Downloaded by on May 31 2017 Published online13Dec2016 © Africa Magna Verlag, Frankfurta.M. DOI 10.3213/2191-5784-10298 Peter Breunig * Norbert-Wollheim-Platz 1,60629Frankfurta.M.,Germany oftheoretical the backgroundare providedhere. ritual. Relevant informationarguments and for the transition concept isfollowed, developedcomplexity termsof onlyin become apparenthas the that NokCulture, nomatter which African ofversions complexityrecent in discussed years, it communalsystems, andpublic monuments, or alternative of inequality, like signs hierarchy,nucleation of settlement be maintained.Rather thanattributes ofcomplexity social abundance of newdatathe no longer initial hypothesiscan point. However, after nearlyten of years research an and during the duration of the Nok Culture constituted a focal ofendeavour this the developmentcomplexity of social the environmentresearchkey as themes. Inthe beginning including chronology, settlement patterns, economy, and butlikewise coversother which archaeologicalaspects in which the sculptures and iron metallurgy remain central, Nok Culture phenomenon, employing aholisticapproach Africa. Research wasresumed in2005to understand the for artistic sculpting and iron working insub-Saharan of ironmetallurgy, providing ofsome the earliestevidence been known for its terracotta sculptures andthe existence recentlyUntil the NigerianNokCulture primarily had This article isavailableunder aCreativeCommons Attribution 4.0International License Keywords: Institute for Archaeological Sciences, African Archaeology & Archaeobotany, GoetheUniversity, Nok Culture, Central Nigeria, West Africa, IronWest Africa, Nigeria, Central Culture, Nok 8

[email protected] Abstract An Outline of Recent Studies on the Nigerian An Outlineof RecentStudieson theNigerian Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 14(3)Special Issue,2016,pp.237–255

/NicoleRupp Peter Breunig&NicoleRupp Nok Culture Age 8

et l’environnement comme des thèmes de recherche essentiels. que lachronologie, lesmodalitésdepeuplement,l’économie mais incluant les sculptures etlamétallurgie commedes Nok, en adoptant uneapproche holistique considérant toujours 2005 afin de mieux comprendre le phénomène de la Culture de sub-saharienne. De nouvellesrecherches ont connus desculpture artistiqueetdutravailferen Afrique métallurgie du fer, figurant parmi les plus anciens témoignages connue poursessculptures en terre cuite et l’existencedela Jusqu’à récemment,laCulture deNokauNigeria du cadre théorique. informations et les arguments pertinents pour une transition plexité quedansledomainerituel.Cetarticleprésenteles Nok, quelquesoitleconceptretenu, n’adéveloppédecom l’Afrique récemmentdébattus,ilapparaîtquelaCulture de monument publicsetcommunsouautres hiérarchie, nucléationdes attributs decomplexitésocialetelsquesignesd’inégalité, semble devoir tante quantité de nouvelles données, cette hypothèse de départ dizaine d’annéesderecherches etl’obtentiond’uneimpor période couverte par la Culture de Nok. Toutefois, après une d’un développementdelacomplexitésocialependant Ces travauxontinitialement [email protected]

(CC BY 4.0) également être

écartée d’autres aspectsarchéologiques tels Résumé . Plutôt que caractérisée par des . Plutôtquecaractériséepardes été établissements articulés autour du postulat articulésautourdupostulat éléments éléments été , présencede entreprises en était propres à centraux centraux surtout surtout 237 - -

Downloaded by on May 31 2017 Downloaded by on May 31 2017 238 be presentedhere. research outcomes by the Frankfurt project which will recent from available is evidence New 2002/2003). ( collections European in figurines terracotta Nok of inside the from charcoal on dates radiocarbon by suggested later were BCE) 800–200 CE. ( Aend earlier and beginning earlier somewhat 200 and BCE 500 between Culture Nok the of period the set dates thermoluminescence and radiocarbon insights into the Nok complex beyond its art. Originally, enabling excavated, were artefacts stone and objects Besides terracotta finds, materials such as pottery, iron Joseph archaeologist Nigerian (A. Rackham Fagg Angela daughter Fagg’s by conducted was Culture Nok the ( Culture existed during an early stage of iron metallurgy capital of Abuja, provided the first evidence that the Nok Nigerian the to close 1960s the in Fagg by out carried terracotta figurines ( its of interpretation and function styles, the and Culture Nok the of determination age the concerning achieved been had what summarised and collection the published he 1977 In sculptures. terracotta of fragments 150 approximately gathered Fagg years Central Nigerian village called Nok ( a of surroundings farther the in mines tin air open of They were discovered by chance in the alluvial deposits zoomorphic sculptures made of burnt clay (terracotta). 20 the of middle the In Fagg. Bernard archaeologist British by coined was Culture” “Nok term The sizes of one to three hectares existed in the vicinity, the in existed hectares three to one of sizes with settlements smaller contemporaneous Roughly cases even up to 30 hectares ( Breunig ( hectares ten than more of areas ( Culture Nok the of emergence assumed the with time in correlating BCE, millennium first the of middle the retrieved evidence of significant cultural change around and “neolithisation” so-called the of versions African explored the agricultural beginnings or rather the West ( Basin Chad Nigerian the in There, area. Culture Nok the of northeast 2000s early and 1990s late the in out carried investigations during gained we results on based was decades two than more for radar scientific the off been had it after Culture Nok the on research resume to team our of motivation The Breunig Fagg th century, he came across anthropomorphic and anthropomorphic across came he century, Most conspicuous were large settlements covering 1968;

et al. 2009a). Tylecote 2006; Theoretical Fagg Introduction Magnavita 1975). Further research on research Further 1975). 1977). Excavations in Taruga, Fagg Breunig prologue Jemkur Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 14(3)Special Issue,2016

1972, 2014) and by and 2014) 1972, et al. Magnavita Fig. 1

Boullier et al. 2006), in some (1992, 2014). (1992, 2008: 430). Fig. 2 ). Over the 2003; et al. P. Breunig &N.Rupp ), we ), ca

