A Chronology of the Central Nigerian Nok Culture – 1500 BC to the Beginning of the Common Era

Gabriele Franke

Abstract Résumé

The Central Nigerian Nok Culture and its well-known terra- Dans le centre du Nigeria, la culture de Nok ainsi que les cotta figurines have been the focus of a joint research project célèbres sculptures en terre cuite qui lui sont associées font between the Goethe University Frankfurt and the National l’objet depuis 2005 d’un projet de recherche conjoint entre la Commission for Museums and Monuments in Nigeria since Goethe-Universität de Francfort et la Commission pour les 2005. One major research question concerns chronological Musées et Monuments du Nigeria. Une question de recherche aspects of the Nok Culture, for which a period from around the essentielle concerne les aspects chronologiques de cette culture, middle of the first millennium BC to the first centuries AD had que des travaux antérieurs ont permis de rattacher à une been suggested by previous investigations. This paper presents période comprise entre le milieu du premier millénaire BC et les and discusses the radiocarbon and luminescence dates ob- premiers siècles de notre ère. Cet article présente et commente tained by the Frankfurt Nok project. Combining the absolute les dates radiocarbones et par thermoluminescence obtenues dates with the results of a comprehensive pottery analysis, a dans le cadre du projet Nok de l’Université de Francfort. chronology for the Nok Culture has been developed. An early Une chronologie pour la culture de Nok est proposée à partir phase of the Nok Culture’s development begins around the d’une approche combinant les dates absolues avec les résultats middle of the second millennium BC. Its main phase, in which d’une étude détaillée de la céramique. Une phase précoce de terracotta figurines and iron production appear, starts in the la culture de Nok débute vers le milieu du deuxième millénaire 9th century BC and ends in the 4th century BC. A later phase BC. Sa phase principale, au cours de laquelle apparaissent with vanishing evidence extends into the last centuries BC. On les sculptures en terre cuite ainsi que la métallurgie du fer, sites dating from the first centuries AD onwards no more Nok commence durant le neuvième siècle BC et s’achève au terracotta or pottery are found; the end of the Nok Culture is quatrième siècle BC. Une phase plus tardive, marquée par thus set around the turn of the Common Era. une nette diminution des témoignages archéologiques, s’étend jusqu’aux derniers siècles avant notre ère. La céramique ainsi que les sculptures en terre cuite typiques de la culture Nok disparaissent complètement sur les sites datés à partir des premiers siècles de notre ère. La fin de la culture de Nok peut ainsi être située aux alentours du tournant de notre ère.

Keywords: Nok Culture, Nigeria, chronology, radiocarbon dating, pottery, Iron Age

Gabriele Franke 8 [email protected] * Institute for Archaeological Sciences, African Archaeology & Archaeobotany, Goethe University, Norbert-Wollheim-Platz 1, 60629 Frankfurt a. M., Germany

DOI 10.3213/2191-5784-10297 © Africa Magna Verlag, Frankfurt a. M. Published online 13 Dec 2016

Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 14 (3) Special Issue, 2016, pp. 257–289 257 G. Franke

Introduction sites was tested by surveys and excavations; absolute dates were obtained, both by luminescence measure- It was British archaeologist Bernard Fagg, working for ments on Nok figurines and by radiocarbon measure- the British colonial administration, who first identified ments on organic material. Most results fall into the the Nok Culture in 1944 when he discovered similarities first millennium BC, confirming Fagg’s age estimates. between a newly found terracotta head from Jemaa and In 2009, these investigations resulted in a long-term one found near the village of Nok in 1928. Both were research project (Frankfurt Nok project), funded by recovered in tin mines west of the Jos Plateau in Central the German Research Foundation (Breunig 2009) and Nigeria. Many more Nok terracotta parts were found currently being in its third project phase (2015–2017). subsequently in the alluvial though sealed deposits of The project’s key study area encompasses about 300 km2 these tin mines, especially near Nok village (Fagg 1945). (15 x 20 km) northeast of the Nigerian capital of Abuja; Establishing an age for the figurines proved difficult. a research station is located near the village of Janjala Today’s absolute dating methods such as radiocarbon (Kaduna State) (Fig. 1). One of the major research topics and luminescence were not yet devised for archaeologi- has been the establishment of a chronology of the Nok cal age determinations. The first indication came from Culture (Breunig 2009: 345–349). On the one hand, the geological layers, in which the figurines and other absolute dates have been collected from a large number cultural material were found. British geologist G. Bond of Nok sites; the dates provide an absolute time frame described a geological sequence which included the for the Nok Culture period and add substantially to the cultural horizon of the Nok terracotta figurines Bond( number of dates that were available before then. On the 1956: 198, 200). Assuming that the cutting of the river other hand, pottery analysis has resulted in the defini- channels, in which the finds were deposited, would have tion of several temporal pottery groups. Combining the needed a period of heavier rainfall, he tentatively cor- absolute dates and the results of the pottery analysis, related it with the Nakuran Wet Phase, a period of more a chronology of the Nok Culture has been developed, intense rainfall in the first millennium BC1, linked in East spanning more than a millennium (Franke 2014, 2015; Africa to the Later Stone Age. Further assuming that the Franke & Breunig 2014). deposition of the figurines would have occurred after the rainfall maximum, the age of the Nok Culture was set This article presents and discusses the absolute into the second half of the first millennium BC Fagg( dates obtained by the Frankfurt Nok project between 1956: 221) — at that time a surprisingly old age for the 2005 and 2014 (Table 1, Table 2a & 2b) and provides elaborate terracotta figurines, placing them among the a list of the 69 sites dated, which includes information oldest figural sculptures in sub-Saharan Africa. on excavations, finds and chronological classification (Table 3). Since the pottery plays an important role in More than 60 years have passed since this first defining chronological phases, a summary of the results age estimate. The excavations by B. Fagg, A. Fagg, of the pottery analysis is given. Finally, a chronology R. Soper, and J. Jemkur (Fagg 1968, 1990; Fagg A. of the Nok Culture with three absolute-chronological 1972, 2014; Jemkur 1992, 2014) in the 1960s and 1970s phases is established. Before turning to the data of the added absolute dates to this tentative placement into Frankfurt Nok project, the absolute dates obtained by the first millennium BC, which put the duration of the past research are reviewed. Nok Culture between 500 BC and 200 AD (Fagg 1962: 445). This age estimate remained largely unchanged until 2005, even if a beginning of the Nok Culture in Absolute dates obtained in the 20th century the early first millennium BC was suggested some years earlier (Boullier et al. 2002/2003). Early radiocarbon dates (1950s to 1970s)

After several decades, in which Nok sites were loot- Shortly after geological evidence placed the age of the ed and destroyed on a large scale, archaeologists from Nok Culture into the second half of the first millen- Goethe University Frankfurt in 2005 restarted scientific nium BC, the radiocarbon method became available for investigations (Breunig & Rupp 2010). Between 2005 archaeologists. In 1951, B. Fagg submitted wood and and 2008 the archaeological potential of Nok Culture charcoal samples from the geological layers containing Nok material as well as from the clay layer above the archaeological horizon to the Geochronometric Labora- 1 “BC/AD” reflects calendar years, for both luminescence and cali- tory at Yale University, New Haven, USA. It took six brated radiocarbon dates. It should, however, be kept in mind that years until the first results were published (Barendsen in the older literature radiocarbon dates were cited uncalibrated, et al. 1957: 916–918), mainly due to complications simply converted into calendar years using 1950 as reference year. in the laboratories through contaminations caused by In this paper, OxCal 4.2, IntCal13 (Bronk Ramsey 2009; Reimer et al. 2013) is used for calibration. If not mentioned otherwise, the long-range effects from fall-out after nuclear tests the time range is shown with 2-sigma probability (95.4 %). (Fagg 1959: 291).

