Brettonwoods International Journal of Socio-Economic and Financial Studies, Vol. 1, No.2, September, 2018.

ROLE OF CULTURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT IN NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND RELATED CHALLENGES. STUDY OF SELECTED CULTURAL RESOURCES IN NIGERIA.

IFEGBO, L.I. Ph.D DEPARTMENT OF HOSPITALITY AND TOURISM MANAGEMENT, IMO STATE UNIVERSITY

Abstract Realistically, the antiquities of a nation are the major repository of its cultural heritage, and the pivot of tourism development worldwide, vis-à-vis the pillar of nations’ economies. A great deal of Nigeria’s valuable resources, despite their potential for economic profitability have suffered abject neglect and treated with levity over the decades. This prevailing situation, in no small measure has remained a setback from contributing their own quota to national development. Besides, they have been met with the challenging effects of colonialism, losses through destruction, stealing, vandalization, and smuggling. Ethnographic and historical methods were adopted for the study. Using some selected cultural resources in Nigeria, the study sort to find out whether there is a relationship between cultural resource management (CRM) and national development, identified the role of CRM in national growth, as well as possible challenges in transforming them for this purpose. Findings showed that CRM and national development are related. It was deduced that government has made some moves to transform these resources for the nation’s development, but its input is yet to be felt and the major militating factors were outlined including lack of funds, enforcement agencies, amongst others. Collaborative efforts among the government at all levels, the custodians of the cultural properties and tourism planners must be fruitful in the struggle for national development. With the participation of all the stakeholders, the right approach to the process of development is attained and the nation’s cultural resources will be more profitable and highly relevant to national development. Keywords: Cultural Resource Management, National Development, Challenges, museums, Tourism.

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Introduction

The nations valued cultural resources which are the pivot of tourism development worldwide and a pillar to nations’ economics, has remained in a state of jeopardy in Nigeria. Past literatures have long emphasized on the fast extinction, varied distortions and neglect over the rich cultural heritages of the multi-ethnic country. Nigeria has over 250 ethnic groups with Igbo, Yoruba and Hausa-Fulani as the major groups, including other perceived minor groups (Onyima, 2016), and each of them has their unique cultural resources.

Cultural resources are those tangible and intangible aspects of a cultural aspects of a cultural system, both living and the dead, that are valued by or representatives of a given culture or that contain information about a culture (Wikipedia Contributors, 2014). They refer to the rich non- material and material attributes acquired within a society and transmitted through generations, including diverse beliefs, festival, diet, architecture, dances, drama, iron works, wood and stone carvings(Lipe, 1984). It is the sum total of the people’s arts, customs, festivals, sacred and worship sites, norms, values, ideologies, dress and dress-patterns, traditional monuments and architecture, technology and technological sites and other artifacts. These items of culture have long been cherished for their historical, political, educational, recreational and religious significance among others. On this premise, the Holy lands of Israel, Jerusalem and Mecca pull millions of world population every year to their homes due to the religious importance of their culture, and therefore serves as a popular aspect of tourism. The importance of cultural resource to nations span from economic, touristic, aesthetic, educational and research needs. With Nigeria’s rich cultural inheritance, they are highly opportune to benefit immensely if their numerous cultural activities are well preserved and developed. Through proper packaging and advertising, the economy will be enhanced, and the much needed foreign earning and GDP will rise, providing surplus fund for other aspects of

107 Brettonwoods International Journal of Socio-Economic and Financial Studies, Vol. 1, No.2, September, 2018. development in the country. In addition, through cultural patronage, people of different ethnic groups meet, reach a more understanding and live more peacefully as a nation.

Notwithstanding the enumerated benefits, studies have maintained that Nigeria’s cultural endowments, whether ethnographic or archeological are still subjected to intensive acts of smuggling, illicit trade, burglary and at times, total destruction(Arinze,2007). Those in museum collections are disappearing and decaying due to poor management, where festivals are fast becoming extinct. Without proper management, the roles which these items of culture should have performed in the national development remain far-fetched.