carried outsince2009(see been have investigations where area, study key project’s the indicates centre the in rectangle outlined The 1977). (after century last the in researchers by determined distribution site to according Culture Nok the of expanse presumed the as well as dots) (red 2008 and 2005 between during the 20 others and Fagg Bernard by discovered sites archaeological Figure 1 (next page). adds up to hundreds of metres, which suggests the need prevailed at this time. The sheer length of these moats have might war or raids Thus, constructions. these of purpose conclusive most the be to seems Fortification ( deep m 2 than and more width in m 6 to up of trenches by surrounded was settlement each region one In settlements. requiring divergent socialorganisation and rules. life communal of form new a on speculation invites Magnavita& they constitute a kind of “proto-urbanity” ( that impression the create settlements these Further, This new food strategy is underlined by abundant by underlined is strategy food new This importance of keeping livestock ( Neumann ( cowpea and on the high productivity of millet ( relied that diet a to strategy broad-spectrum this from settlements in the mid-first millennium BCE switched large the of inhabitants The diversity. nutritional by minimised was shortage of risk the Thus, plants. wild hunting of game, cultivation of millet, and gathering of products, animal domestic comprising spectrum food ( BCE millennium first early and second the in complex Gajiganna the of II and I phases especially — period the acquisition of basic food resources. The preceding commission andcoordinatetheefforts. directing, higher-ranked members of the community to work of this scale would have required organising and construction since and, labourers of groups large for than one thousand inhabitants ( inhabitants thousand one than more of populations indicate settlements large the of materials cultural of quantity and features domestic Breunig 2002; Neumann & ( BCE millennium second early the since region the in lived had that groups agropastoral and and the presumably family-based life in small pastoral in sharp contrast to the preceding homesteads or hamlets arrangements and the like. The large settlements stand economic orders, political diverging differences, suggesting site hierarchies, possibly denoting functional This aspect is reflected by the structure of the of structure the by reflected is aspect This We also found evidence of change concerning change of evidence found also We Wendt 2007), probably accompanied by a decreasing th century (blue dots) and by the Frankfurt project 2001). The high number of inhabitants of number high The 2001). 2007) — is characterised by a broad a by characterised is — 2007) Vigna unguiculata) Map showing the location of location the showing Map Magnavita Fig. 3 2004, 2005). The size, The 2005). 2004, ). Magnavita Pennisetum glaucum Linseele

et al. ( Kahlheber & Kahlheber 2006: 163). 2006: 2007: 158). Magnavita 2004: 87). 2004: Breunig Fagg )

Downloaded by on May 31 2017 Downloaded by on May 31 2017 Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 14(3)Special Issue,2016 An OutlineofRecentStudiesontheNigerianNokCulture 239

Downloaded by on May 31 2017 Downloaded by on May 31 2017 240 that places the aforementioned changes into a time of time a into changes aforementioned the places that of the large settlements iron metallurgy emerged, a fact Finally,existence before. the unknown during vessels ceramic large and settlements the inside pits granary subterranean of form the in facilities storage of finds Nok CulturedistributionareaincentralNigeria. the to relation spatial the and BCE, millennium first the of middle the to date which text, the in to referred Figure 2. facilities, an elite supervising cooperative projects and storage food substantial in reflected production food intensive dimensions, kinship-based exceeding units social Basin: Chad the in found characteristics the consider we framework classificatory inadequate an applying than rather reason, this For 1999). ( complexity of markers particular with organisation social of forms own their had societies where Africa, to inapplicable as regarded therefore was categorisation this theory anthropological In defined by a system of categories from outside Africa. are classifications social such However, ‘chiefdoms’. or ‘tribes’ either to points Nigeria Northeast of Basin Chad the in BCE millennium mid-first the of ( states and chiefdoms, tribes, bands, stages: evolutionary four in societies ranked who Service Elman anthropologist not wellunderstoodfor Africa, yet. a period experiencing radical technological change are of beginning very the during face to had communities that consequences social The upheaval. technological Referring to the classic scheme of cultural of scheme classic the to Referring Map showing the study area in the Chad Basin of Northeast Nigeria with the large settlements large the with Nigeria Northeast of Basin Chad the in area study the showing Map Service 1962), the archaeological record archaeological the 1962), Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 14(3)Special Issue,2016 McIntosh P. Breunig &N.Rupp

provides the most appropriate example. It is, however, large-scale complex society” ( first “West Africa‘s or ‘chiefdoms’ as classified once settlements, large very its with Sahel western the in complexity in the West African past, the Tichitt tradition complexity intheregion. of level unprecedented an displaying changes social in the Nigerian Chad Basin seem to demonstrate radical In conclusion, the sites of the mid-first millennium BCE probably reflect a change of ritual attitudes or practices. from the previous period ( showing more intrinsic artistic expressions than known figurines clay zoomorphic mainly of evidence also is stratification with iron objects as status symbols. There agricultural tools, war techniques, and extended social have triggered further transitions in terms of improved course of these developments and hypothetically could the in appeared metallurgy.metallurgy iron Iron does ( stone raw materials, which are absent or in the tools Chad Basin stone with communities supply to networks Also present were medium-distance exchange or trade ( sites satellite small by surrounded which dimensions, proto-urban with sites central large of consisting hierarchies site and events, wartime to pointing possibly work defence Rupp Looking for similar cases of emerging social emerging of cases similar for Looking 2003). All this denotes social specialisation, as specialisation, social denotes 2003). this All MagnavitaMagnavita& Breunig MacDonald

et al. 2008), which 2013: 833), 2001).

Downloaded by on May 31 2017 Downloaded by on May 31 2017 ( beliefs” and values of expressions as identity, of power,symbols of as channels and agents as dances, of royalty, as the foci of ceremonies, celebrations, and nowadays as “essential elements of shrines, as insignia regarded is called, once was it as art’, ‘primitive the have been interpreted in the same way by its creators, perspective ( African an from regarded term inexact rather a thus and concept western a is ‘art’ that mind in Bearing for.made were obviously sculptures the world ritual complex the of rules the maintained and controlled institution social of sort some which in and them created specialists which in society complex a from derived been have to had objects the pastoralists, or groups farming incipient gatherers, and hunters by terracotta sculptures could unlikely have been Nok created the by represented expression artistic of level metallurgy. However, assuming that the sophisticated iron of knowledge evident their and sculptures their besides Culture Nok the of known was little time that At publications. his of wake the in market art international the flooded that objects from and work Fagg‘s Bernard from known figurines terracotta splendid the of attraction compelling the on based were exclusively complexity social of notions 25), 2002: 234) or temple architecture ( ( kingdom a about speculations from Apart basis. sound no had society” “complex as Culture ( 1990s the from research to according However, southwest. the to kilometres hundred some located Nigeria, Central in Culture Nok the away: far too not found was age, similar of because suitable development, Basin Chad the to equivalent hypothetical A2010). ( Africa” Saharan sub- in societies complex of “origin the on research developed, kingdoms African later which from complexity, social of rise the of signs early represent Basin Chad the later times(seealso farming communities or livestock keepers appeared at village-based or family beyond complexity emerging of signs detectable archaeologically including roots Graham follow to known from sub-Saharan Africa. are African civilisations, BCE millennium first the to dated likewise and Basin Chad the in found those to similar complexity social emerging of cases other no Ethiopia, northern in Empire Aksumite the to led which developments initial and Sudan northern in Culture Kerma the from Basically, apart influence. or relation of kind any out rules two the between distance geographic the and Basin, Chad the in than earlier millennium a almost a chronologically isolated case. Respective phases date Garlake Suggesting that the exceptional findings in findings exceptional the that Suggesting 2002:21). Jemkur Vansina Breunig Connah 1992) a classification of the Nok the of classification a 1992) Mayor 1984) and that objects might not

we consequently focused our focused consequently we 2009b; (2001), and their cultural their and (2001),

et al. Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 14(3)Special Issue,2016 2014). An OutlineofRecentStudiesontheNigerianNokCulture De Grunne Breunig & Rupp & Breunig Ehret 1999:

