Notes

Introduction

1 W. Phillips Davison, ‘Public Opinion’, International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. 1968. Encyclopedia.com. Accessed December 13, 2011. http:// www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2–3045001019.html 2. Lucien Warner, ‘The Reliability of Public Opinion Surveys’, Public Opinion Quarterly 3 (1939): 377. 3. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso Editions and NLB, 1983), 145 4. See Hiroaki Kuromiya, ‘How Do We Know What the People Thought under Stalin?’ in The Soviet Union – a Popular State? Studies on Popular Opinion in the USSR, edited by Timo Vihavainen (St Petersburg: Evropeiski Dom, 2003), 30–49. 5. As showed a sociologist Pitirim A. Sorokin, Hunger As a Factor in Human Affairs, trans. Elena Sorokin (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1975). 6. Peter Holquist, ‘What’s So Revolutionary About the Russian Revolution? State Practices and the New Style Politics, 1914–21’, in Russian Modernity. Politics, Knowledge, Practices, ed. David L. Hoffmann and Yanni Kotsonis (New York: St Martin’s Press, 2000), 92, 94. See also David Priestland, Stalinism and the Politics of Mobilization. Ideas, Power, and Terror in Inter- war Russia (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007). 7. David L. Hoffmann, Cultivating the Masses. Modern State Practices and Soviet Socialism. 1914–1939 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2011), 1–14. 8. Holquist, ‘What’s So Revolutionary’, 89–90; Stephen Kotkin, ‘Modern Times: The Soviet Union and the Interwar Conjuncture’, Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History 2.1 (2001): 113, 127. 9. Hoffmann, Cultivating the Masses, 4. 10. Like Arzhilovsky in Véronique Garros, Natalia Korenevskaya, Thomas Lahusen, eds. Intimacy and Terror. Soviet Diaries of the 1930s (New York: The New Press, 1995). 11. Peter Holquist, ‘State Violence as Technique: The Logic of Violence in Soviet Totalitarianism’, in David L. Hoffmann, ed. Stalinism: The Essential Readings (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2003). 12. Holquist, ‘What’s So Revolutionary’, 93–4. 13. Simon Pirani, ‘Mass Mobilization versus Participatory Democracy: Moscow Workers and the Bolshevik Expropriation of Political Power’, in A Dream Deferred. New Studies in Russian and Soviet Labor History, ed. Donald Filtzer, Wendy Z. Goldman, Gijs Kessler, Simon Pirani (Bern: Peter Lang, 2008), 95,100. 14. Kotkin, ‘Modern Times’, 133,136; David L. Hoffmann, Stalinist Values. The Cultural Norms of Soviet Modernity (1917–1941) (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2003), 158. 15. Ibid.

193 194 Notes

16. Tsentral’nyi Gosudarstvennyi Archiv Istoriko- politicheskikh Dokumentov Sankt- Peterburga (TsGAIPD SPb), 24/5/75/13. 17. Vladimir Brovkin: Russia after Lenin: Politics, Culture and Society, 1921–1929 (New York: Routledge, 1998); Kenneth Slepyan, ‘The Limits of Mobilization: Party, State and the 1927 Civil Defense Campaign’, Europe–Asia Studies 45, 5 (1993). 18. Paul Corner, ed. Popular Opinion in Totalitarian Regimes: Fascism, Nazism, Communism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009); Sarah Davies, Popular Opinion in Stalin’s Russia. Terror, Propaganda and Dissent, 1934–41 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Vihavainen. 19. Sheila Fitzpatrick, Alexander Rabinovich, Richard Stites, eds., Russia in the Era of NEP. Explorations in Soviet Society and Culture (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991). 20. See, for example, works by Stephen Kotkin, Sheila Fitzpatrick and the book by Christina Kiaer and Eric Neiman, Everyday Life in Early Soviet Russia. Taking the Revolution Inside (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2006). 21. See works by J. Hellbeck, T. Lahusen, I. Halfin, Ch. Kiaer and E. Naiman, Forum in Kritika, 7.3 (2006). 22. See works by Lynne Viola, Peasant Rebels under Stalin. Collectivization and the Culture of Peasant Resistance (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996); Sheila Fitzpatrick, Stalin’s Peasants. Resistance and Survival in the Russian Village after Collectivization (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994); Jeffrey J. Rossman, Worker Resistance under Stalin. Class and Revolution on the Shop Floor (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005); Forum in Kritika 1.1 (2000) and many others. 23. Gabor T. Rittersporn, ‘The Catastrophe, the Millennium, and Popular Mood in the USSR’, in Vihavainen, 59, 13, 51; Kuromiya, ‘How Do We Know’, in Vihavainen, 41–3; Lewis Siegelbaum and Andrei Sokolov, Stalinism as a Way of Life. A Narrative in Documents (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000), 6–9; Alexander Livshin, Nastroenia i politicheskie emotsii v Sovetskoi Rossii. 1917–1932 gg. (Moscow: ROSSPEN, 2010), 34–8. 24. Jan Plamper, ‘Beyond Binaries: Popular Opinion in Stalinism’, in Corner. 25. Corner, Introduction, 6; Fitzpatrik, ‘Popular Opinion’, 25. 26. Alter Litvin and John Keep, Stalinism. Russian and Western Views at the Turn of the Millennium, (London: Routledge, 2005), 92. 27. Plamper, 74. 28. Fitzpatrick refers to Kotkin’s view, ‘Popular Opinion’, 25. 29. Anne Gorsuch, Youth in Revolutionary Russia. Enthusiasts, Bohemians, Delinquents (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2000). 30. Juliane Furst, Review in Kritika 7.3 (2006): 681; Corinna Kuhr- Korolev, Gezähmte Helden: Die Formierung der Sowjetjugend (Essen: Klartext, 2005); Corinna Kuhr- Korolev, ed., Sowjetjugend 1917–1941: Generation zwischen Revolution und Resignation (Essen: Klartext, 2001). 31. Diane Koenker, Republic of Labor: Russian Printers and Soviet Socialism, 1918–1930 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2005); William J. Chase, Workers, Society and the Soviet state: Labor and Life in Moscow, 1918–1929 (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1987). See also David Shearer, Industry, State, and Society in Stalin’s Russia, 1926–1934 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998); Wendy Z. Goldman, Women at the Gates: Notes 195

Gender and Industry in Stalin’s Russia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002). 32. Kevin Murphy, Revolution and Counterrevolution: Class Struggle in a Moscow Metal Factory (New York: Berghan Books, 2005), 99, 114, 226; Simon Pirani, The Russian Revolution in Retreat, 1920–24: Soviet Workers and the New Communist Elite (New York: Routledge, 2008). 33. Hiroaki Kuromiya, Stalin’s Industrial Revolution. Politics and workers, 1928–1932, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988) Chapter 4. 34. The number of nursery places per thousand women had declined in the 1920s. 35. Olga Nikonova, ‘Kak iz krestianki Gaidinoi sdelat’ Marinu Raskovu, ili O teorii i praktike vospitania sovetskih patriotok’, Novoe Literaturnoe Obozrenie, 112. 6 (2011) http://www.nlobooks.ru/node/1516, accessed March 20, 2012. 36. Elizabeth A. Wood, The Baba and the Comrade: Gender and Politics in Revolutionary Russia (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997); Wendy Z. Goldman, ‘ Working- Class Women and the ‘Withering Away’ of the Family’, in Era of NEP, 125–43. 37. Teodor Shanin, ed., Peasants and Peasants Societies (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1971), 253–5. 38. A remarkable exception is Brovkin’s work. 39. Scott J. Seregny, ‘A Different Type of Peasant Movement: The Peasant Unions in the Russian Revolution of 1905’, Slavic Review 47.1 (1988); A. A. Kurenyshev, Vserossiiskii Krestianskii Soiuz, 1905–1930 gg. Mify i real’nost’ (Moscow–St Petersburg: Dmitrii Bulanin, 2004); Aaron Retish, Russia’s Peasants in Revolution and Civil War. Citizenship, Identity, and the Creation of the Soviet State, 1914–1922 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008). 40. Alexander Livshin and Igor’ Orlov, Vlast’ i obschestvo: Dialog v Pis’makh (Moscow: ROSSPEN, 2002); Livshin, Nastroenia; see also Eric Naiman, Sex in Public. The Incarnation of Early Soviet Ideology (Princeton University Press), 26. 41. Olga Velikanova, The Public Perception of the Cult of Lenin Based on Archival Material (Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press, 2001). 42. Sheila Fitzpatrick, ‘The Foreign Threat During the First Five Plan’, Alfred G. Meyer, ‘The War Scare of 1927’, Soviet Union/Union Sovietique 5.1 (1978); John P. Sontag, ‘The Soviet War Scare of 1927’, The Russian Review 34.1 (1975); Oleg Oleinik, ‘Problemy voennoi ugrozy SSSR v 1927 godu’, in Problemy sotsial’no- politicheskogo razvitija rossiiskogo obschestva. (Ivanovo, 1992); N. S. Simonov, ‘ “Strengthen the Defense of the Land of Soviets”: The 1927 “War Alarm” and its consequences’, Europe–Asia Studies 48.8 (1996). 43. Svetlana N. Ushakova, Ideologo-propagandistskie kampanii v praktike funkt- sianirovania stalinskogo regima: novye podkhody i istochniki (Novosibirsk: Sova, 2009), 28–56. 44. Nicolas Werth, ‘Rumeurs Defaitistes et Apocalyptiques dens L’URSS des Annees 1920 et 1930’, Vingtieme Siecle, Revue d’histoire, 71, juillet–septembre (2001): 25–35; Lynne Viola, ‘The Peasant Nightmare: Visions of Apocalypse in the Soviet Countryside’, Journal of Modern History 62 (1990). 45. A. V. Golubev, ‘Esli mir obrushitsia na nashu respubliku…’ Sovetskoe obshchestvo i vneshniaia ugrosa v 1920–1940 gg. (Moscow: Kuchkovo Pole, 2008). 46. Rossiiskii Gosudarstvennyi Arkhiv Sotsial’no- Politicheskoi Istorii (RGASPI), 17/85/297/56. 196 Notes

47. Alexei Berelovich and Viktor Danilov, Sovetskaia derevnia glazami VChK–OGPU–NKVD. Dokumenty i materialy (Moscow: ROSSPEN, 1998), vol. 2, (hereafter SD), 126. 48. ‘Sovershenno sekretno’: Lubianka–Stalinu o polozhenii v strane (1922–1934 gg.) vol. 1, part 2, (Moscow: IRI RAN, 2001), 912–13, 938. 49. Pirani, Russian Revolution, 140, 235. 50. L. P. Kolodnikova, Sovetskoe Obshchestvo 20-kh godov XX veka. Po dokumentam VChK–OGPU (Moscow: Nauka, 2009), 156–7, 169. 51. See Robert W. Davies, Mark Harrison, Stephen G. Wheatcroft, The Economic Transformation of the Soviet Union, 1913–1945 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 9, 42. 52. Andrei Markevich and Mark Harrison, ‘Great War, Civil War, and Recovery: Russia’s National Income, 1913 to 1928’, Journal of Economic History 71.3 (2011). 53. Steve A. Smith, The Russian Revolution. A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 134, 107. 54. RGASPI, 17/85/297/78. 55. Vladlen S. Izmozik, ‘Voices from the Twenties: Private Correspondence Intercepted by the OGPU’, Russian Review 55 (1996): 294. 56. In March 1926 (compared with 1924), daily production rates grew 29.4 per cent, but the day wage only 18.1 per cent, monthly wage 5.8 per cent. Kolodnikova, 159. 57. Kolodnikova, 165, 170, 177–8, 158. 58. RGASPI, 17/85/170/69; Kolodnikova, 9. 59. RGASPI, 17/85/170/8, 69 (1926); 17/85/529/69 (February 1927). 60. Murphy, ‘Strikes’, 187. 61. Caroli, 39, 43. In 1923 15 per cent of registered unemployed received 6–8 rubles; in 1924, 25 per cent of unemployed (300,000) received 9 rubles (25 per cent of average wage), in 1927/28, 50 per cent (657,000) received 7–27 rubles (average income 63.97 rubles). 62. RGASPI, 17/85/170/5–8. 63. Murphy, ‘Strikes’, 177. The arrests in Leningrad in March 1927 and arrest of the workers’ leader Liulin in Yaroslavl’ in June 1929, RGASPI, 17/85/297/55. Maria Ferretti, ‘Yaroslavsky rabochii Vasilii Ivanovich Liulin’, Rossia XXI 5 (2011). 64. Smith, 131. 65. Kolodnikova, 12. 66. Murphy, ‘Strikes’, 189. 67. A. M. Bol’shakov, Derevnia. 1919–1927 (Moscow–Leningrad: Rabotnik Prosveshchenia, 1927), 100. 68. Davies et al., Economic Transformation, 10, 84. 69. For general characteristics and structure of the VChK/OGPU reports see V. S. Izmozik, Glaza i ushi regima. Gosudarstvenny politicheskii control za naseleniem Sovetskoi Rossii v 1918–1928 godah (St Petersburg: Sankt–Peterburg Universitet Economiki i Finansov, 1995),; O. Welikanowa ‘Berichte zur Stimmungslage. Zur den Quellen politischer Beobachtung der Bevolkerung in der Sowjetunion’, Jahrbucher fur Geschichte Osteuropas 47,2 (1999): 227–43; V. K. Vinogradov, ‘Informatsionnye materialy OGPU za 1923–1929 gg.’ SD, 25–53; and others. Notes 197

70. Antony Giddens, Modernity and Self- Identity. Self and Society in the Late Modern Age (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1991), 15. 71. Holquist, ‘What’s So Revolutionary?’, 91; Hoffmann, Cultivating the Masses, 181–237. 72. A contemporary, Nadezhda Mandelstam insightfully noted: ‘[Punitive organs] had many goals: extermination of the witnesses who were able to remember something, to establish uniformed thinking (edinomyslie), preparation of advent of Millennium kingdom, and so on.’ Nadezhda Mandelstam, Vospominania (New York: Chekhov Publishing Corporation, 1971), 16. 73. RGASPI, 76/3/325/1. 74. Lynne Viola, ‘Popular Resistance in the Stalinist 1930s: Soliloquy of a Devil’s Advocate’, Kritika 1.1 (2000): 45–69. 75. Matthew E. Lenoe, ‘Letter- writing and the State’, Cahiers du monde russe 40.1–2 (1999): 139–69. 76. A good combination of OPGU reviews and diaries is Golubev’s study of foreign threat perceptions. 77. N. K. Denzin, Y. S. Lincoln, Handbook of Qualitative Research, (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2000). 78. Kuromiya, ‘How Do We Know?’, 44. 79. Lenoe, 155; Jan Plamper, The Stalin Cult. A Study in the Alchemy of Power, (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2012), 213. 80. Siegelbaum and Sokolov, 9; Kolodnikova, 20; Golubev, 22–3; Vinogradov, ‘Informatsionnye materialy’, SD, 51. 81. Izmozik, Glaza i ushi, 134. 82. RGASPI, 76/3/325/1. 83. RGASPI, 76/3/351/4 (February 1925). 84. Ibid, ll. 5–6. 85. Lenoe, 157. 86. After closing the Gubernia Information troikas in the mid–1920s, the statis- tics of strikes in the USSR grew immediately, implying its previous embellish- ment. Kolodnikova, 82, 103. 87. Hoffmann, Stalinist Values, 189. 88. February–March Plenum TsK VKPb, February 23, 1937, Voprosy Istorii, 4–5 (1992): 33–4. 89. Leonid Mlechin, KGB. Predsedateli organov gosbezopasnosti. Rassekrechennye sud’by (Moscow: Tsentrpoligraph, 2008), 667.