258 Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 14 (3) Special Issue, 2016 A Chronology of the Central Nigerian Nok Culture

Figure 1. Map showing all sites for which absolute dates were obtained (n=69), separated into Nok sites (red), pre-Nok sites (yellow) and post-Nok sites (blue). Most sites are located in the key study area (white box) around the project’s research station in Janjala village. Sites further away are shown in the locator map (top left).

The results confirmed the initial age estimate. The 2541±104 bp to 2042±126 bp (Burleigh et al. 1977: undisturbed layer of dark grey clay overlying the main 154–155; Calvocoressi & David 1979: 10; Boullier figurine horizon at the Main Paddock tin mine at Nok et al. 2002/2003: 13). In calibrated calendar years, they was dated to about 200 AD (Y-474), providing a termi- range between 894–402 BC and 377 BC–219 AD (Tab. nus ante quem for the Nok material found below (see 4). Only one date deviates, falling into the latter half Table 4 for a list of published radiocarbon dates). The of the second millennium AD (BM 939). At Samun layer in which the figurines and the associated material Dukiya, one radiocarbon sample attributed to the Nok were found yielded a date of 900 BC (Y-142-4; Fagg occupation horizon yielded a calibrated age of 399 BC- 1962: 445). Though this date was considered to be the 17 AD (I-4913; Fagg A. 1972: 77). The other 14C result most probable (Barendsen et al. 1957: 916), Fagg as- from Samun Dukiya fell into the second millennium BC sumed it to represent deposits formed early in the Na- and was considered to derive from an earlier, pre-Nok kuran Wet Phase and stated that “it is not unreasonable settlement episode (I-4914; Fagg A. 1972: 77). The to date the figurine culture to the period between about radiocarbon sample from Katsina Ala also yielded a 500 B.C. and A.D. 200, bearing in mind the probability young date, between the 15th and 17th century AD (BM that the introduction of iron working is unlikely to have 535; Burleigh et al. 1977: 155). reached the area before 500 B.C.” (Fagg 1962: 445). Figure 2 shows the single calibration plots and This age estimate remained valid through the exca- the summed probability density of the radiocarbon vations at the non-alluvial sites of Taruga (Fagg 1968, dates from Nok, Taruga, Samun Dukiya, and Katsina 1969), Samun Dukiya (Fagg A. 1972), and Katsina Ala Ala. The majority of dates fall into the first millen- (Fagg A. 2014) in the 1960s. For each site, charcoal nium BC; the summed density is highest between the samples were submitted for radiocarbon measurement. 8th and 1st century BC. However, the large standard Taruga yielded several consistent ages, ranging from errors and the calibration curve plateau between the 8th

Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 14 (3) Special Issue, 2016 259 G. Franke and 4th century BC do not allow precise age estimates2. at this site. The TL dates for Ankiring are also younger, In the 95.4% probability range, three dates from Taruga falling into the first half of the first millennium AD. The range between the 9th and 5th century BC, making it samples, however, were not taken from the figurines but equally probable that the Nok Culture began in the 9th from some associated material; in addition, the figurine century BC or in the 5th century BC. style seems unusual and not necessarily connected with the Nok Culture (Fagg 1990: 139; Jemkur 1992: 69). Another set of even younger dates in the first millennium Thermoluminescence dates (1970s) AD comes from Chado (both from potsherds and figurine fragments); at least some of the figurines, however, feature The first Nok terracotta dated by the thermolumines- the typical Nok terracotta style (Fagg 1990: 124, 129). cence method (TL) was the Jemaa head, found in 1944. Since Chado is the only known site with Nok figurines In the absence of a surrounding soil sample the sedi- that date into the Common Era, one must consider the ment found inside the head was used as external dose, possibility that the TL measurements do not reflect the resulting in an age of 2480±220 years. Without taking time of production. There are several factors that can an external dose into account, the result is slightly influence the TL signal, such as inadequate burial in the older (2570±230 years); yet both dates range around ground (Aitken 1989: 156), later exposure to heat (e.g. the middle of the first millennium BC and agree with from bushfires) or a lack of soil samples that can be used the radiocarbon dates (Fagg & Fleming 1970: 54–55). as external dose (Fleming 1976: 120–127). Considering that the exact find context and the ceramic objects sampled In 1976, it became necessary to date ceramic mate- are not known, the TL dates from Ankiring and Chado are rial directly when A. Fagg and J. Jemkur noticed possible not reliable enough to suggest an extension of the Nok mixtures of Nok pottery material with younger material tradition well into the first millennium AD Boullier( et (Calvocoressi & David 1979: 10–11; Jemkur 1986: 166). al. 2002/2003: 16, 18; Franke 2015: 35–36). Potsherds and terracotta fragments were submitted for TL dating to the Oxford Research Laboratory for Archaeol- ogy. The first two results published came from the site Further radiocarbon dates of Chado and ranged between the 4th and 7th century AD (Jemkur 1978: 34–35). Further results were published Between the 1970s and 2005, when the first investiga- by Calvocoressi & David (1979: 29) and Jemkur tions by the Frankfurt Nok Project started, no further (1986, 1992: 68–70). Table 5 lists all published TL dates, dates were obtained for the Nok Culture from a scien- adjusted by some recent corrections by A. Fagg3. More tifically excavated archaeological context. Of course, than half of the TL results date into the first millennium there are plenty of TL dates in circulation, based on BC (when taking the statistical error into account, the Nok figurines in museums or private collections (e.g. maximum age range is between 765 BC and AD 175) and Chesi & Merzeder 2006). However, all figurines lack correspond to the radiocarbon ages. While the terracotta a secure archaeological context; and since they may be sample from Katsina Ala is in line with these dates, the partly or fully counterfeits (Breunig & Ameje 2006), pottery sample is much younger (OX TL 187.r1; Flem- these dates are not reliable. There are, however, some ing 1979: 139) and agrees with the 14C result (BM 535; radiocarbon dates that appear to be realistic (Table 4). Burleigh et al. 1977: 155); this is a significant indica- They were obtained by C. Boullier, who did a stylistic tion of a mixture of Nok material with a later occupation and chronological analysis on Nok terracotta figurines in museums and private collections in Europe (Boul- lier & Person 1999; Boullier 2001; Boullier et al. 2002/2003). She submitted charcoal pieces from the 2 The calibration curve plateau between the 8th and 4th century BC prevents the translation of radiocarbon years into precise calendar hollow interior of the Nok figurines for radiocarbon year estimates. New high-precision laboratory methods and inde- dating, assuming that the charcoal derived from wooden pendent quality controls have reduced the statistical error to 15–40 frameworks used during the construction of the figu- years (Kromer 2007: 5) while refinements in the calibration curve rines or from the sediment of the Nok sites they came (IntCal 13, Reimer et al. 2013) have led to greater accuracy in cali- brated calendar years. The ranges narrow on both ends of the plateau, from (Boullier et al. 2002/2003: 18). All 17 results producing calibrated dates between the 8th and mid-6th century BC date into the first millennium BC; the maximum range on one end and the mid-6th and 4th century BC on the other. These lies between the 10th and 2nd century BC. Figure 3 developments reduce the number of radiocarbon dates that cannot shows the single calibration plots and the summed prob- be converted to a more precise time frame than ca 800–400 BC, but the problem remains for radiocarbon dates of ca 2450 bp. ability density for Boullier’s radiocarbon dates, with the majority ranging between ca 900 and 400 BC, again 3 The amendments made by A. Fagg (pers. comm. 13.6.2013) mostly within the calibration curve plateau. It is known, are: OX TL 187.m was corrected to Jemaa (from Maitumbi); the standard errors on OX TL 187.a (to 180) and 187.h (to 190) were though, that sediment from Nok sites is intentionally changed; and the date on the female figure sitting on a pot from filled into Nok figurines, original or not, to give them Chado was corrected to AD 115±160. authenticity. Then, the radiocarbon dates would confirm

260 Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 14 (3) Special Issue, 2016 A Chronology of the Central Nigerian Nok Culture

Figure 2. Single calibration plots and summed probability density of radiocarbon dates from Nok, Taruga, Samun Dukiya, and Katsina Ala (n=17). Dates older than 4000 bp are not included.

