Aviation and Space Flight Final European Student Parliament Toulouse, France 07 - 09 July 2018

Background Guide: Aviation and Space Flight Final European Student Parliament Toulouse, France 07 - 09 July 2018

A project by: In cooperation with: Funded by: Horizon 2020 Aviation and Space Flight

Preface Honourable delegates,

We warmly welcome you to the European Student Parliament. At this year’s conference the topic will be the future of mobility. Mobility in a globalised world is not only important for urban planning, but also for communication, economics, finance and many other sectors.

In the following handbook we will give you an overview of one of the five sub-topics which will be discussed in Toulouse: Aviation and Space Flight

Advances in technology and science are a major source of economic growth, efficiency and innovation in our interconnected world. The space sector plays an important role in these developments, having been a driver of scientific knowledge and exploration for decades. Although the space sector doesn’t seem every day, it plays a role in other sectors like banking and finance. Satellite technology supports things like global communications, broadcasting and weather forecasting, without which a lot of modern activities would be nearly impossible.

Aviation is not an everyday mode of transport, but it affects us in our everyday life, in every country in the world, regardless of whether we personally travel by plane or not. Aviation is an integral part of the facilities of today’s society and plays a significant role in the global economy as aviation supports both private and commercial (through air freight and business travel) travel.

At the European Students Parliament we want to discuss the opportunities and challenges of aviation and space flight in the context of mobility in a concrete way. Questions that could provide a starting point for your discussions can be found in chapter number six of this handbook. Your discussions both with your committee and during the expert hearing will be the foundation for the resolutions that you will write to suggest European and global guidelines for aviation and space flight.

Table of Contents Preface ...... 1

1 The Evolution of Aviation and Space Flight ...... 3

1.1 Aviation ...... 3

1.2 Space Flight ...... 3

2 Aviation ...... 4

3 Space Flight ...... 6

3.1 Technology of Space Flight ...... 6

3.2 Satellites and Research Missions ...... 6

3.2.1 Satellites ...... 7

3.2.2 Research Missions ...... 7

3.3 Future Space Technology ...... 8

4 Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) ...... 8

5 Aviation’s Impact on Climate Change ...... 10

6 Guiding Questions ...... 11

7 Bibliography ...... 12

Figure 1: Leonardo Da Vinci’s Glider, Leonardo Da Vinci’s Inventions, 2018...... 3 Figure 2: The Network, Grandjean, 2016...... 4 Figure 3: How Do Planes Fly: Thrust and Drag, Adkins et al., 2011...... 5 Figure 4: Angle of Attack, Dempsey, 2010...... 5 Figure 5: Air transport, passengers carried, International Civil Aviation Organization, 2018. 10 Figure 6: Impacts of aviation in the atmosphere, IPCC, 1999...... 11

1 The Evolution of Aviation and Space Flight

1.1 Aviation Human beings have dreamed of flying for more than two thousand years. The first successful man-made flying machines were created hundreds of years ago in China, with kites. Leonardo Da Vinci also dreamed of flight and his dreams found expression in several scientific designs of flying machines for humans.

Figure 1: Leonardo Da Vinci’s Glider, Leonardo Da Vinci’s Inventions, 2018. The discovery of hydrogen gas in the 18th century was another milestone in the history of aviation which made hydrogen balloons possible. This happened in the same period as the rediscovering of hot-air balloons. By the early- 20th century, earlier experiments with gliders began to pay off by providing the groundwork for flights by heavier-than-air vehicles. Advantages in aerodynamics and engine technology made regulated, powered flight possible for the first time in history. In 1909 the modern aeroplane was established. More and more powerful engines developed the typical aeroplane further. In another branch of aviation history Ferdinand von Zeppelin implemented airships which dominated long-distance flight until the 1930s. After World War II new and immensely powerful jet engines revolutionised air travel and military aviation. The latest development is pilotless drones for leisure, civilian and military use. These drones are controlled by digital instructions. To sum up, the evolution of aviation has come a long way from the earliest kites to heavier-than-air jets, supersonic and hypersonic flight, and pilotless drones (Bilstein et al. 2016).