stone artefacts, in particular grinding equipment and equipment grinding particular in artefacts, stone identifiable as a miniature axe and a ring, iron slags, and although extremely rare and only in two cases clearly the cultural materials of the Nok Culture: iron objects, at sites less affected by loo conducted small-scale excavations. Thereby, especially between the looting holes perforating the landscape, we intact sections with undisturbed cultural layers existed Where entirely. destroyed and up dug them of most looting, by affected were them of all that was reality distribution area ( Culture Nok supposed the of region central the in 2008 until informants local of help the with located were sites Nok known scientifically not previously Thirty data. new of acquisition the was importance ( Monuments and partners from the National Commission for Museums research Nigerian its with together sites Culture Nok investigate to 2005 in out set Frankfurt/Main University Goethe German the from archaeologists of team a Africa, sub-Saharan in societies complex of examples earliest the of one represents Culture Nok the that hypothesis the test to Withintention the threat of looting and thus the immanent elimination of persistent the by urgent made — past the African of knowledge the for significance unquestionable its document to and complex art terracotta its and enon everyday lifeatthetimeofNokCulture. illuminate to methods advanced require would and challenging extraordinarily be would sites Nok of analysis structural the that clear became quickly It vessels, and stone beads, interpreted as possible graves. pieces, terracotta stones, larger of arrangements understood fully yet not as well as pavements, in arranged sometimes stones, small of accumulations occasional pits, were exception only The locations. collection of data beyond the objects and their spatial the hampered which features, of scarcity overall ( of seeds charred of presence constant the proved investigations Archaeobotanical economy.food concerned project the of phase initial ( context ritual found rarely otherwise an indicated fragments their of burial the and sculptures shattered deliberately case one In excavations. during consistently found were sculptures terracotta of Fragments 2016). 2015, ( subdivision chronological a for basis the Nok sites independent of terracotta finds and provided of identification the enabled subsequently which — like looked actually pottery Nok how of impression detailed first a providing potsherds of abundance an ( axes stone ground Kahlheber In order to better understand the Nok phenom Nok the understand better to order In

et al. Rupp Resuming Fig. 1 Rupp 2009). Less satisfying was the was satisfying Less 2009). Rupp 2014b). Other results of the of results Other 2014b). ). The alarming and frustrating

2014a). Weuncovered 2014a). also et al. t ing research , we gained insight into 2005). Of foremost Of 2005). Pennisetum glaucum Franke 241 -

Downloaded by on May 31 2017 Downloaded by on May 31 2017 242 Nok Culture was easily discernible from diagnostic from discernible easily was Culture Nok ber ( savannah Guinea as classified vegetation are located in remote areas and overgrown by a dense of better accessibility and visibility of the sites which The work mainly took place in the dry season because m 6 to up measuring pits digging by excavated test assistance, Nok sites were systematically located and ( studies preliminary the during recorded was sites of density certain a which near village of Nok in the surroundings of Janjala, a village proximately 300 km reasons fieldwork focused on a case study area of ap gional diversity, and 4) overall conclusion. For logistic interre 3) sites, Nok of structure 2) chronology, 1) into four phases, each with a duration of three years: divided was programme research The Basin. Chad to the contemporaneous complex developments in the Culture could have experienced a development similar Nok the that indication an was — complexity social propelled that transition technological meaningful a and evidence of iron working which was regarded as indicated by charred millet grains in almost every site, number of sites in some areas, productive economy as Nok sites — dense population as reflected by the large of investigation our from gained information initial origin of complex societies in sub-Saharan Africa. The terracotta art and iron metallurgy could represent the hypothesis that the Nok Culture with its sophisticated 2010). The project’s research design was based on the 2008; the German Research Foundation (DFG) ( bysupported been since has and 2009 in established traces of the Nok Culture — a long-term project was Junius 2016;Männel ( recently published been have pottery and terracotta analysis, archaeobotanicaliron, on information detailed More following the results of studies conducted since 2009. the in summarise will article This surveys. regional situation in Nigeria prevents extensive field work and currently in its third is phase, though project the current the political 2014, in phase second its completed Having CE. 200 to BCE 500 from duration known Franke BCE to the turn of the eras millennium ( second the of middle the from ranging chronology Nok a in resulted has This dates. solute ab 200 than more obtained and sites 80 than more materials. The project has so far tested and excavated as well as from thermoluminescence dating of ceramic organic material from reliable archaeological contexts excavations, or radiocarbon measurements of charred archaeological from inventories looters, by behind materials like terracotta fragments and potsherds left

et al. Breunig 2015, 2016), thus revising the previously the revising thus 2016), 2015, 2009: 4). The affiliation of sites with the with sites of affiliation The 4). 2009: Franke 2016; Höhn & Neumann 2016; Neumann & Höhn 2016; Franke 2009b; 2 located about 40 km west of the 2016). Breunig & Rupp Franke Franke & Breunig 2014; Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 14(3)Special Issue,2016 Fig. 1 ). With local With ). 2010; Rupp Kahlhe P. Breunig &N.Rupp

Rupp et al. 2 - - - - .

been found in the key study area. Therefore, we put put we Therefore, area. study key the in found been date earlier than the mid-second millennium BCE have that occupation human of remains no Kaura), (Tudun industry microlithic a with associated site pre-ceramic undated one from Apart Culture. Nok the of phase millennium BCE and thus existed only during a first certain the before not appeared iron, of production the and sculptures terracotta of manufacturing the namely Culture, Nok the of attributes classificatory central the considered time long a for were that circumstances two very The BCE. millennium second the of middle recognises the beginning of the Nok Culture around the archaeological record, mainly pottery and absolute dates, ( complex Nok current research we propose a new classification of the sophisticated terracotta figures. Based on the results of its of because particularly complexes Age Iron Early African other from differed which complex, Age Iron Early an as defined recently until was Culture Nok the BCE, 500 around emerged have to thought Formerly reassessment of its position in West African prehistory. a for calls Culture Nok the of chronology revised The finds are rare and might belong to remains of subsequent Associated proven. irrefutably been not has sculptures terracotta of production the Likewise, yet. found been have production iron of traces no phase Nok early this bones are not preserved due to the highly since acidic soil. unknown For remains animals of domestication the or game hunting of significance The savannah. Guinea WestAfrican the of part eastern the in producers time or earlier ( same the at regions different Westin in Africa appear group of incipient sedentary farming communities which Therefore, the farmers of this period seem to belong to a the second millennium of BCE (see half second the to dated been have millet of grains charred of measurements radiocarbon Several ( millet pearl cultivated which farmers were colonists well. From the very beginning of their appearance these as plains the in exist sites However,contemporaneous Fig. 3 on or next to hilltops ( found sites from originate dates radiocarbon oldest the of some as settlements, their for regions mountainous preferred have to seem immigrants of generations first The other. any than probable more is homeland northern a region, Sahel the to indigenous are millet) (especially crops as used they plants the since but migrating people at that time. Their origin is unknown, by colonised was region the that hypothesis the forth Pennisetum glaucum Reconsidering thepositionofNokCulture These settlers represent the earliest known food food known earliest the represent settlers These , site 2009/4; Puntun Dutse, in West McIntosh 2006; Ozainne Franke African prehistory e.g ) ( ) 2016 ., Ankoro, Höhn & Neumann & Höhn Table 1 ). Mos Fig. 3 Fig. 1 t in importantly, the the importantly, Franke , site 2011/63). ; Kachama 2,

et al. 2016). 2014). 2016).

