via the internet at: ftp://ftp.ftw.nrcs.usda.gov/pub/nhcp/pdf/317.pdf (accessed 7/01).

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PART V Storage Conditions for Fruits and Vegetables*

Temperature % Relative Precooling Storage Life Days F humidity Method Apples 30-40 90-95 R, F, H 90-240 Apricots 32 90-95 R, H 7-14 Asparagus 32-35 95-100 H, I 14-21 Avocados 40-55 85-90 14-28 Bananas 56-58 90-95 7-28 Beans, snap 40-45 95 R, F, H 10-14 Beans, lima 37-41 95 7-10 Beets, root 32 98-100 R 90-150 Blackberries 31-32 90-95 R, F 2-3 Blueberries 31-32 90-95 R, F 10-18 Broccoli 32 95-100 I, F, H 10-14 Brussel sprouts 32 95-100 H, V, I 21-35 Cabbage 32 98-100 R, F 90-180 Cantaloupe 36-41 95 H, F 10-14 Carrots, topped 32 98-100 I, R 28-180 Cauliflower 32 90-98 H, V 20-30 Celery 32 98-100 I 14-28 Cherries, sweet 30-31 90-95 H, F 14-21 Corn, sweet 32 95-98 H, I, V 4-6 Cranberries 36-40 90-95 60-120 Cucumbers 50-55 95 F, H 10-14 Eggplant 46-54 90-95 R, F 10-14 Endive 32 90-95 H, I 14-21 Garlic 32-34 65-75 N 90-210 Grapefruit 50-60 85-90 28-42 Grapes 32 85 F 56-180 Kiwifruit 32 95-100 28-84 Leeks 32 95-100 H, I 60-90 Lemons 50-55 85-90 30-180 Lettuce 32 85-90 H, I 14-21 Limes 48-50 85-90 21-35 Mushrooms 32 95 12-17 Nectarines 31-32 95 F, H 14-18 Okra 45-50 90-95 7-14 Onions, bulb 32 65-70 N 30-180 Onions, green 32 95-100 H, I 7-10 Oranges 32-48 85-90 21-56 Peaches 31-32 90-95 F, H 14-28 Pears 32 90-95 F, R, H 60-90

* Adapted from Bachmann, J. and Earles, R. 2000. Postharvest handling of fruits and vegetables. Appendix 1. Appropriate Technology Transfer for Rural Areas (ATTRA). Available via the Internet at http://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/postharvest.html

Res-46 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Peas, in pods 32 95-98 F, H, I 7-10 Peppers, bell 40-55 90-95 R, F 12-18 Peppers, hot 45-50 60-70 R, F 14-21 Pineapple 45-55 85-90 14-36 Plums 32 90-95 F, H 14-28 Potatoes, early 50-60 90 R, F 56-140 Potatoes, late 40-50 90 R, F 56-140 Pumpkins 50-60 50-75 N 84-160 Raspberries 32 90-95 R, F 2-3 Rutabagas 32 98-100 R 120-180 Spinanch 32 95-100 H, I 10-14 Squash, 41-50 95 R, F 7-14 summer Squash, winter 50-55 50-70 N 84-150 Strawberries 32 90-95 R, F 5-10 Sweet potatoes 55-60 85-90 N 120-210 Tangerines 40 90-95 14-28 Tomatoes 62-68 90-95 R, F 7-28 Turnips 32 95 R, H, V, I 120-150 Watermelon 50-60 90 N 14-21 F = forced-air cooling, H = hydrocooling, I = package icing, R = room cooling, V = vacuum cooling, N = no precooling needed. Sources: USDA Agricultural Marketing Service, Kansas State University Cooperative Extension Service

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PART VI Fundamentals of HACCP

A food safety assurance program often used by the food processing industry is the Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) system. Pillsbury Co. and Natick Laboratories along with the US Armed Forces for the NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) space project developed this concept in the 1960’s.

Use of the HACCP system in production agriculture is limited and is not recommended by the U.S. FDA. When fruits and vegetables are to be consumed fresh, there are no control steps that can eliminate or reduce biological hazards to acceptable levels after contamination. Basically, controlling contamination through the application of Good Agricultural Practices and Good Management Practices are the only ways to reduce hazards.

Although the total HACCP concept is generally not used in production agriculture, it is important for the agricultural safety trainer to learn the basics of HACCP methodology and to understand how these processes can be applied in improving the safety of fresh produce. This knowledge is considered vital to assist produce industry personnel in understanding the safety requirements that may be requested by “clients” such as processing facilities, supermarket chains, distributors and the food service industry.

Prerequisite programs provide the basic environmental and operating conditions that are necessary for the production of safe, wholesome food. Many of the conditions and practices are specified in federal, state and local regulations and guidelines (i.e. GMPs and Food Code).

Preliminary Steps for HACCP

In order to develop a HACCP system, five preliminary tasks are required. They are important fundamentals that precede the implementation of the seven HACCP principles. These preliminary steps include:

· Form a HACCP team · Describe the product · Identify the consumer (or end user) of the product · Develop a process flow diagram · Verify the process flow diagram

Form a HACCP Team

The HACCP concept is a systemic approach, which involves all the process steps in the production chain for a specific product. The design of the system requires the expertise of a multidisciplinary team.

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Management involvement and commitment to the development and implementation of the HACCP system is necessary. Management should designate one of the team members as the general team coordinator. This person is responsible for coordinating the work of the HACCP team for the daily operation and implementation of the system. As the HACCP program is implemented, an education component should provide training on the program to all employees throughout the organization, although the training levels will vary.

Describe the Product

A detailed description of each product should be written. Included should be a description of composition, processing, packaging, storage conditions, distribution requirements, retail conditions and usage instructions. HACCP methodology proposes the following format for the description of the product.