Figure 3. Single calibration plots and summed probability density of radiocarbon dates obtained by C. Boullier (n=17). Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 14 (3) Special Issue, 2016 261 G. Franke the age of the Nok sites the sediment came from but Overall, 174 radiocarbon and 27 luminescence not the age of the figurines (Breunig 2009: 345–346). dates (Table 1, 2a & 2b) were collected between 2005 In the meantime, however, the Frankfurt project has and 2014 from 69 sites that were tested or excavated excavated a large number of Nok terracotta parts that are (see Table 3 for details on these sites). 65 of the sites are very similar in stylistic details to the ones analysed by radiocarbon dated; TL dates are available for 19 sites, Boullier. By implication, this would mean that at least of which only four sites have no additional radiocarbon some parts and with them the charcoal are authentic dates due to a lack of datable organic material. The and the radiocarbon dates can be considered realistic. majority of the 65 radiocarbon dated sites were tested with small excavation units of not more than 3 x 3 m; the intention was to recover archaeobotanical material Summary for dating and potsherds for chronological analysis. For such sites, usually not more than one or two dates Most of the radiocarbon and TL dates confirm the were obtained. For sites at which larger excavations initial estimate based on geological evidence that the took place, more samples were dated (from different Nok Culture dates to the latter half of first millennium units, depths, features, and contexts). The number of BC. While Fagg put the beginning of the Nok Culture dates by sites, therefore, varies considerably (up to around 500 BC (Fagg 1962: 445), Boullier suggested an 37 samples for the project’s largest excavation at the earlier beginning, which is based on three radiocarbon Pangwari site, 2012/34). dates with calibrated age ranges between ca 900 and 800 BC (Boullier et al. 2002/2003: 27). A beginning in the early first millennium BC would explain one of Samples and laboratories the first radiocarbon dates from Nok (Y-142-4), cali- brated to 1262–856 BC and originally thought to be too Radiocarbon measurements early (Fagg 1962: 445). Regarding the end of the Nok From the start of the Frankfurt investigations, archaeo- Culture, none of Boullier’s dates is younger than the botanical samples have been taken during all excava- 2nd century BC and there even is a sharp drop in dates tions. The sediment samples usually comprise 10–20 in the 4th century BC, possibly indicating an earlier end litres, mainly from pit features or charcoal concentra- than that suggested by Fagg (200 AD). In any case, at tions, and undergo the usual flotation process. The the end of the 20th century, the Nok Culture was safely samples are then screened and analysed in the Archaeo- positioned in the first millennium BC. botanical Laboratory of the Goethe University Frankfurt (Kahlheber et al. 2009). For dating purposes, charred annual plant material has been preferred over charcoal, Absolute dates obtained by the Frankfurt most often in the form of pearl millet (Pennisetum glau- Nok Project since 2005 cum) or Canarium schweinfurthii. Approximately 75% of all radiocarbon samples were annual plant remains The placement of the Nok Culture into the first millen- (55% pearl millet, 20% other plant material), only 25% nium BC was the ground from which the research of the were charcoal samples. Frankfurt Nok Project on chronological aspects started. A large number of absolute dates from scientifically ex- Five laboratories have been involved in radiocar- cavated Nok sites in combination with a pottery analysis bon dating since 2005: Beta Analytic, Miami, USA form the basis for developing a chronology which not (Beta); AMS laboratory, Friedrich-Alexander Uni- only defines an absolute time frame but also distinguishes versität Erlangen/Nürnberg, Germany (Erl); Leibniz several phases during the duration of the Nok Culture and Laboratory, Christian-Albrechts-Universität Kiel, Ger- separates Nok pottery from younger pottery material in the many (KIA); Klaus-Tschira-Centre for Archaeometry research area (Franke 2014; Franke & Breunig 2014). Mannheim, Germany (MAMS)4; and P.J. Van de Graaff Laboratory, Utrecht University, Netherlands (UtC). The pottery analysis has been ongoing since 2009, All laboratories use the accelerator mass spectrometry being the first systematic investigation into Nok pottery. method (AMS) and follow the recommended conven- Almost no prior information was available to draw on — only a few general descriptions of the pottery found at Taruga, Samun Dukiya, and Katsina Ala have been 4 The Klaus-Tschira-Centre for Archaeometry Mannheim was published (Fagg 1969: 48; Fagg A. 1972: 77; Jemkur opened in 2010, replacing the radiocarbon facility at the Heidel- 1992: 49). A total of 15,000 diagnostic (i.e., decorated berg Academy of Sciences and Humanities. Measurements prior and rim sherds) pottery fragments from 48 sites (dated to 2010 were prepared in Heidelberg and measured in Zurich, and containing pottery material) have been analysed so Switzerland, where their AMS machine was located. This machine (MICADAS) was transferred to Mannheim in 2010. All samples, far, resulting in the definition of several pottery groups thus, were measured in the same machine and carry a MAMS described below (Franke 2015). laboratory code.