Downloaded by on May 31 2017 Downloaded by on May 31 2017 Figure 3. Mapshowingthe distributionofNoksitesinthe Janjalakeystudyarea.Greendots indicateexcavatedsites. Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 14(3)Special Issue,2016 An OutlineofRecentStudiesontheNigerianNokCulture 243

Downloaded by on May 31 2017 Downloaded by on May 31 2017 244 flourishing period with an abundance of sites and a a large shows clearly record archaeological The phase. this during emerged it Culture, Nok the within rise the on was complexity social If dimension. unknown far thus In addition, we see an increase in settlement density to a century BCE (see 7 the than earlier much start not did production iron that analysis pottery from evidence however, is, There imprecise. equally are dates luminescence accurate; more be to dates radiocarbon prevents plateau curve calibration the in plateau a which in period a BCE, 400 is more difficult. The first furnaces date between 800and BCE, the dating of the first evidence for iron production production can be quite exactly dated into the 9 Middle Nok phase. While the beginning of the terracotta the into fall objects iron first the as well as production Fig. 9 (see density settlement increased an indicating dates, radiocarbon all of curve density probability summed the in reflected evidence of increase sudden a to due “ the when BCE, millennium first early the until lasts which “ labelled complex, archaeological the of to include a preceding phase representing a pre-iron stage phase. For this reason, we extend the term “Nok Culture” subsequent the of people terracotta-producing and iron the first phase are most probably the predecessors of the ( production pottery for used sources clay in continuity a by as well the second and first millennium BCE ( in forms and decorations pottery similar by supported is that approach an — Culture Nok the to belonging as period this consider we Nevertheless, occupation. phases because many sites show signs of a multi-phased clay used for pottery making ( techniques as well as in the chemical composition of the decoration pottery in difference marked a also is there sculptures, Nok of absence complete the Besides sites. “Post-Nok” sites, in order to separate them from as the Nok artificially together grouped are times, historical to ( changes environmental unfavourable to related possibly eras, BCE. The Nok tradition vanishes around the turn of the centuries last the in disappearance ultimate and decline sudden its by followed metallurgy, iron of advent the BCE with dense occupation, elaborate terracotta art and 400 and 900 approximately between period flourishing a to leading BCE, millennium second the of middle the in farming of onset the with starting complex: tripartite Nok “ a forming thus recorded, sites few the in appear to continue pottery Nok and sculptures terracotta Nok substantially.decreases eras, the of turn the about Until Then, archaeological evidence in form of sites and finds production of terracotta sculptures until about 400 BCE. ” phase. ” phase. Conclusively, the Nok Culture can be viewed as a a as viewed be can Culture Nok Conclusively,the Middle Nok in Franke Höhn & Neumann & Höhn Beck 2016). The beginning of the terracotta Franke 2015). Consequently, the farmers of of farmers Consequently,the 2015). ” phase begins, which is distinctive distinctive is which begins, phase ” 2015, 2016 for more details). Beck 2015; Franke 2016). Younger sites, up up Youngersites, 2016). Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 14(3)Special Issue,2016 Franke Early Nok th 2015) as century 2015). P. Breunig &N.Rupp Late Late ”, ”, th

the furnaces,whichdiffersfromlatertimes. recovered from the furnaces and on the similar form of based on corresponding radiocarbon dates on charcoal sites Nok as identified are mostly sites Such sites. because terracotta sculptures are absent in lootedsuch furnace not generally are sites Metallurgical dig. to permission the for landowners pay to known are who looters, organised of knowledge the to come and fast spread news These ploughed. being is field a when or dug are house a of foundations the when instance for ground the in found are figurines terracotta chance; by discovered indeed are sites Most surface. the on invisible virtually are sites Nok that fact the to due activities, illicit these to sites of quantity unexpected it must be mentioned that we owe the discovery of the much as the looting of the sites is a lamentable matter, As untouched. were few very and destroyed, partly least at been have many dominate; sites Plundered in the key study area, of which 49 sites were excavated. Until spring 2014 a total of 165 Nok sites were recorded quantity ofsites the is results survey astonishing most the of One with sites spreading over up to four hectares, implying exceptions, few are There hectares. two to one about of area an cover sites Nok many correct, is site the of relation between the visibly looted area and the extent assumed the if but expanse, respective its confirm to illicitly excavated Nok site has been measured in detail indicates the size of a site. Naturally, not every recorded distribution of cultural deposits in the ground and thus ( hollows by perforated landscape a leave and backfilled not usually are pits the looted area, which is rather unmissable because the nearby.discovered is site of extent the reason this For accounts this very rarely happens — a more promising they reach sterile soil, or — although according to local potentially valuable finds. They cease their efforts once come across cultural deposits which are an indicator for Commonly, looters will continue to dig as long as they average the concerns diggings throughout thewholeNokCulturearea( which adumbrates a uniformly dense settlement pattern density site similar a indicate far so results The area. study key our outside sites excavated illicitly localise and survey to started have diversity,we interregional exploring at aimed phase, current and third project’s Middle Nok ceramic style ( well-defined a and fragments terracotta of presence the by reflected as phase, middle its in particular in — Culture Nok the of time the during occupied densely was region whole the that demonstrating Other information obtained by examining illicit examining by obtained information Other Figure 3 shows the even spread of Nok sites, Nok of spread even the shows Settlement that were located during prospections Fig. 5 Franke patterns ), roughly reflects the reflects roughly ), size of Nok sites 2015). During the Fig. 4 ). . .

Downloaded by on May 31 2017 Downloaded by on May 31 2017 over a longer time period. The thin stratigraphy rather occupation continuous a of evidence no is there that means This below). (see m 2 of depth reach can pits cm; 40–50 than more for down finds the reach pits in Only differentiated. be can layers no soil, reddish this reddish soil then contains the Nok Culture material. In Culture but date to later occupation episodes. Below, a pottery and iron slag and are not connected with the Nok layer of 10–20 cm top ( a greyish-brown in appear finds first cases most In absent. is processes formation mound of Evidence excavations: sites never show substantial stratigraphies. several in occurs that circumstance a from this infer to claimtheexistenceofasitehierarchy. systematic spatial relation between large and small sites number of samples does not provide enough clarity or the but proportions, site in difference intriguing an sites duetotheexistenceofnumerousrecentpitsfromillicitdiggingsanddiagnosticfindsinspoil. Nok as classified and 2013 since prospections during located been have which sites looted indicate area study key the outside and inside dots Blue dots). (green sites excavated and dots) (red recorded with area study key the denotes rectangle outlined Figure 4. Nok sites had sites Nok Map showing all known Nok sites in the central section of the presumed area of distribution of the Nok Culture. The Fig. 6 brief occupationepisodes ). Such finds consist mainly of Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 14(3)Special Issue,2016 An OutlineofRecentStudiesontheNigerianNokCulture . We We . provides areasonableexplanation. of idea the system, settlement a into interpretation their and findings empirical the integrate to Intending reasons. social to due was it or plants, different of cultivation shifting or soils exhausted like transitions ecological by caused been have may mobility This mobility. of kind certain a by characterised were communities Nok Apparently periods. short for but that were not occupied over the course of generations, indicate few inhabitants, few dwellings, and settlement quantities ofexcavatedmaterials. brief occupation episodes is supported by rather small of assumption The separation. stratigraphic or layers occupational clear no left which times, subsequent in or Culture Nok the of periods different during occupied recurrently were sites the that indicates scattered farmsteads Small sites with small amounts of finds generally Small siteswithsmallamountsoffinds or dispersed settlements 245