Figure 1 - Suggested Product Description Outline

PRODUCT DESCRIPTION ú Name of the product ú Characteristics (pH, Water activity, humidity, protein content, fat, additives, etc.) ú Use by the consumer ú Type of package ú Shelf Life ú Point of sale ú Instructions for use in the label ú Special distribution conditions*

*This point is included in reference to instructions for retail stores and the conditions for proper transportation and handling, the label is directed towards the consumer.

The development of this description is very important. Information on product characteristics such as water activity (Aw), pH, etc, will indicate the barriers (or lack of them) that are in place to assure safety. In raw products there are few ways to control microbiological growth and product deterioration however in processed foods a number of control methods exist. Some examples are the use of chemical preservatives, heat treatments, modification of the product package and atmosphere, and temperature control.

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Fresh fruit and vegetables generally have a high moisture content, which makes them very susceptible to decay, and microbial contamination. Although many of the protection barriers listed above do not apply to fresh produce, temperature control does.

It is recommended that barriers be identified on the product label and on the containers used for transportation and storage of the product. Barriers, such as temperature control for fresh produce, constitute the basis for the handling, distribution and commercialization logistics of the product. Protection barriers should also be considered later during development of the HACCP plan when determining the critical control points of a process.

Figure 2 - Sample Product Description

PRODUCT DESCRIPTION NAME: Sliced Carrot 300 gms. CHARACTERISTICS Sliced Fresh Carrots, without additives USAGE BY THE Direct Consumption by the CONSUMER General Public PACKAGE Flexible Bag with some oxygen permeability PACKAGE Expiration Date, Lot and a legend of “Refrigerated Storage INSTRUCTIONS Required” SHELF LIFE 15 days RETAIL AND Inventory Rotation (first in, first out), product that arrives first DISTRIBUTION should go out first INSTRUCTIONS Maintain temperatures of 2-4°C (35.6-39.2ºF) throughout the chain Instructions on hygiene practices through transportation PRODUCT POINT OF Retail Food Stores SALE Convenience Stores RETAIL STORE Storage temperature of 1- 7°C (33.8- 44.6°F) INSTRUCTIONS Maintain cold chain during storage, handling and merchandising

Identify Consumers and Mode of Use of the Product

The identification of target consumers and their use of the product are important in identifying population groups that may be at higher risk for a particular hazard. For example, infants, children, pregnant women, the elderly and immune- compromised individuals (including HIV, cancer and transplant patients, among others) are at higher risk for certain biological hazards. For all of these groups the use of a particular product may cause harm even if it is safe for the normal consumer.

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The way the consumer uses a product is another important consideration, because it is directly related to the severity of a particular hazard. For example, potatoes are generally consumed cooked, a step which could eliminate many potential biological hazards. Some fruits such as oranges and bananas, are consumed by removing the outer layers. In these commodities there is little risk unless there is cross-contamination of bacteria from the peel to the edible tissue. With products like apples, tomatoes and leafy vegetables where the outer, periderm tissue is eaten, a higher risk to the consumer may occur if the product has not been handled properly throughout production and distribution.

Develop a Process Flow Diagram

In the HACCP system, a complete production flow diagram should be developed for each product. It should include all the process steps in the production of the product.

The flow diagram should contain information on all of the production steps from farm to table including:

· Field activities · Packaging/transportation · Processing · Distribution · Commercialization · Final use at the consumer table

Although the flow diagram considers the whole production process, the implementation of a HACCP system involves considering only those steps where adequate controls can be applied. This concept is an essential point in understanding the limitations of HACCP methodology when implemented for fresh fruit and vegetable products.

Verify the Flow Diagram

After the flow diagram has been constructed, the HACCP team should inspect the production facility and verify that the flow diagram is accurate. Any discrepancies should be corrected.

Once the preliminary tasks have been completed, the HACCP team then evaluates prerequisite programs, GAPs and GMPs then proceeds with the steps described in the seven principles of HACCP.

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Figure 3 - The 7 Principles of HACCP

Principle 1: Conduct a hazard analysis. Principle 2: Determine the critical control points (CCPs). Principle 3: Establish critical limits. Principle 4: Establish monitoring procedures. Principle 5: Establish corrective actions. Principle 6: Establish verification procedures. Principle 7: Establish record-keeping and documentation procedures.

HACCP Principle 1. Conduct a Hazard Analysis

This first principle involves the development of a list of all possible hazards associated with the product. This is done considering each individual step of the flow diagram, product description and additional information.

As it was discussed in Section 1 Module 1, hazards can be classified into three major categories: 1) Biological hazards (pathogenic bacteria, parasites and viruses) 2) Chemical hazards including among others: pesticides, fertilizers, cleaning substances, antibiotics, metals, intentional and incidental additives, etc. and 3) Physical hazards such as metal, glass fragments, stones, wood pieces, etc.

When all possible hazards have been identified, control measures should be defined for each type of hazard. This is an important step since the HACCP system is focused on prevention rather than correction.

Control measures are any action or activity that can be used to prevent, eliminate or reduce a significant hazard. Generally, these actions are implemented through GAP and GMP programs, but some will be considered critical and will receive a different classification within the HACCP plan.

The identification of hazards in a process is a valuable tool to identify any control measures that can be implemented; in many instances these measures are already in place or are common sense practices. However making a conscious effort to strengthen preventative actions can minimize or prevent the hazard from occurring.

HACCP methodology proposes systematically identifying hazards throughout the process. A proposed format to use as an aid in the hazard description is shown in the sample with sliced carrots below.

