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4. Selected straddling stocks

The list of straddling stocks in FAO (1994) was taken as a starting point for this review. Enquiries were sent to Regional Bodies soliciting regional knowledge to refine the lists. Information was received for the Northeast and the Southeast Atlantic. For the northwest and Southwest Atlantic, and the Northeast, eastern central and Southeast Pacific, staff of the FAO Fisheries Department or its consultants applied their own informed judgements. For the western and eastern central Atlantic, the Southwest Pacific and for the Indian , catches by country (within statistical areas) were examined to determine which were being reported by non-coastal States which were presumed to be on the high seas. This information was tempered by knowledge of situations where distant-water fishing countries have access agreements to EEZs, particularly when the species in the reported catch were not known to be in commercial abundance on the high seas. Using this approach, a refined list of species (by FAO statistical area) likely to be fished as straddling stock and high seas was prepared. This included 129 species/stocks and a brief description of the main, straddling stocks by major area as given below, and in Section 5 the same is done for the high seas fish stocks. An examination of the continental shelves, defined for the purpose of this review by the 200-m depth contour, and the 200 nm contour from the coastline which generally corresponds to EEZs (Figure 45), suggests that there are several areas where stocks of neritic and in particular of demersal fishes associated with the continental shelves could be straddling: a small area north of Russia and the United States of America in the North Pacific, a small area off Argentina in the Southeast Atlantic, the nose and

FIGURE 45 Continental shelf areas within and beyond the 200 nautical mile limit off the coast 38 The state of world highly migratory, straddling and other high seas resources and associated species

tail of the Newfoundland Grand Bank off Canada in the northwest Atlantic, an area between and Russia in the Northeast Atlantic (the so-called Loop Hole), an area off Mauritius and the Seychelles in the western Indian , and another area off the Russian EEZ in the northwest Pacific Ocean. Other known areas of straddling stocks are the “Donut Hole” in the middle of the Bering Sea in the Northeast Pacific, the “Peanut Hole” in the Sea of Hokhotsk in the northwest Pacific, the Challenger Plateau west of New Zealand and the South Tasmanian Rise in the eastern . This implies that the United States of America, Russia, Argentina, Canada, Norway, Australia and New Zealand are the coastal States most likely affected or potentially affected by demersal straddling stocks problems. Meltzer (2005) comes to a similar conclusion about areas with the potential of straddling stocks, highlighting in addition the eastern central Atlantic (FAO area 34) off West Africa, the Southwest Atlantic (FAO area 41) and off almost the entire east coast of South America. The main species that constitute straddling stocks are generally well studied (e.g. , , flounders) compared to several highly migratory species, particularly the non-. Such information is readily available from various published sources of information or reports or web pages from Regional Fishery Bodies (RFB). Therefore, this document does not review the biology, and life history and migratory behaviour of these species. As indicated before, there is no global database distinguishing between catches taken from (entirely) EEZ stocks from those taken from straddling stocks, or to distinguish catches of straddling stocks within and outside EEZs. Therefore, the catch data presented later in this section is only provided as an indication of the relative importance of the species, with no indication of what portion of it comes from straddling stock(s), or from areas within or beyond the EEZ. The only graphs of catches presented in this section are for the Southern Ocean, where we report on all of the species fished in the CCAMLR convention area as if they were straddling stocks.

4.1. PACIFIC OCEAN

4.1.1 Northwest Pacific Straddling stocks in the northwest Pacific include Alaska (Walleye) pollock (Theragra chalcogramma), flying (Ommastrephes bartrami), Boreal clubhook squid (Onychoteuthys borealjaponica), Boreopacific armhook squid (Gonatopsis borealis), ( alutus), armourhead (Pseudopentaceros spp.) and the alfonsino (Beryx splendens). Based on FAO (2005a), the pollock is considered fully exploited while the vary from moderately to fully exploited, and in some cases recovering. Based on reported landings, the Pacific Ocean perch is considered depleted, while the state of armourhead and alfonsinos is not known.

4.1.2 Northeast Pacific Straddling stocks in the Northeast Pacific include jack (Trachurus picturatus symmetricus) and Alaska (Walleye) pollock (Theragra chalcogramma). The jack mackerel is moderately exploited and the Alaska pollock is fully exploited.

4.1.3 Western central Pacific There is no information on straddling stocks in the western central Pacific.

4.1.4 Eastern central Pacific According to FAO (2005a) the straddling stocks of jumbo flying squid (Dosidicus gigas) are moderately to fully exploited in the eastern central Pacific, horse mackerel (Trachurus spp.) is underexploited, and chub mackerel (Scomber japonicus) is moderately exploited. Selected straddling fish stocks 39

4.1.5 Southwest Pacific There exist two types of straddling fish stocks in the Southwest Pacific. Stocks belonging to the more common type are associated with continental shelves while stocks belonging to the less common type are associated with small islands with limited shelves whose fishery depend on oceanic resources found both within and outside their EEZs. Species with straddling stocks associated with continental shelves include ( atlanticus), oreo dories (Allocyttus verrucosus, A. niger, Neocyttus rhomboidalis, Pseudocyttus maculatus) and hoki (Macruronus novaezealandiae). Straddling oceanic resources include the narrow-barred Spanish mackerel (Scomberomorus commerson), oceanic squids, and . Based on FAO (2005a), orange roughy, oreo dories and hoki are fully exploited to overexploited. The Spanish mackerel are moderately exploited, oceanic squid are moderately exploited and flying fish are fully exploited.

4.1.6 Southeast Pacific Straddling stocks in the Southeast Pacific include jumbo squid (Dosidicus gigas) and Chilean jack mackerel (Trachurus picturatus murphyi). Chub mackerel (Scomber japonicus) is also found beyond the EEZ but the catches are small. The Chilean jack mackerel is fully or overexploited while the jumbo flying squid is moderately exploited based on FAO (2005a). Chub mackerel is reported as moderately to fully exploited.

4.2

4.2.1 Northwest Atlantic Straddling stocks in the northwest Atlantic include cod (Gadus morhua), American plaice (Hypoglossoides platessoides), redfish (Sebastes marinus), witch flounder (Glyptocephalus cynoglossus), Atlantic halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus), black halibut (Reinhardtius hippoglossoides), yellowtail flounder (Pleuronectes ferruginaeus), grenadiers (Macrouridae), capelin (Mallotus villosus) and (Pandalus borealis). Based on assessments by the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization (NAFO) where stocks are not assessed every year (a convenient summary is found at http:// www.nafo.ca/science/advice/nafo-stocks.html), cod, American plaice, redfish, witch flounder, and Atlantic halibut are depleted; black halibut are overexploited; yellowtail flounder and shrimp are fully exploited; capelin are underexploited, and the status of grenadiers is unknown. It is noted that stocks of some of the species on the Flemish Cap (NAFO Division 3M), such as cod and redfish, may be separate from EEZ stocks, and as such, may be high seas fish stocks, rather than straddling stocks.