From the perspective of this study, management can be defined as effective utilization of an organization’s human, physical, financial and other resources to achieve set goals. Accordingly, Graffin (1996) states that “management in involves a set of activities including planning and decision making, organizing, leading and controlling directed at an organization’s resources”. From this perspective it depicts that management is a process by which scarce resources are the human and material resources which are usually employed in organizations to accomplish designated goals. The term ‘Cultural resource management’ is essentially a process by which the protection and management of the multitudinous but scarce elements of culture are given some considerations in a modern world, with an expanding population and needs(Kings,2002). It involves those practices that promote, preserve, conserve and enlighten the use of ethnographic and archeological resources for research, entertainment and education purposes. So much legislations have been enacted to this effect, starting with the Antiquities Ordinance of 1943 to the latest obligation to the National Commission for Museum and Monument(NCMM), and to register and document all antiquities both in public and private collections. Regretably, these

108 Brettonwoods International Journal of Socio-Economic and Financial Studies, Vol. 1, No.2, September, 2018. measures have remained unavailing to the transformation of Nigeria’s enormous cultural resources to economic wealth and development. This paper sought to identify Nigeria’s cultural resources for national development and the militating factors to this effect, alongside with some recommendations. Objective of the Study

The general objective of the study is to examine the relevance of the cultural resource management in Nigeria to national development and the associated challenges.

The specific objectives are to: i) To determine the relationship between national development and cultural resource management. ii) To identify any possible challenges in the role of cultural resources to national development. iii) To evaluate its potentials for national development.

Review of Related Literature

Concept of Cultural Resource Management

Cultural resources are the rich non-material and material attributes acquired within a society and transmitted through generations, such as the diverse beliefs, festivals, diets, architecture, dances, drama, iron works, wood and stone carving(Okpoko, 2007). They are otherwise called cultural heritage, and known as the cherished characteristic features of a society passed down from generation to generation through conscious preservation (Onyima, 2018). Cultural resources therefore, refer to the riches of extinct or extant societies which are of historic, educational, recreational, and economic importance, preserved and handed over from one generation to another. Furthermore,

109 Brettonwoods International Journal of Socio-Economic and Financial Studies, Vol. 1, No.2, September, 2018. cultural resource management (CRM) is essentially a process by which the protection and management of the multitudinous but scarce elements of cultural heritage are given some considerations in a modern world, with expanding population and expanding needs (King, 2002). It involves those practices that promote preservation, conservation, and enlightened use of archaeological resources for research and education purposes. CRM is the professional practice, the methods and philosophies of dealing with archaeological sites and data, including artifacts (Wester, 2007).

Lipe (1988) pointed out that CRM grew from a worldwide modern movement towards a more responsible approaches to our environment, both natural and cultural. More so, the concerns about sites, professional ethics, and site destruction, coupled with the complaints about looting and vandalism which dates back to 1920’s gave more prominence to cultural resource management (Wesler, 2007). The modern CRM has advanced from the loss of the fragile resources to the awareness of our own responsibilities towards those resources and our role of stewardship for future generations of scholars and the general public.

Andah (2007) emphasized that institutions in the form of National Boards of Tourism, Historical Sites and Monuments are usually responsible for planning, developing and transmitting information about cultural resources for various purposes. Other governmental organs responsible for preserving, presenting, promoting, producing and utilizing cultural and natural resources include Antiquities Commissions and Departments, particularly their museums, conservation and Resource Management Agencies, National Library Board, Archives and commissions as well as Council for Culture, Science and Technology. Institutes and Centers of Cultural Studies in the universities and the universities themselves form part of governmental organs for cultural preservation. The decree No.77 of 1979 established NCMM as the body

110 Brettonwoods International Journal of Socio-Economic and Financial Studies, Vol. 1, No.2, September, 2018. responsible for conserving and managing the monuments and sites. Another means to preserve cultural heritage is through the yearly festivals hosted in every ethnic group which brings to memory of the people their culture, and informs the young ones of the rich tradition of their ancestors, thereby deterring extinction (Oladumiye, Bolajoko & Olabiyi, 2013). Eboreime (2004) stressed that communities through their local government and non-governmental organizations can establish museums to keep their cultural resources alive. The need for the vibrancy of the aforementioned organs was further stressed by Arinze (2007) , “apart from the occasional rubbing of Palm oil or chalk on the objects by priests as part of the ritual process, especially during festivals, no other efforts are made to prevent them from decay, damage or attack by insects.”