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Figure 4. Sample Hazard Identification

Sliced Carrots

TYPE STEP HAZARD PREVENTIVE MEASURE (B,C,P)* Washing Prevalence of B Use of potable water in washing pathogenic bacteria step and change it often if it is not a continuous system. Monitor the efficiency of washing procedure. Sorting of Presence of foreign P Inspection of raw material and raw material material (stones, removal of foreign objects plastic, etc) Sorting of Microbiological B Follow GMP’s, training of raw material contamination due to employees, and use of hand handling by sorting sanitizing station personnel Sorting of Contamination due to B Equipment washing and raw material contact with equipment sanitizing following established procedures Sorting of Contamination with B, P Follow GMP’s as they refer to raw material foreign material by removal of jewelry and other sorting personnel accessories that could fall into the product Slicing Microbial contamination B Equipment washing and by equipment sanitizing following established procedures Sanitizing Prevalence of B Control water chlorine levels and pathogenic bacteria pH of washing water. Change periodically or filter to remove organic solids * B=Biological Hazard, P=Physical Hazard and C=Chemical Hazard

HACCP Principle 2. Determine the Critical Control Points (CCPs)

After identifying and evaluating potential hazards associated with a product, the next step is to focus on the process(es) that represent greatest risk to the consumer and how to control the occurrence of these hazards. Within the HACCP system, such steps are called Critical Control Points (CCP) and are defined as “steps or procedures in a process that when under control can prevent, eliminate or reduce a hazard to an acceptable level”

To aid in the identification of CCPs, a HACCP decision tree is used (FAO, 1998). This consists of asking a series of questions that aid in the differentiation

Res-53 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers between critical control points (CCPs) and control measures. Remember this decision tree, cannot be applied blindly. It is necessary to consider the step within the context of each individual process.

Figure 5. CCP Decision Tree

Does a preventive measure exist for the NO Is the control at this point NO Finish identified hazard? necessary in order to assure safety?

YES

Define control measure

YES

Does this step eliminate or reduce the YES occurrence of the hazard to an acceptable It is a CCP level?

Can the hazard at this step occur or NO increment to an unacceptable level? It is not a CCP

YES

Can a further step eliminate or reduce the YES hazard to an acceptable level? It is not a CCP

It is a CCP

During the design of a HACCP plan it is often a debate whether or not a certain step in the process is a CCP. A great deal of confusion is generated when some steps of the process are critical for the product, but are not involved in assuring safety and wholesomeness. It is important to keep in mind that HACCP is geared towards food safety assurance. When there’s a quality assurance program integrated with HACCP, those steps that are not critical to assure a product’s wholesomeness and food safety are called control points (CP) and are often related to product quality.

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HACCP Principle 3. Establishment of Critical Limits (CL) for each CCP

Once a CCP has been identified, limits should be established for every variable that is going to be monitored. In a HACCP system these are referred to as Critical Limits.

These critical limits are physical and chemical parameters, which can be extracted from bibliographic sources, regulatory standards, scientific investigations, experimental studies, etc. Again it is important not to confuse quality specifications with process operating conditions. CLs are exclusively set for a CCP.

Figure 6 – Sample Critical Limits

CCP VARIABLE CRITICAL LIMIT Sanitizing control (chlorination Total Chlorine 100-150 ppm chlorine of water) Residual chlorine 2-7 ppm residual chlorine pH 6.0 –7.0 (over 7.5 chlorine looses is bactericidal properties)

Examples of critical limits in processed foods are cooking temperatures, cooling times, pH, water activity, concentration of chemical additives etc. When HACCP is used for fresh produce and the sanitation operation is considered a CCP for a biological hazard, critical limits are generally set for wash water temperature, chlorine concentration, pH of the solution, etc.

HACCP Principle 4. Establish Monitoring Procedures

The monitoring procedure has a preventive focus, it should be able to detect any deviation outside the critical limits. The idea is to detect a deviation in a process or buildup of a trend before the finished product reaches the end of the line. As it will be discussed in Principle 5, corrective actions will be established, and should be applied when monitoring indicates that a particular CL is out of control.

When establishing a monitoring system variables to be defined include: · Place · Frequency · Sample size · Procedure · Necessary material · Responsible person · Training and knowledge

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Figure 7 - Example of monitoring procedure for a produce washing step:

CRITICAL MONITORING CORRECTIVE PERSON CCP VARIABLE LIMIT PROCEDURE ACTIONS RECORDS RESPONSIBLE

Sanitizing Total 100-150 Sample every Adjust total RECORD- Quality control chlorine ppm hour. Chlorine chlorine. 03-HACCP assurance (water Residual chlorine measurement Desinfect supervisor chlorination) chlorine 2-7 ppm kit product again. CCP residual chlorine

pH 6.0–7.0 Measurement Adjust pH with RECORD- Quality (over 7.5 of pH every acid/base 03-HACCP assurance chlorine hour. pH chemicals. supervisor. looses meter. bactericidal properties)

When it is not possible to monitor a CCP on a continuous basis then it is necessary to establish sample frequency intervals short enough to keep the hazard under control. It is important to establish the monitoring procedures as rapid methods in order to apply an immediate corrective action and reestablish control in the process. Microbiological assays or other analyses that can take a long time are generally used for verification that the HACCP plan is working and not as monitoring procedures.

HACCP Principle 5. Establish Corrective Actions for each CCP to be applied when a deviation from a particular CL takes place.

In a HACCP plan, corrective actions are ways to proceed to reestablish control when the monitoring procedure indicates that a CL is out of its boundaries. Corrective actions also describe ways to dispose of or reprocess the product that was produced outside the CLs.

Corrective actions may include activities such as stopping the production line until the problem is solved, reprocessing a product that was manufactured outside of the CL boundaries or applying an additional treatment. Other actions may call for utilization of the product in a manner different than the one stipulated or even destruction of the product.

When a deviation occurs and corrective actions are taken to correct the problem, the source of the problem should be investigated and registered in the correction action log to prevent future occurrence.