Downloaded by on May 31 2017 Downloaded by on May 31 2017 246 Figure 5. thin reddish soil with undisturbed lower cultural deposits, 3) pit or shallow depression filled with cultural materials, Figure 6. remains thesame. and 4) sterile subsoil. The depth and thickness of layers vary from site to site, but the general sequence of the layers Schematic structure of Nok site stratigraphy: 1) greyish-brown top layer (in most cases farming horizon), 2) Gidan Maidugusite(see Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 14(3)Special Issue,2016 Fig. 1 for location)withillicitdiggingholes(Photo:P. Breunig,2006). P. Breunig &N.Rupp

Downloaded by on May 31 2017 Downloaded by on May 31 2017 depositional rates in and around Nok village were village Nok around and in rates depositional high and activities erosional that likely more seems it consequence, In times. Nok to correlated activities existence of places displaying such substantial colluvial prospection in our key study area and did not verify the geomorphological performed University Goethe Frankfurt’s from geoscientists However, surface. today’s beyond metres several Nok, at figurines terracotta first the of discoveries the of position the explained have would that scenario a — depressions in deposits colluvial of accumulation heightened a and soil, of degradation erosion, increased in resulted this that assumed Wefurnaces. further iron-reduction augment food supply, and to obtain charcoal to operate to crops of cultivation the enabled have would which space, more retrieve to order in forests the clear to people Nok motivated density population high that Cul Nok the of time the at vegetation and topography the from much too differ not does landscape today’s that inferring allow Holocene Late the during changes geomorphological minor only of Evidence correct. is settlements as classified be indeed can sites most that assumption the that provided — settlements Nok of location the for relevant parameters environmental determine to opportunity the offers sites Nok of abundance The testing thedispersedsettlementhypothesis. exemplarily thus total, in looting by affected not sites Nok intact excavating on focus investigations current the individual occupation episodes. Consequently, our in place took which reductions, and expansions tions, transloca reflect structure and size site that possible Since many sites, however,time. were of multi-phased it periods is also longer over existed have may that villages well-populated once to points quantity find The concept. this into fit not do and hectares 4 to up on the spatial distribution of illicit digging holes — over backbone oftheNokCulture. social the forming — tradition sculptural terracotta sharing common rituals manifested neighbours, in a their strictly adhered of land the and farmland their by surrounded group, autonomous economically an as compound single a in lived that families extended by inhabited been have could settlements Nok the in Nok sites. Just like most of these modern farmsteads assessed dimensions same the approximately display they — remains food or charcoal bags, plastic pots, broken of consisting waste like materials cultural of quantity in and size in settlements Nok resemble area As mentioned above, a few sites extend — based — extend sites few a above, mentioned As Modern farmsteads of farming groups in the study Topographic positionof t ure . Initially, we had assumed had we Initially, Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 14(3)Special Issue,2016 An OutlineofRecentStudiesontheNigerianNokCulture sites - per m per The annual precipitation in the region exceeds 1200 mm provided favourable drainage during the rainy season. it because chosen was topography settlement of kind features like elevations and gentle slopes. Possibly this topographic specific for preference a is there pattern: mountains. However, a closer look reveals one general in flat plains, on hilltops, and on slopes and summits of water resources and fertile soils. Sites have been found ubiquitously provides favourable living spaces offering landscape natural the because everywhere, virtually Nok Culturesettlementbehaviour. modelling for suited thus are and unchanged nearly remained but transitions significant undergo not did courses river or elevations like features Landscape ( eras the of turn the around and phase Nok Late the during only environment and vegetation in changes recognisable suggests which is supported by the analysis of charred organic remains, impression of environmental stability during Nok times This consideration. under area the in landscape the of Culture had no profound impact on or altered the shape Nok the that seems it general, In exceptions. regional wattle anddaubfortheconstruction ofwalls. of use the demonstrate and excavations in regularly the soil. Lumps of clay with twig impressions in are found traces visible leaving without decomposed which hides, animal and grasses, stalks, plant wood, like materials organic of primarily built been have must foundation of a hut stone discovered in circular Puntun Dutse. the Houses of exception rare the from apart architecture, stone no erected Culture Nok the that claim we therefore and building stone large-scale of not come across any structure that resembles any kind structures ( stone large-scale of components constructional as phenomena geological misinterpreted first at we Therefore, architecture. solid with towns of existence possible the considered we even that intriguing so were temples or palaces for art decorative as serving speculations about kingdoms and terracotta sculptures archaeological material in with primary context sites were known, other of handful a and Taruga only when explorations, our of beginning the at 2005, in Back Systems (GIS)iscurrentlyinprogress. and site locations by means of Geographic Information data environmental of analysis systematic A season. rainy the during day every almost sky the from down a settlement to let the torrential waters pass by that come October. A sloping landscape is a desirable location for At first glance it appears that Nok people settled people Nok that appears it glance first At 2 , which falls between the months of April and April of months the between falls which , Rupp

et al. Structure of 2005: 287). Until today we have Höhn & Neumann & Höhn sites 2016). 247