Cultural resource management may be defined as the process of planning, organizing, leading/directing and controlling of cultural resources to accomplish stated or targeted goals or objectives through the coordinated use of human and material resources (Emeghara 2015). It could also mean exercising reasonable level of care in the exploitation, use, treatment or manipulation of cultural resources of which the aim is to conserve, and rehabilitate them in the natural environment. Cultural Resource Management includes the National Registration of Historic Cultural Properties and objects of cultural importance. Arinze (2007), stressed the urgent need to establish this organ in Nigeria which should undertake a systematic documentation of our endowments in cultural properties, including the objects made by our forefathers, monuments of the land, and recent creation of future historic importance. Arinze specified that such documentation should give full and precise information about any object in a collection and serve the legal purpose of providing ownership at any time, especially where security is in question. Proper and effective protection and management of cultural resources demands effective legislation, and in the Nigerian situation, so much has been enacted. For instance, the Antiquities ordinance of 1943 “provided for

111 Brettonwoods International Journal of Socio-Economic and Financial Studies, Vol. 1, No.2, September, 2018. the exploration, care, preservation and exportation of art works” (Nzewunwa & Derekaka, 1998). Also the Antiquities Regulations of 1957 sought to regulate, as well as restrict the movement of antiquities out of Nigeria, and by the Decree 9 of 1974, a ban has been placed on the buying and selling of antiquities through an accredited agent. As a major agency responsible for CRM, NCMM were ordered to register and document all antiquities in public and private collections. Amongst its various functions include the establishment, maintenance, and administration of national museums, antiquities and monuments and the responsibility of making recommendations to state governments or individuals on this task (Emeghara, 2015).The commission also conducts in ethnography, archaeology and other related fields single handedly or in alliance with university- based institutes or departments). Included in the list of institutionalized cultural resource management agencies in Nigeria are: Ministry of Culture and Tourism at federal and state levels, the Nigerian Film Censorship Boards(NFCB), Nigerian Film Corporation(NFC), Centre for Black Arts and Civilization(CBAC), National Gallery of Art(NGA), National Copyright Commission(NCC), Council for Arts and Culture at national and state levels and the Institute for African Studies in Nigerian universities. It is worthy to mention that cultural resources are managed by other bodies that are not institutionalized, such as community shrines priests, heads of households, lineage heads, heads and patrons of age-grade societies and traditional festival managers. Also included in the list are leaders of drama, dance groups and other custodians of the peoples’ cultural heritage, prominent among whom are praise singers, chroniclers and knowledgeable community heads and elders. Extant available evidence shows that Nigeria has taken certain important measures to protect and preserve her cultural resources, even other member countries of international cultural organizations and agencies, notably United Nations’ Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organizations(UNESCO), already have legislations and regulations for protecting their cultural resources (Emeghara,2015). Sadly, none of these ordinance and measures, even as

112 Brettonwoods International Journal of Socio-Economic and Financial Studies, Vol. 1, No.2, September, 2018. stringent as they were hardly deterred theft and illegal exportation of antiquities across the borders of Nigeria.

Relevance of Cultural Resources to National Development

Culture is simply defined as the totality of people’s way of life (Ifegbo,2015). It is dynamic and therefore changes by accepting new items borrowed from neighbours or improvement of old items through invention or by rejecting/abandoning or replacing with ones more suitable to the given environment, and when it is not possible to transmit items from one generation to another (Ekechukwu, Dimiyi and Ukaegbu, 2012). According to them, possible conditions capable of attracting cultural changes, defeat of a cultural area, colonialism, imposition of alien religious beliefs and ideas. Therefore, this assertion is enough proof that culture and development have a close relationship since development has similar characteristic with change.

