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The Relationship Between the Later Stone Age and Iron Age Cultures of Central Tanzania

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The Relationship Between the Later Stone Age and Iron Age Cultures of Central Tanzania THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE LATER STONE AGE AND IRON AGE CULTURES OF CENTRAL TANZANIA Emanuel Thomas Kessy B.A. University of Dar es Salaam, 1991 M.Phi1. Cambridge University, 1992 DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in the Department of Archaeology O Emanuel Thomas Kessy, 2005 SIMON FRASER UNIVERSlTY Spring 2005 All rights reserved. This work may not be reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopy or other means, without permission of the author. APPROVAL NAME: Emanuel Thomas Kessy DEGREE: TITLE OF THESIS: The Relationship Between the Later Stone Age (LSA) and Iron Age (IA) Cultures of Central Tanzania EXAMINING COMMITTEE: Chair: Dongya Yang Assistant Professor Cathy D'Andre;, Associate Professor Senior Supervisor David Burley, Professor Diane Lyons, Assistant Professor University of Calgary Ross Jamieson, Assistant Professor Internal Examiner Adria LaViolette, Associate Professor University of Virginia External Examiner Date Approved: SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY PARTIAL COPYRIGHT LICENCE The author, whose copyright is declared on the title page of this work, has granted to Simon Fraser University the right to lend this thesis, project nr extended essay to users of the Simon Fraser University Library, acd to make partial or single copies only for such users or in response to a request from the library of any other university, or other educational institution, on its own behalf or for one of its users. The author has further granted permission to Simon Fraser University to keep or make a digital copy for use in its circulating collection. The author has further agreed that permission for multiple copying of this work for scholarly purposes may be granted by either the author or the Dean of Graduate Studies. It is understood that copying or publication of this work for financial gain shall not be allowed without the author's written permission.\ Permission for public performance, or limited permission for private scholarly use, of any multimedia materials forming part of this work, may have been granted by the author. This information may be found on the separately catalogued multimedia material and in the signed Partial Copyright Licence. The original Partial Copyright Licence attesting to these terms, and signed by this author, may be found in the original bound copy of this work, retained in the Simon Fraser University Archive. W. A. C. Bennett Library Simon Fraser University Burnaby, BC, Canada ABSTRACT Many archaeologists, anthropologists, linguists and historians have postulated that the spread of Lron Age (IA) Bantu speaking cultures south of the Sahara was associated with the displacement or absorption of Later Stone Age (LSA) autochthonous populations. The 1A Bantu speaking cultures are suggested to have practiced agropastoralism and metal-working while LSA groups were hunter-gatherers. Recently however some scholars have raised questions about the general applicability of the displacement/absorption models to explain cultural developments in sub-Saharan Africa. It is on this basis that archaeological investigation was launched in the Pahi division of Kondoa district in central Tanzania where interaction between LSA and IA cultures took place. The Pahi research had three main goals, namely to establish the Pahi LSA and IA cultural sequences, to investigate social and economic interaction between the LSA and IA and to ascertain the role of LSA people in the later development of settled societies in central Tanzania. The research involved extensive systematic land walkover and shovel test pits (STPs) survey followed by intensive trench excavation of recovered sites. The sequence of archaeological remains from the Pahi STP survey strongly supported those of trench excavations. Results from both STPs and trench excavations indicated that lower Pahi stratigraphic sequences consisted of exclusively LSA cultural materials while upper levels consisted of both LSA and IA artifacts. The Pahi LSA cultures dated to 2500 +40 BP and probably survived until 1030 + 40 BP when IA cultures became incorporated into the LSA. Despite the early adoption of IA (from IA agropastoralists) by the local LSA populations, lithic production continued to be practiced along with iron-working until recent times when the former was abandoned. The widespread and continuous distribution of lithic and iron-working remains over the Pahi landscape and the entire upper Pahi stratigraphical sequence suggests that LSA peoples were not replaced by IA agropastoralists after the adoption of IA cultures circa 1030 ? 