1 The Foreign Threat: Leadership and Popular Perceptions in 1923 and 1924

1. Gosudarstvennyi Arkhiv Rossiiskoi Federatsii (GARF), 374/27/1215/37. 2. Robert Thurston, Life and Terror in Stalin’s Russia. 1934–1941 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1996), 223; David L. Hoffmann, ed., Stalinism, 86; Theodore von Laue, Why Lenin? Why Stalin? Why Gorbachev? The Rise and Fall of the Soviet System (New York: Pearson, 1993); V. Khaustov and L, Samuelson, Stalin, NKVD i repressii 1936–1938 gg. (Moscow: ROSSPEN, 2010). 198 Notes

3. Resolution of the XV VKPb Congress on a Five- Year Plan, 1927, in Alex G. Cummins, ed., Documents of Soviet History, vol. 4 (Gulf Breeze, FL: Academic International Press, 1998), 260. 4. Oleg Khlevnyuk, ‘The Objectives of the Great Terror, 1937–1938’, in Hoffmann, Stalinism, 102–3. 5. Elias Canetti, Massa i vlast’ (Moscow: Ad Marginem, 1997), 28. 6. Eric Hoffer, Thoughts on the Nature of Mass Movements (New York: Harper and Row, 1963), 128. 7. George Lefevre, The Great Fear of 1789: Rural Panic in Revolutionary France (London: Random House, 1973). 8. Iosif V. Stalin, Sochinenia (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe Isdatel’stvo Politicheskoi Literatury, 1953), vol. 11, 63. It was a repetition of Robespierre in Republic of Virtue: ‘Externally all the despots surround you; internally all the friends of tyranny conspire… It is necessary to annihilate both the internal and exter- nal enemies of the republic or perish with its fall.’ 9. Michael Geyer, ‘The Militarization of Europe, 1914–45’, in The Militarization of the Western World, ed. John R. Gillis (New Brunswick, London: Rutgers, 1989), 80–81. 10. Time Magazine, 24 January, 1924, accessed July 15, 2010, http://www.time. com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,786655,00.html 11. Roger W. Pethybridge, The Social Prelude to Stalinism (Basingstoke; Macmillan, 1977), 75–123, 307; Sheila Fitzpatrick, ‘The Civil War as a Formative Experience’, in Bolshevik Culture: Experiment and Order in Russian Revolution, ed. Abbot Gleason, Peter Kenez, Richard Stites (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1985), 57–76. 12. In 1925 the series of brochures ‘Revolutionary games of Pioneers‘ was published by G. A. Palepa: Zakhvatchiki. Igra v okazanie soprotivlenia, [‘Invaders: A game of resistance’]; Zashchita Krasnogo znameni: [‘Defense of the Red flag’]; Za vlast’ Sovetov! Igra v snezhki ili miachi [‘For Soviet Power! A snowball or ball fight’]; SSSR, pomogi! igra v labirint, [‘USSR, help! Labyrinth game’]; Belyi, gde ty? [‘White Guard, where are you?’]; Ruki Proch’! Podvizhnaia igra [‘Hands off! An outdoor game’]. IDC Publishers. Primary Sources. Children’s Leisure Activities in Russia, accessed February 2, 2009, http:// www.primarysourcesonline.nl/c47/do_search.php 13. Orlando Figes and Boris Kolonitskii, Interpreting the Russian Revolution. The Language and Symbols of 1917 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1999), 155–7. 14. KPSS v resoliutsiiakh i resheniiakh s’ezdov, konferentsii i plenumov TsK, Vol. 4 (Moscow, 1984), 175. 15. Konstantin Simonov, ‘Glazami cheloveka moego pokoleniiia: razmyshleniia o I.V. Staline’, Znamia 3 (1988): 18. 16. Nikita S. Khrushchev, Vospominania, vol. 1 (Moscow: Moskovskie Novosti, 1999), 81. 17. Jonathan Haslam, ‘Comintern and Soviet Foreign Policy, 1919–1941’, in The Cambridge History of Russia, edited by Ronald Suny, vol. III (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 638. 18. For details see Olga Velikanova, The Public Perception of the Cult of Lenin Based on Archival Material (Lewingstone: Edwin Mellen Press, 2001), 67–72. 19. RGASPI, 76/3/287/6. Notes 199

20. Ibid., 7. 21. Ibid., 1. 22. Ibid., 13. Troika – an extralegal tribunal. 23. Boris Savinkov (1879–1925) was a member of PSR, a Deputy Head of its Combat Organization. In the Civil War he inspired several armed uprisings against the Bolsheviks. In 1921–23 Savinkov headed the emigrant terrorist Peoples’ Union of Defense of the Motherland and Liberty, based in Poland, with the aim of organizing an anti- Soviet uprising in the USSR in the event of military intervention. Later arrested by the OGPU, he died in prison in August 1924. See V. Vinogradov and A. Zdanovich, comp., Boris Savinkov na Lubianke. Dokumenty (Moscow: ROSSPEN, 2001). 24. RGASPI, 76/3/287/5. 25. V. N. Khaustov et al. ed., Lubianka. Stalin i VChK–GPU–OGPU–NKVD. Arkhiv Stalina. Dokumenty vysshikh organov partiinoi i gosudarstvennoi vlasti. Yanvar’ 1922–Dekabr’1936 (Moscow: Materik, 2003), 75 (hereafter Lubianka) 26. Review of political and economic conditions in the USSR, May–December, 1923, ‘Sovershenno sekretno’, vol. 1, part 2, 884, 971. 27. Kolodnikova, 146–7. 28. Izvestia, May 13, 1923. 29. Jeffery Brooks, ‘The Breakdown in Production and Distribution of Printed Materials, 1917–1927’, in Bolshevik Culture, ed. Gleason et al., 171. 30. M. Litvinov, Reply to British Government, February 27, 1927, Cummins, vol. 4, 170. 31. David R. Stone, ‘The Prospect of War? Lev Trotskii, the Soviet Army, and the German Revolution in 1923’, The International History Review xxv. 4 (December 2003): 803–4. 32. British Foreign Office: Russia Correspondence, F.O. 371, 1923, vol. 9357, p. 144–53. 33. N. S. Simonov, ‘’Strengthen the Defense of the Land of Soviets’: The 1927 ‘War Alarm’ and its Consequences’, Europe–Asia Studies 48. 8 (1996): 1360. 34. Stone, ‘Prospect of War’, 799–817. 35. A. Yu. Vatlin, ‘Vneshnia politika i Komintern, 1921–1929’, in Rossia nepovskaia. Issledovania, ed. A. N. Yakovlev (Moscow: Novyi Khronograf, 2002), 348–9. 36. A. K. Sokolov, ed., Golos naroda. Pis’ma i otkliki riadovykh sovetskih grazhdan o sobytiah 1918–1932 godov (Moscow: ROSSPEN, 1998) (hereafter GN), 227–8, August 1924. 37. Tsentral’nyi Gosudarstvennyi Arkhiv Istoriko- politicheskikh Dokumentov Sankt- Peterburga (TsGAIPD SPb), 16/1/4800/10. 38. Ia. Shafir, Gazeta i derevnia (Moscow–Leningrad: Krasnaia Nov’, 1924), 99, 112. 39. Shafir, Gazeta, 53, 72; TsGAIPD SPb, 16/1/4835/100 reverse. 40. A. Osipov et al., ed., Slovar’ neponiatnykh dlia krestianina slov (Leningrad: Krasnaia Derevnia, 1929). 41. Michael S. Gorham, Speaking in Soviet Tongues. Language Culture and the Politics of Voice in Revolutionary Russia (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2003), 28. 42. SD, 78, 82, 84, 86, 91. 200 Notes

43. Olga Velikanova, ‘Aftermath of the Great Famine: 1922–1923’, in Felix Wemheuer and Stephen Middell, ed., Hunger, Nutrition and Systems of Rationing under State Socialism (1917–2006) (Leipzig: Leipzig University Press, 2012) (forthcoming). 44. SD, 86, 93; ‘Sovershenno sekretno’, vol. 1, part 2, 838. 45. Ibid., 745 (February 1923). Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich (1856–1929) was the Chief Commander of the Russian Army in 1914–1915, quite a popular figure among soldiers. In the 1920s, Grand Duke was considered the leader of the Romanov Dynasty and Chief Commander of Russian military organizations in exile. 46. SD, 144. 47. Grain exports were 729,000 tons in hungry 1922/23 – more than in 1924/25, 1927/28, 1929. Davies et al., Economic Transformation, 316. It was more than all food furnished to Russia through the ARA in 1921–23 (709,507 tons). Harold H. Fisher, The Famine in Soviet Russia: Operations of the American Relief Administration, 1919–1923 (New York: Macmillan, 1927), 554. 48. Shafir, Gazeta, 117. 49. TsGAIPD SPb, 16/1/4834/79; 16/5/4319/18 (1921). 50. F.O.371, 1924, Vol. 10484, p. 108. 51. Shafir, Gazeta, 134–5. 52. F.O. 371, 1924, Vol. 10484, p. 144, 126, 99, 98; ‘Sovershenno sekretno’, vol. 1, part 2, 721 (February 1923), 724, 732, 736, 746, 836 (March 1923). 53. TsGAIPD SPb, 16/6/6938/207 (1925); 24/1b/367/71 (1931); 24/1b/321/58 (1930); 24/2v/1187/47 (1935). 54. ‘Sovershenno sekretno’, vol. 1, part 2, 861, 864, 865, 891. 55. A. M. Bol’shakov, Sovetskaia derevnia, 1917–1925. Ekonomika i byt, (Leningrad: Priboi, 1925), 183. Translated by Seth Bernstein. 56. ‘Sovershenno sekretno’, vol. 1, part 2, 895. 57. ‘Sovershenno sekretno’, vol. 1, part 2, 934. 58. TsGAIPD SPb, 16/1/4800/23–46. 59. The analysis of the full spectrum of popular reactions to Lenin’s death, see Velikanova, Popular Perception, 67–88; Brovkin, Russia after Lenin, 100–101. 60. TsGAIPD SPb, 16/6/6938/166, 196; 16/6/6936/38; RGASPI, 17/84/916/12; 17/84/679/23–8; Neizvestnaia Rossiia, 4 (Moscow: Istoricheskoe nasledie, 1994), 12, 13, 15, 16, 21; Izmozik, Glaza i ushi, 86. 61. Rozhkov, A.Yu. V krugu sverstnikov: zhiznennyi mir molodogo cheloveka v Sovetskoi Rossii 20-h godov. Vol. 2 (Perspektivy obrazovania, 2002), 93. 62. TsGAIPD SPb, 16/5/5336/16; 16/9/9765/1. See also Mark von Hagen, Soldiers in the Proletarian Dictatorship (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1990), 291. 63. Velikanova, Popular Perception, 67–88; TsGAIPD SPb, 16/5/5336/21; 16/5/5907/117; 16/5/5912/112; SD, 174. 64. ‘Sovershenno sekretno’, vol. 1, part 2, 971; Lubianka, 101–3; 111–13. 65. Izvestia, August 1, 1924, p. 3; August 3, 1924, p. 1. 66. Rossiiskii Gosudarstvennyi Arkhiv Economiki (RGAE), 396/2/18/54 (1924). 67. Shafir, Gazeta, 103. 68. Izvestia, August, 1, 1924, p. 3. 69. Izvestia, August, 3, 1924, p. 2. 70. Peter Gatrell, Russia’s First World War. A Social and Economic History (Harlow: Pearson, 2005), 255–9. Notes 201

71. Izvestia, August 3, 1924. 72. Shafir, Gazeta, 25, 45, 55. 73. Izvestia, August 1, 1924, p. 3. 74. Krest’ianskaia Gazeta, August 3, 1924, p. 1, 3. 75. Krest’ianskaia Gazeta, August 17, 1924, p. 2. 76. Letter from January 30, 1922, in Richard Pipes, ed., Unknown Lenin. From the Secret Archive (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1996), 184. 77. V. G. Tan Bogoraz, ed., Obnovlennaia derevnia (Leningrad: GIZ, 1925), 108. 78. http://www.seu.ru/members/ucs/chemwar/459.htm accessed May 2, 2010. 79. Ibid. ‘Incapacitants’, a kind of nonlethal poison, were created in the USSR, weaponized only in the 1980–90s and used during liberation of the hostages captured by terrorists at the Dubrovka theatre in Moscow in October 23, 2002. 80. Pravda, September 8, 1927, p. 5. 81. RGAE, 396/2/18/57, 61 (1924). 82. Golubev, 116–17. 83. Pravda, May 1, 1927, p. 2; Golubev, 117. 84. F.O. 371, 1924, vol. 10484, p. 77–8, 81–2, 107–8. 85. Published in Cummins, vol. 4, 185; F.O. 371, 1927, vol. 12595, p. 219. 86. GN, 227, 1924; RGAE, 396/2/18/40–41 reverse. 87. RGASPI, 17/84/916/18. Review of political condition of the USSR, March 1925. 88. Lubianka, 101–3, 111–13. 89. Derek Watson, ‘The Politburo and Foreign policy in the 1930s’, in E. Arfon Rees, ed., The Nature of Stalin’s Dictatorship. The Politburo, 1924–1953 (Basingstoke: Palgrave, Macmillan, 2004), 136. 90. Livshin and Orlov, Vlast’, 176–7.

2 The War Scare of 1927: Power Discourse

1. Oleinik, 50; L. N. Nezhinskii, ‘Byla li voennaia ugroza SSSR v kontze 1920–nachale 1930 godov’, Istoria SSSR 6 (1990). 2. Meyer; Sontag, 66; Oleinik, 50; David R. Stone, Hammer and Rifle. The Militarization of the Soviet Union, 1926–1933 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2000), 44. 3. Lynne Viola, V. P. Danilov, N. A. Ivnitskii, and Denis Kozlov, eds., The War Against the Peasantry, 1927–1930. The Tragedy of the Soviet Countryside (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2005), 16; V. P. Danilov, Introduction to TSD, 23; Brandenberger, 21; Werth, ‘Rumeurs’, 26, 30. 4. Fitzpatrick, ‘The Foreign Threat’, 31. 5. Davies et al., Economic Transformation, 84; Weiner, 145. 6. RGASPI, 17/85/170/8, 69 (1926); 17/85/529/69 (1927). 7. Krasnaia Gazeta, January 6–7, 1927. 8. F.O. 371, 1927, vol. 12593, p. 71; vol. 12595, p. 219, 219 reverse. 9. Lev Trotsky, Two speeches at the TsKK meeting, June 1927 in Yuri Fel’shtinsky, ed., Communisticheskaia oppozitsia v SSSR (1923–1927), vol. 3 (New York: Chalidze Publications, 1988), 96. 10. RGASPI, 558/1/767/40–45. 202 Notes

11. An unsuccessful Communist revolt took place in northwestern Bulgaria on September 23–29, 1923. 12. Brooks, Thank you, 261, 42; Watson, 136. 13. Stalin stated at the XVth Party Congress in December 1927: ‘Today we have every ground of asserting that Europe is obviously entering a period of new revolutionary upsurge.’ I. V. Stalin, Sochinenia, vol. 10, 284. 14. Lubianka, 111–13. 15. B. A. Starkov, ‘Zapad glazami sotrudnikov OGPU’, in Rossiia i Zapad, ed. A.V. Tereschuk (St Petersburg: St Petersburg University, 1996), 187–9. 16. See Dzerzhinsky’s letter from February 1925 about the hostile relations of OGPU and NKID, Lubianka, 792, n. 42. 17. Voroshilov’s speech, February 1926, in Stenogrammy Zasedanii Politburo TsK RKPb. 1923–1938, vol. 1 (Moscow: ROSSPEN 2007), 620; Yagoda’s let- ter to Dzerzhinsky after February 15, 1925, RGASPI, 76/3/351/6; Golubev, 350; Lennart Samuelson, Soviet Defense Industry Planning: Tukhachevskii and Military- Industrial Mobilization. 1926–1937 (Stockholm: Institute of East European Economies, 1996), 41. 18. F. O. 371, 1927, vol. 12595, p. 61, 36; Cummins, vol. 4, 185–9. 19. Samuelson, Soviet Defense, 40. It was 140 million rubles according to Holland Hunter and Janusz M. Szyrmer, Faulty Foundations: Soviet Economic Policies, 1928–1940 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1992), 137–9. 20. Mark Harrison, ‘Providing for Defense’, in Behind the Façade of Stalin’s Command Economy, ed. Paul Gregory, (Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press, 2001), 84–5. 21. Ibid.; Stone, Hammer and Rifle, 49; Ken, Mobilizatsionnoie planirovanie, chapter 3; Samuelson, Soviet Defense, 38–40, 58; Hunter and Szyrmer, 137–9. 22. Samuelson, Soviet Defense, 36. 23. E. A. Gorbunov, ‘Bezosnovatel’naia trevoga’, Nezavisimoe Voennoe Obozrenie, http://nvo.ng.ru/spforces/2008–03–21/7_warning.html, accessed March 23, 2008. 24. Samuelson, Soviet Defense, 54–7. 25. F. O. 371, 1927, vol. 12593, p. 100. 26. Sabine Dullin ‘Understanding Russian and Soviet Foreign Policy from a Geocultural Perspective’, Kritika 12.1 (2011): 179. 27. Dzerzhinsky’s notes to G. Yagoda, June 25, July 15 and 18, 1926 in Plekhanov A. A. and A. M. Plekhanov, eds., F. E. Dzerzhinsky – Predsedatel’ VChK–OGPU, 1917–1926. Dokumenty (Moscow: Materik, 2007), 658, 663–5. 28. Dzerzhinsky’s note to I. V. Stalin, July 11, 1926, Lubianka, 118; also April Yagoda’s note about the activation of Polish intelligence in the USSR. 29. See Gorbunov. However, afterwards NKID and Intelligence continued sending pacifying information. 30. RGASPI, 17/2/286/46–94; Michael Reiman, The Birth of Stalinism. The USSR on the Eve of the ‘Second Revolution’, (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987), 16, 157. 31. L. M. Zakovsky’s note to Menzhinsky, January 31, 1927, in A. M. Plekhanov, VChK–OGPU v gody novoi economicheskoi politiki 1921–1928 (Moscow: Kuchkovo Pole, 2006), 305. 32. Japanese–Soviet military conflict in Manchuria arose in 1931. Notes 203

33. Martin McCauley, The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Union (Harlow: Pearson, 2008), 124–5. 34. Pravda, January 11, 13, 1927. 35. RGASPI, 17/85/170/218. 36. Quoted in Samuelson, Soviet Defense, 35. 37. F. O. 371, 1927, vol. 12595, p. 239, 218, 181, 187; The Time, July 12, 1927. 38. Lubianka, 293, July 1931. 39. ‘We won’t have war in the spring or fall of this year […] because the enemies were not yet ready for war.’ I. V. Stalin, Sochinenia, vol. 9, 170, March 1, 1927. 40. In this, Stalin followed Dzerzhinsky, who on February 14, 1926 sent a telegram to the OGPU organs: ‘Starting from January [1926] fires take place in many localities of the USSR: at the plants, factories and warehouses. There are some reasons to suggest wreckage behind that from hostile individuals and organizations…’ A. A. Plekhanov, Dzerzhinsky, 637. 41. Alfred J. Rieber, ‘Stalin as Foreign Policy-maker’, in Sarah Davies and James Harris, ed., Stalin. A New History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 141. 42. Lubianka, 125–8. 43. Lubianka, 128–32. Viktor P. Danilov, Roberta T. Manning, Lynne Viola, eds., Tragediia sovetskoi derevni: Kollektivizatsiia i raskulachivanie. Documenty i materialy. 1927–1939, 5 vols. (Moscow: ROSSPEN, 1999–2003) vol. 1, 71, 20 (hereafter TSD). 44. Lubianka, 134–5, 795. 45. V. A. Shishkin, ‘Polosa priznaniy’ i vneshneeconomicheskaia politika SSSR (1924–1928gg.) (Leningrad: Nauka, 1983), 121. 46. Cummins, vol. 3, 206–7, 246–50, 287. 47. Stalin’s letter, July 11, 1927 and other letters in L. Kosheleva et al., eds., Pis’ma I. V. Stalina V. M. Molotovu (1925–36) (Moscow: Rossia Molodaya, 1995), 102–17. 48. Lubianka, 131. 49. Diplomatic relations were re- established in 1929. On June 15, 1927, at a meeting of the Ministers of Foreign affairs in Geneva Chamberlain claimed that he did not intend to call for ‘the crusade’ against Russia. http://hronos. km.ru/sobyt/1927sssr.html accessed February 11, 2011. 50. Pravda, June 1, 1927, p. 1. However, no military mobilization steps were undertaken, frontier troops were called to be vigilant, and warned about the danger of diversions. 51. F.O. 371, 1927, vol. 12595, p. 191, 193; vol. 12593, p. 161. Leading import items were cotton, wool, tools, machinery and rubber. 52. Shishkin, Polosa, 130, 191. 53. L. B. Kamenev noted in February 1928, ‘All of 1927 was marked by reduc- tion of peasants’ grain sells… Reducing of sowing had already started. Active resistance is also possible… We heal this crisis by elimination of the NEP.’ Cited in Kolodnikova, 150. 54. Reiman, 12. 55. Lubianka, 131. 56. J. Brooks, ‘Official Xenophobia and Popular Cosmopolitanism in Early Soviet Press’, American Historical Review, December (1992): 1442; Idem., Thank you, 39. 204 Notes

