THE MILITARY SYSTEM of BENIN KINGDOM, C.1440 - 1897
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THE MILITARY SYSTEM OF BENIN KINGDOM, c.1440 - 1897 THESIS in the Department of Philosophy and History submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy of the University of Hamburg, Germany By OSARHIEME BENSON OSADOLOR, M. A. from Benin City, Nigeria Hamburg, 23 July, 2001 DISSERTATION COMMITTEE FIRST EXAMINER Professor Dr. Leonhard Harding Doctoral father (Professor für Geschichte Afrikas) Historisches Seminar, Universität Hamburg SECOND EXAMINER Professor Dr. Norbert Finzsch (Professor für Aussereuropäische Geschichte) Historisches Seminar, Universität Hamburg CHAIR Professor Dr. Arno Herzig Prodekan Fachbereich Philosophie und Geschichtswissenchaft Universität Hamburg DATE OF EXAMINATION (DISPUTATION) 23 July, 2001 ii DECLARATION I, Osarhieme Benson Osadolor, do hereby declare that I have written this doctoral thesis without assistance or help from any person(s), and that I did not consult any other sources and aid except the materials which have been acknowledged in the footnotes and bibliography. The passages from such books or maps used are identified in all my references. Hamburg, 20 December 2000 (signed) Osarhieme Benson Osadolor iii ABSTRACT The reforms introduced by Oba Ewuare the Great of Benin (c.1440-73) transformed the character of the kingdom of Benin. The reforms, calculated to eliminate rivalries between the Oba and the chiefs, established an effective political monopoly over the exertion of military power. They laid the foundation for the development of a military system which launched Benin on the path of its imperial expansion in the era of the warrior kings (c.1440-1600). The Oba emerged in supreme control, but power conflicts continued, leading to continuous administrative innovation and military reform during the period under study. For the period c.1440 to 1897, a fairly detailed documentation about change in the military system is available, such as oral historical narratives, European travellers’ accounts, and objects of art accessible to historical interpretation. This study critically examines these sources, and gives due respect to both continuity and change in Benin history. The study shows that, while the history of military organisation cannot be separated from the general (political and social) history of a period, the Benin military system also had a logic of its own which advanced the aims of the state and of the empire. This study introduces the concept ‘military system’, discusses problems of sources, methodology and periodization in African and Benin history (chapter 1) and addresses aspects of Benin’s political and military history before 1440 (chapter 2). Chapter 3 focuses on the development of the military during the era of warrior kings from c.1440 to 1600, a period that witnessed the expansion of the state through warfare mounted virtually in all directions. Chapter 4 discusses changes in the military during the 17th and 18th centuries within the context of domestic political constraints, leading to fluctuations in the military power of Benin. This was a period of active trade between Benin and the Europeans, affecting the balance of power between rival elements in Benin. Events closely associated with the development of the military in the 19th century – the most critical century in the history of Benin – are dealt with in chapter 5. Chapter 6 re-examines the Anglo-Benin military confrontation of February 1897 and offers a new perspective on the events which led to the conflict and its aftermath. The concluding chapter discusses the relevance of this study’s findings for current debates in Benin historiography. iv DEDICATION To my children Osayomwanbor Jefferson Osadolor Osayimwense Alexander Osadolor Osagioduwa George Osadolor Osayuware Annette Osadolor and my great mother, Arasomwan, the daughter of Omogboru Uwadiae (nee Igbinoba) and Pa. Uwadiae from Urhonigbe, south-east of Benin Kingdom v TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. iv Maps, Charts and Figures .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ix Acknowledgements .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. x CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION: THE RESEARCH PERSPECTIVE 1.1 Background .. .. .. .. .. .. 1 1.2 The Concept of Military System .. .. .. 19 1.3 The Research Problem .. .. .. .. 22 1.4 Research Questions and Working Hypotheses .. 24 1.5 Sources and Methodology .. .. .. .. 27 1.6 Periodisation............43 CHAPTER TWO: BENIN MILITARY HISTORY BEFORE c.1440 AD 2.1 Introduction............48 2.2 Origins of Benin: A Reconsideration .. .. .. 50 2.3 Development of Politico-Military Ideas .. .. 65 2.4 Warfare and State Formation in Benin .. .. 72 2.5 The War Potential in Early Fifteenth Century .. 79 CHAPTER THREE: BENIN MILITARY SYSTEM DURING THE ERA OF WARRIOR KINGS, c.1440 - 1600 AD 3.1 Introduction............81 3.2 The Socio-economic Background of Benin Military System83 3.3 Political Foundations of the Military System .. .. 