4.2.2 Northeast Atlantic The main “traditional” straddling stocks in the Northeast Atlantic are: blue whiting (Micromesistius poutassou), oceanic redfish (Sebastes mentella), cod (Gadus morhua), haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefinus), black halibut (Reinhardtius hippoglossoides), Norwegian spring-spawning (Clupea harengus), mackerel (Scomber scombrus) and horse mackerel (Trachurus trachurus). In addition to these, the Northeast Atlantic Fisheries Commission (NEAFC, http://www.neafc.org) advises in its reply to FAO’s request for input, that most deep- water species for which fisheries have recently developed should also be considered as being straddling. These species are: Baird’s smoothhead (Alepocehalus bairdii), Risso’s smoothhead (Alepocephalus rostratus), blue antimora or blue hake (Antimora rostrata), black scabbardfish (Aphanopus carbo), catshark (Apristuris spp.), greater silver smelt (Argentina silus), alfonsinos (Beryx spp.), tusk (Brosme brosme), gulper (Centrophorus granulosus), leafscale gulper shark (Centrophorus squamosus), 40 The state of world highly migratory, straddling and other high seas fishery resources and associated species

black dogfish (Centroscyllium fabricii), Portuguese dogfish (Centroscymnus coelolepis), longnose velvet dogfish (Centroscymnus crepidater), deep-water red crab (Chacon (Geyron) affinis), rabbit fish (Rattail) (Chimaera monstrosa), frilled shark (Chlamydoselachus anguineus), (Conger conger), roundnose grenadier (Coryphaenoides rupestris), kitefin shark (Dalatias licha), birdbeak dogfish (Deania calceus), black (deep water) cardinal fish (Epigonus telescopus), greater lanternshark (Etmopterus princes), velvet belly (Etmopterus spinax), blackmouth dogfish (Galeus melastomus), mouse catshark (Galeus murinus), bluemouth (blue mouth redfish) ( dactylopterus), blondnose six-gilled shark (Hexanchus griseus), orange roughy (Hoplostethus atlanticus), Mediterranean (Hoplostethus mediterraneus), large-eyed rabbit fish (ratfish) (Hydrolagus mirabilis), silver scabbard fish (cutless fish) (Lepidopus caudatus), greater eelpout (Lycodes esmarkii), roughhead grenadier (rough rattail) (Marcrourus berglax), blue ling (Molva dypterigia), ling (Molva molva), common mora (Mora moro), sailfin roughshark (sharpback shark) (Oxynotus paradoxus), red (blackspot) seabream (Pagellus bogaraveo), forkbeards (Phycis spp.), wreckfish (Polyprion americanus), round skate (Raja fyllae), Arctic skate (Raja hyperborea), Norwegian skate (Raja nidarosiensus), straightnose rabbitfish (Rhinochimaera atlantica), knifetooth dogfish (Scymnodon ringens), small redfish (Norway haddock) (Sebastes viviparous), Greenland shark (Somniosus microcephalus), spiny (deep sea) Atlantic thornyhead (Trachyscorpia cristulata). Fisheries for deep-water species have developed rapidly since 1990 in the Northeast Atlantic as a result of management limitations and reduced resource availability of traditional species. The International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES, 2005) has recently provided advice for the management of these fisheries. Although the state of exploitation of most species/stocks cannot be assessed with respect to standard criteria, the overall evaluation provided by ICES is that those fisheries are currently not sustainable. Based on ICES advice in 2005, none of the traditional straddling stocks are under or moderately exploited, herring and oceanic redfish are fully exploited, blue whiting, cod, haddock, black halibut and mackerel are overexploited, while the state of horse mackerel is uncertain.

4.2.3 Eastern central Atlantic The analysis of catches by non-coastal States described in the introduction to the chapter on straddling stocks identified catches of common cuttlefish, marine fishes nei, Octopuses etc. nei, red porgy, West African goatfish, common sole, cuttlefish, bobtail squids nei, European hake, Natantian decapods nei, croakers, drums nei, tonguefish, chub mackerel, , jack and horse mackerel nei, alfonsinos, nei and Senegalese hake from countries that have fishing agreements with coastal States. All of these species are distributed within EEZs and, as generally understood among the CECAF working groups, it is concluded that there are no significant fisheries for straddling stocks outside of EEZs at present in the eastern central Atlantic.

4.2.4 Western central Atlantic The analysis of catches by non-coastal States was also performed for the western central Atlantic. It identified catches of a mixture of coastal and oceanic species in general categories such as: , rays, skates, etc. nei; croakers, drums nei; hairtails, scabbardfishes nei; marine fishes nei, and Natantian decapods nei, which suggest that these catches were probably made within EEZs under fishing agreements with coastal States. As for the eastern central Atlantic, it was concluded that there are no significant fisheries for straddling stocks outside EEZs at present in the western central Atlantic. Selected straddling fish stocks 41

4.2.5 Southwest Atlantic Straddling stocks in the in the Southwest Atlantic include short- squid (Illex argentinus), common squid (Loligo spp.), seven star flying squid (Martialia hyadesi), the Argentine hake (Merluccius hubbsi) and southern hake (M. polylepis), the southern blue whiting (Micromesistius australis), the pink cusk eel (Genypterus blacodes), the Patagonian toothfish (Dissostichus eleginoides), the tadpole mora (Salilota australis), the Patagonian grenadier (Macruronus magellanicus), the grenadier (Macrourus whitsoni), the Antarctic cod (Notothenia rossii), rockcods (Notothenia spp.) and various species of sharks and rays. Based on FAO (2005a) the state of exploitation of the stocks of short-fin squid and common squid is fully exploited, while the state of the seven star flying squid will be unknown. However, given its life history pattern, relatively wide distribution and low and occasional nature of the catches, it is unlikely that it will be fully or overexploited. The state of Argentine hake (mostly found and caught within the EEZs) are reported as overexploited or depleted, while the southern hake is considered fully exploited. The southern blue whiting is fully to overexploited, and the pink cust eel and the Patagonian toothfish are moderately to fully exploited, although FAO (2005a) notes that “there is a general perception that Patagonian toothfish is in a much critical situation due to high non-reported catches in international waters”. The Patagonian grenadier is moderately exploited while the state of the tadpole mora, rockcods and the shark and rays are not known.