40 BP. Instead, they incorporated IA cultural elements into their LSA culture. These findings call into question earlier assumptions, generally applied to sub-Saharan Africa, that LSA peoples were replaced or absorbed by IA agropastoralists. DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated to my mother Mrs. Epiphania Thomas Kessy and my father the late Mr. Thomas Adolf Kessy (t 21 June 2004). Their commitment to my education helped me to achieve my academic dreams. Ninawashukuru sana wazazi wangu kwa kuniwezesha kufikia hatua hii. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My PhD. program and the production of this thesis would not have been possible without financial assistance from several institutions and the contributions of many individuals. The Wenner Gren Foundation and Simon Fraser University financed my tuition and stay in Canada. My fieldwork and data analysis in Tanzania was financed by Simon Fraser University and the University of Dar es Salaam. I am very grateful to these institutions. My deepest thanks go to my senior supervisor Prof. Catherine D' Andrea for her tireless efforts in supervision, criticism, encouragement as well as the shaping my thesis to its final stage. I am also very grateful to members of my supervising committee: Prof. Dave Burley and Prof. Diana Lyons, my internal examiner: Prof. Ross Jamieson, my external examiner: Prof. Adria Laviolette and the examining committee chair: Prof. Dongya Yang for reviews, suggestions and criticisms. I also benefited immensely from discussion with Prof. Erle Nelson of the Department of Archaeology at Simon Fraser University on several issues about the interpretations of the radiocarbon results. I am also indebted to Shannon Wood of Simon Fraser University, Said Kilindo, Coster Mahuwi and Mathias Ngowi of the University of Dar es Salaam for drawing most of the diagrams. I am very grateful to Dr. Bertram Mapunda of the University of Dar es salaam for his advice on several aspects about iron-working and the 2001 Dar es Salaam University field school students Christowaja Ntandu, Shakila Halifan, Audrey Smith, Reinfrida Justine, Martin Basil, Raphael Mikindo, Thomas John and Emanuel James for their participation in my fieldwork in Baura and Lusangi. I also greatly appreciate the encouragement and logistical support of Prof. Felix Chami, Dr. Audax Mabulla and Dr. Charles Saanane of the University of Dar es Salaam and Prof. Fidelis Masao of the Open University of Tanzania. Special thanks go to the British Institute in Eastern Africa, the Institute's driver Joseph Matua and students Sarah Croucher, Vicky Emmerson, John Giblin and Francis Munyao for their various contributions during fieldwork. I would also like to thank Mr. Paul Watene of the University of Nairobi for faunal analysis and the late Charles Rubaka for field-work supervision as well as lithic analysis. I am grateful to all staff and supporting staff of the Department of Archaeology, Simon Fraser University especially Robyn Banerjee, Ann Sullivan, Lynda Przybyla, Ian Gregson and Andrew Burton for encouragement and support. Special thanks go to all my fellow graduate students in the Department of Archaeology, Simon Fraser University for their kindness and encouragement. I am very grateful to Dr. Chinmoy Banerjee and his wife Robyn Banerjee for encouragement and material support as well as for accepting me into their home during my first semester at SFU. I would like to thank the Department of Antiquities in Tanzania for granting me a permit to work at the sites of Baura and Lusangi. I am grateful to Mr. Ferdinand Mizambwa, Maulidi Rauna and Samiyu Mbegu of the Department of Antiquities for their various contributions during fieldwork. Special thanks go to all villagers of Baura and Lusangi for their generosity during all my fieldwork seasons. Finally, my gratitude goes to my family for support and encouragement in the whole time I was doing my PhD. program. Ninawashukuru wote walionisaidia kukamilisha masorno yangu ya Shahada ya Udaktari wa Falsafa. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS .. APPROVAL ....................................................................................... 11 ... ABSTRACT ....................................................................................... 111 DEDICATION ................................................................................. v ...................................................................... ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS vi... TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................... v111 .. LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................. xi1 LIST OF FIGURES .............................................................................. xvi LIST OF PLATES ............................................................................. xx CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND AREA OF RESEARCH .......................... 1 1.1. Introduction ......................................................................
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