262 Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 14 (3) Special Issue, 2016 A Chronology of the Central Nigerian Nok Culture tions for CRA (conventional radiocarbon age) (see Results and discussion of absolute dates Wood 2015 for a recent summary on the publishing of radiocarbon results). The conventional radiocarbon Radiocarbon dates ages (see Table 1, 14C age in years bp) are corrected Fifteen dates were omitted from further consideration — for isotopic fractionation, calculated by using the δ13C six are affected by the bomb14 C effect, five are younger measured together with 14C by AMS. This δ13C value is than 199 bp, and four dates are older than the seventh thus not directly comparable to the δ13C value measured millennium BC. Figure 4 shows the calibrated age in an IRMS (Isotope Ration Mass Spectrometer) and ranges for each of the reliable 159 radiocarbon results should not be used for further interpretation because it in chronological order from oldest to youngest date (us- can be distorted by the graphitisation procedure and by ing OxCal 4.2, IntCal13, 95.4% probability). The dates effects during AMS measurement5. Quoted errors repre- range between ca 1600 BC and 1600 AD, spanning a sent a 1-sigma standard deviation (68.2% probability). time period of more than 3000 years. Depending on the laboratory, conventional radiocarbon age and sigma may be rounded to the nearest 10 years. The earliest evidence of settlement and farming goes back to around the middle of the second millen- Luminescence measurements nium BC. 20 dates from nine sites fall into the time Luminescence dates, by both optically stimulated period between 1600 and 1000 BC, 18 of which are luminescence (OSL) and thermoluminescence (TL), on annual plant remains. They indicate that people have been obtained in cases where no organic material growing pearl millet were living in the key study was available for radiocarbon dating or where a direct area and to the north (see Ankoro, 2011/38 in Fig. dating of the object in question (e.g. iron-smelting 1). Despite intensive surveying, only one site was furnaces) was required. Ceramic objects dated include discovered in the key study area that — consisting terracotta figurine fragments, potsherds, and furnace of a concentration of quartz artefacts as evidence wall or tuyère fragments. In most cases, soil from the for stone working — is suggested to be older than excavation or from inside the terracotta figurines was the second millennium BC (Tudun Kaura, 2011/4). used to determine the external dose rate. Unfortunately, the only organic material recovered gave a modern radiocarbon date. The Frankfurt Nok project has cooperated with two laboratories. In 2007, ten figurine samples were Most of these early sites contain Nok terracotta measured at the Rathgen Laboratory in Berlin, Germany. fragments; they are, however, not found in the ex- OSL measurements were conducted on quartz grains cavated material but on the surface, left over from (125–180 µm) from the archaeological samples. OSL illegal digging activities and in no secure context with was used rather than TL because of better reliability and the excavated and dated material such as pottery and a slightly smaller dating error (between 5–10% compared stone artefacts. At such sites, other radiocarbon dates to 7–12% in TL; pers. comm. C. Goedicke 20.5.2007). that fall into the first millennium BC indicate later Nok Since 2012, a total of 17 terracotta, pottery, and furnace occupation episodes, to which the figurine parts most samples have been submitted to the Klaus-Tschira-Centre likely belong. Even younger radiocarbon dates, rang- for Archaeometry (MAL). Both archaeological and soil ing between the middle of the first and middle of the samples were analysed by Low Level Neutron Activa- second millennium AD, are available for some sites; tion Analysis (NAA) for doserate determination. The they indicate that Nok Culture sites continued to be paleodoses, or absorbed doses, of the archaeological used in “post-Nok” times6. samples were obtained by additive (multiple aliquot) TL measurements on both, quartz minerals (100–200 µm) The number of sites found (and excavated) in- and fine-grain particles (4–11 µm) (pers. comm. S. creases in the early first millennium BC; older sites Lindauer 11.3.2013; see Table 2b for dose information). continue to be occupied. From the 10th and 9th century The MAL ages given in Table 2a are calculated as the BC onwards, terracotta figurines are found in all excava- error-weighted averages of all measurements performed tions, now securely associated with the other excavated on one sample; quoted errors represent a 1-sigma stan- dard deviation (68.2% probability). Depending on the laboratory, measured age and sigma may be rounded 6 To distinguish Nok Culture sites from younger sites with different to the nearest 50 years, considering the error due to the ceramic inventories and without Nok terracotta figurines, the term assumed moisture content of the soil. “post-Nok” has been coined. Such sites cannot be attributed to known traditions due to a lack of an established archaeological sequence for the time and region under consideration. Acknowl- edging the shortcomings of the term “post-Nok” with its focus on 5 This does not apply for measurements made by Beta Analytic. the Nok Culture as the defining complex in the archaeology of the Here, the reported δ13C values are for the material itself, measured region, it will be used as working term for the sake of delimiting in an IRMS on the pretreated sample material. Nok Culture sites from subsequent sites.

Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 14 (3) Special Issue, 2016 263 G. Franke

Figure 4 (continued on next pages). Single calibration plots of radiocarbon dates obtained by the Frankfurt Nok project between 2005 264 Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 14 (3) Specialand Issue, 2014 2016 (n=159). Each date is shown with its laboratory number and a site abbreviation. A Chronology of the Central Nigerian Nok Culture

Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 14 (3) Special Issue, 2016 265 G. Franke

Figure 4 (end). Single calibration plots of radiocarbon dates obtained by the Frankfurt Nok project between 2005 and 2014 (n=159). Each date is shown with its laboratory number and a site abbreviation.

266 Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 14 (3) Special Issue, 2016 A Chronology of the Central Nigerian Nok Culture material and the radiocarbon dates. This time obviously Luminescence dates marks the beginning of the Nok Culture terracotta tradi- Terracotta figurines tion. 15 dates (all on pearl millet) feature very precise Eleven fragments of terracotta figurines and one frag- calendar year ranges between ca 830 and 760 BC, ment of an anthropomorphic vessel from nine sites were before the beginning of the calibration curve plateau. submitted for luminescence dating. The ten samples The earliest terracotta deposits excavated date to this dated by OSL in 2007 range in age between 1064–720 period and are proof that the terracotta tradition was BC (Akura, 5A72) and 445–157 BC (Polwaya, 3POL). well established in the late 9th century BC at the latest. The two samples dated by TL in 2013 (Fig. 5.1–2) are slightly younger, between the 4th century BC and the The majority of radiocarbon dates lie in the calibra- 2nd century AD. The luminescence dates confirm the tion curve plateau between about 800 BC and 400 BC, in first millennium BC as the production period of Nok which no precise age estimates are possible. The num- terracotta figurines. For five sites, luminescence dates ber of sites increases substantially; all sites contain Nok were obtained in addition to radiocarbon dates; in some terracotta figurines. It is in sites dating to this period cases they differ significantlyTable ( 6). Especially that evidence of iron working in form of iron-smelting the samples from Ankoro demonstrate the presence of furnaces, slag, and very few iron objects appears for the different occupation episodes at some sites during the first time. While at least one of the furnaces (at Intini, Nok period as mentioned above. 2010/03) is directly luminescence dated to the Nok period, the association of the iron objects is not beyond Pottery doubt. They are usually found in the excavations but Only three potsherds were submitted for TL dating not in secure context with Nok material. As mentioned (Fig. 5.3–5). Their style was, based on the pottery clas- above, younger occupation episodes are present on sification, not in line with the sites’ radiocarbon dates Nok sites and the iron objects could be associated with but seemed to indicate other occupation episodes. The them as well. TL date for the sherd from Ido (with a carved roulette pattern) confirmed the pottery classification into the After 400 BC, the number of radiocarbon dates early second millennium AD and thus a later occupation and sites containing Nok terracotta figurines decreases episode at the site. The other two results (Pabeki, Tudun substantially. This is not an artefact of sampling; the Dosa) are difficult to interpret: The Pabeki sherd gave key study area is well surveyed and sites would have a date in the late first millennium AD, corresponding been recorded if existing. Dates of the first and second to evidence of a later occupation at this Nok site, but millennium AD belong either to post-Nok sites that no not clearly matching the pottery classification. The longer contain Nok material or to younger occupation sherd from Tudun Dosa with a carved roulette pattern horizons at Nok sites, which can be distinguished by should — similar to other inventories — date into the pottery style. first millennium AD. The very large measurement error, however, does not allow a clear allocation. The large amount of calibrated radiocarbon dates provides a continuous temporal sequence between the Furnace fragments middle of the second millennium BC and the second Especially with regard to the discussion on the begin- millennium AD, with a significant increase in the num- ning of iron production in the Nok Culture and in ber of dates and sites in the 9th century BC and a drop sub-Saharan Africa in general (see Eggert 2014 for a in the 4th century BC. Absolute dates by themselves, recent summary), it has been important to date the iron- however, do not link sites to the Nok Culture. So far, working remains directly rather than through associated the presence of Nok-style terracotta figurines has made plant material (see Junius 2016 for information on Nok a site a Nok Culture site. Taking this criterion as the metallurgy). For seven excavated sites containing often defining attribute, only sites in the first millennium BC several iron-smelting furnaces, TL dates were obtained with securely associated terracotta finds can be safely on samples of furnace walls or tuyères. For all sites, attributed to the Nok Culture — with the period between radiocarbon dates were obtained as well (Table 7). the 9th and the 4th centuries BC constituting the main Most radiocarbon samples were from charcoal associ- phase. Thus, the Frankfurt project’s radiocarbon dates ated with the excavated furnaces and date to the Nok confirm the older dates presented above: the Nok terra- period between ca 800 and 400 BC. The earliest 14C cotta figures belong to the first millennium BC. Whether dates range between ca 800 and 550 BC, suggesting the earlier and later sites recorded, which do not contain that iron working began not later than the 6th and not terracotta parts, also belong to the Nok Culture cannot earlier than the 8th century BC. be answered by absolute dates alone. Other evidence, especially the pottery analysis, is discussed below.