4.2.6 Southeast Atlantic In reply to FAO’s request to RFB’s, the Southeast Atlantic Fisheries Organization (SEAFO, http://www.seafo.org/) identified the following species as straddling: alfonsinos ( Bercycidae), orange roughy, horse mackerel (Trachurus spp.), lanternfish (family Myctophidae), mackerel (Scomber spp.), skates (family Rajidae), sharks ( Selachomorpha), armourhead (Pseudopentaceros spp.), cardinal fish (Epigonus spp.), deep-sea red crab (Chaceon maritae), octopus (family Octopodidae), squids (family Loliginidae), and wreckfish (Polyprion americanus). The state of exploitation is unknown for all of the species except for horse mackerel which are classified as fully exploited.

4.3 INDIAN OCEAN The narrow continental margins around the Indian Ocean result in few straddling stocks. The transboundary and straddling stocks that do exist (e.g. deep-water snapper, deep-water shrimp) are minor and are not fished to any extent: there are no high seas fisheries for these resources. The topography of the Mascarene Ridge makes this area suitable for straddling stocks as its shallow waters extends beyond the EEZ onto the high seas. Here, an important example is the Saya de Malha Bank where stocks of dame berri (Lethrinus mahsena) and capitaine (L. nebulosa) are fished within, but mainly beyond the Mauritian EEZ.

4.4 SOUTHERN OCEAN The Southern Ocean is considered to be delimited by the Antarctic Convergence where cold Antarctic waters meet warmer waters of the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans to the north. The location of the Antarctic Convergence varies over time, but it is in the vicinity of 60 °S. The Antarctic convergence is generally considered to form the boundary of the Southern Ocean ecosystem, with relatively few species passing through it (the great whales are a notable exception). There is a unique legal situation for the Southern Ocean (FAO statistical areas 48, 58 and 88) which is within the jurisdiction of the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR, http://www.ccamlr.org/default. 42 The state of world highly migratory, straddling and other high seas fishery resources and associated species

htm). Claims of sovereignty over the Antarctic Continent or its continental shelf have been put aside under provisions of the Antarctic Treaty, which entered into force in 1961 (http://www-old.aad.gov.au/information/treaty/treaty.asp). However, several countries have established EEZs within the Southern Ocean area of CCAMLR off the coasts of their island territories in that area, in addition to the EEZs extending from the tip of South America. Given the unique situation of the Southern Ocean with respect to territorial and jurisdictional claims, this review reports on all of the species fished in the CCAMLR convention area as if they were straddling fish stocks or high seas fish stocks. There are no fisheries for highly migratory species (as defined by Annex 1 of UNCLOS) in the Southern Ocean at present. Cetaceans or whales are listed as highly migratory species in Annex 1 of UNCLOS and, historically, the Southern Ocean was a major area for whaling. However, the International Whaling Commission currently maintains a moratorium on commercial whaling. Prior to the mid-1960s, FIGURE 46 only whale catches were Catches by species in the Southern Ocean reported to FAO from the as reported to FAO in percentage cumulative, 1990–2004 Southern Ocean. Since then,

Southern Ocean cumulative 1990-2004 the fisheries have targeted various species including marbled rockcod, mackerel icefish, humped rockcod, south Georgian icefish, Patagonian and Antarctic toothfish and Antarctic . Reported catches exceeded 600 000 tonnes in the early-1980s, but since the early-1990s, they have

Antarctic krill Patagonian toothfish been relatively stable around Electron subantarctic Mackerel icefish 100 000 tonnes per year, albeit Antarctic toothfish (negligible) Grey rockcod with a tendency to increase. Spiny icefish (negligible) Others (55 species) During 1990–2004 (Figures 46 and 47), the catches have been dominated by Antarctic krill (86 percent), Patagonian FIGURE 47 Catches reported to FAO from the Southern Ocean toothfish (6 percent), a lanternfish (Electrona Southern Ocean carlsbergi), the subantarctic 700 Others (55 species) electron (5 percent) and Spiny icefish (negligible) 600 the mackerel icefish at less Grey rockcod than 2 percent. More than ) Antarctic toothfish (negligible) 500 50 species are reported in the Mackerel icefish Electron subantarctic remaining 1 percent of the total 400 Patagonian toothfish catches. Although Antarctic Antarctic krill toothfish does not show up 300 as an important species in the

h (thousand tonnes (thousand h catch statistics, it is a concern 200

Catc within the convention area of CCAMLR because of IUU 100 fishing during the late-1990s and early-2000s. 0 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 Information on the state of exploitation of Southern Selected straddling fish stocks 43

Ocean resources was provided by the CCAMLR Secretariat. Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba) is considered underexploited in FAO areas 48 and 58, while the lanternfish subantartic electron (Electrona carlsbergi), the sevenstar flying squid (Martialia hyadesi), the red stone crab (Paralomis spinosissima) and the globose king crab (P. formosa) in FAO area 48 are also considered underexploited. Patagonian toothfish (Dissostichus eleginoides) is considered overfished in parts of FAO area 58 and fully exploited in area 48 and other parts of area 58. Mackerel icefish (Champsocephalus gunnari) is fully exploited in both areas 48 and 58 while the state of marbled rockcod (Notothenia rossii), on which the fishery is closed, is uncertain. No species are considered moderately exploited in the Southern Ocean.

4.5 AND BLACK SEA No EEZs have been implemented in the Mediterranean Sea. Therefore, all fish stocks exploited within and beyond the 12 nm of territorial sea will correspond to the definition of a straddling stock. Because of the shelf configuration, fewer bottom resources are likely to be straddling except in the Gulf of Sirte, off Tunisia and Libya. Most pelagic stocks, however, including , jack mackerel and mackerel stocks, are most probably straddling. The General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM) uses the concept of “shared” stocks to identify those exploited by two or more countries on the high seas and only by the riparian countries in territorial waters. Such stocks in the Mediterranean include hake (Merluccius merluccius) in the Gulf of Lions, deep-sea , the blue and red shrimp (Aristeus antennatus) and the giant red shrimp (Aristaeomorpha foliacea), (Sardina pilchardus) in the Sea of Alboran and Adriatic Sea and (Engraulis encrasicolus) in the Gulf of Lions and the Adriatic Sea. Based on FAO (2005a), the state of exploitation of giant red shrimp is not known, the rose shrimp is fully exploited and the hake is overexploited. The state of sardines and ranges from underexploited to overexploited depending on the zone. It should be noted that fishing with towed gears beyond 1 000 m depth is forbidden by GFCM. As the riparian States of the Black Sea have implemented EEZs till the median line, there are no international waters in the Black Sea and, by definition, no straddling stocks.