Downloaded by on May 31 2017 Downloaded by on May 31 2017 248 of Nok sites follows a uniform and simple pattern simple and uniform a follows sites Nok of stratigraphy the Therefore, soil. of layers protective under preserved not were and surface the to close or on remained they Apparently sites. Nok at preserved been not have floors living former First, reasons: only in highly fragmented condition. This is for several preserved are or exist not do sites Nok of components of sites and features) it has become clear that structural samples and element mapping, thermographic analysis soil of analysis fluorescence X-ray measurements, resistance electrical prospection, (magnetic survey archaeological of methods modern of variety a of backfill. rapid a cause disposal) (waste activity human as well as dislocation) (erosional processes natural material: depressions, which are filled by accumulating cultural occurring naturally or extraction clay from result pits similar area study our of settlements modern the In unknown. remains purpose Their features. of sort this from stem sites Nok from retrieved finds of majority The charcoal. of amounts vast contain usually they soil, because in addition to different cultural materials display a markedly darker colour than the surrounding occasionally even up to 2 m, in depth. Pits or depressions cm, 50 about usually and diameter in m 1–2 between measuring shape irregular or circular of are structures than to an intentionally dug hole with steep walls. The bears more resemblance to a shallow natural depression feature the because correct, quite not ‘pit’is term the cases some In sites. Nok in found features constant only the remain sizes and shapes different of pits 2000 years of swelling and shrinking, the sensitive and dry season causes shrinking of the soil. After more than rainy season, whereas the absence of precipitation in the ground is saturated with water and expands during the the rainfalls torrential to Due seasonality. of effect the particular in processes, post-depositional concern to theaforementionedpitsordepressions. features. and finds traced be can finds majorityof The of mixed cultural deposits without a primary context of consists cases most in horizon topsoil the reason this For degradation. and erosion to subject becomes and farmed soil is deprived of its protective vegetation cover our research area almost everywhere. Additionally, the in landscape contemporary the shape which activities farming through mainly happen layer uppermost the especially of Disturbances colour. reddish their to due recognisable easily are soils sterile encompassing The charcoal. with saturated colour, dark-brown of 6 either the farming horizon or the zone of leaching ( comprising top layers of up to 30 cm, which represents ), followed by irregularly shaped pit-like structures pit-like shaped irregularly by followed ), Further reasons for the lack of structural features structural of lack the for reasons Further application the and excavations many After preliminary studies, our in recognised already As Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 14(3)Special Issue,2016 P. Breunig &N.Rupp Fig. Fig. Bernard Fagg form a separate category. Most of the of Most category. separate a form Fagg Bernard of days the from Finds sites. burial and furnaces, or sites iron-smelting sites, ritual settlements, sites: Nok of categories four revealed have excavations far, So than 2600m distribution of cultural materials on a thelarge scale analyse (more thoroughly to opportunity the us gave Pangwari in area excavation large The stations. total of each individual find is recorded digitally employing spread ofmaterialsinvolvedintheseactivities. the by mirrored is activities respective the of realm the that and dimension spatial a has activity human that assumption reasonable the is idea underlying The sites. the throughout materials cultural of spread the in observed patterns from derived are data structural stone architecturehavealmostcompletelyvanished. fragile traces of human activity in settlements without of Nok settlement sites, no matter which phase, comprise from inventories most categories, find different the of interpret as graves (see below). Regarding the quantities appear as constructional element of features which we so less clearly. Grinding stones, for instance, sometimes Most sites will fit this definition, but some do not or do detectable classificatory characteristicseasily of aare settlement.category, site other any in occur not does usually that material as well as background domestic large quantities, mixed up with many other artefacts of equipment and ordinary waste, especially potsherds in organic materialforradiocarbondating. to acquire chronological data in the form of pottery and dug not for the purpose of categorising sites but in order were which trenches, test small-scale many the from procured inventories meagre the for particularly true holds This elements. diagnostic and data structural of lack the therefore and features of lack the to due case settlements, although this cannot be validated in every as interpreted are sites Nok the of majority The times wentintosuchadepth. ground that only the the open-air tin-mining in during colonial deep so buried were they because encounter not did we situation a — deposits alluvial in positions relocated from derived Fagg by recovered artefacts ca In consequence, the three-dimensional position three-dimensional the consequence, In available constantly and significant only The Inventories composed of objects like grinding like objects of composed Inventories 80% potsherds, followed by stone artefacts and artefacts stone by followed potsherds, 80% 2 ) forthefirsttime( Site Settlements categories Schmidt 2014).

Downloaded by on May 31 2017 Downloaded by on May 31 2017 buried inside a settlement, as confirmed by the presence Breunig & ( surface below m 1 than more down reaching pit a in fragments terracotta dozen a than more found we Pangwari At settlement. a of fringe the at location a to point surroundings the in finds associated other of a bed of fist-sized stones. Comparatively small amounts sculptures were found ca. 70 cm below surface, situated on cannot beanswered. position secondary into dislocation a or deposition a as regarded be to is it whether question the and case isolated an is discovery this However, depth. cm 30 erosion along the slope, and extended to not more than was visible on the surface, possibly exposed by stronger piece terracotta The terracotta. Nok anthropomorphic largea found, was terracotta part an of fragment body single a only where site special a is valley, river a might havebeenintentionallyburiedintheground. examples where just one individual piece of terracotta few very found we sculptures, terracotta of fragments discovered. largeseveral of deposition the from Apart areas in remote and isolated places and are thus rarely inhabited from away located were sites ritual that settlement site has been found in the vicinity suggesting ( Kagoro Garaje Kamuan Utak of which were mostly intentionally deposited. In the case contain large parts of one or more terracotta sculptures to represent burials and are discussed below. Other sites fragments ( combined with clay vessels and occasionally terracotta containing deliberately positioned stone arrangements sites few a are there sites, settlement from Apart to revealstructuralelements. strategy to be exerted in ongoing and future research is quantities constitutes one approach. However, find the ideal of means by settlement a Defining occupation. multi-phased a of possibility the demonstrate sites many of classification pottery and measurements radiocarbon because trend, a reflect just may and indistinct is composition inventories’quantitative the episodes, but occupation are more Nok recent intrusions. from The pattern derive of all not least at or not do slags of finds recorded the that be might this for clearly be associated with the Nok Culture. The reason always cannot however, These, slags. by represented around 10%( oscillate which sculptures, terracotta of fragments Occasional signs of iron metallurgy are mainly are metallurgy iron of signs Occasional At the site of Ifana 1 large body parts of six terracotta towards sloping lowland on located Rafi, Dogon Rupp 2016). Here, the sculptures were definitely definitely were sculptures the Here, 2016). Rupp 2010: 71). Some of them are suggested etal. Ritual sites 2008). Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 14(3)Special Issue,2016 An OutlineofRecentStudiesontheNigerianNokCulture Rupp 2014b), no 2014b), Männel Männel occupation. In addition to activities in the Middle Nok multi-phased a indicate measurements radiocarbon as well as analysis pottery Here, probable. more the as regarded be to has version latter the Pangwari, at out carried excavations large-scale of results the Examining uninhabited. was settlement the when time a at being into come have might alternatively or sites: they appear both inside and outside of settlements composition ofsettlementinventories. general the from differ not does discovered, was at Pangwari, where a deposition of terracotta sculptures trench excavated the from inventory contrary,the the finds. all To of third a roughly constituting fragments terracotta of number high unusually an possesses sites do not display homogeneity. Ifana 1, for example, ritual as classify to dare we sites few the inventories, time theterracottasweredeposited. the at uninhabited was site the that probable most is it occupied and precise stratigraphic information is lacking, repeatedly was site settlement Pangwari the Although sites. settlement for typical objects of amounts large of ( where iron was produced places exhibit distinctor characteristics furnaces Nok period, Culture Nok the to with information derived from investigated sites dated Furnaces represent the third group of sites. In accordance 2014 the Nok sculptures ( of understanding our enhancing objects, deposited and fragmented ritually and intentionally as buried t o nature dichotomous a reveals but sculptures, the of contextual data still insufficiently explains the purpose of amount growing The dumps. waste ordinary as interpreted been consequently have which structures, pit-like in contexts specific without artefacts stone and charcoal potsherds, with association in appear of ancestors( hypothesis of the sculptures being related to veneration as a place of the ancestors − a concept that would fit the abandoned settlements became ritual sites, perhaps seen ritual use of the site. Therefore it might be possible that of large numbers of terracotta sculptures, suggesting a depositions through represented clearly most is phase Nok Middle the that Weassume Culture. Nok the of dated to the “early”, “pre” or “initiating” terracotta stage phase and in the Common Era, one occupation phase is he figures either having been disposed of as waste or waste as of disposed been having either figures he Rupp As yet there seems to be no explicit rule for ritual archaeological the of composition the Regarding At most Nok sites terracotta fragments also fragments terracotta sites Nok most At b 2014d; ; Rupp 2014c). Breunig Junius Furnace sites Breunig 2016) which separate them from 2014). 2012; Rupp 2010; Rupp 249 f