57. Pravda, May 28, 1927. 58. Dni, December 14, 1926. 59. Alexander Y. Livshin and Igor’ B. Orlov, eds., Pis’ma vo vlast’, 1917–1927 (Moscow: ROSSPEN, 1998), 589; Pravda, September 8, 1927, p. 5. 60. Ilia Il’f and Evgenii Petrov, Dvenadtsat’ stul’ev (Moscow: Panorama, 1995), 193. 61. A. Selishchev, Iazyk revolutsionnoi epokhi (Moscow: Rabotnik Prosveshcheniia, 1928), 191. 62. RGASPI, 17/85/289/3. 63. RGASPI, 17/32/113/3. 64. SD, 579–80; RGASPI, 17/85/289/4, 9; TsGAIPD SPb, 16/1/8501/10; 16/1/8494/9, 13, 93, 117, 8. 65. RGAE, 396/5/194/207. 66. RGASPI, 17/32/113/3–27; Slepyan, ‘Limits’, 856, 865; Livshin and Orlov, Vlast’, 186. 67. TsGAIPD SPb, 16/1/8494/3, 33–5, 62, 72, 77, 93. 68. Locality is not specified, probably Moscow. RGASPI, 17/85/288/109, 111. 69. Lubianka, 110, 118. 70. Holquist, ‘What’s So Revolutionary’, 91. 71. Pravda, May 7, 1927, p. 2, 3. D. P. Maretsky (1901–1937) – a friend and a disciple of N. I. Bukharin, a graduate student of Academy of Science. 72. Lubianka, 131, 257. 73. Cummins, vol. 4, 186 (April 1927). 74. Letter of M. Minkin to Stalin, July 1927, in Livshin and Orlov, Vlast’, 184. 75. Plekhanov, 305. 76. Quoted in Lazar’ Fleishman, V tiskakh provokatsii. Operatsija ‘Trest’ i russkaia zarubeshnaia pechat’ (Moscow: NLO, 2003), 178. 77. The goal of operation (1921–27) was to identify, entrap and eliminate the anti- Soviet monarchist underground in the USSR. Fleishman, V tiskakh. 78. Valerii A. Shishkin. Stanovlenie vneshnei politiki poslerevoliutsionnoi Rossii i kapitalisticheskii mir (1917–1930 gody) (St Petersburg, 2002), 283–91. This murder was interpreted as retribution and accepted with satisfaction by those in public who knew Voikov’s background. GARF, 396/5/31/27; RGASPI, 17/85/289/12. 79. Danilov, Introduction to TSD, vol. 1, 23; Stalin’s telegram to Molotov, June 8, 1927, Lubianka, 133. 80. RGASPI, 17/166/200/1, 2, 64, The Politburo Protocol # 109, June 8, 1927; The Politburo resolution on measures against Whiteguardist actions. Lubianka, 133, 136. 81. Pravda, July 5, 1927, p. 3; Izvestia, July 5, 1927, p. 2. 82. Pravda, June 9, 1927; Translation see in Cummins, vol. 4, 208–10. 83. RGASPI, 17/166/200–202, 205, 209, Protocols 109–11, 114–15, 117–19. 84. On September 2, 1918 five hundred ‘representatives of overthrown classes’ were shot. Between 10,000 and 15,000 persons were executed during two months of the Red Terror. 85. RGASPI, 558/11/767/35–6. Under ‘East’ Molotov probably meant rebellious Soviet Central Asia, monitored by the OGPU Eastern Department. 86. Pravda, February 24, 26, 1927; F.O. 371, 1927, vol. 12595, p. 20, 32; The full text of the article, see Lubianka, 796–8. Notes 205

87. Gregory, 112–13; Nicolas Werth, ‘A State against Its People’, in Stephane Courtois et al. ed., The Black Book of Communism (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1999), 135. 88. Stuart Finkel, ‘An Intensification of Vigilance. Recent Perspectives on the Institutional History of the Soviet Security Apparatus in the 1920s’, Kritika 5, 2 (2004): 300–301, 304–5, 312. 89. Lubianka, 790. 90. Lubianka, 115–16, 124, 128, 790, 793–4. 91. Plekhanov, 109, 134–6. 92. Lubianka, 113, 793; Plekhanov, 510–13; Werth, 135. 93. Paul Hagenloh, Stalin’s Police. Public Order and Mass Repressions in the USSR, 1926–1941 (Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 2009), 33, 42, 45. 94. Lubianka, 137–8, 796. 95. Lubianka, 796. 96. Rykov emphasized the legality of murdering 20 hostages: ‘The Collegia of OGPU is an Extraordinary Court.’ Izvestia, July 29, 1927, p. 3; F.O. 371, 1927, vol. 12595, p. 70. Krylenko assured that ‘all were carried out in strict conformity with the procedure laid down in Soviet legislation.’ F.O. 371, 1927, vol. 12593, p. 105. These contortions show sensitivity of the government to world public opinion. 97. Lubianka, 143 (November 5, 1927). 98. Paul R. Gregory, Terror by Quota. State Security from Lenin to Stalin (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2009), 115. 99. Lubianka, 121, 793. The troika in Dagestan sentenced 52 people to death. 100. Plekhanov, 136, 138. 101. Plekhanov, 130 (July 13, 1927); Hagenloh, 42. The verdicts of republic- level troika in this case were to be sanctioned by the OGPU Special Board in Moscow. 102. Stephen G. Wheatrcroft, ‘Agency and Terror: Evdokimov and Mass Killing in Stalin’s Great Terror’, Australian Journal of Politics and History 53.1 (2007): 30. 103. Roberta T. Manning, ‘The Rise and Fall of “the Extraordinary Measures”, January–June 1928: Toward a Reexamination of the Onset of the Stalin Revolution’, The Carl Beck Papers in Russian and East- European Studies 1504 ( January 2001): 8–9, 13. 104. Yagoda’s order from February 2, 1930 #44/21 established a network of troikas in several areas. 105. I. V. Stalin, ‘Zametki na sovremennye temy’, Sochinenia, vol. 9, 327–30. Pravda, July 28, 1927. Translation see in Cummins, vol. 4, 211–28. 106. TSD, vol. 1, 25 ( June 17, 1927). L. Trotsky and G. Zinoviev were excluded from the TsK on June 20. The TsK Plenum had approved this exclusion in October. 107. Paul Hollander, ‘Contemporary Political Violence and Its Legitimation’, in Political Violence: Belief, Behavior and Legitimation, ed. Paul Hollander (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008), 6–7. 108. As Gregory asserts in his Terror by Quota, 30. 109. V. K. Vinogradov, ‘Zelenaia lampa’, Nezavisimaia Gazeta, April 20, 1994, p. 5. 206 Notes

110. J. Arch Getty and Oleg V. Naumov, The Road to Terror: Stalin and the Self- destruction of the Bolsheviks, 1932–1939, translations by Benjamin Sher (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1999), 16. 111. Plekhanov, 313. No source provided. 112. Danilov, Introduction to TSD, vol. 1, 24. 113. Lubianka, 135. 114. Lubianka, 125. 115. A. Yu. Epikhin and O. B. Mozokhin, VChK–OGPU v bor’be s korruptsiei v gody novoi ekonomicheskoi politiki, 1921–28 (Moscow: Kuchkovo Pole, 2007), 274–301. 116. Izvestia, August 31, 1927; Pravda, September 7–14, 1927. 117. Lubianka, 139–41; Pravda, September 25, 1927; F.O. 371, 1927, vol. 12593, p. 135, 138. 118. Pravda, October 18, 1927; The Politburo Protocol, RGASPI,17/162/5/119, published in Lubianka, 143; The Times, October 18, 1927; F.O. 371, 1927, vol. 12593, p. 204. 119. The Politburo protocols, September 1, 12, 21, RGASPI, 17/162/5/93, 101, 119. 120. Tepliakov, 194. 121. Danilov, Introduction to TSD, vol. 1, 22. 122. F.O. 371, 1927, vol. 12595, p. 218. 123. RGASPI, 17/85/289/37–40. 124. TsA FSB, 66/1/174/224, quoted in Danilov, Introduction to TSD, vol. 1, 25–6. 125. TsA FSB, 66/1/172/522, quoted in V. K. Vinogradov, Introduction to SD, vol. 2, 43. 126. Solomon, 66–7. 127. F.O. 371, 1927, vol. 12593, p. 71. Report of British Foreign Office agent A. Cave. 128. Lubianka, 136. 129. On June 28–29, 1927 five commanders of Trans- Caucasian Red Army were arrested and condemned to death on charges of rebellion preparation to remove all Stalinists from the Trans- Caucasian government. F.O. 371, 1927, vol. 12595, p. 232. 130. RGASPI, 17/85/288/100. 131. TsA FSB, 2/5/5/65, 70, 83, quoted in Plekhanov, 313–14; In Samara seven people were arrested for the purpose of recruiting new informers and two arrested simply in order to mask the algorithm of repressions. 132. Wheatcroft, ‘Evdokimov’, 30. 133. SD, 628 (March 1928); RGASPI, 17/85/289/12, 28. 134. TsA FSB, 2/5/5/124–5; 172–3, quoted in Plekhanov, 314. 135. Plekhanov, 244, 315. 136. Vinogradov, ‘Zelenaia lampa.’ 137. Ibid. 138. RGASPI, 17/85/289/12; F.O. 371, 1927, vol. 12595, p. 218. 139. Ibid., p. 218. 140. Rittersporn, ‘The Catastrophe’, 56. 141. Getty and Naumov, 588. The share of political arrests is presented by Hagenloh, 50, and Gregory, Terror by Quota, 18. Notes 207

142. Epikhin and Mozokhin, 274–301. Dvizhenie obviniaemyh privlechennyh po sledstvennym delam za 1926, 1927, 1928 gody. 143. Wheatcroft, ‘Mass Killing’, 118. 144. Kak lomali NEP, vol. 2, 14; vol. 1, 25. 145. TSD, vol. 1, 27, 86, 100–102, 231; SD, 21, 1036; Osokina, Daily Bread, 23. 146. Iorg Baberovsky, Krasnyi terror. Istoria stalinisma (Moscow: ROSSPEN, 2007); Courtois, eds., The Black Book of Communism. 147. Thurston, 223; Hoffmann, Stalinism, 86; Von Laue, Why Lenin?; Khaustov and Samuelson. 148. Khlevnyuk, ‘Objectives’, 102–3. 149. Mark Harrison, Guns and Rubles. The Defense Industry in the Stalinist State (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2009), 10–11. 150. Dzerzhinsky’s notes on functions of the OGPU (probably 1919), RGASPI, 76/3/79/15. 151. Hoffmann, Cultivating the Masses, 203. 152. Plekhanov, 487. In 1924 there were 10,000 paid informers throughout the USSR (518 in Moscow). In 1926, 10,000 informers in Moscow alone. Izmozik, Glaza i Ushi, 112, 117. 153. SD, 8, 43, 626; Plekhanov, 381; Werth, ‘A State against Its People’, 140. Izmozik gives the number of 99,680 registered by the Secret Department at the end of 1924. Glaza i Ushi, 120. 154. Holquist, ‘State Violence’, 154. 155. Tsentral’nyi Gosudarstvennyi Arkhiv Sankt- Peterburga (TsGA SPb), 4370/5/4/314. 156. RGASPI, 17/85/289/12. 157. RGASPI, 17/162/5/2. On May 12, 1927 the Politburo ordered the enhancement of the work of Politcontrol, responsible for scanning of correspondence. 158. F.O. 371, 1927, vol. 12595, p. 31. 159. Letter from M. de Heidenstam, Swedish Minister in Moscow, to M. Westman in the Swedish Ministry for Foreign Affairs, Moscow, June 22, 1927. F.O. 371, 1927, vol. 12595, p. 199. 160. Special OGPU report about the peasants’ attitude toward arrests, July 23, 1927, TSD, vol. 1, 77–82. 161. Uprisings in Chechnya, Ingushetia and Dagestan in 1925–26 were suppressed by the Red Army and the OGPU and followed by disarmament, according to the Politburo decisions from September 17, 1925 and August 19, 1926. Lubianka, 109, 120–21, 793. Caucasians explained disarmament by the possi- bility of new uprising in the event of war. 162. Golubev, 129; TSD, vol. 1, 78 ( June 1927). 163. RGASPI, 17/85/19/182. 164. RGASPI, 17/85/514/17, 12 ( July 1927). See also letter from P. Minkov to Stalin in Livshin and Orlov, Pis’ma vo vlast’, 586. 165. RGASPI, 17/85/289/66. 166. After repressions against Cossacks in 1919, migrants from Central Russia were settled on the land of exiled Cossacks. It created permanent severe conflict. 167. TSD, vol. 1, 79, 81; RGASPI, 17/85/289/24; SD, 640. 168. M. Litvinov’s letter to Stalin, 1923 in Lubianka, 74. 208 Notes

169. Quoted in Vatlin, 364. 170. Reiman, 15–17; Reiman discovered the Chicherin’s Memorandum in the Political Archive of the German Foreign Ministry IV, RU, Po2– Adh. I, 4. 171. Stalin, Sochinenia, vol. 10, 45. 172. Reiman, 17. 173. Ibid; RGASPI, 17/162/5/76–7 ( July 29). 174. Vatlin, 331–75. 175. RGASPI, 17/162/5/63–4; 12/2/288/60–66. 176. Ibid., 62. 177. TSD, vol. 1, 27, 112. 178. R. V. Daniels stated, ‘New documentation on [Soviet] foreign affairs, […] deflates the ideological master- plan school […]and sustains the realpolitik interpreta- tion with emphasis on Soviet fears and defensiveness.’ R.V. Daniels, ‘Does the Present Change the Past?’ The Journal of Modern History 70. 2 (1998): 431–5. 179. S. V. Mironenko, N. Werth, eds., Istoria Stalinskogo Gulaga. Konets 1920-h – pervaia polovina 1950-h godov. Sobranie documentov v semi tomah (Moscow: ROSSPEN, 2004), vol. 1, Massovye repressii v SSSR, 64. 180. See Erik van Ree, The Political Thought of Joseph Stalin. A Study in Twentieth-Century Revolutionary Patriotism, (London: Routledge, 2001); E. A. Rees, Political Thought From Machiavelli to Stalin: Revolutionary Machiavellism, (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004). 181. Rieber, 142. 182. Getty and Naumov, 15–29, 34; John Arch Getty, ‘Afraid of Their Shadows: The Bolshevik Recourse to Terror, 1932–1938’, in Manfred Hildermeier, hrsg., Stalinismus vor dem Zweiten Weltkrieg: neue Wege der Forschung (Muenchen, Oldenbourg,1998); Lars T. Lih, Introduction to Stalin’s Letters to Molotov, 1925–1936 eds. Lars T. Lih, Oleg V. Naumov, and Oleg V. Khlevniuk (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1995), 62; Paul Gregory and Norman Naimark, eds., The Lost Politburo Transcripts. From Collective Rule to Stalin’s Dictatorship (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008), 10. 183. Lih, Introduction, 44, 47, 49. 184. Stalin’s answer to foreign workers’ delegations in November 1927, Lubianka, 144. 185. Hiroaki Kuromiya, ‘Stalin in the Light of the Politburo Transcripts’, in Gregory and Naimark, Politburo Transcripts, 49, 8. 186. Giddens, Modernity, 44. 187. Stalin’s speech at the July TsK Plenum, 1928, quoted in Viola, War, 101. 188. Gregory, Terror by Quota, 9–10; Mark Harrison, ‘The Rational- Choice Dictator: Reply’ 58, 7 Europe–Asia Studies (2006): 151–7. 189. Norbert Elias, O protsesse tsivilizatsii. Sotsiogeneticheskie i psikhogeneticheskie issledovania, Russian translation by A. M. Rutkevich, vol. 1, Foreword (Moscow–St Petersburg: Universitetskaia kniga, 2001), 41, 55.