Previous scholars have continued to emphasis that engaging in development projects without taking cognizance of the culture of the concerned society is a serious contribution to project failures. Every society is known and defined by a particular culture and cultural practices which further defines their modes of thinking, acting and feeling. Their behaviors, reactions, norms, beliefs, language and other aspects of living determine whether and the extent they will embrace or abhor a new development (Ifegbo, 2015). In the same vein, it is right that culture is a standard by which growth or a society’s development is evaluated i.e. whether it will develop slowly or rapidly. For this reason, the African cultural heritage is valued as the base spring board for genuine development since it conditions the entire social structure by serving as the main system that keeps the society together (Ekechukwu et al., 2012). In the light of this, the Cross River monolith and the Nok terracotta figures can command reasonable international

113 Brettonwoods International Journal of Socio-Economic and Financial Studies, Vol. 1, No.2, September, 2018. respect for the country, while our arts and crafts are already vital sources of learning (Okpoko and Ezeadichie, 2002), most notably in our museums where they are displayed in assorted forms. Even so, the process of preservation, conservation or repackaging cultural resources promotes skill acquisition, abilities and resourcefulness of a society and eventually transforms into economic output. The point is that more fruitful results will be realized if a systematic study of a named society was conducted prior to the implementation of the development plan.

The relevance of cultural resources in national development cannot be counted, more especially in countries like Nigeria with many ethnic groups including Igbo, Yoruba, and Hausa-Fulani, plus other minor ones. Yet with increased understanding among the people of the various cultures, they can appreciate their cultural diversities which can foster integrated unity (Ekechukwu et al., 2012). In support of this assertion, Aremu (2008), proclaimed that the climate and vegetation differences further explains the cultural varieties and resources of the different groups which could serve as veritable tourism attractions if properly packaged. More so, with increased interaction and exchange of ideas, existing barriers could be narrowed giving room for their artistic and scientific innovations in culture to be treasured, while promoting a sense of national pride and respect.

Amiakor (2001) pointed out that Nigerian arte facts played a dominant role in the traditional society, that almost every aspect of life seemed to depend on it. Yet it is not in doubt that Nigeria’s work of art enhances their present life as an embellishment denoting pride and status as well as founding entertainment and learning (Oladumiye, 2003). In totality, it fulfils economic, historical, touristic, aesthetic, educational and research needs.

Preservation of cultural relics has great potentials of boosting the country’s economy through tourism, and if properly preserved and advertised through print

114 Brettonwoods International Journal of Socio-Economic and Financial Studies, Vol. 1, No.2, September, 2018. and electronic media, they stand a chance of attracting tourists, both domestic and international (Onyima 2016)and with high aesthetics, cultural and eco- tourism will be more flourishing. With this in place, both national revenue and GDP will rise, making available more funds for other forms of development. Okpoko (1990), revealed that festivals hold great promise for tourism saying “festivals attract so much tourists as fixed cultural attractions and for Nigeria especially Igbo land; theirs is rich in mythology which can be harnessed to generate revenue”. Sayyed et al (2011) asserted that in recent times, rural tourism has turned into a leading economic activity and studies so far confirm a positive relationship between developing rural tourism and profitability.

Celebrations like cultural festivals of state or national recognition normally draw people of different ethnic groups and beliefs together which creates room for understanding and peaceful resolution of differences (Ifegbo, 2015), thereby engendering unity. During festivals, celebrating communities invite friends and relatives from far and wide to witness the unique aspects of their culture and in the process relationships are strengthened while fostering better understanding. Moreso, museums which is the storehouse for the nations cultural resources can contribute to their appreciation of aesthetics, relaxation and leisure when visited, thereby serving to discourage tension. (Onyima, 2016).

Furthermore, the conservation and advertisement of archaeological, sacred historic sites and monuments as centers of cultural excellence, backed by the provision of adequate infrastructural facilities to boost their appeal to tourists, attracts more monetary benefits. In addition, establishment of more museums and organizing festivals well known for good music, drama, songs, dances, and colourful masquerade displays, apart from their entertainment and recreational benefits, can stimulate local economy of the rural folk (Okpoko, 2010), and increase the spending of both locals and international visitors in attendance.

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Despite the enumerated benefits derivable from culture, its contribution to the nation’s economy cum development is yet to be felt possibly because we still cling and value Western cultures and their ideas and this explains why development in most aspects of African countries reveals the dilemma of people whose culture has been trampled by foreigners(Okpoko, 2010).