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Figure 5. Fired clay objects measured by thermoluminescence in 2013. 1) Terracotta figurine from Daji Gwana; 2) Anthropo- morph vessel from Taka Lafiya; 3) Carved roulette potsherd from Ido; 4) Carved roulette potsherd from Tudun Dosa; 5) Potsherd with horizontal application from Pabeki.

The luminescence dates, however, show a differ- H. Junius (2016) has shown that furnace fragments ent picture: except for one date in the first millennium contain vitrified quartz and feldspar grains. Vitrifica- BC (Intini, 2010/03), all dates lie in the first or even tion occurs at temperatures exceeding 950–1000°C, early second millennium AD. Heating incidents such temperatures reached in an iron-smelting furnace. A as bushfires that may have affected the furnace sites study on vitrified ramparts in Europe found that TL after the end of the Nok Culture cannot explain these ages become successively younger with increasing fir- dates adequately. Except for the much younger date ing temperatures above 900°C (Kresten et al. 2003). from the furnace at Sabon Janruwa, all luminescence This offers an explanation for the luminescence dates dates overlap consistently in the early centuries AD. that are consistently younger than the corresponding Research on the Nok Culture’s iron production by

268 Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 14 (3) Special Issue, 2016 A Chronology of the Central Nigerian Nok Culture radiocarbon dates7. The much younger date from Sabon millennium BC, cross-hatching and comb/rocker comb Janruwa may be explained by a higher degree of vit- impressions continue into the first millennium BC. This rification; the Nok Culture date from Intini by the fact continuity in combination with continuity in site occu- that the sample was probably from a part of the furnace pation and subsistence allows this pottery group to be that was not affected by heat above 900°C. linked to the Nok Culture, though terracotta figurines are absent in the excavation contexts (see above). In summary, the luminescence results fell short of the project’s expectations. It was hoped that lumi- The first millennium BC encompasses the other nescence dates can help overcome the imprecise ra- six Nok pottery groups, of which the Ido and Ifana diocarbon dates of the calibration curve plateau in the groups are the earliest, dating to the early first mil- middle of the first millennium BC, but the large errors lennium BC. The later Pangwari and Tsaunim Gurara of up to 10% do not allow for accurate age estimates. groups fall into the calibration curve plateau between And especially the TL measurements on the furnace ca 800 and 400 BC. The Pandauke group dates to the fragments obviously do not reflect the time of build- latter half of the first millennium BC, while the Ungwar ing or use. Only the dates on the terracotta fragments Kura group is a specific, possibly regional variant of are reliable and confirm the first millennium BC as the two later groups. production period. The Ido group (10th–9th century BC) seems to represent a transition between the pottery of the second Classification of Nok Culture Pottery and the first millennium BC (Fig. 6.2). Banded motifs appear for the first time as do a small number of terra- Absolute dates provide a time span for the Nok Cul- cotta figurine fragments. TheIfana group encompasses ture if they can be linked to Nok terracotta figurines as four sites with radiocarbon dates between ca 900 and the defining attribute of the Nok Culture. But as seen 770 BC; the pottery occurs in secure context with terra- above, they cannot be related to or delimited from the cotta figurines and is characterised by bands filled with Nok Culture when this find group is absent. Here, the incised diagonal lines or cross-hatching and delimited pottery analysis provides further defining attributes. Not by horizontal lines (Fig. 6.3). From the 8th century BC only can an absolute time period for the Nok Culture be onwards, the number of sites increases significantly. established, it is also possible to define pottery groups New forms and decorations are added to the already that sub-divide the 400-year calibration curve plateau. known spectrum of Nok pottery. The main charac- The information presented here is a brief summary of teristic of the Pangwari group (ca 800–550 BC) are the results of a dissertation project (Franke 2015) on horizontal applications decorated with incisions, comb Nok Culture pottery, which will be published elsewhere impressions or indentations, below which rocker comb in more detail. In this paper, the focus is on the pottery impressions often cover a larger portion of the vessel groups’ sequence which can be used in establishing a body (Fig. 6.4). This group’s pottery still lacks the cari- chronology for the Nok Culture. The pottery groups are nated vessel form and decorations of incised wavy and defined on elements of style and form and are based on arched lines, which define theTsaunim Gurara group the results of statistical analysis and a detailed visual (ca 800–400 BC) (Fig. 6.5). Though in absolute dates examination of pottery inventories of 48 excavated almost contemporaneous with the Pangwari group, a sites. A total of seven Nok Culture groups as well as slightly younger development is suggested, especially two groups of Common Era pottery have been defined since the typical Tsaunim Gurara decorations continue (Fig. 6–8). into the 4th and 3rd century BC — into the subsequent Pandauke group (ca 6th to 1st century BC). Besides The oldest pottery group (Puntun Dutse) dates arched and wavy lines, bands of several horizontal lines from the middle to the end of the second millennium characterise the Pandauke group (Fig. 6.6). Another BC. Puntun Dutse group pottery is quite distinctive typical attribute are large, almost plate-like bowls. with very fine comb-drawn lines (horizontal, wavy, spirals) often combined with rocker comb impressions. In addition to these six pottery groups found at Also typical is cross-hatching (Fig. 6.1). While the Nok sites throughout the key study area and beyond, comb-drawn lines disappear at the end of the second there is a site to the east of the key study area called Ungwar Kura (2007/11; see Fig. 1) which features a large variety in decorations and forms — much greater 7 Currently, this hypothesis is being testing at the Klaus-Tschira- than at other sites. Its pottery forms a separate group Centre in Mannheim, Germany, by Susanne Lindauer. Fragments consisting of typical Nok pottery attributes as described of different parts of a complete tuyère (with varying degrees of above, but also of more complex decorations covering vitrification) found in a furnace at Baidesuru (2013/02) are dated by thermoluminescence to find out whether differences in the larger vessel parts and so-called pottery graters (Fig. 7). measured ages occur. Pottery graters are otherwise only known from the Nok

Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 14 (3) Special Issue, 2016 269 G. Franke

Figure 6. Typical decorations of Nok Culture pottery groups: 1) Puntun Dutse group; 2) Ido group; 3) Ifana group; 4) Pangwari group; 5) Tsaunim Gurara group; 6) Pandauke group.

site of Taruga (Fagg 1967)8. Though absolute dates for group encompasses sites dating to the first millennium Ungwar Kura range between the 8th and 2nd century BC, CE, containing pottery decorated primarily with carved it is suggested that at least a major part of the site’s oc- wooden roulettes. Fibre roulette decorations start ap- cupation took place between the 5th and 2nd century BC. pearing in a secure excavation context at the turn from the first to the second millennium AD. Sites from this Nok pottery is absent from sites dating to after time onwards are grouped together in the Gimba group. the turn of the Common Era. Instead, new decorations Most sites and dates in this group range between the in form of carved and fibre roulettes appear as well as 13th and 16th century AD. new vessel form such as pedestalled bowls (Fig. 8). No detailed pottery analysis has been conducted yet As already indicated by different radiocarbon on these post-Nok sites, but two pottery groups have dates at some sites, the pottery analysis has confirmed been established to distinguish this pottery from Nok that Nok sites are often not single-phased but were pottery and to differentiate between post-Nok sites with occupied during different times. Often, Puntun Dutse and without fibre roulette decorations. The Janruwa group pottery is found on sites of the first millennium BC together with Ido, Ifana, Pangwari, and/or Tsaunim Gurara group pottery. The younger Janruwa and Gimba 8 The author had the opportunity to look at pottery excavated at groups are present as well. Not always do radiocarbon Taruga by kind permission of Angela Fagg in August 2015. The dates reflect the presence of all pottery groups at a site; decoration style and fragments of shallow bowls (as typical of the Pandauke and Ungwar Kura groups) suggest that the Taruga even a single sherd can be an indication of an occupa- site also dates into the latter half of the first millennium BC. tion not datable in absolute terms.