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Figure 8 - Examples of corrective actions implemented to minimize biological hazards in a produce-washing step

CRITICAL MONITORING CORRECTIVE RESPONSIBLE CCP VARIABLE LIMIT PROCEDURE ACTIONS RECORDS PERSON

Sanitizing Total 100-150 Sample every Adjust total RECORD- Quality control chlorine ppm chlorine hour. Chlorine chlorine. 03-HACCP assurance (water Residual 2-7 ppm measurement Desinfect supervisor chlorination) chlorine residual kit product again. CCP chlorine

pH 6.0–7.0 Measurement Adjust pH with RECORD- Quality (over 7.5 of pH every acid/base 03-HACCP assurance chlorine hour. pH chemicals. supervisor. looses meter. bactericidal properties)

Corrective actions should be written as detailed procedures, and the person responsible of implementing such actions should have enough authority and knowledge to be an efficient decision-maker. The flow of information should be efficient enough to allow for the action to be taken in a rapid manner. Corrective actions should be documented in the general logbook, defining clearly how the CCP was brought back to control within the CLs.

HACCP Principle 6. Establish Verification Procedures for the HACCP System

Verification is defined as those activities, other than monitoring, that determine the validity of the HACCP plan and that the system is operating according to the plan. It may involve doing microbiological, physical and chemical analyses, which are more complex and take longer turn-around times. These analyses are done with the purpose of verifying that the HACCP system is designed correctly and working properly.

Initial and subsequent validation activities are part of the verification schedule and may include designing experiments and tests to determine if the HACCP plan is correct and operating as planned. An example would be the inoculation of a bacterial pathogen and verifying the ability of a CCP to eliminate it or reduce it to safe levels.

Additional verification activities include audits of the CCP records, deviations of CL, taken corrective actions, equipment and instrument calibration among other things. The frequency of verification should guarantee that the HACCP system is preventing safety problems.

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Figure 9 – Verification of corrective actions

CORRECTIVE RESPONSIBLE CCP VERIFICATION FREQUENCY ACTIONS RECORD PERSON

Water Chlorination Weekly Correct chlorine RECORD- Operations chlorination record review levels and/or re- 06- Manager control. RECORD-03- train operator HACCP (desinfection) HACCP CCP

pH meter Weekly Correct RECORD- Operations calibration record calibration 06- Manager review and/or re-train HACCP RECORD-09- operator HACCP

Microbiological Daily 1 sample Correct the RECORD- Operation assay of product per product problem, wash 10- Manager after washing equipments, HACCP step. Aerobic change water mesophilics, Total and apply other coliforms, fecal measures coliforms

HACCP Principle 7. Establish Record-Keeping and Documentation Procedures

Records must include conditions at every CCP and all necessary information to assure the system is functioning properly. This information is the evidence of the performance of the process in case of internal or external audits.

When a HACCP system is implemented, documentation and records usually include: · A summary of the hazard analysis, including the rationale for determining hazards and control measures. · HACCP Plan o Listing of the HACCP team and assigned responsibilities. o Description of the food, its distribution, intended use, and consumer. o Verified flow diagram. o HACCP Plan Summary Table that includes information for: § Steps in the process that are CCPs § The hazard(s) of concern § Critical limits § Monitoring § Corrective actions § Verification procedures and schedule

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· Record-keeping procedures · Support documentation such as validation records. · Records that are generated during the operation of the plan.

HACCP methodology recommends the use of a Master Format in which all information regarding CCPs is collected and organized.

Figure 10 – HACCP Master Format

Step of CCP Type of Critical Monitoring Corrective HACCP Verification the hazard limit procedure / action / Record procedure / process Frequency / Responsible Responsible Responsible B P C

Having records means having evidence that the system is working properly.

References

Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme, Codex Alimentarius Commission. 1997. Food Hygiene Basic Texts. Publishing Management Group, FAO Information Division, Rome.

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). 1998. Food Quality and Safety System: A training manual on food hygiene and the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) system. Publishing Management Group, FAO Information Division, Rome.

National Advisory Committee on Microbiological Criteria for Foods (NACMCF). 1997. Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point Principles and Application Guidelines. Adopted August 14, 1997.

U.S. Food and Drug Adminitration (FDA). 2001. Final rule to increase the safety of fruit and vegetable juices. Available via the internet at: http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/NEWS/2001/NEW00749.html

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Part VII Choosing the Correct Training Aids

A visual aid is anything the audience can see that helps the speaker get the message to the audience (Cheek and Beeman, 1991). Visuals, such as flipcharts, overhead transparencies, posters, slides, etc. are an important part of effective presentations.

In addition to improving the effectiveness of communicating the message to the audience, good visuals serve a number of other important functions. These include: Ø Helping focus the audience’s attention on the presentation Ø Making the presenter more persuasive, concise, and interesting Ø Increasing the receiver’s retention of the information Ø Transmitting the message more effectively Ø Adding variety and emphasis to the presentation

Finally, today’s audiences tend to be visually oriented and have come to expect visuals with presentations. In many cases, they tend to be less accepting of talks presented without some sort of visual enhancement.

When choosing a training aid, the following should be considered:

Ø Course objectives. If there are specific points to be highlighted, a transparency or word slide may be appropriate. Sometimes a picture is essential and most effective in conveying the idea. For example, if discussing types of pesticide application equipment or types of pests common to stored grains it may be best to support the message with pictures/photos. Ø The physical setting. Room size, seating arrangement, and lighting in the presentation site are major considerations in selecting visual aids. It is important to assure visibility of the aids by all training participants. Ø Availability of materials to make the aid and to support its use, e.g. electricity supply, chalk, pens. Ø Nature of the audience. The audience’s familiarity with the topic can help determine the types of aids needed. For a presentation on diseases of vegetables to a group of homeowners with limited knowledge about gardening, it might be appropriate to have live plant specimens and slides. For a presentation to commercial vegetable farmers with good knowledge of plant diseases, slides might be the best way to illustrate the points. Ø Experience of the trainer and comfort with using the selected aid. It is important that trainers practice using the selected aids before the actual presentation so that the aid does not draw attention away from the main focus of the presentation. Proficiency in using an audio-visual aid cannot be learned from a book, it comes only with practice.