1.2 Space Flight In contrast to aviation the history of space flights is quite young. During the Cold War and the arms race between the United States of America (USA) and the Union of Soviet Socialists Republics (USSR), more attempts at outer space activities were made. The Soviet Union launched the first satellite and the first man and the first woman into space, while the first 3 man on the moon (1969) was from the USA. China, Japan, the French Republic and the United Kingdom also developed limited launch capabilities. After the end of the Cold War and the so called “space race” between the USA and the former USSR international cooperation in space affairs was implemented (Gebhardt 2011). However, there are still many regional and private institutions and organizations which are dedicated to the exploration of space, for example the European Space Agency (ESA). ESA’s space flight programme includes maintaining a major spaceport in French Guiana; the launch and operation of unmanned exploration missions to the moon and other planets; earth observation, science and telecommunication; human spaceflight (mainly through participation in the International Space Station (ISS) programme) and designing launch vehicles (ESA 2017). As we explore space, regulations regarding international space activities are needed. For this purpose the United Nations implemented the Committee on the Peaceful Uses for Outer Space Activities to maintain peace, security and development during space exploration (United Nations Office for Outer Space Activities 2018).

2 Aviation In the last 50 years it seems that every bigger city is connected with another city by regular flights. In the following graphic you can see a transportation cluster of the whole world.

Figure 2: The Network, Grandjean, 2016. To achieve flight, you have to exploit the four basic aerodynamic forces: drag, weight, lift, and thrust. Each force pushes from a different direction: imagine four arms holding the plane in the air. Why can these four arms hold the plane in the air? Each of these forces opposes each other and balances each other out as shown in the following graphic. 4

Figure 3: How Do Planes Fly: Thrust and Drag, Adkins et al., 2011.

 Weight, is the combined weight of an aeroplane and its load.  Lift holds an aeroplane in the air, but lift can only exist in the existence of a moving fluid. To use air as the moving fluid, foils like wings are needed. It doesn’t matter if it is an aeroplane or a bird; lift is always created by the motion of the air around the wings. Without this sufficient lift, weight will push the plane downwards.

Figure 4: Angle of Attack, Dempsey, 2010. The graphic above shows how the airflow is divided by the wings of the plane. The airflow is split into two directions: down along the underside of the wing and up and over the wing. Wings are shaped and slanted so that the air is moving over the wing has a faster airflow compared to the air underneath the wing. This generates lift.

 Thrust pulls or pushes the aeroplane forward through space either with a propeller or with a jet engine, which pushes the plane forwards by expelling hot gas.

 Drag is the resistance against an object moving through a fluid. Friction between the surrounding air and the aeroplane’s body conceive a strength that holds the craft back. The amount of drag that the aeroplane creates depends on a few factors, such as size and speed of the plane and the density of the air (Adkins et al. 2011 2-4).

3 Space Flight

3.1 Technology of Space Flight There are several technical requirements needed to fly in space or to enter an atmosphere. The following part highlights different techniques related to space flight.

 Booster rockets (or engines) are used to launch spacecraft into low earth orbit, and are required for a space vehicle to go beyond earth orbit during the take-off. Rocket engines produce thrust by expelling their exhaust which is usually hot gas produced by burning fuel. (Belfiore 2014).  An Ablative heat shield is a thermal protection system which is used to shelter spacecraft from excessive heat which may be generated by the engines or by re-entry into the atmosphere (Pezella 2013: 53)  Aero braking is a method of slowing down a spacecraft by utilising the outer gas layers of a planet or the atmosphere. While the spacecraft plunges into the atmosphere, the molecules of gas grind against the ship. Aero braking is often used to slow a ship enough so that gravity will pull it down to a planet or to change an orbit (Murri et al. 2011: 1).  A Reusable Launch System (RLS) is a space launch system scheduled to permit for recovery of part or all of the system for future use (Tate 2013).