270 Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 14 (3) Special Issue, 2016 A Chronology of the Central Nigerian Nok Culture

Figure 7. Pottery grater from the site of Ungwar Kura (Ungwar Kura group).

Figure 8. Typical decorations and forms of post-Nok pottery groups: 1) Pedestalled bowl (Janruwa group); 2) Carved roulette (raised dot) potsherd (Janruwa group); 3) Carved roulette (ladder) potsherd (Gimba group); 4 & 5) Fibre roulette potsherds (Gimba group).

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Figure 9. Summed probability density of radiocarbon dates obtained by the Frankfurt Nok project (n=159). Three Nok phases (Early, Middle, Late) are defined by absolute-chronological and pottery analysis. Sites after 1 BC/AD belong to other traditions, taken together as “post-Nok”.

Chronology of the Nok Culture motifs). Only few terracotta figurines fragments were found at the two sites of the Ido group, which is why Bringing the results of the pottery analysis and the large this pottery group may represent the transition between number of absolute dates together, a chronology of the the Early and the Middle Nok period. Nok Culture has been developed: The Nok Culture period encompasses about 1500 years between the Interestingly, the earlier beginning of the Nok middle of the second millennium BC and the turn of Culture allows a re-evaluation of a radiocarbon date the Common Era. This period can be divided into three from Nok which was dismissed as too early (Fagg phases: Early Nok (ca 1500–900 BC), Middle Nok (ca 1962: 445; Y-142-4; 2875±70 bp); calibrated, it spans 900–400 BC), and Late Nok (ca 400–1 BC). Sites dat- a period between the 13th and 9th century BC and could ing to after the turn of the Common Era are no longer indicate the presence of the Early Nok phase near Nok associated with the Nok Culture (Fig. 9). village. This is supported by a date from nearby Samun Dukiya, also thought too early for the Nok Culture, but Early Nok sites are the first archaeologically visible nevertheless indicating human occupation (Fagg A. settlement activities in the key study area appearing 1972; I-4914; 3470±115 bp). A calibrated age between around the middle of the second millennium BC. No 2130–1506 BC (2-sigma probability) may put it at the Nok terracotta figures are found in secure excavation very beginning of the Early Nok phase. contexts, but other factors demonstrate continuity and development into the first millennium BC sites: similari- From ca 900 BC onwards, the number of Nok sites ties in pottery attributes and the chemical composition in the research area increases substantially, and with them of the clay used for pottery production (Beck 2015), the number of radiocarbon dates. The Middle Nok phase reliance on pearl millet as a staple food, and continuity is considered the main phase of the Nok Culture with a in site occupation (Fig. 10 shows sites included in the large spatial extension, terracotta figurines and iron work- pottery analysis and their Nok occupation episodes). ing. The sites of the Middle Nok phase regularly contain Some radiocarbon dates from sites containing Puntun terracotta fragments (sometimes in form of depositions Dutse pottery reach into the 10th century BC, during of parts of broken terracotta figurines, e.g. in Ifana or which time the pottery of the Ido group appears. With Pangwari), pottery often in large quantities, stone tools decorations of cross-hatching in horizontal bands it in varying quantities, and occasionally iron slag, furnaces shows attributes of the Puntun Dutse pottery (cross- (e.g. Intini, Pulu) and possibly iron objects. Several sites hatching) as well as of later Nok pottery groups (banded with terracotta figurines date beforeca 800 BC and attest

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Figure 10. Map showing the 48 sites included in pottery analysis with their absolute-chronological classification (Early, Middle, Late Nok). At eight of the twelve Early Nok sites, Middle Nok occupation episodes were present. The number of sites increases significantly in the Middle Nok phase, while only one Late Nok phase was identified in the project’s key study area (white box). the beginning of the terracotta tradition in the 9th century elements link sites dating to the last centuries BC to the BC at the latest. The calibration curve plateau between ca Nok Culture. It should be noted that outside the key 800 and 400 BC does not allow a precise dating of sites. study area (see Fig. 1) some Nok sites are assigned to The pottery groups, however, show clear differences and the Late Nok phase as well. Ungwar Kura to the east is to some degree suggest a chronological sequence — from one of them, with at least one major occupation horizon Ifana pottery group to Pangwari and Tsaunim Gurara dating to the latter half of the first millennium BC. The and then to Pandauke pottery group. The continuation pottery graters found there link it to the site of Taruga of patterns from the Tsaunim Gurara to the Pandauke (Fagg 1962), some 70 km to the west, for which most group and the disappearance of typical Pangwari group radiocarbon dates point to an occupation during the patterns suggest a somewhat younger age for the Tsaunim same time period. Another radiocarbon date falling into Gurara group. The earliest evidence of iron working in this phase comes from east of the key study area, from form of furnaces falls into the period of the calibration Samun Dukiya near the village of Nok (Fagg A. 1972). curve plateau. Some potsherds found at furnace sites, It is therefore suggested that the Nok Culture continued, however, belong to the Tsaunim Gurara and Pandauke on a smaller scale and/or in other areas, until about the groups and suggest that iron working began not much turn of the Common Era. earlier than the 7th century BC, and thus later than the Nok terracotta tradition. The earliest sites of the Common Era in the key study area date as early as the 2nd century AD. Neither Starting around 400 BC the number of sites dis- Nok terracotta figurines nor Nok pottery are found covered in the key study area decreases significantly. at these sites — nor at any other Common Era site, Only a few radiocarbon dates are available from a which are generally denser covered with artefacts. handful of sites attributed to this phase. However, ter- Inventories of the Janruwa and Gimba pottery groups racotta fragments and pottery showing decorative Nok show roulette decorations; in the key study area carved

Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 14 (3) Special Issue, 2016 273 G. Franke wooden roulettes occur at least some centuries earlier needed to understand the enigma of the Nok Culture than fibre roulettes (see David & Vidal 1977). Based with its elaborate terracotta figurines. The information on the differences in site structure, find material and on the chronology of the Nok Culture presented here is the chemical composition of the clay used in pottery a first step in this direction, but by far not the last one. production (Beck 2015), the Common Era sites have Much more data from scientifically excavated sites and no connection with the Nok Culture. contextual, authentic find material are required to extend the chronological information, gained mostly in a rather small key study area, spatially and temporally — into Conclusion neighbouring regions and subsequent times.