4.6 STATE OF SELECTED STRADDLING STOCKS The state of exploitation of the main species-area combinations that include straddling fish stock is summarized in Table 4. The state of exploitation is not known for 20 percent of the species/stock categories used. Overall, taking those for which information is available, it is found that 4 percent of the straddling stocks are underexploited, 12 4% of the straddling fish stocks are percent are moderately exploited, 19 percent are underexploited, 12% moderately fully exploited, 58 percent are overexploited, exploited, 19% fully exploited, 58% 6 percent are depleted and 1 percent are overexploited, 6% depleted and recovering. Based on ICES (2005) advice to 1% recovering NEAFC that fisheries for deep-water species (which NEAFC categorized as straddling stocks), were not sustainable, they have been classified herein as overfished. This may overstate the percentage of stocks that are overexploited, because some stocks might not yet be overexploited and management interventions may prevent them from becoming overexploited. Alternatively, their state might have been classified as unknown, given ICES’ reservations about data quality and its ability to assess the state of exploitation, but in light of ICES’ concerns about sustainability, it seems prudent to classify these stocks as overexploited, unless demonstrated otherwise. 44 The state of world highly migratory, straddling and other high seas fishery resources and associated species

TABLE 4 Summary of the state of exploitation of the main species-area combinations that may contain straddling fish stocks1

2 Major Catches (tonnes) State of Species/stocks 3 ocean area 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 exploitation Sharks SE Atlantic N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N (Selachimorpha) Sharks, rays SW Atlantic 17 607 14 705 13 736 14 141 12 297 N (Elasmobranchii) Frilled shark NE Atlantic N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N-O4 (Chlamydoselachus anguineus) Bluntnose sixgill shark NE Atlantic N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N-O4 (Hexanchus griseus) Blackmouth dogfish NE Atlantic 45 34 280 218 158 N-O4 (Galeus melastomus) Mouse catshark NE Atlantic 45 34 280 218 158 N-O4 (Galeus murinus) Deep-water catsharks NE Atlantic N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N-O4 (Apristurus spp.) Iceland catshark NE Atlantic N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N (Apristurus laurussonii) Greenland shark NE Atlantic 45 58 56 61 66 N-O4 (Somniosus microcephalus) Gulper shark NE Atlantic 141 248 401 919 672 N-O4 (Centrophorus granulosus) Leafscale gulper shark NE Atlantic 1 937 1 895 3 042 2 947 2 556 N-O4 (Centrophorus squamosus) Velvet belly NE Atlantic 5 10 N-O4 (Etmopterus spinax) Great lanternshark NE Atlantic 5 10 N-O4 (Etmopterus princeps) Birdbeak dogfish NE Atlantic 18 51 102 140 323 N-O4 (Deania calceus) Portuguese dogfish NE Atlantic 1 861 3 225 3 687 4 232 4 021 N-O4 (Centroscymnus coelolepis) Longnose velvet dogfish NE Atlantic 1 3 16 509 301 N-O4 (Centroscymnus crepidater) Knifetooth dogfish NE Atlantic N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N-O4 (Scymnodon ringens) Kitefin shark NE Atlantic 311 189 40 735 603 N-O4 (Dalatias licha) Black dogfish NE Atlantic 271 271 27 53 56 N-O4 (Centroscyllium fabricii) Sailfin roughshark [Sharpback shark] NE Atlantic 1 1 N-O4 (Oxynotus paradoxus) Rays and skates nei SE Atlantic N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N (family Rajidae) Round ray NE Atlantic N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N-O4 (Raja fyllae) Arctic skate NE Atlantic 5 N-O4 (Raja hyperborea) Norwegian skate NE Atlantic N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N-O4 (Raja nidarosiensus) Rabbit fish [Rattail] NE Atlantic 15 122 69 169 617 N-O4 (Chimaera monstrosa) Large-eyed rabbitfish [Ratfish] NE Atlantic N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N-O4 (Hydrolagus mirabilis) Straightnose rabbitfish NE Atlantic N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N-O4 (Rhinochimaera atlantica) Atlantic Herring, NE Atlantic Norwegian spring spawning (Atlanto- 2 103 709 1 645 085 1 614 754 1 661 405 1 755 260 F (Clupea harengus) Scandian) Sardines Mediterranean 215 932 199 927 189 128 179 178 187 442 U-O (Sardina pilchardus) Mediterranean 391 757 438 381 481 327 400 636 455 062 U-O (Engraulis encrasicolus) Selected straddling fish stocks 45

2 Major Catches (tonnes) State of Species/stocks 3 ocean area 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 exploitation Capelin NW Atlantic 21 374 19 751 13 646 22 455 36 477 U (Mallotus villosus) Greater argentine NE Atlantic 28 533 48 731 37 033 21 395 32 865 N-O4 (Argentina silus) Baird’s slickhead NE Atlantic 12 616 259 9 663 7 492 N-O4 (Alepocehalus bairdii) Risso’s smooth-head NE Atlantic N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N-O4 (Alepocephalus rostratus) Lanternfish SE Atlantic N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N (family Myctophidae) Greater eelpout NE Atlantic 28 37 43 30 49 N-O4 (Lycodes esmarkii) NE Atlantic N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N-O4 (Conger conger) Flying fishes nei SW Pacific N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A M (Exocoetidae) Common mora NE Atlantic 130 351 109 226 6 N-O4 (Mora moro) Blue hake NE Atlantic 0 0 0 0 0 N-O4 (Antimora rostrata) Tadpole codling SW Atlantic 15 555 8 151 4 648 7 595 6 299 N (Salilota australis) Tusk NE Atlantic 31 246 27 019 25 815 20 760 19 039 N-O4 (Brosme brosme) Atlantic cod NE Atlantic 877 150 884 785 847 874 807 870 859 919 O (Gadus morhua) Atlantic cod NW Atlantic 63 201 60 074 55 337 41 132 39 649 D (Gadus morhua) Ling NE Atlantic 43 320 37 341 41 552 40 410 35 380 N-O4 (Molva molva) Blue ling NE Atlantic 16 146 18 669 12 538 11 173 7 785 N-O4 (Molva dypterigia) Forkbeards NE Atlantic 496 475 463 1 081 855 N-O4 (Phycis spp.) Haddock NE Atlantic 196 111 208 290 247 470 258 707 299 953 O (Melanogrammus aeglefinus) Alaska pollock [walleye] NE Pacific 1 183 482 1 443 917 1 519 122 1 530 299 1 522 860 F (Theragra chalcogramma) Alaska pollock [walleye] NW Pacific 1 754 748 1 700 548 1 135 732 1 357 663 1 169 079 F (Theragra chalcogramma) Blue whiting NE Atlantic 1 445 788 1 793 954 1 557 688 2 373 128 2 418 198 O (Micromesistius poutassou) Southern blue whiting SW Atlantic 84 321 78 736 58 843 60 546 76 596 F-O (Micromesistius australis) Hakes SW Atlantic 354 186 1 434 F-O-D (Merluccius spp.) European hake Mediterranean 68 897 52 408 53 950 55 037 62 951 O (Merluccius merluccius) Patagonian grenadier SW Atlantic 142 676 136 366 126 436 122 844 145 224 M (Macruronus magellanicus) Hoki SW Pacific 274 615 247 841 215 302 209 414 154 532 M-F (Macruronous novaezelandiae) Grenadiers SW Atlantic 10 503 3 209 6 052 8 253 5 265 N (Macrourus spp.) Roughhead grenadier NE Atlantic N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N-O4 (Macrourus berglax) Roughhead grenadier NW Atlantic N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N (Macrourus berglax) Roundnose grenadier NE Atlantic N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N-O4 (Coryphaenoides rupestris) Pink cusk-eel SW Atlantic 17 521 22 702 19 712 16 450 19 293 M-F (Genypterus blacodes) Alfonsino NW Pacific 18 14 12 44 1 N (Beryx spp.) Alfonsino NE Atlantic 139 130 272 949 1 117 N-O4 (Beryx spp.) 46 The state of world highly migratory, straddling and other high seas fishery resources and associated species