3 The War Scare of 1927: Popular Perceptions

1. Livshin and Orlov, Vlast’, 180; idem., eds., Pis’ma vo vlast’; Svetlana Kriukova, Krest’ianskie Istorii. Rossiiskaia derevnia 1920–kh godov v pis’makh i documentakh (Moscow: ROSSPEN, 2001). Notes 209

2. RGASPI, 17/85/170/218, February 1927; Golubev, 118. 3. The OGPU report ‘Anti- Soviet movement in the village’, October 1928, SD, 806, 631. 4. OGPU Infosvodka # 44, August 20, 1927, GARF, 374/27s/1211/7; RGASPI, 17/32/110/1. 5. RGASPI, 17/85/289/21. 6. Ibid., 2–4. 7. Infosvodka # 4, from Tula city party committee, February 15, 1927; Svodka # 37 March 11, 1927, GARF, 374/27s/1210/9. 8. Information from the Nizhni Novgorod, Briansk, Zlatoust, Poltava, Artemovsk, Don, Krasnoyarsk and Tula party committees; Infosvodka # 44 August 20, 1927, GARF, 374/27s/1211/8 ff; 9. Ibid., 19. 10. TSD, 78 11. GARF, 374/27s/1211/35,39. 12. M. M. Prishvin, Dnevniki. 1927, August 14. http://www.srcc.msu.su/uni- persona/site/authors/prishvin/pri–1927.htm. Accessed March 3, 2012. 13. RGASPI, 17/85/170/218; 17/85/289/14; 17/85/16/32, Information from local party organs to Stalin. March 29, 1927; SD, 512, 558; TSD, vol. 1, 75; Prishvin, February 4. 14. Esther Kingston- Mann, ‘Transforming Peasants in the Twentieth Century’, in R. G. Suny, ed., The Cambridge History of Russia, Vol. III (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 420; Viola, War, 17, 58. By the end of the year the shortfall of state grain collections compared with the previous year was 128 million puds (or, according to Hughes, 265,000 tons). Osokina, Daily Bread, 15; James Hughes, Stalin, Siberia and the Crisis of NEP (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 112. In November 1927 grain procure- ments fell from 96.9 million (1926) to 41.4 million; and in December from 89.9 million to 41 milion puds. Kolodnikova, 154. 15. RGASPI, 17/85/170/218, 158; TSD, vol. 1, 74–5. 16. Osokina, Za Fasadom, 48. 17. F.O. 371, vol. 12595, p. 31, 1927; Simonov, ‘Defense’, 1358. 18. Simon Johnson and Peter Temin, ‘The Macroeconomics of NEP’, Economic History Review, XLVI, 4 (I993): 759–64. 19. Manning, 48. 20. Davies et al., Economic Transformation, 11–12. 21. TSD, vol. 1, 115, Chuhrita’s report, 162, Frumkin’s report; Viola, Peasants Rebels, 21; Osokina, Za Fasadom, 49–50; Danilov, Introduction to TSD, vol. 1, 28. 22. TSD, vol. 1, 114–16; 160–67; 34. 23. Ibid., 165, 34, 108. 24. XV s’ezd Vsesoiuznoi Kommunisticheskoi Partii (b). Stenograficheskii Otchet (Moscow–Leningrad: GIZ, 1928), 975–7; 762–3. 25. Viola, War, 28; GARF, 374/28/2879/93 ( January 1928). 26. Danilov, Introduction to TSD, vol. 1, 27, 108; see also Viola, War, 52. 27. TSD, vol. 1, 112. 28. Paul Gregory, The Political Economy of Socialism. Evidence from the Soviet Secret Archives (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 32. 29. RGASPI, 17/85/289/6. 210 Notes

30. Lev Kopelev, The Education of a True Believer, translation Gary Kern (New York: Harper & Row, 1978), 226–35, 280–1, 283–6. 31. RGASPI, 17/85/289/36; The letters of I. Filonts and B. Ivanov ( June 1927) to Stalin, in Livshin and Orlov, Pis’ma vo vlast’, vol. 1, 582–3, 578. 32. RGASPI, 17/21/3856/46, January–October 1927 report. 33. RGASPI, 17/85/19/182. 34. Livshin and Orlov, Vlast’,176. 35. Vladimir Brovkin, ed., The Bolsheviks in Russian Society: The Revolution and the Civil Wars (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997), 155; Yanni Kotsonis, ‘A European Experience: Human Rights and Citizenship in Revolutionary Russia’, in Human Rights and Revolutions, eds. Jeffrey N. Wasserstrom, Greg Grandin, Lynn Hunt, Marilyn B. Young (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2007), 92. 36. Pethybridge, 82; N. Werth, Istoria Sovetskogo gosudarstva. 1900–1990 (Moscow: Ves’ mir, 1992), 121; Grif sekretnosti sniat. Poteri Vooruzhennyh sil SSSR v voinah, boevyh deistviah i voennyh confliktah:statisticheskoe issledovanie (Moscow: Voenizdat, 1993), 38, 39; Victor Kondrashin, Krestianstvo Rossii v Grazhdanskoi voine (Moscow: ROSSPEN, 2009), 561. 37. Mark von Hagen, ‘Soldiers in the Proletarian Dictatorship’, in Era of NEP, 161. 38. ‘Sovershenno sekretno’, vol. 1, p. 2, 840. 39. Ken, Mobilizatsionnoie planirovanie, chapter 1. 40. David Brandenberger, National Bolshevism. Stalinist mass Culture and the Formation of Modern Russian National identity (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 2002), 14; Leonid Herets, Russia on the Eve of Modernity. Popular Religion and Traditional Culture under the Last Tsars (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), 196. 41. Brandenberger, 14–16. 42. David Priestland, Stalinism and the Politics of Mobilization (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 44; F.O. 1927, vol. 12595, p. 32, 69. 43. TsGA SPb, 4370/5/4/276 (1927); GARF, 374/27/1210/9 (1927); RGASPI, 17/85/289/7; F.O. 371, 1927, vol. 12595, p. 31. 44. RGASPI, 17/85/217/35; GN, 276; TSD, vol. 1, 73; Letter to Stalin from worker Temkin, April 1927, in Livshin and Orlov, Pis’ma vo vlast’, 573. 45. GARF, 374/27/1211/37 (June 1927). 46. Livshin and Orlov, Pis’ma vo vlast’, 581; GARF, 374/27/1211/137 (1937); 374/27/2079/27–31 (1928). 47. Ibid., 30 reverse. 48. Neizvestnaia Rossiia, 3, 224 (1929). The similar comments: TsGA SPb, 1000/11/558/74 (1927); GARF, 374/27/1211/37; TsGAIPD SPb, 24/5/1518/193 (1935); Izmozik, ‘Voices’, 293. 49. GARF, 374/27/1211/8. 50. ‘Sovershenno sekretno’, vol. 1, p. 2, 884; Golubev, 99. 51. In January 1923, the Moscow Main Post office confiscated 369 such leaflets. Kolodnikova, 312. 52. Heretz, 341, 229. 53. RGASPI, 17/86/95/1–5, 9, 10 (Party svodka). 54. Livshin and Orlov, Pis’ma vo vlast’, 582; GARF, 374/27/1210/9; 374/27/1211/8; 374/27/1215/35, 142; RGASPI, 17/85/19/182; 17/85/289/41; 17/85/217/35 ( June 1927). Notes 211

55. Slepyan, 856. 56. GARF, 374/27/1211/33; RGAE, 396/5/3/48. 57. Bol’shakov, Derevnia, 435. 58. Livshin and Orlov, Pis’ma vo vlast’, 582; Golubev, 104. 59. L. Trotsky, Letter to N. K. Krupskaia about ‘samokritika’, May 1927, in Yu. Fel’shtinsky, Oppozitsia, 58. 60. Krest’ianskaia Gazeta, August 3, 1927, p. 1; Letter of Firs Kuzmin to Izvestia, 1925, RGASPI, 17/84/859/78. 61. RGASPI, 17/85/19/182. 62. RGASPI, 17/85/289/54–5. 63. TsGAIPD SPb, 24/2v/2486/83 (1937); 24/2v/2500/7, 182 (1937); 24/1b/367/64 (1931); GARF, 374/27/1211/13, 33, 41, 43, 137 (1927); 374/27/1210/9; 374/27/2079/28; RGASPI, 17/85/289/57, 60, 65–6. 64. Prishvin, September 25. 65. GARF, 374/27/1211/36; TSD, vol. 1, 74. 66. SD, 1031. 67. Livshin and Orlov, Pis’ma vo vlast’, 581; GARF, 374/27/1211/42. 68. SD, 1018. 69. Hughes, 122. 70. James C. Scott, The Weapons of the Weak, Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1985). TsGAIPD SPb, 24/2v/2486/37 (1936); RGASPI, 17/21/3855/55, 26 (May 1927); Viola, Peasant Rebels, 57. 71. RGASPI, 17/85/289/66–7. 72. RGASPI, 17/84/916/12; 17/21/3075/21; GARF, 374/27s/1211/13–15, 41–2; TSD, vol. 1, 75. In 1918–43 wearing decorations from the Tsarist army was officially forbidden. 73. GARF, 374/27s/1211/8–10; RGASPI, 17/85/289/7; 17/85/297/32 (1927); 17/21/3075/21 (1929). 74. SD, 807. 75. I. I. Klimin, Rossiiskoe krestianstvo v gody novoi economicheskoi politiki (1921–1927) (St Petersburg: Politekhnicheskii universitet, 2007), vol. 2, 131. 76. Bol’shakov, Derevnia, 324. 77. Ibid., 326; TsGAIPD SPb, 16/1/8501/61 (July 1927); RGASPI, 17/85/289/65,4. 78. Pravda, November 5, 1921, p. 1. 79. RGASPI, 17/2/286/24. 80. Thomas H. Rigby, Communist Party Membership in the USSR. 1917–1967 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1968), 157, 166, 173; Cummins, vol. 4, 138–40; Pravda, September 2, 1927, p. 2. 81. TsGAIPD SPb, 24/5/279/36–7, 76–7; GARF, 374/27/2079/30; SD, 570; RGASPI, 17/21/3855/40; 17/21/3856/81,115; Resignations at Krasny Putilovets in Leningrad in spring of 1928, TsGAIPD SPb, 24/5/482/127; 82. F.O. 371, 1927, vol. 12595, p. 188; Reiman, 157, 12. 83. Kenez, 168. 84. From Moscow, Saratov, and Pskov guberniyas, Chuvash oblast’, Karachaev, Minsk and Krivoi Rog okrug, and the Crimea. Komsomol numbered about 2,000,000 members and comprised around 4 per cent of the youth. The Pioneers organization created in 1922, included up to 20 per cent of children between the ages ten and 14. Its goal was to educate children in a Communist and militaristic spirit. 212 Notes

85. GARF, 374/27/1211/15, 42–3; SD, vol. 2, 559, 570–71; TsGAIPD SPb, 24/5/279/36–7, 76–7, 82, 99 (Novgorod statistics); SD, 559. 86. Bol’shakov, Derevnia, 336. 87. I. B. Berkhin, Voennaia reforma v SSSR (1924–1925 gg.) (Moscow: Voenizdat, 1958), 250–52. I am grateful to David R. Stone for this reference. See also von Hagen, Soldiers, 329; Rozhkov, vol. 2, 17–18. Rear militia numbered 42,600 people in 1933, with 93 per cent of so called kulaks. S. A. Krassil’nikov, Na izlomakh sotsial’noi struktury: marginaly v poslerevolutsionnom rossiiskom obsh- chestve (1917– konets 1930-kh godov) (Novosibirsk: NGU, 1998), Lecture 2. 88. Pravda, September 2, 1927, p. 2; 50–100 per cent markup according to Krassil’nikov, Na izlomakh, Lecture 2. 89. Per capita expenditures for education in the army outpaced the civilian commissariat’s five times. Von Hagen, ‘Soldiers’, 165. 90. Ibid., 305; Roger R. Reese, The Soviet Military Experience: a History of the Soviet Army, 1917–1991 (London: Routledge, 2000), 72–3; Rozhkov, vol. 2, 53, 60–67. 91. Quoted by Reese, Soviet Army, 72. 92. Rozhkov, vol. 2, 193–4. 93. Von Hagen, Soldiers, 310–311. 94. Ibid. 95. Von Hagen, ‘Soldiers’, 165. 96. GARF, 374/27/1211/33; TsGAIPD SPb, 24/5/279/99,100; RGASPI, 17/17/3856/45; Joshua Sanborn, Drafting the Russian Nation. Military Conscription, Total War and Mass Politics, 1905–1925 (De Kalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2003), 31. 97. RGASPI, 17/85/289/36. 98. Rozhkov, vol. 2, 31, 36, 109. 99. GARF, 374/27/1215/142. 100. TsGAIPD SPb, 16/1/8494/88 (August 1927). 101. TsGAIPD SPb, 16/1/8501/59 (August 1927); Kriukova, 215; GARF, 374/27/2079/38. 102. RGASPI, 17/85/297/31–2; Rozhkov, vol. 2, 104–6; Kriukova, 215; Nonna Tarkhova, Krasnaia Armiia i stalinskaia kollektivizatsia 1928–32 godov (Moscow: ROSSPEN, 2010), 97. 103. TSD, vol. 1, 373–8; Rozhkov, vol. 2, 85; Izmozik, Glaza i Ushi. 104. RGASPI, 17/21/3183/13. 105. Plekhanov, 636, 288. 106. V. S. Izmozik, ‘Perliustratsia v pervye gody sovetskoi vlasti’, Voprosy istorii, 8 (1995): 34; Review of the army corrspondence, 1930, TsGAIPD SPb, 24/1b/187/67; Von Hagen, Soldiers, 312; Rozhkov, vol. 2, 110. 107. Tarkhova, 104. 108. Rozhkov, vol. 2, 106. 109. Ibid., 136, 141–3. Tarkhova, 258. 110. SD, 812–13; Von Hagen, ‘Soldiers’, 173. 111. RGASPI, 17/85/318/43–4 (1928). 112. TSD, vol. 1, 518–25; Notes 149, 150, 151, p. 799–800. 113. Von Hagen, Soldiers, 323–4; Reese, Soviet Army, 73–4; Mark Harrison, ed., Guns and Rubles. The Defense Industry in the Stalinist State (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008), 11; Tarkhova, 259–60. Notes 213

114. Oleg Polivanov and Boris Rozhkov, Otechestvennaya istoria, 1917–1945 (St Petersburg: 1997), 125. 115. Kotkin, ‘Modern Times’,144. 116. Caroli, 39. 117. Decree from April 28, 1919, Dekrety sovetskoi vlasti, vol. 5 (Moscow: Izdatel’stvo politicheskoi literatury, 1957), 118–22. 118. TsGAIPD SPb, 16/1/8485/164–5 reverse. Note of the Social Security Commissar, I. A. Nagovitsyn, to the Secretary of Leningrad Gubkom N. K. Antipov, from August 6, 1927. 119. SD, 568. 120. Von Hagen, ‘Soldiers’, 164. 121. GARF, 396/5/174/4, 4 reverse. 122. Cited in Brandenberger, 20; RGAE, 3316/41/85/83 (1936). 123. Dispatch from M. von Heidenstam, Swedish Minister at Moscow, to E. G. Petterson, Minister of Foreign Affairs at Stockholm, Moscow, June 28, 1927. F.O. 371, 1927, vol. 12595, p. 200. 124. Letter from Lindley to A. Chamberlain: Précis of M. Urbye’s Dispatches, September 12, 1927. F.O. 371, 1927, vol. 12595, p. 241. 125. Viola, War, 62. 126. L. Trotsky, Two speeches, 95. 127. Quoted in Lennart Samuelson, Plans for Stalin’s War- Machine. Tukhachevskii and Military- Economic Planning, 1925–1941. (Basingstoke: Palgrave McMillan, 1999), 72. 128. Fitzpatrick, ‘The Civil War’, 67. 129. Ken, Mobilizatsionnoe planirovanie, 50, 52. 130. Stone, Hammer and Rifle, 45; see also O. Ken; M. Harrison. Simonov claimed that war scare opened the eyes of the military on the weakness of the Red Army; that switch of administrative apparatus to the conditions of the preparation for war was a result of the 1927 war scare. Simonov, ‘Defense’, 1363–4. However, the weakness of Red army had been already obvious to the leadership since 1925. Similarly, formation of the mobiliza- tion system started before spring 1927. Ken, Mobilizatsionnoe planirovanie, 60–70. 131. TsGAIPD SPb, 24/1b/367/71; 24/5/279/186. 132. TsGAIPD SPb, 24/5/482/185, 193; GARF, 5407/2/178/33. 133. TsGA SPb, 4370/5/4/253 (1928); TsGAIPD SPb, 16/6/6938/208 (1925); 24/1b/321/61 (1930); 24/5/504/8 (1928); 24/2v/2487/30 (1937). It followed Bukharin’s explanation in Pravda, November 4, 1927, p. 5. 134. In May–July 1929 Manchuria seized control of the railroad. In December the Red Army attack restored the Soviet position in Manchuria. 135. RGASPI, 17/21/3075/9 reverse. 136. Bol’shakov, Derevnia, 205; Klimin, vol. 2, 180. About meetings during collectivization, see Viola, Peasant Rebels, 147–52. 137. RGASPI, 17/85/289/18–47, 50–69; TsGAIPD SP, 16/1/8501/14 reverse; SD, 571–6, 579. 138. GARF, 374/27s/1211/15. 139. TsGAIPD SPb, 24/5/482/193, 188. 140. RGASPI, 17/21/3075/22. 141. TsGA SPb, 1027/4/33/26 reverse. 214 Notes