National Development

Development means “material advancement, modernization, industrialization, scientific and technological advancements, emergence of nuclear energy, the electronic and biological resolution, and new knowledge about man and universe amongst others (Ehizuelem, 1996).It is product of effective utilization of both material and non-material aspects of human life within the framework of available cultural and natural resources (Mowang,2001). This view notwithstanding, the role of culture has been relegated in most parts of the world, especially in the so called ‘developed’ countries which led to the neglect of the unique cultures of those of the “underdeveloped” and “developing” nations which otherwise, should have served as key drivers of development. According to Okpoko and Okpoko (2002), development suggests an evolutionary process with positive connotations, and always of something particularly human beings, society, a nation an economy, a skill etc. This view is substantiated in Onekpe (2000), who described development as a process of change using successive generations. In his findings, right from the ‘60s, the view about development has kept changing until in the 1990s and 2000 when the concept of sustainable development became popular and implied collective survival of both man’s cultural heritage and his environment since man is both the agent and beneficiary of development. In essence, development means urbanization, socio-cultural transformation, vertical and horizontal mobility, employment opportunities, mass literacy and emergence of specialized and independent occupational roles. (Agbonlahor and Ukhurebor, 2006). They further defined development as both a physical reality

116 Brettonwoods International Journal of Socio-Economic and Financial Studies, Vol. 1, No.2, September, 2018. and a state of the mind in which society has through some consolation of socio- economic and industrial processes secured the means for obtaining a better life. Further in their study, three main objectives of development were identified namely to:

1) Increase the availability and widen the distribution of basic life sustaining goods like food, shelter, health and protection. 2) Raise levels of living, including high income, more jobs, better education and greater attention to cultural and humanistic values, all of which will serve for material well-being and generate greater individual and national self-esteem. 3) Expand the range of economic and social choices available to individuals and nations by freeing them from servitude and dependence, not only in relation to other people and nation-states, but also to the forces of ignorance or human misery.

Development is therefore a process through which a society’s political, social and cultural institutions are transformed in order to improve the living standards and life chances of the people within the society.

However, to achieve national growth depends to a large extent, on the people’s abilities and attitudes and also on their economic, social, political as well as cultural institutions. (Ekechukwu, 2007). No doubt, with proper recognition and adequate preservation, resources like cultural festivals, through attractive packaging and management, promotes tourism and serve to recreate the image of a place while contributing towards fame among equals (Ifegbo, 2015). All these remain the basic ingredient that must be available in the right doses before a polity can convert its materials and endowments into resources for the attainment of national development.

Research Methodology

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The researcher employed ethnographic and historical methods in the study. In the ethnographic method, observer-as-participant technique was applied in observing and analyzing the named indigenous festival of the south-east of Nigeria in relation to its contributions to national development and the challenges associated with it. Physical presence of the researcher, especially during the festive period helped to document relevant information to the topic of study. Key informant interview was used to reach the locals and data was collected via tape recorders and photography.

Apart from the primary source, secondary data were collected from journals, textbooks, museums, monuments and historical documentations. Three cultural resources from Arondizuogu Igbo ethnic-group; Nok Culture in Hausa ethnic- group and Archaeology of Ijebu kingdom in Yoruba ethnic-group were investigated in this study.

Findings and Discussion

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History of the Selected Cultural Resources in Nigeria

Ikeji Festival

Ikeji is a masquerade festival of the people of Arondizuogu, a clan domiciled in Ideato North L.G.A of Imo state, and which has common boundaries with the following communities; Akokwa, Umualoma, Umuago, and Umuduru Egbeaguru. It is noteworthy that Arondizuogu is made up of two major parts, namely: Iheme and Izuogu.

Celebration Procedure

Celebration lasts for four market days with the following activities:

Ekeodu: The first day is committed to buying all items of food stuff, like livestock, drinks and every other needs for the festival celebration at their big market called “Eke Ndianiche.”

Orie Egbugbu: On this day, the livestock prepared for the festival is sacrificed by the pagan members to the ancestors by slaughter before the sacred altar, while Christians offer the animal as sacrifice in the church, thereby thanking God for His many blessings and continued protection. The same day, family heads and benefactors pay homage to the “Eze”, the traditional ruler of the town. This is a day of thanksgiving to the gods for the year’s rich harvest and obeisance to the elders and rulers of the land. This activity is called “Ibu Ihu”. Also significant with this day is the outing of the newly masked spirits in Arondizuogu. Family heads pray over the livestock, to show gratitude to God for the opportunity to witness the festival again.