2 Major Catches (tonnes) State of Species/stocks 3 ocean area 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 exploitation Alfonsino SE Atlantic 302 318 236 229 324 N (Beryx spp.) Mediterranean slimehead NE Atlantic N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N-O4 (Hoplostethus mediterraneus) Orange roughy NE Atlantic 1 467 4 672 5 438 872 1 240 N-O4 (Hoplostethus atlanticus) Orange roughy SW Pacific 18 007 14 303 18 515 18 346 18 157 F-O4 (Hoplostethus atlanticus) Oreodories SE Atlantic 10 54 335 331 497 N (family Oreosomatidae) Oreodories SW Pacific 22 775 24 165 17 635 15 263 19 787 F-O (family Oreosomatidae) Wreckfish NE Atlantic 441 414 432 521 358 N-O4 (Polyprion americanus) Wreckfish SE Atlantic 8 2 6 1 N (Polyprion americanus) Jack and horse nei EC Pacific N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A U (Trachurus spp.) Jack and horse mackerels nei NE Atlantic 36 989 39 824 33 429 32 821 35 871 N (Trachurus spp.) Jack mackerel NE Pacific N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A M (Trachurus spp) Jack and horse mackerels nei SE Atlantic 1 941 234 F (Trachurus spp.) Chilean jack mackerel SE Pacific 1 540 494 2 508 834 1 750 078 1 736 048 1 778 777 F-O (Trachurus murphyi) Blackspot (=red) seabream NE Atlantic 3 428 3 144 3 711 3 531 3 981 N-O4 (Pagellus bogaraveo) Pelagic armourhead NW Pacific N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N (Pseudopentaceros richardsoni) Armourhead SE Atlantic 0 0 0 0 0 N (Pseudopentaceros spp.) Antarctic rockcods, noties neii SW Atlantic N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N (Nototheniidae) Antarctic toothfish Southern 751 626 1 354 2 029 2 584 F-O (Dissostichus mawsoni) Ocean Patagonian toothfish Southern 16 911 13 179 13 989 16 479 11 182 F-O (Dissostichus eleginoides) Ocean Patagonian toothfish SW Atlantic 11 128 13 823 12 488 8 871 6 671 M-F (Dissostichus eleginoides) Marble rockcod Southern 0 0 0 0 0 N (Notothenia rossii) Ocean Humped rockcod Southern 1 2 1 N (Notothenia gibberifrons) Ocean Antarctic rockcods SW Atlantic 0 0 0 0 0 N (Trematomus spp.) Mackerel icefish Southern 4 251 2 096 3 532 4 331 2 762 F-O (Champsocephalus gunnari) Ocean South Georgia icefish Southern (Pseudochaenichthys 6 6 5 1 N Ocean georgianus) Cardinal fishes nei. SE Atlantic N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N (Epigonus spp.) Black cardinal fish NE Atlantic N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N-O4 (Epigonus telescopus) Mackerel, SE Atlantic N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N (Scomber spp.) Atlantic mackerel NE Atlantic 654 829 660 188 684 829 601 685 587 072 O (Scomber scombrus) Chub mackerel SE Pacific 254 524 627 466 393 142 699 714 691 978 M-F (Scomber japonicus) Spanish mackerel SW Pacific 1 601 2 079 1 327 897 647 M (Scomberomorus sp.) Atlantic Spanish mackerel EC Pacific N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A M (Scomberomorus maculatus) Selected straddling fish stocks 47