142. The OGPU report on the class struggle in the countryside in 1930, TSD, vol. 2, 791, March 15, 1930; TSD, vol. 2, 787, 791, 798, 800; Viola, Peasant Rebels, 57–8; Fitzpatrick, Stalin’s Peasants, 6, 289. 143. TsGAIPD SPb, 24/2v/1187/85 (1935); 24/1b/367/70 (1931); 24/1b/321/58 (1930); 24/2v/2486/19; 24/2v/2500/127 (1936); 24/2v/1198/240. 144. TsGAIPD SPb, 24/1b/367/71; TSD, vol. 2, 797–9; David R. Shearer, ‘Modernity and Backwardness on the Soviet Frontier. Western Siberia in the 1930s’, in Donald J. Raleigh, Provincial Landscapes. Local Dimensions of Soviet Power, 1917–1953 (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2001), 212. 145. Heretz, 229–30. Hence, the strong desire of soldiers in 1917 to go home and be in the village when repartition happened. Timothy Johnson, ‘Subversive Tales. War Rumors in the Soviet Union. 1945–1947’, in Juliane Furst, ed., Late Stalinist Russia. Society Between Reconstruction and Reinvention (London & New York: Routledge, 2006); Elena Zubkova, Poslevoennoe sovetskoe obsh- chestvo: politika i povsednevnost’. 1945–1953 (Moscow: ROSSPEN, 1999), 61–9. 146. TSD, vol. 2, 805, 804; Viola, Peasant Rebels, 103. 147. Jonathan Haslam, Soviet Foreign Policy, 1930–1933. The Impact of the Depression (New York: St Martin’s Press, 1983), 1. 148. Lih, Introduction, 44, 208. M. Litvinov became a Commissar of Foreign Affairs in 1930. 149. S.G. Wheatcroft, ‘Towards Explaining the Changing Levels of Stalinist Repression in the 1930s: Mass Killing’, in Stephen G. Wheatcroft, ed. Challenging Traditional Views of Russian History (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002), 116. 150. Operation ‘Spring’ in 1930–31 targeted the former officers and generals of the Tsarist army serving in the Red Army. According to incomplete data, 3496 officers were arrested and 130 were executed in the Ukraine, Voronezh and Leningrad regions being accused of preparing uprisings in anticipation of intervention. Ya. Yu. Tinchenko, Golgofa russkogo ofitserstva v SSSR. 1930–1931gody (Moscow: Moskovsky obschestvennyi nauchnyi fond, 2000). 151. ‘Black Raven’ was a popular nickname of the OGPU car for transporta- tion of convicts and arrestees. I. Y. Popov, ‘Dnevnik moei zhizni. 1930’, Otechestvennye Archivy 2 (1998): 65, 72. Publishers commented that on the night of October 8 in Moscow 197 people were arrested, on October 10, 147, in December, 966. 152. Lih, Stalin’s Letters, 195–6. After October 2, 1930. 153. Ibid., 195. 154. Izvestia, November 27, 1930, p. 3. 155. Ken, Mobilizatsionnoie planirovanie, chapter 3. 156. F.O. 371, vol. 19450, p. 84, 1935. It is an indirect indication against Stalin’s involvement in the murder. 157. Lih, Introduction, 62. 158. Getty, ‘Afraid of Their Shadows’, 174. 159. J. Arch Getty, ‘The Politics of Stalinism’, in Alec Nove, ed., The Stalin Phenomenon (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1993), 126–7. We see now that this seed had already given ominous fruit in 1927. Notes 215

160. Gabor T. Rittersporn, ‘The Omnipresent Conspiracy: On Soviet Imagery of Politics and Social Relations in the 1930s’, in Chris Ward, ed., The Stalinist Dictatorship (London: Arnold, 1998), 271. 161. Sto sorok besed s Molotovym. Iz dnevnika F. Chueva. (Moscow: Terra, 1991) 390, 413. 162. Sarah Davies, 93–101. 163. John Barber, ‘Popular Reactions in Moscow to the German Invasion of June 22, 1941’, Soviet Union/Union Soviétique 18. 1–3 (1991): 16; also Werth, ‘Rumeurs’, 32–5. 164. Werth, ‘Rumeurs’, 25–35; Sarah Davies, 95. 165. Khlevniuk, ‘Objectives’, 87–104; Harrison, Guns and Rubles, 5. 166. Quoted in Brandenberger, 16. 167. TsGA SPb, 1027/4/33/23 reverse (1929). 168. Brandenberger, 17, 2. 169. Letter of the chair of Orel soviet Alkhimov to Lenin, in GN, 49; 170. S. B. Veselovskii, ‘Dnevniki 1915–1923, 1944’, Voprosy istorii 3 (2000): 103. 171. RGASPI, 17/85/289/56. 172. TsGA SPb, 1027/4/33/16; TsGAIPD SPb, 24/2v/2486/184 (1937). 173. TsGAIPD SPb, 24/5/504/338. 174. Shafir, Gazeta, 117. 175. Izmozik, Glaza i Ushi, 120. The letter was intercepted and the author arrested on charges of ‘urging a foreign country to invade the USSR’. 176. RGASPI, 17/85/289/7, 51–2, 56. A leaflet in Nizhnii Novgorod. 177. Fitzpatrick, Stalin’s Peasants, 68. 178. F.O. 1927, vol. 12595, p. 32, 69. 179. Jeffrey Brooks in ‘Xenophobia’, 1434 defines cosmopolitanism as a sympa- thetic orientation toward foreigners and life abroad. 180. David Branderberger, 112, shows the success of russocentric propaganda at the end of the 1930s. Success in indoctrination in the Red Army youth and in creation of the ‘new Soviet man’ in the 1930s is doubted by R. Reese, but asserted by von Hagen. Kotkin concluded that workers in Magnitogorsk by and large agreed to accept the Soviet norms and values, at least in their public personas. Developing Kotkin’s term, speaking Bolshevik, J. Hellbeck argues that many were actually thinking Bolshevik and asserts ‘strong degree of ideological compliance’. ‘Speaking Out, Languages of Affirmation and Dissent in Stalinist Russia’, Kritika 1. 1 (2000): 92. See also Hoffmann, Stalinist Values, 54–6, 79–87; Juliane Furst, Stalin’s Last Generation. Soviet Post- War Youth and the Emergence of Mature Socialism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010).

4 Rural Consolidation against Soviet Politics: The Peasant Union Movement in the 1920s

1. I express my deep appreciation to Lynne Viola for her support of my work, and for this chapter in particular. The advice of late Victor Petrovich Danilov was also very important. A part of this chapter was published in Jahrbuch fuer Historisches Kommunismusforshung, 2007, Berlin, Aufbau- Verlag. 2. RGASPI, 17/85/281/56. 216 Notes

3. Fitzpatrick, Stalin’s Peasants, 24–5. 4. Kotsonis, ‘European Experience’, 83–8. 5. Kotsonis, Introduction to Russian Modernity, 5. 6. By 1927 only 8.5 per cent of the peasants in the RSFSR made some improve- ments in their households and 5.8 per cent in the Ukraine, Lewin, 180. 7. RGASPI, 17/85/281/83 (1926). 8. Bol’shakov, Derevnia, 432. 9. A. A. Kurenyshev, Vserossiiskii Krestianskii Soiuz, 1905–1930 gg. Mify i real’nost’ (Moscow–St Petersburg: Dmitrii Bulanin, 2004) focuses mostly on 1905 and titles chapter on postrevolutionary Peasant Union ‘Life after Death.’ Brovkin, Russia after Lenin, 68–71; E. M. Shchagin, ‘Revolutsia, vlast’ i sud’by vsekrestianskoi organizatsii v Rossii’, in Vlast’ i obshchestvennye organizatsii v Rossii v pervoi treti XX stoletia (Moscow, 1993). 10. The Constituent Assembly was driven away in 1918 because of the preva- lence there of Socialist- Revolutionaries. In 1922 the PSR itself was eradicated. The third All- Russian Congress of Peasant Soviets attempted to transform the proletarian dictatorship into a Soviet multi- party authority. The Bolsheviks closed it on January 13, 1918. V. M. Lavrov, ‘Krestianskii Parlament’ Rossii (Moscow: Arkheograficheskii Tsentr, 1996), 5. 11. Scott J. Seregny, ‘A Different Type of Peasant Movement: The Peasant Unions in the Russian Revolution of 1905’, Slavic Review 47.1 (1988): 53; Kurenyshev; Shchagin; E. I. Kiriukhina, ‘Vserossiiskii Krestianskii soiuz v 1905 g.’, Istoricheskie zapiski, 50 (1955). 12. Aaron Retish, Russia’s Peasants in Revolution and Civil war. 1914–1922 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 85–7. 13. Ibid., 115. 14. SD, 630. Also Brovkin, Behind the Front, Ch. 10, 11. 15. Andrea Graziosi, The Great Soviet Peasant War. Bolsheviks and Peasants. 1917–1933 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996), 24–5. 16. Sergei Yarov, Krestianin kak politik. Krestianstvo Severo- Zapada Rossii v 1918–1919 gg: politicheskoe myshlenie i massovyi protest (St Petersburg: Dmitrii Bulanin, 1999), 14–21. 17. V. Danilov and T. Shanin, eds., Introduction to Krestianskoe vosstanie v Tambovskoi gubernii v 1919–1921 gg. ‘Antonovshchina’: Dokumenty i materialy (Tambov: ‘Redaktsionno-izdatel’sky otdel’, 1994); P. V. Akul’shin and V. A. Pyl’kin, Buntuiushchii pakhar’. Krestianskoe dvizhenie v Ryazanskoi i Tambovskoi guberniah v 1918–1921 gg. (Ryazan’, 2000). 18. M. S. Frenkin, Tragedia krestianskih vosstanii v Rossii 1918–21 gg (Possev: Frankfurt/Main, 1987); V. I. Shishkin, ‘Zapadno- Sibirskii miatezh 1921 goda: istoriographia voprosa’, Sibirskaia Zaimka 2 (2002) http://www.zaimka. ru/02_2002/shishkin_rebellion/; Danilov and Shanin, Krestianskoe vosstanie; Kondrashin, 312; Akul’shin and Pyl’kin. 19. Infiltration and provocation in order to split an organization was a common method of the VChK–OGPU. To fight the PU, the OGPU instructed in April 1928: together with repressions, ‘apply the methods of [counter] propa- ganda, as well as the recruiting of agitators, by this way splitting (razlozhenie) [the PU] and stopping the agitation.’ SD, 636. 20. RGASPI, 17/85/397/66, 84. 21. Tepliakov, 137–47. Notes 217

22. V. I. Shishkin, ‘K voprosu o roli Sibirskogo Krestinaskogo Soiuza v podgotovke Zapadno- Sibirskogo miatezha 1921 goda’, Sibirskaia Zaimka 8 (2000) accessed January 23, 2011 http://www.zaimka.ru/power/shishkin5.shtml 23. Graziosi, 42. 24. Krassil’nikov, Na izlomakh, Lecture 1. 25. V. L. Telitsyn, ‘Litsom k derevne’ i litso derevni’. In Rossia Nepovskaya. Issledovania, A. N. Yakovlev, ed., (Moscow: Novyi Khronograph, 2002), 221. 26. Sergey Esikov, Rossiiskaia derevnia v gody NEPa. K voprosu ob al’ternativakh stalinskoi kollektivizatsii (po materialam Tsentral’nogo Chernozem’ia) (Moscow: ROSSPEN, 2010), 99–102. 27. SD, 205–6 (May 1924). 28. TsGAIPD SPb, 16/1/8485/261, 284 (December 1926). 29. See recent studies: Graziosi, 9–10; Lavrov, ‘Krestianskii Parlament’; Seregny, ‘Different Type’; Idem, ‘Peasants and Politics’; Figes and Kolonitskii, Interpreting the Revolution; Brovkin, Behind the Front; Idem., Russia after Lenin; Donald J. Male, Russian Peasant Organization before Collectivization. A Study of Commune and Gathering. 1925–1930 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971). 30. V. I. Lenin, Sochnenia, vol. 33 (Moscow, 1966), 65. 31. George D. Jackson, Comintern and Peasants in East Europe. 1919–1930 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1966), 51–77. 32. Kriukova, 70. 33. Kotkin, ‘Modern Times’,127. 34. Kenez, 157. 35. A chair of the VTsIK Committee of Assistance to Agriculture. Kalinin’s fond in RGASPI contains thousands of letters. 36. Sheila Fitzpatrick, ‘Supplicants and Citizens: Public Letter- writing in Soviet Russia in the 1930s’, Slavic Review 55 (1996): 78–105; Fitzpatrick, Stalin’s Peasants, 259, 16. 37. Krest’ianskaia Gazeta in 1923–1933 received 5 million letters. http://www. idc.nl/pdf/337_brochure.pdf, accessed June 5, 2012. 38. Jochen Hellbeck, ‘Speaking Out: Languages of Affirmation and Dissent in Stalinist Russia’, Kritika, 1.1 (2000): 83. 39. Brooks, ‘Breakdown’, 165; Lenoe, 139–69. 40. RGASPI, 17/85/289/102–4. 41. Ibid., 101. 42. Ibid., 88. 43. SD, 17, 201 (1924), 493, 514–19, 548 (1927). 44. Letter from peasant A. N. Krutasov, village Nizkoe to Leningradskaia Pravda, 1924. TsGAIPD SPb, 16/5/5335/87. In 1926 Krest’ianskaia Gazeta got 20 let- ters with the demands of PU. RGASPI, 17/85/289/91. 45. SD, 15, 619. 46. Katerina Clark, ‘The City versus the Countryside in Soviet Peasant Literature of the Twenties: A Duel of Utopias’, in Gleason et al., 175–89. 47. GARF, 324/27/1211/139 (1927); Kenez, 170. 48. SD, 548 (1927). 49. GN, 127 (June 1926); See also the letter by Kondrashov in Kriukova, 122 (1925). 50. Youri Lotman and Boris Uspensky, ‘Mif–Imia–Kultura’, in Trudy po znakovym systemam 6 (Tartu: 1973), 283–303. 218 Notes

51. RGASPI, 17/86/30/2–6; Jackson, 61–3, 94; Pravda, June 29, 1923, p. 1. 52. Jackson, 94, 96. 53. RGASPI, 558/011/767/17–18, 12–26 (March 30–April 17, 1927). 54. ‘K voprosu o raboche-krest’ianskom pravitel’stve’, Bol’shevik, 6 (1927): 96–102; Letters of Podol’sky and Khohlov to Stalin, RGASPI, 17/85/514/26, 22 (July 1927). 55. RGASPI, 17/85/16/31, 52 (1926). 56. RGASPI, 17/85/318/5. Such numerous threats were received by Krest’ianskaia Pravda and Krasnaia Derevnia in March–June 1928; Brovkin, Russia after Lenin, 75. Kulaks reduced the sowing area by 40 per cent in 1927–29, Lewin,140. 57. RGASPI, 17/85/19/296. 58. Davies et al., Economic Transformation, 84; Weiner, ‘Razmychka?’ 145–6; Fitzpatrick, Stalin’s Peasants, 21; Idem., ‘The Great Departure: Rural–Urban Migration in the Soviet Union. 1929–33’, in Social Dimensions of Soviet Industrialization, ed. W. G. Rosenberg and L. H. Siegelbaum (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993), xi. 59. Kondrashov’s letter to Stalin, Kriukova, 121. 60. Yanni Kotsonis, ‘’No Place to Go’: Taxation and State Transformation in Late Imperial and Early Soviet Russia’, The Journal of Modern History 76.3 (September 2004): 531–577. 61. Franklyn D. Holzman, Soviet Taxation. The Fiscal and Monetary Problems of a Planned Economy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1955), 106–7. 62. Klimin, vol. 1, 109. Klimin’s estimates are based on contemporary Soviet sources and the Danilov’s article, 1997; Esikov, 101, 83–7, 202. 63. Klimin, vol. 1, 117– 22. 64. Izmozik, ‘Voices’, 292–3. 65. Fitzpatrick, Stalin’s Peasants, 26. 66. Esikov, 92, 98. 67. Davies et al., Economic Transformation, 10. Also Alan Ball, ‘Building a New State and Society: NEP, 1921–1928’, in The Cambridge History of Russia, vol. III, 180. 68. SD, 1054–5. 69. Kotsonis, ‘No Place to Go’, 570–71. 70. See Krest’ianskaia Gazeta introduction to a long compilation of peasant com- plaints about the taxes in 1927 quoted by M. Lenoe, 158. 71. RGASPI, 17/84/916/2–7. 72. RGASPI, 17/85/16/243 (1927). See similar comments in Lynne Viola et al. ed., Ryazanskaya derevnia v 1929–30 gg. Khronika golovokruzhenia. Dokumenty i materialy (Moscow: ROSSPEN, 1998), 14–15. 73. Weiner, 148. 74. Ronald Suny, The Soviet Experiment. Russia, the USSR, and the Successor States (New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), 179; Rosenberg, Introduction to Era of NEP, 6. 75. Kotkin, ‘Modern Times’,145–6; See also Bernice A. Madison, Social Welfare in the Soviet Union (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1968). 76. Kriukova, 80. Letter by N. Ezhov, Yaroslavl guberniya, to Kalinin ( January 1927). 77. TSD, vol. 1, 124–5, 131, 134. Notes 219