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Care needs to be taken to ensure that training aids are used as aids and do not take over the training session. Carefully planned and properly used training aids can improve the audience’s perception of the speaker as they demonstrate skill as a trainer. They serve to maintain the audience’s interest and strengthen the message. Unsuitable aids or ones that are not properly used can at best distract or mislead the audience.

Some aids are more suited to a particular objective than others. For example, if accurate detail is needed, a photograph, slides or a drawing may work well. If, on the other hand, the objective is to highlight the structure of a talk or the main points and conclusions of a discussion, a blackboard or overhead transparency may be more suitable.

The following table describes some of the most commonly used training aids and provides some considerations for preparing and using them.

Effective Training Aids

Charts and Posters · Useful for highlighting the main points of a presentation and to show complex processes, diagrams, pictures, etc. · In the training room can be placed on the wall for reference throughout the training and can be easily transported to the field · In certain circumstances can convey a message faster and more clearly than words. · Are particularly useful where the trainees may be illiterate since messages may be conveyed visually · Also useful to show a detailed drawing that the trainees will need to examine closely Flipcharts · Can be prepared in advance or developed during the training session · May include words, pictures or both words and pictures · Must have a well-functioning support stand and good pens that will produce clear lettering visible to the audience. · Like charts/posters, they can be displayed as a reference for later training sessions and can be easily transported · Works better with a small audience Overhead transparencies · Perhaps the most commonly used training aid · Can be prepared by hand using different colored pens or generated by a computer · Pictures/diagrams/text can be photocopied onto

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a transparency · With care in the location of the projector and the size of the lettering on the transparency, can be visible to a large group. · Often are prepared in advance and therefore serve as notes to the trainer. · Transparencies can be easily inserted or deleted to adapt a presentation to the needs of a particular group · Does not work well if too much information is put on a transparency so that lettering is too small to be read easily · Trainers must ensure that the projector is available and properly functioning and that there is a reliable supply of electricity · Practicing prior to the actual presentation will help trainer to know where to stand and how to change transparencies Color Photographs/Slides · Strengthen the message by showing illustrations, for example a field of crops, equipment, etc. · Photographs have the advantage of showing real life situations and therefore making the topic very practical for the trainees. · Photographs can be passed among the group or projected on to the wall as slides. Slides require reliable equipment, an electricity supply and the room must be darkened

Blackboards/Whiteboards · Widely available and easily adaptable · Useful for writing down the main points of a talk, for sketching simple drawings and diagrams and noting the main points raised in a discussion · Whiteboards require special water-soluble erasable pens. In general, whiteboards are easier to use than blackboards since the pens flow smoothly over the surface and the colors are clearer to read than chalk on a blackboard · A disadvantage of these techniques is that the speaker has their back to the audience while writing on the board

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Videos · May be used to supplement and add a real life dimension to a training session · Should be kept short – approximately 10 minute is considered a good length · Trainer should introduce the content and state its relevance to the overall training session. Trainees may be asked to watch for certain issues that will be discussed at the end of the video · Often introduce a welcome break when trainees have taken in a lot of new information. Can also summarize the main points of the session · Enable trainer and trainees to enter a different environment while in the training room - for example a video may allow a visual tour of a facility that is far away from the training site

Computer Slides · Require laptop computer or other equipment to run ‘slide show.’ Unless audience is small enough to view the presentation from the computer screen, an LCD projector or other projection device is needed · Hard copy print-outs can be made and used as lecture notes and/or handouts · Speedy production schedule and greater consistency of output · With practice, easy to change and/or re- organize presentation at the last minute

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PART VIII Glossary of Terms

Agricultural worker – any person that undertakes cultivation, packing, and/or harvesting of fresh fruits and vegetables.

Biosolids – sludge and other residue deposits obtained from residual water treatment plants and from treatment applied to urban and industrial wastes (food industries and other types of industry).

Chemigation - the application of chemicals through irrigation systems. Chemicals applied in this method include pesticides and fertilizers (sometimes called fertigation).

Cleaning – the removal of all foreign material (such as soil, organic matter) from objects. Cleaning is normally accomplished with water, mechanical action, and detergents or enzymatic products. Failure to remove foreign matter (such as soil) from an object before disinfection or sterilization is likely to render the process ineffective.

Composting – a managed process in which organic materials, including animal manure and other wastes, are digested aerobically or anaerobically by microbial action.

Contaminant – any biological or chemical agent, foreign matter, or other substances not intentionally added to that when found on or in produce can cause human illness or injury.

Critical Control Point – a point, step or procedure at which control can be applied and food safety hazard can be prevented, eliminated, or reduced.

Cultivation – any agriculture action or practice used by growers to allow and improve the growing conditions of fresh fruits and vegetables grown in the field or in protected facilities (hydroponic systems or greenhouses).

Deterioration – for produce, deterioration can be used interchangeably with spoilage. When applied to non-food products such as packaging materials, deterioration is a physical or chemical change in the material that may adversely affect the safety of the product.

Disinfection – the reduction, by means of chemical agents and/or physical methods, of the number of microorganisms in the environment, to a level that does not compromise food safety or suitability. The effectiveness of disinfection is affected by a number of factors, each of which may nullify or limit the efficiency of the process. Some of the factors that have been shown to affect disinfection effectiveness are the previous cleaning of the

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object, the organic load on the object, the type and level of microbial contamination, the concentration of and exposure time to the disinfectant, the physical configuration of the object (e.g., crevices), and the temperature and pH of the disinfection process.