3.2 Satellites and Research Missions Space technology is currently used for various purposes including:

 Satellites which are used for communication, navigation and observation.  Research missions, for example the International Space Station or missions within the solar system.

3.2.1 Satellites Did you know that more than 60 countries own at least one satellite in orbit? Societies are dependent on satellite signals and data. Without these signals and data our societies and our economic development wouldn’t function as efficiently as they do now. Space flight has become a major type of infrastructure on which everyone relies. Satellites supply information vital for nuclear security, water resource management, food security, disaster relief, public health, human rights, education and the environment. In order to support satellites countries require strong information and communication technology as well as the ability to protect their satellites from space weather, radio frequency interference and space debris There are three major types of satellites:

 Earth observation (EO) satellites collect data that contributes to many activities, including national defence, tracking refugee populations, monitoring disasters, improving agriculture and water management, carrying out relief operations and predicting weather. It is expected that between 2011 and 2020 298 from 43 different countries will be deployed in orbit.  Global navigation and positioning satellites have revolutionised transportation and navigation capabilities, improved safety records, lowered operating costs and resulted in more efficient routes for navigation. The most famous technology is the Global Positioning System (GPS), which is implemented by the USA through the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS). The European Navigations-Satellite Galileo is the first global navigation and positioning satellite controlled by a civilian organisation.  Communications satellites make up the largest share of satellites in orbit, providing internet services, broadcasting and telephone capabilities. Two benefits that come along with communications satellites are banking services and telemedicine (World Economic Forum 2015: 2-6).

3.2.2 Research Missions There are many completed and planned research missions from private companies and national governments. Past and future missions from the ESA include:

 Heos 1 & 2 (1968 & 1972): “Probing Earth’s magnetic field and the interplanetary medium”.

 Hubble Space Telescope (1990): “ESA contributed solar arrays and Faint Object camera”.  Artemis (2001): “Technology demonstration for telecommunications”.  Gaia (2013): “Mission to map a billion local stars in 3D”.  Bepicolombo (2018): “Europe’s first mission to Mercury”.  Plato (2024): “Hunting planets beyond or Solar System”.

3.3 Future Space Technology The following technologies are not implemented yet.

 Asteroid Mining is extraction of raw resources from minor planets or asteroids. These minerals could be taken back to earth or used in space for construction (ASTRA 2010: 1).  Space-based solar power (SBSP) is a concept for power generation for earth. Solar cells in space can collect more energy than photovoltaic cells on earth because they can be placed in orbit where sunshine is always available and is not dissipated by the atmosphere (ESA 2018).  Non-rocket space launch refers to ideas for take off into space where the operating altitude and cruise level are reached without the use of (expendable) rockets, e.g. a space elevator (Simberg 2010).

4 Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) UAVs are aircrafts without a human pilot aboard, which are guided autonomously or by a remote control. UAVs are more efficient than regular aircraft because they offer a substantially greater range and endurance than equivalent manned systems, which require stricter safety standards, life-support systems and a crew. The technology for a safe UAV includes three main interfaces: between the UAV and air traffic control, between the UAV and other air traffic and between the pilot and the UAV. Before UAVs can operate in a fully autonomous fashion using sensors combined with algorithms, more research is needed. Therefore the connection, especially the controls between a UAV and the pilot and the safety and reliability of the data link are of enormous importance (Kumari 2016: 16761). In 2015 The European Commission adopted a revision of the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) Basic Regulation 216/2008 including a transfer of responsibilities to enable the European Union (EU) to regulate drones of all sizes, including drones below 150 kilograms. 8

The European Commission supports the progressive development of the unmanned aircraft market in Europe, despite concerns about privacy, safety, public acceptance, security and liability (European Commission 2018).