78. N. P. Ryazantsev, ‘Nastroeniya Rossiskogo krestiyanstva na vyborakh v soviety v seredine 20h godov’, in Istoria Rossiyskoy Povsednevnosti (St Petersburg: Nestor, 2002), 202. 79. Fitzpatrick, Stalin’s Peasants, 30. 80. TSD, vol. 1, 171 ( January 1928). 81. SD, 514. 82. GN, 130, 89 (1927); Letter of peasant correspondent F. V. Garshin, GARF, 396/5/174/8 (1927). 83. Hoffmann, ‘European Modernity and Soviet Socialism’, in Russian Modernity, 256. 84. Kotsonis, Introduction, 12. 85. P. I. Ignatenko, village Krasny Yar, Saratov gubernia, RGASPI, 17/85/281/78 (1926). 86. Shanin, Awkward Class, 205. 87. GN, 129–30. 88. RGASPI, 17/84/916/7 (1924). 89. Murphy, ‘Strikes’, 183. 90. Izmozik, ‘Voices’, 299 (December 1924). 91. David MacKenzie, Michael W. Curran, A History of Russia. The Soviet Union, and Beyond (Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1993), 569–70. 92. Letter from Afanasii K. N. O., Melitopol’ okrug, 1927, in Neizvestnaia Rossiia, vol. 3, 215; Kriukova, 208; RGASPI, 17/85/508/24 (1927); TSD, vol. 1, 575, 485; RGASPI, 17/21/3075/15 (1929). 93. Viola, ‘The Peasants’ Kulak’, 431–60. 94. TsGAIPD SPb, 24/5/1323/40 (1929); RGASPI, 17/85/16/30 (1926). 95. Shanin, Awkward Class; Lewin; Viola, Peasant Rebels, 30; James Hughes, Stalinism in a Russian Province: a Study of Collectivization and Dekulakization in Siberia (Basingstoke: Macmillan Press, 1999). 96. Mark Harrison, ‘Prices in the Politburo, 1927: Market Equilibrium versus the Use of Force’, in Gregory and Naimark, Politburo Transcripts, 241. He ignores the influence of the war- scare factor on peasants’ sales to the state. 97. Letter of F. Morozov to Krest’ianskaia Gazeta in GN, 124 (1925); RGASPI, 17/86/95/3 (December 1927); SD, 511. 98. Y. S. Kukushkin and N. S. Timofeev, Samoupavlenie krestian Rossii (XIX– nachalo XX v.) (Moscow: Moskovskii Universitet, 2004), 35. 99. The 1917 Decree on Land was reversed by a February 1918 decree about the socialization of land. VTsIK order from February 1919 announced a shift toward socialist farming through sovhozy and kolhozy. 100. Lewin, 81–4. 101. TsGAIPD SP, 16/6/6916/80 (1925). 102. Workers were disillusioned in the soviets too. Pirani, ‘Mass Mobilization’, 115. 103. RGASPI, 17/85/529/280 (April 1926); GARF, 396/1/1/29 (April 1924), Timofei Tiur’min, Riazan gubernia. 104. SD, 626–7, 667. 105. Brovkin, Russia after Lenin, 164–8, 170. 106. Survey of private correspondence (April 1925) TsGAIPD SPb, 16/6/6938/166. 220 Notes

107. Kriukova, 209, 577–8. 108. Letter from I. L. Chibutkin, Yaroslavl’ gubernia to the Congress of Soviets (1927), in GN, 129–30; RGASPI, 17/84/916/2–7. 109. D. V. Kovalev, ‘Politicheskaia diskriminatsia krestianstva v nepovskoi Rossii’, Voprosy istorii, 5 (2007):140. 110. Kukushkin and Timofeev, 56. 111. RGASPI, 17/21/3075/20 (1929); Kriukova, 208–9; TSD, 577; Klimin, vol. 2, 180. According to the RSFSR Constitution (1925), in each volost’ 300 people delegated one representative to the local Congress of soviets; RGASPI, 17/85/354/14 (January 1929). 112. In 1927 the Communists comprised 7.8 per cent and in 1928/29 9.3 per cent of the soviets members, and 18.7 per cent and 30.6 per cent respec- tively among the chairs of village soviets. Kukushkin and Timofeev, 60. 113. Klimin, vol. 2, 193; SD, 487, 491, 493–5, 499–500, 502–3. 114. SD, 789. 115. SD, 536, 863 (March 1929). A leaflet of the Central Committee of the All- Union Peasant party. 116. Ibid., 533, 542. 117. F.O. 371, vol. 12595, p. 21 (February 1927). 118. SD, 537, 549, 503, 496, 494, 514 ( January–February 1927). 119. RGASPI, 76/3/294/41, 43. 120. SD, 545–8. 121. SD, 17, 516–35. According to other data, the number of disenfranchised in 1927 grew two or three times more than in 1925–26. Fitzpatrick, Stalin’s Peasants, 30. 122. Krassil’nikov, Na izlomakh, Table 1, Lecture 1. 123. The OGPU instruction, January 5 and August 21, 1928, Vinogradov, SD, 47. 124. RGASPI, 17/163/650, # 24. 125. Brovkin, Russia after Lenin, 74. 126. Male, 99. 127. Lewin, 120. 128. TsGAIPD SP, 16/6/6916/80 (1925). 129. SD, 201. 130. James Heinzen, Inventing a Soviet Countryside: State Power and the Transformation of Rural Russia. 1917–1929. Commissariat of Agriculture (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2004), 1–10, 128. 131. TSD, vol. 1, 771, 774. KKOV were established by VTsIK in 1921. 132. Shanin, Awkward Class, 194. 133. RGASPI, 17/32/146/2. 134. RGASPI, 17/85/281/89, V. M. Koputa, Berdichevsky okrug (1926); 17/85/281/83 (1926); SD, 498, 553; Klimin, vol. 2, 264–5. 135. RGASPI, 17/85/16/249; TSD, vol. 1, 120, 123, 134–5. 136. Lewin, 85–93. The policy of the Bolsheviks restricting the functions of the obshchina resulted in its liquidation in 1930. TSD, vol. 1, 55–6. 137. RGASPI, 17/85/281/125 (1926). 138. In 1927 the budgets of the rural soviets were only 16 per cent of the recorded budgets of the peasant communes. Shanin, Awkward Class, 165–7; Kukushkin and Timofeev, 68; Male, 97–9; Heinzen, 143. 139. TSD, vol. 1, 439. Notes 221

140. Male, 98. 141. Ibid., 97. 142. Kenez, 254. 143. RGASPI, 17/84/916/2–7; 17/85/289/88. 144. A. F. Kisilev and E. M. Shchagin, ed., Khrestomatiia po otechestvennoi istorii, 1914–1945 (Moscow: VLADOS, 1996), 373–4 (1929). 145. SD, 787. 146. RGASPI, 17/32/99/17 (March 1927). 147. RGASPI, 17/85/16/254 (June 1926). 148. SD, 632. 149. RGASPI, 17/32/99/17 (March 1927). 150. SD, 193. 151. See Viola, ‘The Peasants’ Kulak’; Donald J. Raleigh, ‘Languages of Power: How the Saratov Bolsheviks Imagined Their Enemies’, Slavic Review, 5.2 (1998). 152. V. V. Moskovkin, ‘Vosstanie krestian v Zapadnoi Sibiri v 1921 godu’, Voprosy istorii, 6 (1998); S. A. Esikov and L. G. Protasov, ‘‘Antonovschina’: novye podkhody’, Voprosy istorii, 6–7 (1992); Kondrashin, 305–9, 313, 290–93; V. I. Shishkin, ‘K voprosu o roli’; Yarov; SD, 1079. 153. Danilov and Shanin, Introduction, Krestianskoe vosstanie; Akul’shin and Pyl’kin, 75. 154. SD, 1078. 155. Ibid, 1027, 633. 156. TSD, vol. 1, 122. 157. TSD, vol. 1, 77. 158. TSD, vol. 1, 575 (April 1929). 159. Security organs used the term ‘vystuplenia’ for acts of confrontation and disobedience ranging from oppositional voting at the meetings, leaflets, and threats to violent actions including mass disorders and insurgence. 160. SD, 633; RGASPI, 17/85/289/88. 161. TSD, vol. 1, 768; SD, 631, 633; RGASPI, 17/32/99/4; 17/85/289/18. 162. Out of 739 letters in July–August 1926, 200 letters condemned party opposition, 155 the taxes and prices, 101 expressed antagonisms to the city, 91 reported kulaks’ activities, 71 approved Soviet power, 32 discussed the war threat and 11 demanded a Peasant Union. RGASPI, 17/32/99/4. 163. SD, 1030. 164. RGASPI, 17/85/289/92–3, 97–8; SD, 634; GN, 263. 165. SD, 634–5. 166. Kolodnikova, 236–7. 167. Dokladnaya zapiska Molotovu o Soyuse Khleborobov, February 9, 1927, RGASPI, 17/85/170/120–30; 17/85/289/100. 168. The migrants (inogorodnie) settled on the Cossack lands in 1919 after the Soviet government had deported the Cossacks. 169. Peasants meant certain administrative- territorial areas dominated by ‘European’ colonists since the end of the 19th century. In the 1920s, local national-Communists tried to redistribute the European colonists’ lands in favour of the native population. The demand is a reflection of such con- flict. I am thankful to Nikolai Mitrokhin for this clarification. 222 Notes

170. RGASPI, 17/85/170/129–30. In the document the words zemobshchestvo and the Peasant Union are used as synonyms. The town of Taldy- Kurgan and village of Gavrilovka referred to the same settlement. 171. RGASPI, 17/84/916/2–7; TSD, 575; SD, 635. 172. Klimin, 87. 173. SD, 788. 174. SD, 798–802. 175. Batai’s notes, RGASPI, 17/85/288/42. 176. The note of G. G.Yagoda and T. D. Deribas, a Head of Secret Department, to the TsK VKPb and Molotov, May 5, 1927, RGASPI, 17/85/288/31–4; 17/85/289/99. 177. Ibid., 35–41. 178. Batai’s report ‘State and Trade unions’, RGASPI, 17/85/288/44–55; SD, 634, 789–91. Comparison of the OGPU reports from May 5, 1927, March 1928, and October 1928, demonstrates gradual radicalization of the image of the Batai–Malinovsky group in the OGPU narratives. 179. Instructions enforcing surveillance over local PU activists, SD, 542; on recruiting, SD, 635; note 19 above. 180. Vincent Barnett, Kondratiev and the Dynamics of Economic Development. Long Cycles and Industrial Growth in Historical Context (Houndmills, Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan, 1998), 191–6. The alleged program of the party is known only from the interrogation materials of Chayanov and Kondratiev. Diane Koenker and Ronald Bachman, ed., Revelations from the Russian Archives (Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress, 1997), 241–2 and Khrestomatiya, 453–9; N. D. Kondratiev, Osoboe mnenie, 2 (Moscow: Nauka, 1993), 685–90; N. N. Ostashko, ‘Vlast’ i intelligentsia: Dinamika vzaimootnoshenii na rubezhe 1920–30 godov’, http://www.philosophy.nsc.ru/journals/ humscience/2_98/04_OSTA.HTM accessed January 15, 2011; V. Goncharov and V. Nekhotin, ed., ‘Prosim osvobodit’ iz tiuremnogo zakliuchenia’ (Moscow: Sovremennyi pisatel’, 1998), 173–7. 181. SD, 1075, note 135. 182. Plekhanov, 71. 183. Y. S. Kukushkin, Sel’skie soviety i klassovaia bor’ba v derevne, 1921–1932 (Moscow: MGU, 1968), 53; SD, 18. 184. Bukharin, Izbrannye proizvedenia, 225. 185. Danilov, Introduction to SD, 19. 186. RGASPI, 17/85/71/5. 187. RGASPI, 17/85/16/257–8. 188. SD, 539–40; TSD, vol. 1, 72, 85–6, 125. 189. Kenez, 143–4. 190. RGASPI, 17/85/71/14. 191. Kotsonis, Introduction, 3. 192. Letter from I. A. Tushin, Yaroslav oblast’, in: A. N. Sakharov et al., Obshchestvo i vlast’: rossiiskaia provintsiia, 1917–1980–e gody (Moscow: IRI RAN, 2002), vol. 2, 149. 193. Sakharov, 134. The letter is signed ‘Collective farmer, a widow, half- hungry, I am writing and crying.’ (1936). 194. Seregny, ‘Peasants and Politics’, 342–3. Notes 223

5 The Crisis of Faith: Popular Reaction to the Tenth Anniversary of the October Revolution

1. Neizvestnaia Rossiia, vol. 3, 219–22 (January 1928). 2. P. Dinzelbacher, hrsg., Europaeische Mentalitaetsgeschichte. Hauptthemen in Einzeldarstellungen (Stuttgart: Kroener, 1993), 299. 3. Antony Giddens and Christopher Pierson, Conversations with Antony Giddens: Making Sense of Modernity (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1998), 94. 4. Mandelstam, Vospominaniya, 307, 297. 5. Giddens and Pierson, 94. 6. Ortega y Gasset, Revolt of the Masses (New York, Norton, 1993), 151–3. 7. K. V. Chistov, Russkaya Narodnaya Utopia: Genesis i Funktsii Sotsialno- Utopicheskikh Legend (St Petersburg: Dmitrii Bulanin, 2003); S. Brouwer, ‘Russian Medieval Concepts of Paradise’, in G. P. Luttikuizen, ed., Paradise Interpreted. Representations of Biblical Paradise in Judaism and Christianity (Boston, Koln: Brill Leiden, 1999); S. L. Baehr, The Paradise Myth in Eighteenth- Century Russia. Utopian Patterns in Early Secular Russian Literature and Culture (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1991); René Fülö p- Miller, The Mind and Face of Bolshevism: An Examination of Cultural Life in Soviet Russia (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1928), 88. 8. Richard Stites, Revolutionary Dreams. Utopian Vision and Experimental Life in the Russian Revolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), 172. 9. David L. Hoffmann, Peasant Metropolis: Social Identities in Moscow, 1929–1941 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994), 167. 10. E. A. Dobrenko, Formovka sovetskogo chitatelia (St Petersburg: Akademicheskii Proekt, 1997), 17. 11. Figes and Kolonitskii, 145, 132. 12. Stites, Dreams, 296, 42–3. 13. E. M. Kovaleva, Golosa krestian: Sel’skaia Rossia XX Veka v krestianskih memuarah (Moscow: Vysshaia shkola sotsialnykh i economicheskih nauk, 1996), 329. 14. A. Platonov, Chevengur (Moscow: Terra, 1999), 136, 191–2. Platonov is recog- nized as a recorder of deep currents of mass consciousness. 15. GN, 45, 53. 16. Nadezhda Mandelstam, Vtoraia kniga (Moscow: Soglasie, 1999), 12, 194. 17. M. Gorky, ‘Vladimir Ilich Lenin’, Russkii Sovremennik 1 (1924): 239. 18. Mandelstam, Vtoraia kniga, 171–2. 19. Graciozi, 42; Neizvestnaia Rossia, vol. 3, 201. 20. GN, 249. 21. Ibid., 234; Neizvestnaia Rossiia, vol. 3, 202. 22. SD, 565 (1927). 23. Analysis of Lenin’s visions of communism see in Stites, Dreams, 42–6. 24. V. I. Lenin, Sochineniya, vol. 29, 215. 25. Livshin and Orlov, Pis’ma vo vlast’, 584; A letter of peasant M. F. Kholin, in GN, 246; Neizvestnaia Rossiia, vol. 3, 219–22. 26. Kriukova, 102 (1923); GN, 46, 242. 27. Andrei Platonov, Izbrannoe (Moscow: Mysl’, 1983), 317, 329, 330. 224 Notes

28. A letter from a Don peasant, Ivan Khomich, to the newspaper, RGASPI, 17/16/16/244 (1927). 29. M. B. Lobkov’s letter, in GN, 231 (1925). 30. GARF, 374/27/1211/139; GN, 233; TsGAIPD SPb, 16/6/6947/24. 31. RGASPI, 17/85/508/148 (1926). 32. Neizvestnaia Rossiia, vol. 3, 215. 33. TsGAIPD SPb, 25/5/45/30; 24/1b/188/18 (January 1930). 34. Véronique Garros, Natalia Korenevskaya, Thomas Lahusen, ed., Intimacy and Terror. Soviet Diaries of the 1930s (New York: The New Press, 1995), 140. 35. RGASPI, 17/21/3075/9 reverse (1929). 36. TsGAIPD SPb, 16/6/6947/29. 37. Izmozik, ‘Voices’, 289. 38. TsGAIPD SPb, 16/6/6938/201 (1925); 24/5/1323/49 (1929); 24/5/500/17 (1928). 39. According to Brovkin, at the end of the NEP, public well-being was barely half that of 1913. Osokina agrees with Carr and Davis, that by 1926, workers and peasants had more food than before the revolution. Brovkin, Russia After Lenin, 189; Osokina, Za Fasadom, 37; Edward H. Carr and Roger W. Davies, Foundation of a Planned Economy. 1926–1929, vol. 1 (London: Macmillan, 1971), 697. 40. Jeffrey Brooks, ‘Revolutionary Lives: Public Identities in Pravda in the 1920s’, in New Directions in Soviet History, edited by S. White (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991). 41. Arthur Koestler depicted this psychological phenomenon in Darkness at Noon (New York: Macmillan, 1968). 42. GN, 87 (May 1924). 43. Corner, Introduction, 8. 44. Orest Tsekhnovitser, Demonstratsia i karnaval. K desiatoi godovshchine oktiabr’skoi revolutsii (Moscow, 1927), and other literature. 45. Richard Stites, Soviet Popular Culture. Entertainment and Society since 1900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 96. 46. Fitzpatrick, ‘Popular Opinion’, in Corner, 25. 47. Influential works on Soviet festivals in the 1920–30s include Stites, Dreams; Stites, ‘Bolshevik ritual building in the 1920s’, in Era of NEP, 305–7; Christel Lane, The Rites of Rulers. Ritual in Industrial Society – the Soviet Case (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); Malte Rolf, ‘Constructing a Soviet Time: Bolshevik Festivals and Their Rivals during the First Five- Year Plan’, Kritika 1.3 (2000); Karen Petrone, ‘Life Has Become More Joyous, Comrades!’ Celebrations in the Time of Stalin (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2000); Stefan Plaggenborg, Revolutsia i kul’tura: kulturnye orientiry v period mezhdu oktiabr’skoi revolutsiei i epokhoi Stalinisma (St Petersburg: Neva, 2000). 48. Petrone, 3. 49. Pravda, September 4, 1927, p. 5. 50. Pierre Bourdieu, Language and Symbolic Power (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999), 128; Steven Kotkin, Magnetic Mountain, Stalinism as Civilization (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995). 51. Elizabeth A. Wood, Performing Justice. Agitation Trials in Early Soviet Russia (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2005). Notes 225