Afor Oso Mmanwu: This day marks the climax of the festival, whereby both the old and new masquerades appear in their colorful costumes and in large numbers. The old masquerades visit the Eze’s palace to pay him homage and

119 Brettonwoods International Journal of Socio-Economic and Financial Studies, Vol. 1, No.2, September, 2018. then gather at “Afo Ndi Ekwuru” to display varieties of activities like parade, acrobatics, dancing and magic. On this day attention is on women and the middle age children, whereby they chase them on sight just to create fun. They also block connecting roads with other communities as a way of creating awareness for the festival and in the process they ask for appreciation from passersby.

Nkwo Achi: All the activities of Oso Mmanwu continues on the fourth day, the only difference is the shift of venue to Nkwo Achi to continue the masquerade activities.

Eke Ndi Aniche: The masquerades perform the ichipu akpata ceremony on this market day, which signifies the end of the festival. Although this ceremony was associated with violence in the remote past, involving destruction of vegetation, vengeance through the use of charms and magical powers, the onslaught of Christianity and the coming of the early missionaries eradicated such practices.

As for the origin, Ikeji festival is shrouded in mythology. Historically, itbegan as a ceremony to mark the harvest of the first tentrils of yam. Therefore “Ikeji” is a shortened form of “Ikeji isi” (to detach the tentril of the yams) which is done in order to preserve seed yams in the barn. The ceremony of Ikeji was performed by Obunukpa (the father of Izuogu who discovered Arondizuogu) at Arochukwu. Hence, Izuogu usually travelled to Arochukwu, his ancestral home for this great celebration until mid- 20th century, and until then, the festival was celebrated in September and served as a forum to bring back Aros in diaspora (Aro Uzo) to their ancestral homeland. Since after then, from the mid- 20th century, the festival became a tradition in Arondizuogu and the date was fixed between March and April (the period during which Izuogu travelled to Arochukwu when they were the host).

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Nok Culture

Nok culture is a prominent example of the prehistoric cultures that aroused the interest of many European and American scholars when it was first discovered. This artistic tradition derived its name from the village of Nok, west of kafanchan in Kadunna State. Due to the remarkable sculptures of this culture and the admiration which they have evoked for artists, the village of Nok is now world famous(Okpoko,2017).

Nok civilization was an accidental discovery while mining for tin on the Jos Plateau in 1928 (Nok culture, 2014). It was told that one of the miners whose name and identity remains unknown, discovered a terracotta figurine, shaped like the head of a monkey and eleven terracotta statues which were in excellent condition were also found near the city of Sokoto in 1939, while some were discovered in the city of Katsina and there were similarities in those statues and the stylistic nature of the figurines found in Nok. In another mining expedition in the same Nok village in 1943, one of the Nigerian miners found yet another figurine head, took it home for his personal use until after one year when a mining director developed interest and bought it. When he showed it to an archaeologist and civil administrator trainee, named Bernard Fagg, he equally picked interest and was able to accumulate over 150 figures and figments (Bell, 2014). Most of the figurines were discovered in Northern and Central Nigeria in riverbeds that had been dried up in savannahs within the secondary deposits. The soil in which the figures were discovered dated to around 500B.C. (Atwood, 2011). However, use of radio-carbon dating on the plant matter found on the terracotta showed a date of 440B.C. to around 200A.D. (Bell, 2014).

Another interesting and important finding was 13 iron furnaces at the excavation sites near Taruga village and with the use of carbon dating, the Nok civilization were discovered as the first people south of the Sahara to practice iron smelting,

121 Brettonwoods International Journal of Socio-Economic and Financial Studies, Vol. 1, No.2, September, 2018. as some iron tools were discovered dating back to 500B.C (Bell, 2014). Many of the Nok figures discovered comprised of “portrait heads”, animals, and fragments on account of antiquity (Nok Terracotta, 2000). Bell revealed that bodies depicted individuals standing, sitting down and kneeling in a prayer-like position. The heads were usually larger in proportion to the bodies. While each head seemed different from the other, there were particular stylistic traits associated with the Nok. Men and women were portrayed with triangular eyes, a small hole representing pupils, exaggerated nose, mouth, and ears. Also the heads were cylinder shaped, eyebrows semi-circular, ears small and set back, and the nostrils flared (Nok Culture, 2009). Even the figures looked as if they were covered with glossy-like finish and later worn away while underground (Nok Culture, 2014).