The chronological analyses have shown that the Nok Culture spans a period of about 1500 years. It is no Acknowledgements longer defined by its characteristic terracotta figurines only, but includes an early phase without such figurines, This research has been conducted within the scope of connected through stylistic and material similarities in the long-term project “Development of complex societ- pottery and continuity in site occupation. The lack of ies in sub-Saharan Africa: The Nigerian Nok Culture”, earlier evidence of settlements suggests a migration of funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft. We people with pearl millet as staple food into the region thank our Nigerian cooperation partners, the National around the middle of the second millennium BC. The Commission for Museums and Monuments, the Univer- first terracotta figurines from secure excavation context sity of Jos, and the Ahmadu Bello University in Zaria, appear in the early first millennium BC, in connection and all people involved in the fieldwork in Nigeria. with a sharp increase in sites. Somewhat later evidence Special thanks go to Dr. Bernd Kromer and Susanne of iron working in form of furnaces is found. The main Lindauer M.Sc. from the Klaus-Tschira-Centre of Ar- phase ends in the 4th century BC; few sites — within and chaeometry, who have supplied reliable and fast dates outside of the key study area — are attributed the last in the last years. Susanne Lindauer und Dr. Alexa Höhn centuries BC, obviously representing the final phase of have helped with useful comments on the text. the Nok Culture. It is not known what happened to the people of the Nok Culture that had so densely occupied the region. But settlement continues from the early centuries AD onwards, just in a different form: with References new pottery decorations and forms, without figurines, Aitken, M.J. 1989. Luminescence dating: A guide for non- and with new staple food (Höhn & Neumann 2016). specialists. Archaeometry 31 (2), 147–159. https://doi. org/10.1111/j.1475-4754.1989.tb01010.x Even if the Nok Culture began much earlier than previously thought, the original age estimate of 500 Barendsen, G.W., Deevey, E.S. & Gralenski, L.J. 1957. Yale BC–200 AD (Fagg 1990) is partly confirmed: the Natural Radiocarbon Measurements III. Science 126, main phase of the Nok Culture with terracotta figurines 908–919. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.126.3279.908 and iron working falls into the first millennium BC. Beck, C. 2015. The Value of Art: Studies in the Material Charac- Boullier’s dates support this as well (Boullier et al. ter of the Terracotta Figurines of the Nok Culture of Central 2002/2003): with dates between the 9th and 2nd century Nigeria. PhD Thesis, Goethe University Frankfurt/Main. BC they clearly belong to the period of Nok terracotta production. These dates also show the same sharp drop Bond, G. 1956. A preliminary account of the Pleistocene geology in the 4th century BC as the project’s dates do and they of the Plateau tin fields region of Northern Nigeria. In: Pro- nd ceedings of the Third International West African Conference, are as well not younger than the 2 century BC, which Ibadan, Nigeria, 12-21 December 1949. Nigerian Museum, supports to put the end of the Nok Culture around the Lagos, pp. 187–202. turn of the Common Era. Boullier, C. 2001. Recherches méthodologiques sur la sculpture The project’s research of the last 10 years has en terre cuite africaine: application à un corpus de sculptures archéologiques – en contexte et hors contexte – de la culture provided many new insights into the Nok Culture, into Nok (Nigéria). PhD Thesis, Université Paris I – Panthéon the terracotta figurines as well as into other aspects of Sorbonne. material culture, settlement, iron working, and subsis- tence (Breunig & Rupp 2016; Höhn & Neumann 2016; Boullier, C. & Person, A. 1999. Male statuary of Nok. An ico- Junius 2016; Männel & Breunig 2016). It has, how- nography of seated male figures. The World of Tribal Arts, ever, also documented the alarming scale of devastation Summer/Autumn, 98–113. of Nok sites by organised looters, selling their booty Boullier, C., Person, A., Saliège, J.-F. & Polet, J. 2002/2003. Bilan mostly to Asian, American, and European nationals, and chronologique de la culture Nok et nouvelles datations sur des the resulting irretrievable loss of scientific information, sculptures. Afrique: Archéologie & Arts 2, 9–28.

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Reimer, P. J., Bard, E., Bayliss, A., Beck, J. W., Blackwell, P. G., Bronk Ramsey, C., Buck, C. E., Cheng, H., Edwards, L. R., Friedrich, M., Grootes, P. M., Guilderson, T. P., Haflidason, H., Hajdas, I., Hatté, C., Heaton, T. J., Hoffmann, D. L., Hogg, A. G., Hughen, K. A., Kaiser, K. F., Kromer, B., Manning, S. W., Niu, Mu., Reimer, R. W., Richards, D. A., Scott, E. M., Southon, J. R., Staff, R. A., Turney, C. S. M. & van der Pflicht, J. 2013. IntCal 13 and Marine13 Radiocarbon Age Calibration Curves 0-50,000 Years Cal BP. Radiocarbon 55 (4), 1869–1887. https://doi.org/10.2458/azu_js_rc.55.16947

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276 Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 14 (3) Special Issue, 2016 A Chronology of the Central Nigerian Nok Culture C 14 Context information for sample Context information for A, 95 cm depth unit A: extension, 100 cm depth unit A: bottom of pit feature, 100 cm depth (AB 510) unit unit C: 5th layer furnace D, infilling furnace B, infilling (AB 151) unit B5 AB 360) terracotta context (#302, AB 348) find concentration (#89, AB 356) terracotta context (#197, furnace C, infilling (AB 144) furnace B, infilling (AB 143) unit 2: 30–40 cm depth (AB 382) surface collection only (infilling furnace, 20 cm) AB 559) 80 cm depth (#2252, unit B: 80–100 cm depth (AB 506) unit B: next to tuyère fragments, 60–80 cm depth (AB 478) unit 3:lower level (#8104) unit 1: terracotta context (#5521) unit 1: bottom of area C (#6396) unit 1: upper level containing slag (#2049) unit 3: upper level (#7294) (#807) (#371) (#1239) 30–40 cm depth (AB 396) unit B2, 40 cm depth AB 185) (#816, area B (#1039) AB 190) pit feature, 100 cm depth (#1055, AB 176) 30–40 cm depth (#882, unit 1: below terracotta finds (AB 364) AB 362) unit 2: feature NE–corner (#449, AB 375) unit 2: feature SW–corner (#554, unit 6: furnace context (#1356) unit 1: furnace context (#544) unit 5 (#628) unit 5, 15 cm depth furnace B, infilling (AB 136) A, infilling (AB 137) furnace UtC 14863 UtC 14080 KIA 30266 KIA 30265 KIA Beta–38357 Beta–382620 Beta–297284 MAMS 11155 MAMS 11152 MAMS 11153 MAMS 11151 MAMS 11154 MAMS 11156 MAMS 11159 MAMS 11157 MAMS 11158 MAMS 15112 MAMS 13628 MAMS 14879 MAMS 13629 MAMS 19289 MAMS 19288 MAMS 13623 MAMS 19291 MAMS 19290 MAMS 14876 MAMS 14386 MAMS 13632 MAMS 14874 MAMS 13656 MAMS 14875 MAMS 13664 MAMS 10703 MAMS 10702 MAMS 10742 MAMS 10741 MAMS 13624 MAMS 13634 MAMS 13635 MAMS 19293 MAMS 19294 Laboratory no. C value, laboratory number and year of dating, and context information for the information C value, laboratory number and year of dating, context 13 δ 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 Year Year 2006 2012 2014 2014 2007 2014 2014 2014 2014 2012 2012 2012 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2012 2006 2009 2009 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2006 2014 2014 dated C in ‰ -9.9 -9.6 -5.4 -3.5 -8.8 13 -11.0 -28.9 -31.1 -17.0 -28.1 -12.2 -26.7 -17.6 -25.8 -16.3 -18.3 -32.3 -26.2 -17.0 -35.1 -27.3 -30.4 -26.9 -24.6 -24.6 -10.0 -18.7 -26.3 -13.2 -23.4 -28.5 -22.9 -37.7 -14.6 -15.3 -16.8 -31.1 -26.4 -31.5 -19.6 -12.8 δ 2013). Material dated Pennisetum Plant fragment Pennisetum Pennisetum Vitex Pennisetum Charcoal Pennisetum Pennisetum Charcoal Pennisetum Pennisetum Charcoal Charcoal Pennisetum Pennisetum Pennisetum Pennisetum Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Pennisetum Sorghum Charred seed Charcoal Pennisetum Charcoal Charcoal Pennisetum Charcoal Pennisetum Pennisetum Pennisetum Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Pennisetum Plant fragment Pennisetum et al.