52. Frederick C. Corney, Telling October. Memory and the Making of the Bolshevik Revolution (Ithaca, NY, Cornell University Press, 2004), 208–17. 53. Pravda, October 18, 1927, p. 3, in 1924–27 the areas of multi- field system increased from 7.2 to 17 per cent. Esikov, 205. 54. The VTsIK Resolution ‘On the results of the last ten years and the prospects for the USSR’s economic construction.’ October 20, 1927, Translated by Francis King. http://www.uea.ac.uk/his/webcours/russia/documents/10-let- sssr.shtml. Accessed April 12, 2010. 55. RGASPI, 17/85/508/255 (November 1928). 56. TSD, vol. 1, 125. 57. RGAE, 396/5/3/127. 58. Krest’iane o Sovietskoi vlasti (Moscow–Leningrad, 1929). 59. RGAE, 396/5/31/16. 60. Krest’ianskaia Gazeta, October 4, 1927, p. 1. 61. RGASPI, 17/5/288/160. 62. Pravda, October 18, 1927, p. 3. 63. RGAE, 396/5/210/12. 64. SD, 629. 65. RGAE, 396/5/210/18–54. The quotation resembles Stalin’s style. Krest’ianskaia Gazeta, November 15, 1927, pp. 5, 8; December 4, p. 2. 66. RGAE, 396/5/34/17, 14. 67. Krest’ianskaia Gazeta, December 4, 1927, p. 2. 68. TsGAIPD SPb, 24/5/75/72. 69. GARF, 374/27/2079/27 reverse. 70. TsGA SPb, 1000/11/558/43, 52, 53, 75. 71. RGASPI, 17/86/95/2–24; TsGA SPb, 1000/11/558/55; 4370/5/4/254–76 (Fall 1927). 72. A. G. Man’kov, ‘Iz dnevnika riadovogo cheloveka (1933–34 gg.)’, Zvezda 5 (1994): 157. 73. Plaggenborg, 313; Rolf, 463–5. 74. Rolf, 468, and author’s observation. 75. Lane, 171; Pravda, September 8, 1927, p. 2. 76. Fülö p- Miller, 135–6. 77. Stites, Dreams, 100; Plaggenborg, 317. 78. Stites, Dreams, 85. 79. Lane, 172. 80. Plaggenborg, 296–7, 317; Stites, Dreams, 96. 81. Man’kov, 141, 143. 82. Rolf, 461. 83. Ferretti, 161. 84. See letter of Y. Dikonenko, a Civil War veteran, from March 1927, about his miserable life in GN, 40. 85. Pravda, October 16, 18, 19, November 3, 5, 1927. 86. RGAE, 396/5/213/43, 45, 51, 78; 396/5/174/10. 87. RGAE, 396/5/34/15. 88. TSD, vol. 1, 127; SD, 602–3, 612. 89. RGAE, 396/5/34/5, 25; Pravda, May 18, 1927, p. 6. 90. RGASPI, 17/85/288/164–7, Yagoda’s report to Molotov about popular reac- tions to the shortages, October 21, 1927. 226 Notes

91. Pravda, September 2, p. 3, September 11, p. 4, November 4, 1927. 92. TsGA SPb, 1000/11/558/72. 93. RGASPI, 17/21/3075/9 reverse (1929). 94. Pravda, November 4, 1927, p. 5, 6. 95. TsGA SPb, 4370/5/4/297. 96. TsGAIPD SPb, 24/5/2286/153; TsGA SPb, 4370/5/4/291, 295, 290; RGASPI, 17/21/3075/7 (1929); 17/85/170/8 (1926). Almost quarter of workers was unemployed. 97. TsGAIPD SPb, 24/5/75/69. 98. William Reswick, I Dreamt Revolution (Chicago: Regnery, 1932), 205–8, cited in James von Geldern, Bolshevik Festivals, 1917–1920 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), 219; Getty and Naumov, 39; Krest’ianskaia Gazeta, November 7, 1927. 99. L. Trotsky, Letter to the Politburo and TsKK, November 9, 1927, in Cummins, vol. 4, 248–9. 100. TsGAIPD SPb, 16/1/8485/258–9, Svodka of the City Control Commission about accidents on November 7 and 8, 1927. 101. GN, 190, 1927; TsGA SPb, 1000/11/558/75–8. 102. RGASPI, 17/86/95/9; Diary of A. S. Arzhilovski in Intimacy and Terror, 117; TSD, vol. 1, 133. 103. TsGAIPD SPb, 24/5/75/74–96; Plaggenborg, 316. 104. Rolf, 472, 450. 105. SD, 800, The OGPU report on the anti- Soviet movement in the village, October 1928. 106. Gor’ky’s letter http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/archives/f3gorky.gif. Accessed April 12, 2010. 107. RGASPI, 17/85/21/46 (October 1925). 108. RGASPI, 17/21/3856/114; Gorsuch, 86. 109. F.O. 371, 1927, vol. 12595, pp. 188, 192. 110. Frances L. Bernstein, ‘Panic, Potency, and the Crisis of Nervousness in the 1920s’, in Everyday Life in Early Soviet Russia: Taking the Revolution Inside, ed. Christina Kiaer and Eric Naiman (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2006), 153–4. 111. V. S. Tiazhel’nikova, ‘Samoubiistva kommunistov v 20-e gody’, Otechestvennaia Istoria 6 (1998): 162. 112. Gorsuch, 177–8; RGASPI, 17/85/21/91. 113. Tiazhel’nikova, 165. 114. Natalia B. Lebina, Povsednevnaia zhizn’ sovetskogo goroda, 1920–30 gody (St Petersburg: Letnii Sad, 1999), 103–9. 115. Kenneth M. Pinnow, Lost to the Collective. Suicide and the Promise of Soviet Socialism, 1921–1929 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2009). 116. Juliane Furst’s review in Kritika 7. 3 (2006): 675–88; Corinna Kuhr- Korolev, ed., Sowjetjugend 1917–1941; idem., Gezähmte Helden. 117. GN, 233 (1927). 118. GARF, 374/27/2079/5–10, 27, reverse; RGASPI, 17/85/16/98, 145, 244; TsGAIPD SPb, 24/5/500/76, 198, 182. 119. TsGAIPD SPb, 24/5/500/16, 198; Livshin and Orlov, Pis’ma vo vlast’, 544, 530; RGASPI, 17/85/16/98; 17/85/508/149; 17/21/3075/9, reverse; GN, 116; SD, 863. Notes 227

120. TsGAIPD SPb, 16/6/6947/25 (1925). 121. RGASPI, 17/85/71/20; TSD, vol. 1, 124–5, 133. 122. Stites, Dreams, 114; idem., ‘Bolshevik ritual‘, 306; Rolf, 450.

6 Conclusion

1. Hollander, p. 7. 2. Hoffmann, Stalinist Values, 187; Kenez, 257. 3. Expression of Sheila Firzpatrick, ‘Popular Opinion’, 26. 4. The opposite view see in Lenoe, 168. 5. Michael S. Fox, ‘Political Culture, Purges, and Proletarianization at the Institute of Red Professors, 1921–1929’, Russian Review 52.1 (1993). 6. Brandenberger. 7. Hoffmann, Stalinist Values; Brandenberger, 95–112. Bibliography

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F.O. British Foreign Office, Russia – Correspondence, 1923–1928 GARF State Archives of Russian Federation (Gosudarstvennyi Arkhiv Rossiiskoi Federatsii) RGAE Russian State Archives of the Economy (Rossiiskii Gosudarstvennyi Arkhiv Ekonomiki) RGASPI Russian State Archives of Social-Political History (Rossiiskii Gosudarstvennyi Arkhiv Sotsial’noi i Politicheskoi Istorii) TsGAIPD SPb Central State Archives of Historical and Political Documents in Saint-Petersburg (Tsentral’nyi Gosudarstvennyi Arkhiv Istoriko- politicheskikh Dokumentov Sankt-Peterburga) TsGAKFFD SPb Central State Archive of Documentary Films, Photographs, and Sound Recordings of Saint- Petersburg (Tsentralnyi Gosudarstvennyi arkhiv kinofotofonodokumentov Sankt-Peterburga) TsGA SPb Central State Archives of Saint- Petersburg (Tsentral’nyi Gosudarstvennyi Arkhiv Sankt-Peterburga)

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absenteeism, 138, 181 of Lenin, V. I., 63 abundance, 20, 83, 120, 165–7, 184, of Uritsky, M. S., 63 186 of Voikov, P. L., 56, 61–2, 204 achievements, 2, 6, 8, 63, 160–1, of Vorovsky, V. V., 29, 33, 54 167–9, 171, 178, 180–1 aviation, 40–1, 53, 68, 113, 152–3 aggressor, 90, 91 potential, 50–1, 56, 82, 85–6 backwardness, 9, 85, 93, 138 agriculture, 11, 40, 119–20, 124–5, peasants’, 119–20, 132 131–2, 141, 143, 146, 152–4, 157 Bartholomew’s Night massacre, 85, 95 Air Fleet week, 29 believers, 89, 117 amnesty, 179 Belorussia, 46, 50, 51, 66, 69, 70, 71, anniversary, 40 72, 181 of the First World War, 37 Berzin, Y. K., 49, 106 of the October Revolution, 98, 133, ‘Black Ravens’, 112 160, 169–71, 181–2, 187 bloc of Western countries, 31, 50–2, anti- British campaign, 29, 53, 55–6 112 anti- church campaigns, see church bright future, 11, 31, 161–2, 168, anti- Semitism, 83, 115 185–6, 189 anti- worker moods, 129–30, 136 British intelligence, 34–5, 46, 70, 105, anxiety, 10, 37, 61, 92, 110, 185, 191 140 in French Revolution, 23 brotherhood, 90, 165, 166, 180 about potential aggression, 51–52, Bukharin, N. I., 63, 76–7, 123, 124, 55, 78 128, 174, 181 of Stalin and leadership, 79–81 alarmist speeches, 51–2, 80, 82, 86 about Western weaponry, 43, 44, on foreign threats, 37, 44, 52, 55 100 on peasant party, 128, 157 see also fears Bulgaria, 47, 93, 202 apocalypse, 36, 120 ARA (American Relief capitalist encirclement, 25, 55–6, 90, Administration), 117, 200 190 archaization, 119–20 carnival, 38, 171, 177 ARCOS (trade mission), 30, 53, 55 cataloguing practice, see registration arrests, 5, 16, 24, 27, 29, 30, 90, 94, celebration, 167 101–2, 122, 152–7, 175, 183, of October Revolution, 4, 160, 199, 206, 214–15 169–70, 175–8, 182, 184, 187, causing discontent, 107, 109, 112, 189, 191 207 see also anniversary in mass operation, 62–4, 68–75 census, 82, 98, 107 of strikers, 15, 196 Central region, 83, 84, 119, 149, 150 quotas of, 73 Central Asia, 46, 181, 204 arson, 63, 65, 77, 94, 106, 140 Central Committee, VKPb, 17, 27, 36, assassination, 73, 85 47, 54, 58, 62, 67, 87, 143, 150, of Kirov, S. M., 66, 81, 113, 214 152, 157, 170, 172, 175, 182