The figures depict a variety of scenes concerning daily social life like: illness, war, love, and musical talents. For instance, one of the figures portrayed a woman and man kneeling down in front of each other, with their arms wrapped around each other in a romantic clasp. Another depicted prisoner with ropes tied round their necks and arms, while another depicted a man with his mouth open as though he is singing and another man playing the drums. All these provided enough insight to the form and idea of what type of activities went on in this time (Nok Culture, 2009).

Archaeology of Ijebu Kingdom

Ijebu is a vast kingdom in the southwestern part of Nigeria and early historical records showed that Ijebu was a center of commercial activities. The meaning of the capital of Ijebu Kingdom “Ijebu-ode” also attests to this reality. “Ode” suffix to Ijebu means “outside” and simply describes Ijebu-ode as a place of convergence wherewith commerce, trade and other economic activities take place (Lasisi, 2019). In his report, the oral and written histories of Ijebu opens the door to

122 Brettonwoods International Journal of Socio-Economic and Financial Studies, Vol. 1, No.2, September, 2018. possibilities of carrying out archaeological research within the proximity of Ijebu- ode and the outlying settlements and till date, there have been up to eight archaeological inquiries on Ijebu, out of which seven researchers attempted to explore the archaeology of Ijebu earth works, and most significant is Sungbo Eredo. From his findings, a researcher called Olusegun Opadeji discovered classical iron working sites of over 500 furnaces within the proximity of Sungbo Eredo and concluded that the site might be the production site of iron objects, needed to dig a part of the 180km long earthwork that is up to 10m deep at some points (Lasisi, 2019). Major problem in Ijebu archaeology was the contextual and chronological relationship with Ijebu polity, as the previous dating of the earthworks was inconsistent with the oral traditions (Oduwobi, 2017). All of the archaeological endeavors point to the earthwork of Ijebu as a significant tool and driver of the economy and polity based on the massive size of the structures, as well as the technological requirement of building it.

Sungbo Eredo is the outer enclosure of Ijebuland, southwestern Nigeria, and approximately 180km long, forming a large feature that shows how involved the socio-political system was long before the opening of the Atlantic trade (Chouin and Lasisi, 2019). It is a system of ditch and bank that surrounds the whole of Ijebu kingdom and the most significant earthwork of the ancient ramparts, boundary embankments, and ditches that stretch across Nigeria (Aremu, 2002).

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Challenges in the Management of Cultural Resources in Nigeria

In this study of “Role of Cultural Resource Management in National Development”, certain factors were identified as impediments to the contribution of CRM to Nigerian economy, cum the nation’s development goals, and these are discussed below:

 Decentralization of monuments and sites through theft, vandalization, poaching, religious fanaticism, politics and sentiments which constitute major factors thwarting efforts in the management of cultural resources.  Despite the fact that much Nigerian’s antiquities were forcefully removed and transported to the colonialists’ home countries in the past, yet most of them are still facing various types of hazards. Some are victims of smuggling in antiquities and extinction due to lack of value by the owners of shrines, sacred grooves and palaces where they are kept. Even in the museums, there are cases of deterioration due to neglect and poor handling, and this predicament is so because Nigerians lack value for their cultural resources, and for this reason, domestic tourism cannot flourish and generate the needed revenue for national development.  Although our archaeological sites are themselves potential center of tourism attractions, but till date, they are not given the required attention deserved in terms of funding. Even after establishing National Commission for museums and monuments and outlining their responsibility, poor funding remains the stumbling block to growth and development.  Again, it is on record that reports of research findings in the archeological sites are not easily comprehended by both tourism practitioners and even the lay man which demotivates and dampens their desire to visit such attractions, thereby retarding domestic tourism growth and its contribution to national development. This may be as a result of extreme use technical terms which cannot be easily comprehended by people outside the field.