Farm – any premise or establishment in which fresh fruits and/or vegetables are grown and harvested and the surroundings under the control of the same management.

Field packing - packing produce directly from the field into market containers for commercial distribution and sale.

Foodborne disease – the occurrence of illness resulting from the ingestion of food, gastrointestinal tract symptoms are the most common clinical manifestations of foodborne illnesses. Foodborne illnesses can be caused by microorganisms and their toxins, marine organisms and their toxins, fungi and their related toxins, and chemical contaminants.

Food hygiene – all conditions and measures necessary to ensure the safety and suitability of food at all stages of the food chain.

Food quality – the composite of those characteristics that differentiate individual units of a product and have significance in determining the degree of acceptability by the buyer.

Food safety – the practical certainty that injury or damage will not result from a food or ingredient used in a reasonable and customary manner and quantity.

Food safety assurance program - preventive program for ensuring safety of food products.

Fresh fruit and vegetables – fresh produce that is likely to be sold to consumers in an unprocessed or minimally processed (i.e. raw) form. Fresh produce may be intact, such as strawberries, whole carrots, radishes, and fresh market tomatoes or cut during harvesting, such as harvesting, such as celery, broccoli, and cauliflower.

Fruit and vegetable operation - the whole process of fruit and vegetable production from farm to table. Its unit operations generally include production, post-harvest operations, packaging, transportation and storage. Large fruit and vegetable operations generally are vertically integrated and all unit operations are interconnected. In smaller or medium-size operations the controls are generally demanded as supplier specifications and handled as stipulations for doing business.

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Good agricultural practices – The basic environmental and operational conditions necessary for the production of safe, wholesome fruits and vegetables.

Good management practices – general practices to reduce microbial food safety hazards. The term may include both “good agricultural practices” used in growing, harvesting, sorting, packing, and storage operations and “good manufacturing practices” used in sorting, packing, storage, and transportation operations.

Grower – the person responsible for the management of the primary production of fruits and vegetables.

HACCP – a system that identifies, evaluates, and controls hazards that are significant for food safety.

Handwashing – a vigorous, brief rubbing together of all surfaces of lathered hands, followed by rinsing under a stream of water. Handwashing with plain soaps or detergents (in bar, granule, leaflet, or liquid form) suspends microorganisms and allows them to be rinsed off; this process is often referred to as mechanical removal of microorganisms. Handwashing with antimicrobial-containing products kills or inhibits the growth of microorganisms; this process is often referred to as chemical removal of microorganisms.

Hazard – a biological, chemical, or physical agent in, or condition of, food with the potential to cause an adverse health effect.

Manure - feces, urine, other excrement, and bedding produced by livestock that has not been composted.

Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) - product safety information sheets prepared by manufacturers and marketers. An MSDS lists the ingredients in a hazardous product, its manufacturer, its hazards to safety and health, and precautions to follow when using it. These sheets can be obtained by requesting them from the manufacturer. Some stores, such as hardware stores, may have material safety data sheets on hand for products they sell.

Microorganisms include yeasts, molds, bacteria, protozoa, helminths (worms) and viruses. Occasionally, the term “microbe” or “microbial” is used instead of the term microorganisms.

Microbial hazard – occurrence of a microorganism that has the potential to cause illness or injury.

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Pathogen – a microorganism capable of causing disease or injury.

Pest – any animal or insect of public health importance including, but not limited to, birds, rodents, cockroaches, flies, and larvae, that may carry pathogens that can contaminate food.

Primary production – those steps involved in the growing and harvesting of fresh fruits and vegetables such as planting, irrigation, application of fertilizers, application of agricultural chemicals, etc.

Risk – an estimate of the likelihood of occurrence of a hazard

Sanitize – to treat clean produce by a process that is effective in destroying or substantially reducing the numbers of microorganisms of public health concern, as well as undesirable microorganisms, without adversely affecting the quality of the product or the safety of the consumer.

Sanitize (food contact surfaces) – adequately treat clean food contact surfaces by a process that is effective in destroying or substantially reducing the numbers of microorganisms of public health concern, as well as other undesirable microorganisms, without adversely affecting the quality of the involved product or its safety for the consumer. It means the application of cumulative heat or chemicals on cleaned food contact surfaces that, when evaluated for efficacy, is sufficient to reduce populations of representative microorganisms by 5 log or 99.999%.

Spoilage – a process whereby food quality and/or food safety is rendered unacceptable through microbial or chemical reaction.

Traceback - a method used to determine the source(s) and distribution of food(s) implicated in a foodborne disease outbreak and to identify potential points where contamination could have occurred

Unit operations: Individual steps during the production and distribution of fruit and vegetables.

Water definitions – Agricultural water – water used in the growing environment (for example, field, vineyard, or orchard) for agronomic reasons. It includes water used for irrigation, transpiration control (cooling), frost protection, or as a carrier for fertilizers and pesticides. Typical sources of agricultural water include flowing surface waters from rivers, streams, irrigation ditches, open canals, impoundments (such as ponds, reserviors, and lakes), wells, and municipal supplies. Clean water – water that does not compromise food safety in the circumstances of its use. Potable water – water that meets the quality standards of drinking water.

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PART IX Where to Find Additional Information

Guidance, Regulations, and Standards of the U.S. Government

Guidance for Industry: Guide to Minimize Microbial Food Safety Hazards for Fresh Fruits and Vegetables, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, October 1996. Copies available in English, Spanish, Portuguese, and French from: Food Safety Initiative Staff, HFS-32 U.S. Food and Drug Administration Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition 200 C Street S.W. Washington, DC 20204 (Tel) 202-260-8920 (Internet) http://www.fda.gov

Copies of Federal regulations in the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) may be purchased from the U.S. Government Printing Office or by telephone at (202) 512-1800. The CFR is also available at branches of the U.S. Government Printing Office Bookstores. Information on location of regional branches is available on the WWW at the following address: http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/~lrd/ob- reg.html Sections of the CFR can be viewed and printed from the WWW at the following address: http://www.access.gpo.gov/nara/cfr/index.html.