88 3.4 Organisation of the Army .. .. .. .. 93 3.5 Iron Technology and Weapons Of War .. .. 107 3.6 Strategy and Tactics of Warfare .. .. .. 114 vi 3.7 Intelligence and Logistics .. .. .. .. 117 3.8 Defensive Fortification and Military Camps .. .. 119 CHAPTER FOUR: MILITARY SYSTEM OF BENIN DURING THE PERIOD OF ITS MILITARY POWER, 1600 - 1800 4.1 Introduction............125 4.2 Warfare, Warriors and the Slave Trade .. .. 129 4.3 Economic Foundations of Benin Military Power .. 135 4.4 Reorganisation of the Army .. .. .. .. 142 4.5 New Weapons System .. .. .. .. 156 4.6 Logistics, Strategy and Tactics .. .. .. 164 CHAPTER FIVE: BENIN MILITARY SYSTEM DURING THE CENTURY OF POLITICAL EXIGENCY, 1800 - 1897 5.1 Introduction............169 5.2 The Political Economy of Benin and the Changing perspective on Warfare in the 19th Century .. .. .. 172 5.3 Reforms in Military Organisation .. .. .. 183 5.4 Surveillance and Collaboration .. .. .. 193 5.5 Weapons Build-up and New Strategic Plans .. .. 197 5.6 The Idea of a Standing Army .. .. .. .. 201 CHAPTER SIX: THE RESPONSE OF BENIN MILITARY SYSTEM TO BRITISH INVASION IN 1897 6.1 Introduction............204 6.2 The Anglo-Benin War of 1897 .. .. .. 205 6.3 Benin Strategic Thought and Plan of Operations and Plan of Operation in Response to the British War Plans .. 218 6.4 The British Invasion and Benin Resistance .. .. 221 6.5 Guerrilla Warfare after the fall of Benin .. .. 227 vii CHAPTER SEVEN: CONCLUSION .. .. .. .. .. 233 BIBLIOGRAPHY i. Archival Notes................242 ii. Archival References .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 243 iii. Oral Sources .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 248 iv. List of Informants .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 249 v. Bibliographic Notes..............250 vi. Unpublished Theses and Papers .. .. .. .. .. .. 250 vii. Journal Articles and Chapters in Books .. .. .. .. .. 254 viii. Books.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 269 viii MAPS, CHARTS AND FIGURES 1. Map 1: Benin in the Nineteenth Century .. .. .. .. .. xii 2. Chart 1:The Benin High Command c.1440-1600 AD .. .. .. 104 3. Chart 2: Command Structure of the Benin Army c.1440-1600 .. .. 105 4. Figure 1: A Benin War Chief............110 5. Figure 2: Queen Mother with Attendants .. .. .. .. .. 111 6. Figure 3: A Benin Warrior .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 112 7. Figure 4: A Benin Warrior with firearm .. .. .. .. .. 113 8. Map 2: Benin City Walls .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 122 9. Chart 3: Members of the War Council 1600-1800.. .. .. .. 153 10. Chart 4: New Command Structure of Benin Army 1600-1800 .. .. 154 11. Chart 5: The Oba’s Security Council 1600-1800 .. .. .. .. 155 12. Figure 5: The Oba of Benin in War Dress .. .. .. .. 160 13. Figure 6: A Benin Warrior .. .. .. .. .. .. 161 14. Figure 7: Bowmen in the Army .. .. .. .. .. .. 162 15. Figure 8: A Warrior Chief, Warriors and Attendants .. .. .. 163 16. List of the Iyase of Benin c.1700-1897 .. .. .. .. .. 185 17. List of the Hereditary Ezomo of Benin c.1713-1897 .. .. .. 185 18. Chart 6: Benin War Council in the 19th Century .. .. .. .. 191 19. Command Structure of the Benin Army in the 19th Century .. .. 192 20. Map 3: British Invasion of Benin in 1897 .. .. .. .. 222 ix ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS In the course of my doctoral research and thesis writing, a number of people and institutions offered me support and advice, particularly colleagues and friends from the academic community who provided me with helpful suggestions, and whose comments immeasurably strengthened this work. My greatest debt is owed to Professor Dr. Leonhard Harding, my doctoral father at the University of Hamburg who, besides his constant guidance, read and commented on the whole manuscript of the thesis, and in all cases, reading it in several successive drafts. Much gratitude is also owed to Dr. Axel Harneit-Sievers who deserves special mention for providing constant encouragement to me to complete this work, and whose suggestions were incorporated into the final draft. I am indebted, in gratitude, to Dr. G. O. Oguntomisin of the Department of History, University of Ibadan, whose guidance and advice prepared me for this research effort. I am also grateful to my academic advisor, Professor Dr. Norbert Finzsch for his constant advice, encouragement and support. I would like to thank my friends at the University of Hamburg: Frau Irja Schmitz, Frau Brigitte Gimat, Frau Susan David, Herr Martin Kowalewski and Frau Tabea Mast who worked with me when my knowledge of the use of different programmes of the personal computer was not yet advanced, and therefore, assisted in the technical aspects of planning the pages, charts, figures and maps. Although none of them had the time to read the drafts of the manuscript,