243 244 Index

Central Committee, VKPb – continued class consciousness, 9, 121, 159 Plenum of, 50, 51, 54, 66, 77, 83, solidarity, 31, 44, 137 98, 131 collectivization, 152, 159 Chaianov, A. V., 113, 127, 131, 156 discontent with, 95, 100–3, 113 Chamberlain, A., 6, 43, 53, 55–7, 109, effects of, 121, 158 203 expectations of war during, 111 Chapter 58 of Criminal Code, 64 resistance to, 112, 159 chastooshki, 35, 181 Comintern, 76 chemical warfare or weapon, 40–3, 93 and foreign policy, 24, 26, 29–31, see also gases, poisonous 47, 54, 107, 128 Chicherin, G. V., 29, 31, 40, 44, 51, alarmism, 48, 50, 78 76–7 mobilization campaigns, 37, 44, China, 46, 51, 57, 90, 94, 107, 110, 55, 113 160 Red Peasant International, 125 East China railway, 108, 110 subversive documents, activities, Japanese annexation of, 86 53, 77 revolution in, 53, 93 threats of intervention, 28 Christian mentality, 165–6, 168, 189 Committees of Peasants’ Mutual Aid church, 117, 119, 136, 178 (KKOV), 104, 137, 142, 145, anti-church campaigns, 120, 123, 158, 220 184 commune, village, see obshchina confiscation of valuables, 6 complaints, 8, 18, 102, 126, 130, 133, citizenry, or citizens, 5, 17, 55, 82, 137, 174, 180, 218 107, 119 conscription, see draft and modernity, 119, 120, 124 conspiracy, 188 disenfranchised, 3, 119, 140, 187 fabricated, 69, 122 dissatisfaction, 15, 58, 91, 132, 135, scares of, 24–5 138, 176 Constituent Assembly, 36, 121–2, 187, forming political parties, 46, 159 216 in politics, 3, 93, 127, 132, 140, Constitution, 118, 123, 133, 139, 146 141, 187 of 1918, 123 opinions of, 2, 3 of 1925, 220 protests, 30, 120, 192 of 1936, 6, 159, 170, 179 civic belonging, 132, 187 construction of socialism, 5, 91, 134, civil religion, 161 160, 161, 185, 188 civil society, 3, 141 correspondence Civil War, 7, 25, 95, 129 control of, 53 calls for, 60, 108 intercepted, 17, 74, 101, 102 devastation of, 11, 119, 134, 153, 163 official, 47, 67, 79, 113, 123 legacy of, 140, 144, 189, 191 private, 18, 130, 167 memory of, 24, 33, 39, 75, 96, 107, correspondents 187 foreign, 43, 66 mentality, 75, 85, 135, 188 peasants’ or village, 18, 34, 43, 75, politics born from, 122, 149, 158 82, 126, 149, 160 resuming policy of, 53, 59, 64 workers’, 18, 87, 126 tensions, 75, 76, 78, 106, 192 Cossacks, 52, 69, 71, 76, 85, 95, 113, terms, 67, 68, 192 152, 207, 221 threat of another, 10, 22, 75, 80, counter- revolutionary crimes, 64, 72 92, 106 Criminal Code, 64 Index 245 crisis, 113, 129, 142, 160–1, 167, 187, see also Lishentsy 203 disillusionment, 8–9, 14, 16, 28, 97, economic, 46, 60, 91, 170, 192 116, 138, 163–4, 177, 184–6, 190 financial, 43 Dobrokhim, 40–1 grain, 106 Dobrolet, 40–1 international, 24, 29, 53–4 Don, 11, 46, 59, 85, 95, 127, 152, prison, 179 209, 224 revolutionary, 30, 47 Cossacks, 95 Curzon, Lord, 29–31, 34–5, 57, 117 donations, 4, 40–1, 57–8, 117, 158 ultimatum, 29–30, 32–3 draft, 78, 97, 106, evasion of, 18, 100, 115 de- Cossackization, 85 law, 35, 82, 97, 99, 100, 119 de- kulakization, 68, 121, 158, 169 draftees, 33, 90, 99, 104, 124 demonstration, 170, Dzerzhinsky, F. E., 17, 19, 27–8, 50–1, anti- England, 29–31, 34, 57 65, 74, 101, 141, 203 avoidance of, 177–8, 181 as mobilization, 4, 55–6, 170–1, economic blockade, 77 177–8 deprivation, see everyday hardships protest, 15, 37–9, 46, 56, 181–3 recovery, 11, 12, 46, 125, 172 denunciations, 6, 126 egalitarianism, 10, 189 Deribas, T. D., 139, 155 elections desertion, 70, 90 boycott of, 137–8, 153 diaries, 18, 21, 94, 115–6, 126, 178, peasant discontent with, 111, 118, 193 120, 127, 139 diet, 12–3 Peasant Union and, 122, 151, 155 differentiation, 151, 189 postponed or cancelled, 137, 140–1 in the villages, 9, 15, 136 soviet, 22, 123, 137, 140 disabled or invalids, 39, 179 Elichev, N. F., 173–5 veterans, 39, 99, 104, 105 emigrants, 28, 44, 48, 52, 54, 60, 61 disarmament, 59, 66, 94, 207 England, see Great Britain disciplinary practice, 171 enlightenment, 4, 5, 120, 125, 158, discontent, 81, 83 162 army, 103, 105 enrolment economic, 10–16, 89, 181, 190 decline or avoidance of, 98, 100–1, OGPU reports of, 8, 85, 107 191 peasants, 80, 102, 120, 122, 124, to the party, 40, 96–7, 115, 141 129–30, 147 enthusiasm, 34, 143, 176–8, 180 social, 7, 10–11, 82, 106, 113, 115, epidemic, 15, 185 178–9, 190 equality, 186 workers, 8, 13, 15, 46, 183 demand for, 15–6, 133–4, 139, discourse 145–6, 152, 159, 165–6, 180 official, 3, 33, 38, 39, 47–81, 109, inequality, 126, 128, 130, 147, 187, 117, 167, 170, 188 190 popular, 2, 3, 94–5, 115, 120, 146, Evdokimov, E. G., OGPU official, 71 158, 165, 187, 191 Evdokimov, G. E., oppositionist, 183 discrimination, 8–9, 15, 88, 100–1, everyday hardships, 10–11, 83, 116, 118, 130, 151, 158, 180 129, 136, 189 disenfranchised, 3, 119, 140, 187 executions, 62–4, 66, 68, 156, 179, 204 numbers of, 15, 220 exile, 5, 63, 108, 183, 200 246 Index expectation of war, 23, 26, 33, 36, 42, gases, poisonous, 39–43, 94 86, 87, 92, 108, 111, 114 sleeping, 42 export, 34, 102, 127, 176, 181 generation extrajudicial acts, 5, 53, 62, 64–7, 73, differences, 84 112, 179, 189, 199 older, 115, 168–9 revolutionary, 2, 24, 186, 189, fabrication of 191–2 Peasant Unions, 122–3, 156 Soviet, 31, 88, 98–9, 114, 115, 117, OGPU testimonies, 113 160, 167, 189 espionage cases, 69 younger, 8, 185 famine, 8, 10–11, 33, 43, 59, 90, 93, Georgia, 52, 70, 72, 85, 206 116–7, 119, 123, 131, 144, 152, Germany, 1, 24–5, 30–1, 35, 47, 51, 167 53, 54, 76, 93, 104, 107, 113, Far East, 51, 66, 69–70, 72, 84, 86, 90, 114 110, 150 Gorky, Maxim, 185 fears, 10, 20, 23, 35, 37, 44–5, 51–2, requisitions, 33, 88, 101, 103, 119, 55, 61, 78–81, 92, 110, 112–14, 122, 130, 132 185, 191, 208 Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaievich, 33, see also anxiety 42, 92, 200 ‘fifth column’, 23, 70, 73, 114 Great Britain Finland, 51, 60, 107, 116 foreign influence and policy, 29, 33, five- year plan, 23, 25, 45, 198 50, 104 folklore, 21, 35, 57, 167 peasant perception of, 90, 97, 117, food 176 donations, 117, 134 Red Scare, 24 lines, 176, 178, 181, 184 Soviet relations with, 29, 34, 55, 60, prices, 16, 73, 86–7, 123 68, 77 shortages, 11, 13, 15, 33, 46, 76, threat of intervention from, 35, 50, 86, 103, 107, 167, 176, 180–1, 107 224–5 Great Terror, 23, 66, 73, 107, 114 foreign diplomats, 18, 21, 35, 46, 70, 76, harvest, 34, 86–7, 131, 181 foreign intervention health care, 15, 133, 146 during Civil War, 22, 24, 188 holidays, 15, 169, 178 fear of, 23, 26, 35, 37, 44, 48, 50, hopes 52, 73, 94, 96, 106, 112–13 of Bolsheviks, 8, 47, 69, 161 welcomed by peasants, 42, 86–7, popular, 32, 34, 36, 92, 111, 134, 92, 108, 111, 116 161, 163, 177, 186, 189 First World War, 9, 125 horrors of a future war, 39, 41, 42 anniversary of, 37, 90 hostages, 62, 63, 65, 77, 201, 205 legacy of, 4, 24–5, 29, 89, 92, hunger, 8, 11, 36, 43, 87, 93, 117, 103–4, 111 123, 131, 132, 167, 181, 187 suppressed memory of, 39 fear of, 10, 14, 16, 90 foreign policy, 31, 44, 46, 55, 78 persistence of, 11, 103, 116 dualism of, 24, 26, 31, 44, 47, 78 as a result of Soviet politics, 116, France, 23, 33, 35, 50, 51, 90, 104, 152 107, 181 as a result of war preparation, 33, freedom of foreign trade, 92, 152 59, 119, 144 Frunze, M. V., 41, 48–9 see also famine Index 247 identity, 7, 119, 126, 135, 171 decline of, 97–8, 101, 106, 149, 185 collective, 6 letters, 17, 186 forging of, 18, 59, 88, 130, 175, threats to, 58–9, 94, 96–7, 138, 140 187–8 Kondratiev, N. D., 113, 131, 156 national, 90, 116–7, 191 Kronstadt, 10, 101 search of, 159 Krylenko, N. V., 65–6, 205 social, 118, 125, 129 Kuban’, 11, 151, 154 Soviet, 59, 99, 117, 170, 175, 187–8, Kursky, D. I., 65 191 immortality, 165 land re- distribution, 75, 85, 92, 141 impatience, 163, 164 settlement, 152, 153 improvement of life, 10, 11, 134, leaflet, 139, 140, 151, 182, 221 167–8 anti- Soviet, 11, 96, 97, 108, 111, industrial accidents, 52–3, 63, 80 127, 139, 140, 151, 163, 174, ‘Industrial Party’ or Prompartia, 112, 182, 184, 187, 215, 220, 221 113, 156 monarchist, 92, 210 industrialization, 14, 16, 23, 26, 45, lectures, or meetings 49, 81, 102, 124, 172, 184 on international politics, 43, 56, inequality, see equality 93, 108 infiltration of checkists, 74, 122, 156, peasants’, 137, 144, 150–2, 155 216 as propaganda, 4, 18, 31, 37, 41, 55, informers, 68, 74, 206, 207 57–8, 63, 108, 109, 130, 169, INO OGPU, (Foreign Department), 171, 175–8, 183, 186, 221 48, 51 right of, 65, 92, 140 insurance, social, 104, 133 as worker’s patronage, 124, 158 insurgency, see revolts legal consciousness, 140, 143, 146 instigator, 147, 157 legitimacy, 6, 67, 76, 80, 96, 115, 119, intelligentsia, 15, 69, 74, 84, 85, 97, 187, 191–2 148, 151, 156, 161, 191 Lenin, V. I., 25, 164 international proletarian support, 43, assassination attempt on, 63 115 correspondence, 40, 89, 163 interrogation, 65, 155, 222 cult of, 4, 10, 32, 169, 184, 191 intraparty struggle, 45, 48, 97, 113 death, 26, 35–7 invented traditions, 169 in politics, 128, 157, 162, 164 Ivano- Voznesensk, 22, 58 Leningrad, 1, 2, 50 Communist Party organization, 58, Japan, 49, 51–2, 86, 90, 106, 111, 112, 97–8 114, 115, 202 demonstrations in, 6, 15, 30, 38, justice, 65, 70, 101, 105, 130, 161, 56, 177, 182–4 166, 186 gubernia, 97, 109, 110 jobless in, 15, 181 Kalinin, M. I., 32, 123, 126, 157, propaganda campaigns, 41, 78, 184 172–5 poverty in, 13 Kamenev, L. B., 29, 32, 183, 203 repressions in, 68–9, 71–2, 74–5, kolkhozy, 103, 111, 120, 134, 152, 108–9, 196, 214 159, 168 suicides in, 185 see also collectivization terrorist attacks in, 60–1 Komsomol, 14, 35, 57, 126, 127, 149, workers, 6, 58, 91, 167, 176, 178, 211 181 248 Index letters maneuver, 78, 82, 110 anonymous, 91, 95, 117, 138, 163, mobilization, 6, 24, 31, 43, 78, 106, 172, 175, 176 203 to the authorities, 14, 31, 89, 123, parades, 55, 177, 183 126, 137, 163, 174 reform, 49, 67, 79 intercepted, 9, 74, 83, 101, 221 service, 96, 100, 103 to newspapers, 9, 17–19, 76, 151, superiority of the West, 39, 48, 93, 155, 170, 171, 173 101, 117, 213 from peasants, 41, 89, 94, 101–2, threat, 5, 23, 25, 28, 44, 50–1, 78, 118, 131, 133, 164, 167, 173, 113, 187, 199 175, 180 military intelligence, see RU secret party, 157 mobilization Stalin’s, 112, 114, 129, 185 campaigns, 4–6, 22, 59, 191 from workers, 41, 167 political, 9, 29, 54, 82, 106, 125, letter- writing, 6, 18, 126 126, 191 liberation from kolkhoz, 111, 134 techniques, 4–6 lishentsy, 85, 95, 100 war, 44, 96, 100, 110 see also disenfranchised modern state, 4–5, 17 Lithuania, 50–1 modernity, 9, 119, 146, 158, 161, 188 Litvinov, M. M., 31, 80, 112, 214 modernization, 5, 23, 120, 159 Lunacharskii, A. V., 162 Molotov, V. M., 88, 107, 114, 131, 174 correspondence, 47, 61, 63, 64, 67, Manchuria, 49, 51, 112, 114, 202, 213 70, 112, 114, 118, 129 mass operation, 60, 62, 65–75, 77–8, monarchists, 61–3, 67, 71, 92 95, 179 monitoring, see surveillance Mayakovsky, V. V., 40, 56, 162 motivations, 81, 107, 126 meetings, see lectures myth, 24, 25, 57, 131, 147, 171 memoirs, 20, 21, 25, 169, 171 mythological thinking, 10 memory, 24, 31–2, 38–9, 87, 96, 115, 170, 192 New Economic Policy (NEP) mentality, 23–5, 50, 147, 168 Communists’ views of, 142, 163 Civil War, 75, 85, 135, 188 effects, 16, 35, 106, 119, 131–3, besieged fortress, 26, 55 143, 159 Menzhinsky, V. R., 27, 44, 60, 63, 66, end of, 88, 187 68, 71, 72, 112, 202 peasants’ views of, 123–4, migrants, 76, 85, 153, 207, 221 period, 10–11, 15, 19, 66, 131, 164 migration, 16, 85, 120, 130 nepmen, 5, 16, 69, 74–75, 99, 191 Mikoyan, A. I., 87–8 new [Soviet] man, 7, 8, 168, 189, 215 militarism, 43, 94, 107, 132 NKID (Ministry of Foreign Affairs) militarization foreign policy, 31, 46–8, 54, 76 campaigns, 57–8, 114, 190 on threat of war, 51, 53 of society, 16, 24, 37, 44, 53, 78 North Caucasus, 66, 69–72, 75–6, military 83–4, 142, 151, 157 clubs or organizations, 53, 58–9 North- West region, 33, 84, 146, 150 complex, 26, 49 enrolment or training, 40, 55, 57–8, obshchina, or commune, 58, 119–22, 95, 99, 124 143, 153, 189, 220 expenses, 29, 49, 94, 107 October Manifesto, 133, 167, 179–80, games, 4 Odessa, 15, 34, 78, 151 Index 249

‘Operation Trest’, 61 prices, 86, 128, 144, 146, 180 opposition, 35, 88, 189–90 burden of, 126, 167, 221 intraparty, 15, 54, 45–7, 67, 83, 97, control of, 16, 137–8, 144, 147 164, 183, 187, 221 grain, 73, 87, 123, 174 rural or peasant, 15, 34, 120, 126, privileges, 14, 104, 124, 133, 139, 140, 149, 152, 153, 158–9, 173, 166, 191 221 procurement, 16, 73, 78, 86–8, 152, OSOAVIAKhIM, 53, 57–8 209, ‘Our Answer to Chamberlain’, 6, 56–7 production rates, 13, 196 promises panic, 29, 35, 36, 45, 101, 110–11 of Bolsheviks, 7, 31, 133, 160–3, in the markets, 52, 79, 86–7, 107 166, 168, 180 in the leadership, 55, 80–1, 84, 94, unfulfilled, 8, 135–6, 140, 167, 186 106 Prompartia, see ‘Industrial Party’ Lenin’s sickness, death, 26, 28, 36 prostitution, 8, 14 paradise, 161, 165 public well-being, 167–8, 224 participation in campaigns, 4, 6, 59, 169, 171, 177 questionnaire, 155 controlled, 175 political, 5, 6, 9, 18, 24, 59, 119, 122, Radek, K., 31, 39 124, 126–7, 136–8, 141, 146, 151 rationing, 1, 15, 46, 86, 102 in war, 90, 134 razmychka, 136, 158 party membership, 6, 96–8, 141 Red Army see also enrolment capacity to fight, 93, 114 party opposition, see opposition composition, 39, 94, 100 party organizers, 20, 83, 93, 157, 169, confidence in, 32, 38, 44, 49, 93, 181, 184 115, 213 paternalism, 10 correspondence, 18, 33, 118, 165 patriotism, 31, 34, 57, 60, 67, 82, 83, mobilization, 30, 31, 43, 207 116, 191 morale, 35, 36, 71, 90, 99–103, 115 peasant government, 126–7 reforms, 41, 113 peasant party, 118, 128, 144, 157 Red calendar, 170, 184 Peasant Union ‘Red Scare’, 24 call for, 82–3, 86, 126–7, 142, 180 Red Terror, 10, 63 functions, 145, 147 reduction of sowing areas, 33, 55, 86, movement, 9, 46, 119, 121–3, 137, 203, 218 143–4, 148–59, 166, 191 registration, 14, 74, 82, 85, 151, 189 suppression of, 70 requisitions, 33, 88, 101, 103, 119, pessimism, 74, 115, 160, 164 122, 130, 132 petition, 126, 127 resignations Pioneers, 83, 98, 182, 198, 211 from Communist organizations, 18, Platonov, A., 142, 163, 165, 223 83, 96–9, 106, 235 Poland from government, 76 intervention, 28, 31, 33, 35, 42, 43, resistance, 8, 9, 16, 29, 95, 106, 115, 49–52, 61, 80, 107, 112–3 119–20, 123, 136, 140, 155, relations with, 71, 77, 90, 116, 199 158, 189, 190 political officers, or politruki, 36, exaggerated, 17, 107 99–101 potential, 105 Pope, 117 to collectivization, 112, 159 250 Index revolts lack of, 191 calls for, 61, 102, 111, 151–2 peasant, 9, 120, 125, 136–7, 189 fear of, 26, 28, 37, 94, 105, 113, 155 spies, or espionage, 63–4, 68–9, 72, of the unemployed, 15, 46 98, 114 peasant, 10, 24, 33, 35, 95, 103, 119, Stalinists way of thinking, 46, 52, 54, 122–3, 132, 149, 163, 187, 199 67–8, 80, 81, 107, 112, 114, prevention, 27, 64, 74, 113 147, 190 in Red Army, 214 statistics, 11, 18, 70, 101, 107, 140, suppressed, 33, 207 168, 197 Romania, 28, 43, 50, 113 strikes RU (Military Intelligence), 49–51 bread, 120 rumours, 64, 76, 87, 92, 95 peasant, 121, 190 anti-Soviet, 85, 101 resolution of, 15 of arrests, 72, 85 workers, 8, 13–14, 46, 82, 179, 197 as communication, 3, 32 students, 1, 13, 33, 57, 151, 153, 154 about war, 10, 28, 33, 35–7, 39, 44, subsistence economy, 119, 143, 166, 52, 82, 107, 110, 111 167 Russian All- Military Union (ROVS), subversive activities, 54, 149 60–1, 68 suicides, 14, 15, 185, 186 Rykov, A. I., 51, 55, 63, 66, 76–7, 87, surveillance 172, 205 as a mode of power, 17, 26, 53, 155–7, 188–9 sabotage, 16, 55, 64, 88, 106 of the military, 99–100 sacrifice, 92, 124, 168, 189, 190 of the population, 2, 4, 5, 18–9, 35, salvation, 5, 162, 168, 189 73–75, 146, 170, 177, 190, 222 Savinkov, B., 199 svodki, 17, 19–21, 80, 100, 188 science fiction, 161 Switzerland, 29 searches, 62, 64, 72 Second World War, 6, 111, 114 Tambov, 117, 122, 123, 131, 142, show trials, 66, 68, 112, 156, 171 163 Siberia taxation, or tax agitation in, 78, 84, 95, 111, 119, burden of, 130–3 123, 134, 163 collection of, 142 arrests in, 70 evasion of, 102, 132 executions in, 66, 72 exemption, 104, 179 independence of, 33 grain, 33, 86 party, 88, 101, 110, 121, 140, 146, rates, 123, 131, 180 149–51 special, 99 procurements in, 86 terrorist attacks, 60–1, 63, 75, 76, 94, Siberian Peasant Union, 122–3 108 smychka, 4, 46, 123–4, 129–30, 133, threats against Communists, 37, 59, 135, 158, 191 76, 85, 94, 96, 97, 111 ‘socialism in one country’, 26, 47, Toiling Peasants’ Party, 112, 156 78, 93 total war, 4, 5, 24, 59, 189 Socialist- Revolutionaries (SR), 6, 121 totalitarian regimes, 17, 168 solicitation for opinions, 6, 170 troikas, 65–6, 197, 205 solidarity Trotsky, L. D., international proletarian, 31, 44, in power, 27, 37, 38–40, 60, 163, 47, 55, 60, 67 181, 183 Index 251

as oppositionist, 47, 94, 97, 149, War Communism, 10, 130–1, 162–3, 183, 205 187 TsK see Central Committee war imagery, 23, 25 TsK VKPb Village Department, 143 welfare, 103, 104, 134, 179 Tukhachevsky, M. N., 49 White Army, 33, 90 Whiteguardists, 62–4, 67–8, 70–1, 74, Ukraine 149, 188 famine, 11, 33 withdrawals from the party, see party, 98, 121, 146, 151 resignations repressions in, 69–72, 74, 84, 156, women, 4, 8, 9, 59, 97, 104, 140 214 world revolution disturbances, 13–15, 46, 119, 181 support for, 30, 37–8, 93, 189 suspicion of, 50–51, 114 skepticism of, 43, 184 ultimatum, 29, 30, 32, 33, 76 Comintern policy, 31, 47–8, 50 unemployment, unemployed, 130, effects on foreign policy, 91, 107 146 wreckers, 52, 68, 112, 149, 160 growth of, 36, 46, 96, 176, 179 unrest from, 8, 13–15, 184 xenophobia, 25, 55, 117 veterans, 105 XII Party Congress, 28 United States, 24, 25, 33, 39, 117 XIV Party Congress, 47 Unschlicht, I. S., 27 XV Party Congress, 54, 87, 152, 202 uprisings, see revolts utopia or utopianism, 127, 162, 186 Yagoda, G. G., 19, 69, 71, 155, 174, 202 values Yaroslavl’, 11, 13, 220 old, 100, 169 Young Communist League, see patriotic, 90 Komsomol Soviet, 89, 117, 153, 186, 189, youth 191–3, 197, 215 disillusionment of, 14, 184–6 veterans, 24, 37, 171 enrolment to Komsomol, 98 treatment of, 39, 99, 103–5, 179 informers among, 68 vigilance, 23, 62, 67 organizations, 41, 53, 59, 154, 211 village gatherings, 122, 143, 174 support for Communism, 8–9, 60, ‘village moods’, 100–1, 103 88, 99, 114, 117, 172, 215 voenizatsiia, 44 Voikov, P. L., 56, 61, 62, 77, 113, 204 zemobshchestvo, see obshchina Voroshilov, K. E., 48, 49, 51, 60, 82, 86 zemstvo, 121, 122, 155 Vorovsky, V. V., 29, 33, 113 Zinoviev, G. I., 28, 31, 37, 47, 48, 123, voting rights, 123, 138, 140, 144 128, 183, 105 vydvizhenchestvo, or promotion, 6, 88 Zinoviev Letter, 53, 80