Title 21, Code of Federal Regulations: 21 CFR 100-169 and 21 CFR 170-199 Sections of Title 21, such as 21 CFR 110.10 can be viewed and printed from the WWW at the following address: http://www.access.gpo.gov/nara/cfr/. You may purchase 21 CFR 100-169 or 21 CFR 170-199 from the U.S. Government Printing Office or by telephone at (202) 512-1800.

OSHA Standards

OSHA General Industry standards, Title 29 CFR 1910, and OSHA Agricultural Industry standards, Title 29 CFR 1928, may be purchased through a U.S. Government Printing Office or by telephone at (202) 512-1800. 29 CFR 1910.141 and 29 CFR 1928.110 may be viewed and printed from the WWW at: http://www.osha-slc.gov/OshStd_toc/OSHA_Std_toc.html.

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EPA Regulations

EPA regulations may be obtained by contacting: U.S. EPA/NCEPI P.O. Box 42419 Cincinnati, OH 45242-2419. Telephone: 1-800-490-9198 FAX (513) 489-8695. You must give the EPA catalog number for the publication. Electronic versions of additional EPA documents, such as criteria and supporting documents, are available at http://www.epa.gov.

Additional Helpful Information from the U.S. Government:

USDA/FDA Foodborne Illness Education Information Center http://nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodborne/foodborn.htm

U.S. EPA. Ambient Water Quality Criteria for Bacteria, EPA Office of Water Regulations and Standards, EPA 832-B-92-005, January 1986.

USDA. List of Proprietary Substances and Nonfood Compounds Authorized for Use Under USDA Inspection and Grading Programs.

U.S. EPA. Domestic Septage Regulatory Guidance, A Guide to the EPA 503 Rule. EPA, Office of Water Regulations and Standards, 832-B-92-005, September 1993.

“Food Safety Begins on the Farm: A Growers Guide Good Agricultural Practices for Fresh Fruits and Vegetables “ Good Agricultural Practices Program, Cornell University. Prepared under CSREES/USDA and USFDA, Agreement Number 99- 41560-0821.

USDA Agricultural Marketing Service program "Qualified Through Verification for Fresh Cut Produce" is available from: Branch Chief, Processed Products Branch, Fruit and Vegetable Programs, Agricultural Marketing Service, USDA, P.O. Box 96456, Rm. 0726, South Building, Washington, DC, 20090-6456. (202) 720- 4693.

USAID is an independent federal government agency that receives overall foreign policy guidance from the Secretary of State. The agency works in six principal areas crucial to achieving both sustainable development and advancing U.S. foreign policy objectives: Economic growth and agricultural development; Population, health and nutrition; Environment; Democracy and governance; Education and training, and; Humanitarian assistance. More information is available at http://www.usaid.gov

Res-69 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

The National Agricultural Library (NAL), part of the Agricultural Research Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, is one of four National Libraries in the United States. NAL is a major international source for agriculture and related information. The Web site (http://www.nalusda.gov) provides access to NAL's many resources and a gateway to its associated institutions.

Codex Alimentarius Commission – FAO/WHO

The Codex Committee on Food Hygiene (CCFH) initiated work on a Code of Hygienic Practice for the Primary Production, Harvesting, and Packaging of Fresh Produce. A proposed draft code is currently being reviewed.

For information on this draft code of practice and other activities of the Codex Alimentarius Commission, please contact the Secretariat of the Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme at:

Secretariat of the Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Viale delle Terme di Caracalla 00100 Rome, Italy Tel: 3906 52251 Telefax: 3906 52253152 Telex: 610181FAO1 E-mail (Internet): [email protected]

Codex meeting agendas, reports and standards can be accessed from FAO’s web page: http://www.codexalimentarius.net/

World Trade Organization

The World Trade Organization (WTO) is the only global international organization dealing with the rules of trade between nations. The goal is to help producers of goods and services, exporters, and importers conduct their business. Information on WTO and it’s activities may be obtained via the internet at: http://www.wto.org

Res-70 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Food and Agriculture Organization

This Manual was prepared in collaboration with the Food Quality and Standards Service of Food and Nutrition Division (ESN) of FAO. More information on the work of the Division on food quality and safety matters, including fresh fruit and vegetable production is available on the ESN homepage (http://www.fao.org/waicent/faoinfo/economic/ESN/nutri.htm)

In addition, a number of related publications on water quality, extension training, food quality and safety can be obtained by contacting FAO through its web site: http://www.fao.org or by requesting a publication catalog from:

U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization Viale de lle Terme di Caracalla 00100 Rome, Italy Tel: 39 06 5705-4608 Fax: 39 06 5705 3360 E-mail (INTERNET): [email protected]

“Production Half the Battle: A Training Manual in Fresh Produce Marketing for the Eastern Caribbean”. Written by Stephen Harris, FAO Bridegtown, Barbados, December 1988 A practical training manual developed for the Eastern Caribbean as part of a FAO/INPhO project. Available electronically at: http://www.fao.org/inpho/vlibrary/x0014e/X0014E00.htm

The Agro-Industries and Post-Harvest Management Service (AGSI) is one of four services of the Agricultural Support Systems Division at FAO. The work of AGSI focuses on post production issues, promotes value-added transformation technologies and covers a broad spectrum of activities which include advising governments. Publications of AGSI can be accessed through their homepage at http://www.fao.org/ag/ags/Agsi/AGSI.HTM