Downloaded by on May 31 2017 Downloaded by on May 31 2017 250 walls reach heights of not more than 70 cm. Slags furnace from of parts lower preserved the and diameter in m 1 than large:more are measure furnaces bases their remnants of iron production in subsequent times. Nok Research Package),wwww.calpal.de, accessedFebruary3,2014). University of Cologne (Weninger B., J distribution of the respective dates. Calculation and diagram were created using CalPal (IntCal13), a programme developed at the probability the reflect curves the of height The (above). Culture Nok the for available datings radiocarbon all to comparison in Figure 7. thermoluminescence samples derive from fragments from derive samples thermoluminescence and plants, regrowing annually of seeds on conducted preferably were measurements Radiocarbon methods. thermoluminescence and radiocarbon the using dated mentioned above, have been investigated characteristics since 2006 the and on based Culture Nok the with associated potentially are which furnaces, of remains Eggert 2005; Alpern 2004; forward by appropriate dating of the evidence ( imported from the Mediterranean North can be brought emerged in sub-Saharan Africa autochthonously or was iron whether debate the because metallurgy iron Nok of dating the on attention our focus we undertaken, furnaces wereexcavated,alsodatingtoMiddleNok. but have not yet been excavated. In Pulu, two out of five furnaces are located in the close vicinity of the trench, m 22.5 only measuring trench a in excavated were phase, Nok Middle the to dated furnaces, seven appear solitarily, but in not groups. At do the site Furnaces of Baidesuruscarce. are sites iron-smelting Nok Apart from the analysis of slags that is currently is that slags of analysis the from Apart Dating of Nok Culture iron-smelting furnaces by radiocarbon (middle) and thermoluminescence measurements (below) 2014). For this reason, this For 2014). Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 14(3)Special Issue,2016 ö ris O. & Danzeglocke U. 2014, CalPal (Cologne Radiocarbon Calibration & Paleoclimate Killick Killick 2 . More . P. Breunig &N.Rupp smelting insub-Saharan Africa ( iron of development autochthonous an of favour in arguments provides materials source of body current the that stated who Eggert, Manfred by forth brought furnaces to Middle Nok confirms what has been recently vitrified material ( of dating by caused results erroneous to due possibly concentration in the first millennium CE ( a showing results radiocarbon contradicted grossly but cross-checking, for out carried was dating (TL) 7 the than earlier much not working iron of beginning a suggests sites furnace at present pottery of analysis the as well as dates radiocarbon the Overall, BCE. is 2555±27 bp (Ruga Fulani), calibrated to site furnace a with associated date radiocarbon oldest The dates. radiocarbon of deviation standard 2-sigma a more precise age within this phase at the level of the obtain to possible not is it BCE 400 and 800 between above). Because of the plateau in the calibration curve ( BCE 900–400 to dates radiocarbon Nok available all by dated phase, Nok Middle the with ( furnaces for dates ( dating individual composed of stacked normal distribution curves curves of each in summarised are Results walls. furnace of th century BCE ( Franke Kresten Fig. 7 Fig. 7 ). The calibrated radiocarbon calibrated The ). 2016). Thermoluminescence

middle) largely coincide largely middle) et al. Eggert 2003). The datingof Fig. 7 2014). ca 800–550 below), Fig. 7

Downloaded by on May 31 2017 Downloaded by on May 31 2017 2009/1 und 2010/6 in 2010/6 und 2009/1 like Ido or Kurmin Uwa 2B (locations see sites 2011/1, pot-arrangements in Pangwari as well as in other sites archaeological material immediately next to the stone- any of void zone a finds, archaeological the Mapping compact texture of the ground surrounding the feature. less slightly a only found, was discolouration soil any provided results that neither confirmed nor contradicted In complexity. social of incipience contemporaneous of case potential another be to considered was originally Nigeria Central of Culture Nok the point, starting a as Nigeria of Basin Chad the in BCE Taking the cultural changes of the mid-first millennium buried among the living cannot be answered definitely. remains unclear and the question whether the dead were settlements and graves between relation the evidence, stratigraphic of lack the to due Thus, settlement. abandoned an of ground the in possibly settlement, the of outside the on or periphery the at or compound a inside area protected a in located was either which pit, burial the digging from result might area find-free discovered at Pangwari ( recently features similar at out carried currently is analysis respective circumstance, this illuminate To organic agglomeration like a dead body ( decayed a of traces reflect might concentrations element These burials. as interpreted arrangements ne calcium and phosphor of concentrations high demonstrated 2B Uwa Kurmin of site the at grid a along taken samples soil of analysis allow for the preservation of bone. X-ray fluorescence human remains, because the acidity of the soil does not of absence the to due concept grave the to proof final ( pots the to next necklace a of form the in arranged beads stone fragments. terracotta the below cm 20 approximately found was grave. The stone setting with the finely decorated pots the for marker of kind a as served possibly fragments the feature at Janruwa A ( in found only were sculptures terracotta of fragments Associated quality. fine especially of pots ceramic ( purpose this for 2010, 2014c) — sometimes grinding stones were used ( row a in arranged are which stones standing upright seven to up are markers Distinctive rare. are ( sites burial as interpreted been have that contexts find are there Finally, t he beginning, investigations of Nok Culture sites Culture Nok of investigations beginning, he At the sites of Janruwa A and Ido we found we Ido and A Janruwa of sites the At Rupp Rupp 2014a: 166). However, there is no is there However, 166). 2014a: Conclusion Burial sites Fig. 3 2010: 71) — and one or two or one and — 71) 2010: Fig. 8 Rupp Fig. 8 ) becomes apparent. This apparent. becomes ) xt below). No burial pit or 2014c: 145). There, the Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 14(3)Special Issue,2016 to the stone and pot and stone the to An OutlineofRecentStudiesontheNigerianNokCulture ). Graves or burials or Graves ). Nagel 2014). Rupp