There are several types of drones in commercial use:

 Passenger drones (or pilotless helicopter, flying taxi or drone taxi) are a UAV that carries passengers. The first passenger drone was made public at the Consumer Electronics Show (CES) 2016 by Chinese producers and is called the Ehang 184 (Ehang Inc. 2017).  Delivery drones are drones utilised to transport goods, food and other packages. In the health sector delivery drones are used to deliver blood and pharmaceutical products in countries including Tanzania and Rwanda. In Germany the postal service has developed the DHL Parcelcopter which delivers mainly goods for disaster relief. Pizza deliveries via drone or taco deliveries are already a reality in some parts of the world (Economist 2012).  Agricultural drones are used to monitor crop growth and aid decisions (such as when to fertilise or treat pests).The data collected from these drones can be useful for improving crop yields and farm efficiency (Hetterick/Reese 2013).

While there are many drones in our everyday life, there are some prejudices against them, like delivery drones being used for smuggling drugs or to smuggle things into prisons in the United Kingdom, Ireland and Canada. Furthermore, in some countries the legal status of drones, especially of privately owned drones in public space, is not regulated. According to the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) smaller drones are increasingly being used in the EU and the national safety rules differ across the countries. Additionally a number of key safeguards are not addressed in a coherent way (European Commission 2018).

5 Aviation’s Impact on Climate Change

Figure 5: Air transport, passengers carried, International Civil Aviation Organization, 2018. The continuous increase of air transport around the globe - as measured by number of passengers carried - (see graph above) has an enormous impact on our environment, it generates about 3.5% of greenhouse gas emissions from all human activities. As shown in the graphic above, the numbers of passengers carried by air in the European Union (EU) is increasing more slowly than worldwide numbers. With 3.696 billion (2016) people travelling by plane, commercial jet aircraft cause more than 600 million tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions per year (International Civil Aviation Organization 2010: 38). There is also an enormous increase in aircraft pollution. To illustrate the pollution of aircrafts, imagine the aviation industry was a country. In terms of amount of carbon emissions that country would rank seventh in the world, right after Germany. There are two ways in which aviation affects our environment. Firstly, the things you see, hear and smell when you live near an airport: traffic congestion; aircraft noise and air pollution. But, secondly, and certainly the far greater threat from air travel, are the environmental issues for the whole planet. These include stratospheric ozone depletion and the resulting increase in ultraviolet-B radiation at the Earth’s surface as well as changes to weather patterns (i.e., temperature, rainfall, etc.) (International Panel on Climate Change 1999: 6).

Figure 6: Impacts of aviation in the atmosphere, IPCC, 1999. As the graphic above shows, aircraft (both civil and military) fly at different altitudes. Disparate heights imply disparate impacts for the environment of the earth. There are three heights for aircraft: troposphere, tropopause and stratosphere. The emissions which are produced by aeroplanes in the stratosphere affect it in an indirect way, as they modify its chemical balance. The stratospheric ozone is affected by emissions like water vapour, particulates, nitrogen oxides and much more. The production of water, carbon dioxide and ozone in the troposphere causes modified cirrus cloudiness, formation of contrails and the alteration of methane lifetime (International Civil Aviation Organization 2010: 40). Aviation is a major producer of carbon dioxide worldwide. As part of our reaction to the changing climate, we need to reduce our use of air transport or find environmental friendly ways to fly. What is the future of aviation? Siemens, Rolls-Royce and Airbus are developing hybrid electric engine plane technologies which will become commercial until 2025. With electric motors inside, aeroplanes not only produce less carbon dioxide, they are also less loud and cheaper for the flight companies, as the price of oil is unstable (BBC 2017).

6 Guiding Questions Is the space sector still a driver for innovation in the 21st century?

What are the determinants for an innovative space sector?

What are the policy responses to better harness and encourage space-related innovation?

How can the carbon emissions from aviation be reduced?

How should drones be regulated in civil air space?

How can aircraft congestion be managed?

Will commercial space flight become a reality in our lifetimes?

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