2 Major Catches (tonnes) State of Species/stocks 3 ocean area 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 exploitation Silver scabbardfish [Cutlass fish] NE Atlantic 104 361 1 970 1 000 806 N-O4 (Lepidopus caudatus) Black scabbardfish NE Atlantic 8 184 10 821 11 377 8 215 8 092 N-O4 (Aphanopus carbo) Norway redfish NE Atlantic N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N-O4 (Sebastes viviparus) Atlantic redfish NW Atlantic 47 160 49 629 56 566 64 643 31 905 D (Sebastes spp.) Pacific ocean perch NW Pacific 1 475 1 461 1 948 1 451 1 378 D (Sebastes alutus) Beaked redfish NE Atlantic 75 506 98 534 92 344 9 469 83 968 F (Sebastes mentella) Blackbelly rosefish NE Atlantic 743 624 453 488 504 N-O4 (Helicolenus dactylopterus) Atlantic thornyhead NE Atlantic 41 42 N-O4 (Trachyscorpia cristulata) Atlantic halibut NW Atlantic 1 372 2 367 1 893 2 244 2 056 D (Hippoglossus hippoglossus) Greenland halibut NW Atlantic 64 583 61 431 64 482 71 859 56 893 O (Reinhardtius hippoglossoides) Greenland halibut NE Atlantic 43 108 47 190 43 393 48 050 53 013 N-O4 (Reinhardtius hippoglossoides) Greenland halibut (Rheinhardtius NW Atlantic 64 583 61 431 64 482 71 859 56 893 O hippoglossoides) Which flounder NW Atlantic 6 447 7 277 7 077 7 114 6 178 D (Glyptocephalus cynoglossus) American plaice NW Atlantic N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A D (Hippoglossoides platessoides) Yellow flounderl NW Atlantic 20 971 24 273 18 948 21 447 20 803 F (Limanda ferruginea) Antarctic krill Southern 114 426 104 182 125 987 117 728 118 165 U (Euphausia superba) Ocean Deepwater rose shrimp Mediterranean 12 323 11 100 10 133 9 489 7 968 F (Parapenaeus longirostris) Blue and red shrimp Mediterranean 1 904 2 209 2 011 2 063 2 083 N (Aristeus antennatus) Giant red shrimp Mediterranean 4 463 1 833 1 768 2 409 1 546 N (family Aristeidae) Northern NW Atlantic 232 028 230 757 253 691 282 692 354 907 F (Pandalus borealis) West African geryon SE Atlantic N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N (Chaceon maritae) Deep-sea red crab NE Atlantic N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N-O4 (Chaceon (Geyron) affinis) Patagonian squid SW Atlantic 68 110 57 876 29 857 48 980 29 036 F (Loligo gahi) Squids SE Atlantic 7 111 4 494 9 439 10 422 11 807 N (family Loliginidae) Neon flying squids SW Pacific N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A M (Omastrephes bartrami) Argentine shortfin squid SW Atlantic 940 054 750 203 540 357 503 624 129 279 F (Illex argentinus) Jumbo squid SE Pacific 103 307 153 308 284 090 281 699 688 889 M (Dosidicus gigas) Jumbo flying squid EC Pacific 103 307 153 308 284 090 281 699 688 889 M-F (Dosidicus gigas) Japanese flying squid NW Pacific 570 427 528 523 504 438 487 576 447 363 M (R) (Todarodes pacificus) Sevenstar flying squid SW Atlantic 653 115 37 59 N (Martialia hyadesi) Boreal clubhooksquid (Onychoteuthis NW Pacific N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A F borealijaponica) 48 The state of world highly migratory, straddling and other high seas fishery resources and associated species

2 Major Catches (tonnes) State of Species/stocks 3 ocean area 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 exploitation Boreopacific armhook squid NW Pacific N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A F (Gonatopsis borealis) Octopus SE Atlantic 305 129 291 209 144 N (family Octopodidae)

1The catch and state of exploitation is that of the species in the given area, with no distinction being made for straddling and not straddling (entirely EEZ) stocks, or for catches within EEZs or in the high seas 2Catch data from FAO FISHSTAT Plus 3Symbols: N = Not known; U = Underexploited; M = Moderately exploited; F = Fully exploited; O = Overexploited; D = Depleted; R = Recovering 4State of exploitation cannot be assessed with regard to standard criteria, considered non-sustainable by ICES (2005) 49

5. Stocks of other high seas fishery resources

This section considers the fish stocks that are not comprised of highly migratory species and occur exclusively in the high seas, i.e. in waters beyond the areas of national jurisdiction, as referred to as high seas fish stocks in section 2.1. Most of the currently known high seas stocks are comprised of deep-water species, but several others may exist for pelagic species. Most of the information from this section has been adapted from relevant chapters in FAO (2005a), and advice and information from the Advisory Committee on Fisheries Management of the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea, and other Regional Fisheries Organizations. Most fisheries for these deep-water species are relatively recent and the development of a majority of them has outpaced the ability to provide scientific information and to implement effective management. There is no rigorous definition of a deep-water fishery, but in general, they occur in depths of at least 500 m, and they are commonly thought of as occurring at depths of 1 000 m or more. Current technology allows fishing to depths of somewhat deeper than 2 000 m. Also, relatively little is known about many of the species and most of the fisheries. Deep-water species live at depths where there is virtually no light or primary productivity. Most nutrients and production is retained in surface waters above the permanent thermocline. Although many species migrate vertically to feed at night, those that do not, depend (directly or indirectly) on a rain of dead plants and from surface waters for food. Some species only inhabit deep waters in their adult stage, and may be exploited during both their shallow and deep-water phases, complicating the interpretation of whether such catches should be defined as deep water or not. Deep-water species have diverse life history strategies, although little is known about their stock structure, migrations, and general biology and ecology. Since they live in low productivity environments, they are expected to be slow growing and mature late in life, which has been confirmed for some important species (e.g. orange roughy which do not mature until age 20 or older, and can live to more than 100 years old). In general, deep-water species are believed to be particularly vulnerable to overexploitation and depletion (at least localized) because of their slow growth and late maturity. Some species form dense aggregations which are accessible to fisheries which have developed the capability to fish in deep water over the last few decades. Deep- water fisheries often exploit aggregations associated with topographic features like , ocean ridges and canyons. However, fisheries associated with particular topographic features usually do not persist, presumably because of localized depletion of the fishery resource. While most fish families of deep-water species occur worldwide, the existence of deep-water basins bounded by the continents and oceanic ridges has resulted in regional differences. Another important feature of deep-water fishes is that new discoveries continue, e.g. the relatively recent discovery of a 4.5-m, 750-kg megamouth shark (Megachasma pelagios) in Hawaii in 1976 (Taylor, Compagno and Struhsaker, 1983) and a six-gilled stingray (Hexatrygon bickelli) discovered in Port Elizabeth (Heemstra and Smith, 1980), both representing new taxonomic families. Some of the species that are now fished in deep water were taken at shallower depths in the past, but fishing has extended into deeper waters as deep-water fishing technology has improved and stocks in shallower areas have been fished down. 50 The state of world highly migratory, straddling and other high seas fishery resources and associated species

Important species that form deep-water aggregations include orange roughy (Hoplostethus atlanticus) and the oreos (Allocyttus spp., Neocyttus spp. Pseudocyttus spp., etc), which are often fished together, alfonsinos (Beryx spp.), Patagonian toothfish (Dissostichus eleginoides) in Southern Ocean fisheries, armourhead (Pseudopentaceros spp.) and various species of Scorpaenidae found on both coasts of North America. Major fisheries for deep-water species (particularly orange roughy) first developed off New Zealand and Australia in the late-1970s and 1980s, and they have developed rapidly elsewhere since 1990. The development of deep-water fisheries has been prompted by three related factors: (1) depletion of species and stocks in shallower water (and associated regulations that restrict fishing in shallower water); (2) the high value of some deep-water species, and (3) advances in technology that make fishing in deep water possible and commercially viable. On the high seas, management of deep-water fisheries has lagged behind the development of the fisheries, even where there are Regional Fishery Bodies with a purview over the species. As noted above, the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES, 2005) has recently (October 2005) provided advice for the management of deep-water fisheries under purview of the Northeast Atlantic Fisheries Commission. The ICES evaluation is probably broadly applicable; therefore it is reproduced below (adapted for a more general context): “Most exploited deep-water species are considered to be harvested unsustainably; however, it is currently not possible to provide advice for specific fisheries for deep-sea species. Consistent with a precautionary approach, […] immediate reduction in established deep- sea fisheries [should occur] unless they can be shown to be sustainable. Measures should also be implemented to reduce exploitation of deep-sea species by fisheries primarily targeting shelf species (hake, anglerfish, and megrim). New deep-sea fisheries or expansion of existing fisheries into new fishing areas should not be permitted unless the expansion is very cautious, and is accompanied by programmes to collect data which allow evaluation of stock status as the basis for determining sustainable exploitation levels. […] For several species there is a concern that catch rates can only be maintained by sequential depletion of relatively isolated concentrations/sub-units of a stock. The smallest unit for which data are reported at present […] may not be appropriate for monitoring or managing this type of fishing activity. The depth range within an area may be very wide, and the sizes of the areas are very different.”