which is regarded as one of the attributes of social of attributes the of one as regarded is which stratification, social develop to necessary be would that size a of communities of existence the warrant would that evidence no is there thus level, village above people of agglomerations of indication no is there spread, once it where area the of ground the in remains archaeological of abundance an is there Culture. Nok Although the of system social advanced and complexity social of of view that requires a re-examination of our concepts. Culture, a wealth of new data exposed an opposite point Nok the of area distribution central the in excavating of years ten almost after However, hypothesis. our verify to sought and data respective augment to intention the with research continued We transition. social consequences as a revolutionising technological further indications of iron metallurgy and its supposed by framed organisation, centralised a by coordinated proje collaborative through realised possibly attested, was cultivation millet on based production agricultural intensified complexity.addition, social In assumed a high population density as a prerequisite of and sites adjoining across came Wetheory. this an accumulation of valuable objects neither of iron of neither objects valuable of accumulation an Nowhere, commoners. or members elite of burials between difference a to pointing heterogeneity any of evidence no is there graves as interpreted features few admittedly the among Further, community. the of members high-ranking by occupied been have might that areas housing of organisation spatial the or buildings specified of remains architectural light to brought excavations numerous the of None data. archaeological available by traceable demarcation inequality,internal of signs other or hierarchies social not organised and maintained in a way as to infer social However, such a larger social network apparently was external contacts within their culture must have existed. most prominently reflected by the terracotta sculptures, system, belief presumed their and culture material number ofpeoplelivingtogetheratonesite. of only one or a few extended families or a comparable consisted groups these Probably groups. autonomous communities were small-scaled and organised in locally that there was no high population density and that Nok is this from compound. concluded single be can What a or hamlet a either was phases all during landscape prehistoric the occupied which Culture Nok the of village communities. Apparently the typical settlement out rule even remains cultural excavated of quantities small comparatively the and sites recorded all almost of urban environments existed. The rather small size of have contributed to the notion that no towns or any kind prospections and excavations Numerous complexity. In sum, we have not found unambiguous evidence As demonstrated by the uniformity of their of uniformity the by demonstrated As t he o he ft en suggested highly suggested en ct s and s 251

Downloaded by on May 31 2017 Downloaded by on May 31 2017 252 Pangwari (below). Figure 8. Supposed graves of the Nok Culture from the sites of Kurmin Uwa 2B (above), Ido (middle), and (middle), Ido (above), 2B Uwa Kurmin of sites the from Culture Nok the of graves Supposed Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 14(3)Special Issue,2016 P. Breunig &N.Rupp

Downloaded by on May 31 2017 Downloaded by on May 31 2017 place at evidence is irreversibly lost by looting which still takes remaining the before investigation further deserves beliefs? To accentuate this perspective, the Nok Culture caused by the power of rituals and a complex system was of sculptures, the of omnipresence the by mirrored particularly complex, the of uniformity transregional a religion. Should it not be possible that the remarkable context — and spiritual a in “ritual” term the using — significance have revealed contextual data emphasising their ritual Culture concerns its terracotta sculptures. Excavations Nok the of peculiarity standalone the that assert McIntosh Susan by outlined as Africa in developments other with coinciding necessarily without but complexity, to related commonly occurrences other or surplus higher population density than ever before, economic a been have might also There existence. their prove to us allow would that related anything or markers status left them of none although people, common of “palaces” that did not differ from the ordinary houses in residing possibly men, big or chiefs rulers, been have might There consequences. ecological or social assessable hardly with albeit iron, afterwards and sculptures produce to started successfully reasons unknown for and settlements dispersed in autonomously lived which farmers sedentary of groups small-scale as Culture Nok the classify to tend we point this At communities. social stratified of members were artefacts iron early and sculptures terracotta manufactured skilfully the of producers the that hypothesis the verify that facts no indeed are Currently,there area. study key small rather a to amount of the data is that not too and large and poor regionally generallyrestricted is sites Nok in features a caseofritualcomplexity. complexity. Inthisregards,theNokCulture would be European-style of characteristic other or buildings complexity which does not require palaces, community ritual example for like in Africa, complexity of cases agreement among archaeologists that there are different complexity for the Nok Culture. There is, however, an of suggestion any support not would evidence this complexity social of understanding European the to According surplus. agricultural store to facilities preserved no and activities, construction communal of signs no sculpture), terracotta male a of head the on shell sea a of depiction the and locally occur not do that materials raw stone few a from (apart contacts indications of far- or no middle-distance exchangeare or There trade found. was prosperity or property of terms in inequality signifying materials other any nor It has to be considered that the preservation of preservation the that considered be to has It Bound on what is indisputable, we may safely may we indisputable, is what on Bound many (1999). sites inNigeriaevery t heir role as materialised expression of Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 14(3)Special Issue,2016 An OutlineofRecentStudiesontheNigerianNokCulture day. Alpern, S.B. 2005. Did they or didn’t they invent it? Iron in Iron it? invent they didn’t or they Did 2005. S.B. Alpern, translation andtoEyubFikretforthemaps. go to Gabriele Franke and Anke Weber for the English thank very much for their contributions. Special thanks here are the work of members of the Nok team whom we traditional rulers in the study area. The results presented workers and informants and with the kind support of the been possible as a team onlywith our partners and has our local Research Jos. of University the and Zaria University Bello Ahmadu the at partners academic our as well as partnership trustful of years many for Abuja in Monuments and Museums for Commission National Nigerian the thank also We realised. been have not would project Nok the support, continuous and funding financial their Without Foundation. Research German the to grateful especially are We Breunig, P. 2014. Some thoughts on the purpose of the Nok the of purpose the on thoughts Some 2014. P. Breunig, P.2012. Breunig, Breunig, P. 2009b. Die früheisenzeitliche Nok-Kultur in Zentral- BC: millennium first the in change Cultural 2009a. P. Breunig, 2005. P. Breunig, Breunig, P. 2004. Environmental instability and cultural change Boullier, C., Person, A., Sali Beck, C. 2015. org/10.1353/hia.2005.0003 sub-Saharan Africa. pp. 257–275. Archaeological Context. P.Breunig, In: sculptures. (ed.), 65, 84–99. Nachrichtenblatt Forschungsgemeinschaft. Deutschen der Nigeria, Westafrika. Neues archäologisches Langfristprojekt Series 2. Africa Magna Verlag, Frankfurt,pp.15–26. WestBC/AD Africa Cultural andTechnological DevelopmentsinFirstMillennium L., Breunig, P. & Id Kot S., Magnavita, In: WestAfrica. Nigeria, from evidence of Toyin Falola (ed.), A. Ogundiran, In: A.D. 1000 – B.C. 2000 Nigeria, Northeast Basin, Chad Kulturkunde 121.RüdigerK Culture, EconomyandHistoryofLakeChad (eds.), E. Platte, M. & Krings, In: Basin. Chad the of prehistory later the in sculptures. chronologique de la culture Nok et nouvelles datations sur des Nigeria ter oftheTerracotta FigurinesoftheNokCulture ofCentral . PhDthesis,GoetheUniversityFrankfurt/Main. Afrique: Archéologie& Arts The Value of Art: StudiesintheMaterialCharac Understanding Nok terracotta art. terracotta Nok Understanding . Africa World Press, Trenton, pp.105–131. Acknowledgements Groundwork of human occupation in the in occupation human of Groundwork 14, 341–360. . Journal of African Archaeology Monograph é , O. A. (eds.), History in Living withtheLake:Perspectiveson References Precolonial Nigeria. EssaysinHonor è ge, J.-F. & Polet, J. 2002/2003. Bilan Africa Magna Verlag, Frankfurt, Verlag,Magna Africa ö ppe Verlag, K

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