FAOSTAT is an on-line and multilingual databases currently containing over 1 million time-series records covering international statistics in the following areas:

· Production · Forest Products · Trade · Fishery Products · Food Balance · Population Sheets · Agricultural Machinery · Fertilizer and · Food Aid Shipments Pesticides · Land Use and Irrigation

Res-71 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Databases can be accessed online at http://apps.fao.org/

World Health Organization

Related publications and a publication catalog can be obtained from WHO:

World Health Organization Distribution and Sales Service 1211 Geneva 27 Switzerland http://www.who.org

A key reference available from WHO’s is “Surface Decontamination of Fruits and Vegetables Eaten Raw: A Review” Food Safety Unit, World Health Organization. WHO/FSF/FOS/98. Written by Larry R. Beuchat, Ph.D. Article is available via the internet at http://www.who.int/fsf/fos982~1.pdf

Res-72 Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

Trade Organizations

Fresh produce associations based in the United States offer food quality and safety publications. Contact the organization directly for lists of available resources.

International Fresh-Cut Produce Fresh Produce Association for the Association Americas 1600 Duke Street 30 E. Hudgins Suite 440 P.O. Box 848 Alexandria, VA 22314 Nogales, AZ 85628 Tel: 703 299-6282 Tel: 520-287-2707 http://www.fresh-cuts.org Fax: 520-287-2948

Produce Marketing Association United Fresh Fruit and Vegetable P.O. Box 6036 Association Newark, DE 19714 727 North Washington Street Tel; 302 738-7100 Alexandria, VA 22314 http://www.pma.com Tel: 703 836-3410 Fax: 703 836-7745 http://www.uffva.org Western Growers Association 17620 Fitch Street Irvine, CA 92614 Tel: 714 863-1000

Res-73 Acknowledgments

This manual was prepared by the Institute of Food Science and Engineering (IFSE), University of Arkansas for the Joint Institute of Food Safety and Applied Nutrition (JIFSAN)/University of Maryland, Dr. David Lineback, Director.

IFSE staff involved with this project included:

Justin Morris, Distinguished Professor Director Institute of Food Science and Engineering

Pat Dexter, Director FAO Center for Food Safety and Nutrition

Pamela Brady, Ph.D. Adjunct Professor, Department of Food Science

Bob Bates, Ph.D. Visiting Professor, IFSE on sabbatical from University of Florida

Alfredo Gonzales, Ph.D. Professor, Department of Food Science, Retired

Carmen Hernandez-Brenes, Ph.D. Department of Food Science

Technical Reviewers

Frances Pabrua Miguel Ángel Martinez Tellez, Fresh Express Ph.D. CIAD (Center for Research on Food Trevor Suslow, Ph.D. and Development), Sonora, Mexico University of California – Davis Alex Castillo, Ph.D. Jes_s Pablo Velazco, Ph.D. University of Guadalajara Monterrey Institute of Technology Guadalajara, Mexico

Larry Beuchat. Ph.D. George W. Wardlow, Ph.D. University of Georgia University of Arkansas Robert Gravani, Ph.D. Ples Spradley Cornell University Cooperative Extension Service University of Arkansas FAO Advisory Team

Maria deLourdes Costarrica Senior Officer Annamaria Bruno Food Quality and Standards Service Food and Nutrition Officer Food and Nutrition Division Subregional Office for the Pacific Islands (SAPA) Enrique Arias Agricultural Officer Fernando Chanduvi Horticultural Crops Group Technical Officer Plant Protection and Production Land and Water Development Division Division

Catherine Bessy Lydda Gaviria Food Control Officer Communication for Development Food Quality and Standards Service Education and Extension Officer Food and Nutrition division FAO Regional Office for Latin America and the Carribean Rosa Rolle Agricultural Industries Officer Mary Kenny Agro-Industries and Post-Harvest Nutrition Officer (Quality Assurance) Management Service Food Quality and Standards Service Food and Nutrition Division Academic Teaching Team Members

Chris Walsh, Ph.D., Coordinator Department of Natural Resource Sciences and Landscape Architecture University of Maryland

Jim Rushing, Ph.D. Department of Horticulture Clemson University

Juan Silva, Ph.D. Department of Food Science and Technology Mississippi State University

FDA/CFSAN Contributors and Teaching Team Members The following staff from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration’s Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition provided technical review during manual development and/or instruction during training sessions, which pilot tested the manual:

Sherri McGarry, M.S. Andreas Keller, Ph.D. Microbiologist Microbiologist Office of Field Programs Office of Plant and Dairy Foods and Beverages Nega Beru, Ph.D. Director, Division of Plant Product Mark Walderhaug, Ph.D. Safety Microbiologist Office of Plant and Dairy Foods and Office of Plant and Dairy Foods and Beverages Beverages

John Sanders, Jr. D.V.M. Marion Allen General Health Scientist / Inspection/Compliance Coordinator Epidemiologist Food Safety Staff Office of Field Programs Mary Ayling Daniel Trachewsky, Ph.D. Inspection/Compliance Lead Associate Director for Education and Food Safety Staff Outreach Joint Institute for Food Safety and Camille Brewer, M.S. R.D. Applied Nutrition International Food Safety Activities Coordinator Michelle Smith, Ph.D. Food Safety Staff Interdisciplinary Scientist Office of Plant and Dairy Foods and Joyce Saltsman, Ph.D. Beverages Food Technologist Office of Plant and Dairy Foods and Arthur Miller, Ph.D. Beverages Senior Scientist Office of Science Marjorie Davidson, Ph.D. National Food Safety Education Officer Food Safety Staff

Translation to Spanish

English to Spanish translation by TranslateXpress.Com, Inc. Technical review of Spanish translation by Adriana Dinamarca Rushing