5.1 ORANGE ROUGHY (Hoplostethus atlanticus) The orange roughy (Hoplostethus atlanticus) (Figure 48), a member of the Trachichthyidae family, is FIGURE 48 found in the North and South Orange roughy (Hoplostethus atlanticus) Atlantic, in the Southern Indian Ocean, the Tasman Sea, around New Zealand, and in the South Pacific. They are found within EEZs, some are straddling stocks, while others are entirely on the high seas. The species is mainly caught at depths over 800 m by fisheries on fish aggregations associated with seamounts. The proportion of the resource outside of the Stocks of other high seas fishery resources 51

fished area is not known. Fisheries appear to have sequentially depleted fish aggregations that may or may not correspond to distinct stock units. Recruitment appears to be irregular and the time lag between spawning and recruitment to the spawning aggregations that are the targets of most fisheries is so long (about 20 years), that even in the presence of long time series of data it will be very difficult to assess the influence of fisheries on recruitment. The theory upon which the concept of a sustainable yield FIGURE 49 is based implies that there Catches of orange roughy as reported to FAO should be a compensatory response in recruitment as a 100 Orange roughy - Hoplostethus atlanticus result of fishing, but there is 90 no evidence so far that this is Pacific Ocean 80 Indian Ocean the case for orange roughy. ) Sustainable exploitation rates 70 Atlantic Ocean are thus bound to be very 60 low, and may be in the order of 5 percent of biomass. 50 The orange roughy fishery 40 h (thousand tonnes (thousand h developed mostly in the 30

Pacific Ocean (Figure 49) with Catc 20 smaller catches in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. Catches 10 peaked in the early-1990s at 0 90 000 tonnes, but they have 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 declined since in all oceans to less than 26 000 tonnes in 2004.

5.2 OREO DORIES (Allocyttus spp., Neocyttus spp. and Pseudocyttus spp.) The oreo dories (Allocyttus spp., Neocyttus spp. and Pseudocyttus spp.), members of the Oreostomadidae family occur close to the sea bed in deep waters. They form large aggregations over rough grounds near seamounts and canyons in the Antarctic, Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans and world catches are reported primarily off South Africa, New Zealand and southern Australia. As for orange roughy, the proportion of the resource outside of the fished area is not known and fisheries appear to have sequentially depleted fish aggregations that may or may not correspond to distinct stock units. Recruitment appears at best irregular, and like orange roughy, there is no evidence of a compensatory response in recruitment. Estimates from New Zealand indicates Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY) to be of the order of 1.6 percent of initial biomass if the population is not to be reduced by more than 80 percent with a 20 percent probability (FAO, 2005a). Some oreo dories fisheries have been managed on the basis of management units combining species, which means that species are not individually protected. Catches of oreo dories are overwhelmingly from the Pacific Ocean with comparatively minuscule catches reported from the Atlantic and Indian Oceans in recent years (Figure 50). Catches have been relatively stable around 20 000 tonnes since the mid-1980s, but after declining to around 15 000 tonnes in 2003 they increased again to 20 000 tonnes in 2004.

5.3 ALFONSINO (Beryx splendens) Alfonsino (Beryx splendens), belong to the Bericidae family and are found in the Atlantic, Indian, western and central Pacific Oceans though they are generally 52 The state of world highly migratory, straddling and other high seas fishery resources and associated species

FIGURE 50 not present in the Northeast Catches of oreo dories as reported to FAO Pacific. They inhabit the outer shelf (180 m) and slope to at Oreo dories least 1 300 m depth, and they 50 Allocyttus spp. may make vertical migrations 45 Neocyttus spp. at night. Beryx splendens are Pseudocyttus spp. 40 caught in mid-water trawls ) Pacific Ocean over shallower seamounts, 35 Indian Ocean (negligible) underwater ridges and on 30 Atlantic Ocean (negligible) the slope edges between 300 25 and 500 m. Genetic studies 20 suggests that alfonsinos may h (thousand tonnes (thousand h 15 have an ocean-wide population

Catc structure, but the relationship 10 between the various fish 5 aggregations is not known. If 0 the hypothesis of an ocean- 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 wide population structure proves true, it could be that individual aggregations can- not be exploited sustainably if most recruitment originates irregularly from one or a few areas (which can differ from year to year). Furthermore, if fishing depletes an aggregation that was destined to supply recruits over a large geo-graphic area, the adverse affect on the broader population may be much greater than a localized depletion. Some aggregations may occur in areas that are rarely suitable for recruits to settle; thus fishing on these aggregations will not be sustainable. Thus, it is important to better understand stock structure and geographic pattern of successful spawning and settlement of recruits. Indeed, such information is generally needed for deep-water species that are fished in seemingly isolated aggregations. However, unlike many deep-water species, alfonsinos growth and mortality rates are relatively high (natural mortality is estimated to be around 0.23), which means that the species should be better able to sustain a fishery than other less productive deep-water species.