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 So many literatures have reported the abundance of cultural festivals and their richness in mythology and diversity, which if properly harnessed, can generate much revenue and create feeling of shared love and brotherhood among people of various ethnic groups, but the issue is lack of appropriate and sufficient facilities such as, power supply, hotels and other relaxation facilities, and entertainment centers, poor means of transportation and road infrastructure as well as festivals or holiday camps to accommodate tourists around the attraction.  One major challenge is the lack of training among museums staff. Museums being an important storehouse of cultural resources need to be managed by people with requisite scientific and technical expertise but as it stands, few qualified staff are available, possibly because of the lack of properly orchestrated training program for the various levels of museum workers, and the inability to provide the required training needs.  The museums in Nigeria are still faced with the problem of underfunding by the Federal Government who is vested with responsibility which frustrates effective management and any form of expansion project. If this situation prevails, management may be incapable of making the place attractive to tourists, and consequently remains unviable and unable to yield the expected revenue.  Credible laws for the preservation of artifacts and archeological materials which form the core objective of Cultural Resource Management have been enacted, but no provisions are made for strict compliance and enforcement.  An identified challenge to the transformation of the nation’s cultural resources for development is the lack of participation by concerned stakeholders and the failure to primarily conduct a systematic study of the culture of a named society before embarking on any form of development. Without proper knowledge of the people’s way of life, planning and executing development projects may lack good results.

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Conclusion

CRM entails making the cultural resource managers (defined earlier in this paper) alive to their responsibilities, enacting laws and policies that will guard and protect the use of cultural resources, instituting enforcement agencies and adequately funding them to develop and profitably manage the available cultural resources.

Working as a team among the respective stakeholders like the government at all levels, custodians of the cultural properties and the tourism planners in the management of cultural resources is the only sure way to transform the rich cultural resources of Nigeria and make them count in other forms of national development. With full participation, the initial task of conducting a systematic study of the society in question before executing any development project can no longer be renegaded, because all the concerned party are carried along. In this way, a more successful planning, forecasting and execution of development projects is secured.

Recommendations

 Government at both state and local levels should support the efforts of NCMM in the preservation of artifacts, monuments and sites in Nigeria by creating awareness of the benefits of conserving our cultural materials through social media and public enlightenment programs.  Museums should be encouraged to be innovative so as to generate the needed. For this to be possible, the federal government must ensure that they are adequately accommodated in the yearly budget, so that the organization will have enough fund to operate.  In order to inculcate strong tourism culture in the people, the cultural resource managers (e.g. Archaeological Association of Nigeria, NCMM, Art

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Councils etc.) should liaise with Tourism Boards to formulate tourism policies on the provision of advisory and information services, and should also promote and undertake research in tourism.  Very importantly, full participation of all concerned stakeholders of cultural resources and the management is a requirement in the development process. For instance, it is only the custodians of these resources such as traditional rulers, high priests of community shrines, traditional festival leaders etc. that can render an authentic information about their people’s way of life which to a large extent determines whether they will embrace a new development or not, or whether development will be slow or rapid.  Certainly archaeological sites are themselves potential centers of tourism attraction due to their richness in casting traditions in iron, copper, bronze, brass, etc. and other artistic exploits- terracotta(Nok) and monoliths (Cross River), but to make this realizable, tourism planners, tour operators and travel agents are needed to package these resources in the most attractive manner. This will catalyze patronage from both domestic and foreign tourists, while enabling economic emancipation and development.  The need for proper and comprehensive documentation of all the festivals with high touristic value in Nigeria in form of a brochure and such festivals when included in the national calendar for yearly celebration will earn continued existence as well as popularity.  In addition to maintaining a peaceful and friendly atmosphere, government must provide the required facilities and infrastructure for tourism growth. Standard lodging and catering facilities are crucial to enable overnight stay and increased spending by tourists/ visitors.  Specifically, traditional rulers, councilors and leaders of local government areas must be made to be stewards of cultural materials in their areas of jurisdiction, so that they take up the responsibility of educating their subjects on their value and how to protect them.

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 Finally, sufficient laws and policies have been enacted to harness and develop the cultural resources in Nigeria, but adequate steps to install functional enforcement agencies are lacking, a situation which constitutes setback to the resourcefulness of nation’s cultural endowments.

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