FIGURE 51 Catches of alfonsino have Catches of alfonsino as reported to FAO occurred in the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans 16 since the late-1970s. Catches in the Pacific Ocean have 14 Alfonsino - Beryx splendens increased steeply from 1999 Pacific Ocean ) 12 to 2003. Overall, catches Indian Ocean remained less than 4 000 10 Atlantic Ocean tonnes until 1995, but have increased to 15 000 tonnes in 8 2003 before declining to 7 000

6 tonnes in 2004 (Figure 51). h (thousand tonnes (thousand h

Catc 4

2

0 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 Stocks of other high seas fishery resources 53

5.4 TOOTHFISHES (Dissostichus spp.) Toothfishes (Dissostichus spp.), belong to the Notothenidae family and have a circumpolar distribution within Antarctic and Southern Ocean waters. Patagonian toothfish (D. eleginoides) (Figure 52) are found asymmetrically around southern South America and Antarctic toothfish (D. mawsoni) occurs in high latitudes, in the Pacific region. The two species overlap between 60 °S and 65 °S and both occur to depths of 3 000 m. The northern limit for most populations of Patagonian toothfish is 45 °S, FIGURE 52 except along the Chilean The Patagonian toothfish (Dissostichus eleginoides) and Argentinian coasts where they may extend north in deeper cold water. Significant populations of Patagonian toothfish exist in the waters of, and adjacent to, the various sub-Antarctic islands and in the waters of Chile, Argentina, Uruguay and Peru. The problem of illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing (IUU), while considerably reduced during the 2003–2004 season (6 342 tonnes estimated to have been caught in FAO statistical area 41 – Southwest Atlantic – and 3 701 tonnes in area 87 – Southeast Pacific), remains a major concern. Further, catches of toothfish reported as taken in the Indian Ocean in particular, i.e. outside of the CCAMLR management area, are believed to have been harvested from stocks within the management area. Past declines in toothfish stocks targeted by IUU fishing fleets have been fast and significant. FIGURE 53 For example, resources of Catches of toothfish (Antarctic and Patagonian) as reported to FAO toothfish in Prince Edward Islands (South Africa) have 50 been reduced to only a few 45 Toothfishes - Dossistichus spp. percent of the pre-exploitation 40 biomass. ) Southern Ocean 35 Catches of toothfishes Pacific Ocean increased steeply from less 30 Indian Ocean than 2 000 tonnes in 1983 to 25 Atlantic Ocean 40 000 tonnes in 1992, and catches have been fluctuating 20 h (thousand tonnes (thousand h around that value since (Figure 15 53), but declining to 27 000 Catc 10 tonnes in 2004. Toothfishes are caught in the Atlantic, 5

Indian, Pacific and Southern 0 Oceans, with the Atlantic and 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 Southern Oceans making the largest contributions.

5.5 ARMOURHEADS (Pseudopentaceros spp.) Armourheads (Pseudopentaceros spp.) belong to the Pentacerotidae family. There are at least three known species all associated with seamounts: the pelagic armourhead (P. richardsoni) in the Southeast Atlantic, western Indian Ocean and South Pacific; 54 The state of world highly migratory, straddling and other high seas fishery resources and associated species

and the slender armourhead (P. wheeleri) and the longfin armourhead (P. pectoralis) in the North Pacific, (P. pectoralis was commonly misidentified as P. richardsoni in the North Pacific). The fishery for armourhead in the North Pacific illustrates the potential evolution of fisheries. Japanese and former USSR vessels began trawling in the Emperor Seamount chain and the northern Hawaiian Ridge areas in 1969. The total catch for the former USSR vessels is not known but is estimated at over 133 400 tonnes in the period 1969–1977. Between 1969 and 1977, the Japanese fleet sent two to five trawlers a year to this area and averaged catches of 22 800–35 100 tonnes a year. Between 1977 and 1982 catches fell to 5 800–9 900 tonnes. Ninety percent of the catch was described as being pelagic armourhead (P. richardsoni), but was most likely longfin armourhead (P. pectoralis). This once dominant armourhead have later been replaced by alfonsino (Beryx splendens), although the alfonsinos have never been as abundant as armourhead was. There is no evidence that either of the fish stocks will recover enough to allow commercially viable fisheries in the near future. The above catches of armourheads in the 1960–1970s in the North Pacific do not appear to have been reported to FAO as the maximum reported is 435 tonnes in 1993.

5.6 HOKI (Macruronus novaezelandiae) Hoki (Macruronus novaezelandiae) is a benthopelagic , that usually lives near the bottom in the Southwest Pacific Ocean, but the species also form mid-water aggregations for spawning. Large adult fish generally occur deeper than 400 m, while juveniles may be found in shallower water. Mid-water trawl fisheries target aggregations near canyons that are often close to the coast in areas of narrow continental shelves. While fisheries for hoki are generally considered deep-water fisheries, most of the catch is from EEZs. The significance of hoki as a high seas fish stock is probably minor. The stock structure is uncertain and it is not FIGURE 54 always clear that TACs set Catches of hoki as reported to FAO for specific geographic

350 areas correspond to distinct biological units. Management

300 experience in at least some Hoki - Macruronus novaezelandiae jurisdictions indicates that ) 250 Pacific Ocean fisheries exploiting hoki can be sustainably managed. Indian Ocean 200 The hoki fishery occurs almost entirely in the Pacific 150 Ocean with small catches

h (thousand tonnes (thousand h reported from the Indian 100

Catc Ocean (Figure 54). Catches have increased steeply from 50 around 50 000 tonnes in 1985 to 230 000 tonnes in 1988. 0 Catches have been fluctuating 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 in excess of 200 000 tonnes since, except in 2004 when they declined to 160 000 tonnes.

5.7 OTHER SPECIES In addition to the species described above, a number of deep-water species have been treated under section 4.2.2 on straddling stocks in the Northeast Atlantic. Some of them potentially make up also high seas fish stocks. Stocks of other high seas fishery resources 55

A further suite of deep water, or at least slope species, have been the target of fisheries in many tropical regions. These can be targeted by small-scale deep-water fisheries usually along the shelf break and shelf slope wherever the continental shelf is relatively narrow and the fishing grounds are accessible to fishermen using small fishing boats. The principle species consist of members of the Lutjanidae (snappers), Serranidae (seabasses; groupers and fairy basslets), and Carangidae (jacks and pompanos) families and most importantly include the eteline snappers (e.g. Etelis coruscans and E. carbunculus) and the jobfishes (e.g. Pristomopoides filamemtosus, P. typus and P. multidens). These fisheries are particularly important to small island States that often have few other resources though they are also widely found along the continental margins in tropical and sub-tropical areas. However, they are probably not significant as high seas fish stocks.

5.8 STATE OF THE HIGH SEAS FISH STOCKS Knowledge of the biology, life cycle, population dynamics, and stock structure of high seas stocks remains limited. However, based on available information on slow growth rates, sporadic recruitment, and the rapid depletion of fish aggregations, orange roughy and oreo dories should be regarded as overexploited or depleted in all areas where fishing has developed. Alfonsinos may be able to sustain slightly higher exploitation rates but lack of knowledge on other parameters and biological characteristics calls for caution and exploited stocks should be considered fully if not overexploited. The toothfishes and hoki are fully exploited or overexploited.