y Reimer 2009; Bomb C14 361–61 BC 353–93 BC 54–218 AD 54–218 781–511 BC 781–511 BC 901–811 BC 811–762 728–365 BC 799–556 BC 395–209 BC 901–796 BC 797–543 BC 787–542 BC 806–554 BC 802–554 BC 748–405 BC 776–537 BC 798–510 BC 974–846 BC 898–819 BC 728–403 BC 893–772 BC 801–555 BC 736–404 BC 703–398 BC 755–403 BC 420–539 AD 420–539 AD 671–770 AD 889–994 1112–924 BC 1112–924 44 BC–61 AD 44 BC–61 1530–1316 BC 1222–1047 BC 1393–1216 BC 1674–1942 AD 1674–1942 AD 1685–1928 AD 1449–1630 AD 1295–1400 AD 1404–1450 AD 1429–1614 AD 1666–1950 95.4% probabilit Calibrated age (BC/AD) C 14 Bronk Ramsey 129±33 bp 108±21 bp 373±23 bp 616±28 bp 490±30 bp 422±25 bp 151±22 bp Bomb C14 1101±25 bp 1101±25 2354±39 bp 3176±40 bp 2849±32 bp 2545±23 bp 2257±26 bp 2669±38 bp 2530±30 bp 2490±30 bp 2508±24 bp 1891±31 bp 2160±45 bp 1583±21 bp 2562±30 bp 2552±27 bp 2936±26 bp 2428±26 bp 1991±24 bp 1279±24 bp 2495±26 bp 2514±42 bp 3036±26 bp 2768±13 bp 2708±13 bp 2704±23 bp 2408±23 bp 2632±34 bp 2586±25 bp 2550±25 bp 2421±25 bp 2392±25 bp 2431±45 bp 2144±24 bp AMS-radiocarbon dates obtained between 2005 and 2014 by the Frankfurt Nok project (n=174). Information includes site number & name, conventional name, & number site includes Information (n=174). project Nok Frankfurt the by 2014 and 2005 between obtained dates AMS-radiocarbon age in years bp Conventional Site name Akura Ankoro Ankoro Ankoro Baidesuru Furnace Baidesuru Furnace Choribariki Daji Gwana Daji Gwana Daji Gwana Daji Gwana Furnace Daji Gwana Furnace Dakko 1 Damaisa 2 Damba Dogon Daji 1 Dogon Daji 1 Doguwa 1 Doguwa 1 Doguwa 1 Doguwa 1 Doguwa 1 Dutsen Rema Gidan Danazumi Gimba Gona Kishemi Iddah 3 Ido Ido Ido Ido Ido Ifana Ifana Ifana Intini Intini Intini A Janjala Janjala Furnace Janjala Furnace C age and 1-sigma error in years bp, calibrated age (BC/AD) with 2-sigma probability, dated material and material dated probability, 2-sigma with (BC/AD) age calibrated bp, years in error 1-sigma and age C Site no. 2006/01 2011/38 2011/38 2011/38 2013/02 2013/02 2006/02 2011/40 2011/40 2011/40 2013/04 2013/04 2011/41 2011/08 2012/18 2011/42 2011/42 2010/01 2010/01 2010/01 2010/01 2010/01 2011/44 2010/02 2011/46 2011/47 2005/01 2009/01 2009/01 2009/01 2009/01 2009/01 2011/48 2011/48 2011/48 2010/03 2010/03 2010/03 2006/03 2013/15 2013/15 Table 1 (continued on next pages). Table 14 dated sample (“AB” refers to the number of the archaeobotanical sample, from which the dated material was taken; “#” gives the individually recorded find The number). conventional ages are calibrated with OxCal 4.2, IntCal13 (

Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 14 (3) Special Issue, 2016 277 G. Franke Context information for sample Context information for A, feature 1 unit unit D, 60 cm depth, beneath terracotta unit 5, 60 cm depth 50 cm depth (#597) AB 157) 30 cm depth (#276, (#625) feature 6 (#2128) feature 8 (#7341) slag and charcoal concentration (#5803) feature 6 (#4485) burnt clay concentration (#3156) 120 cm depth (AB 473) 13th layer, from within furnace, 35 cm depth AB 143) (#307, A unit unit C: 40 cm depth (#24) AB 135) unit B (#479, AB 135) unit B (#479, AB 135) unit B (#479, unit B: 40 cm depth (#558) AB 148) (#186, A unit AB 150) (#155, A unit AB 184) unit B (#167, surface collection only (AB 524) surface collection only (AB 596) unit 3: 20–40 cm depth (AB 473) AB 431) 90 cm depth (#1682, furnace C, infilling (AB 147) furnace B, infilling (AB 146) 20–40 cm depth (AB 481) 40–60 cm depth 40–60 cm depth (AB 507) AB 276) feature 2 (#1698, unit B (#326) unit C (#79) 50 cm depth (AB 297) 70 cm depth (AB 295) unit 2: feature 2, 50 cm depth (AB 288) unit 1: feature 2, 50 cm depth (AB 262) AB 471) (#232, AB 467) (#321, unit 2: 20–40 cm depth unit 1: 80–100 cm depth (AB 594) AB 167) unit 3 (#189, unit 1: 50 cm depth (#271) 50 cm depth (#462) UtC 14865 UtC 14864 KIA 30267 KIA Beta–278001 Beta–297287 Beta–320723 Beta–382622 Beta–382623 Beta–313506 Beta–383634 MAMS 11160 MAMS 11162 MAMS 11161 MAMS 11163 MAMS 11164 MAMS 11165 MAMS 11166 MAMS 11167 MAMS 11169 MAMS 11168 MAMS 17414 MAMS 10745 MAMS 10744 MAMS 13663 MAMS 13636 MAMS 13665 MAMS 10701 MAMS 13667 MAMS 15423 MAMS 10700 MAMS 13666 MAMS 19296 MAMS 13637 MAMS 13638 MAMS 19298 MAMS 19297 MAMS 14873 MAMS 14388 MAMS 13640 MAMS 13641 MAMS 14880 MAMS 13657 MAMS 13642 MAMS 10743 MAMS 10962 Laboratory no. 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 Year Year 2013 2007 2006 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2007 2009 2012 2012 2009 2014 2014 2012 2014 2014 2014 2012 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2012 2014 2010 2010 dated C in ‰ n/a n/a -8.5 -8.3 -7.4 –9.1 –7.7 –8.7 –9.2 13 -11.9 -17.7 -28.3 -27.6 -28.3 -28.1 -27.7 -33.7 -26.5 –14.7 –27.0 –10.5 –16.6 –17.3 –25.1 –26.0 –30.8 –13.7 –26.5 –12.1 –12.8 –21.1 –23.4 –24.8 –17.3 –32.3 –10.9 –20.0 –34.9 –23.3 –29.4 –24.8 –23.6 –12.8 –20.6 –25.2 δ Material dated Seed fragment Charcoal Pennisetum Charcoal Pennisetum Charcoal Pennisetum Fonio Charcoal Fonio Charcoal Pennisetum Charcoal Pennisetum Canarium Pennisetum Pennisetum Pennisetum Canarium Pennisetum Charcoal Plant fragment Pennisetum Pennisetum Pennisetum Pennisetum Seed fragment Seed fragment Pennisetum Charred seed Charcoal Canarium Pennisetum Charcoal Charcoal Canarium Pennisetum Pennisetum Plant fragment Charcoal Canarium Pennisetum Pennisetum Pennisetum Charcoal y Bomb C14 Bomb C14 Bomb C14 94–338 AD 94–338 801–546 BC 792–432 BC 776–514 BC 906–810 BC 377–168 BC 827–785 BC 797–543 BC 776–516 BC 390–205 BC 806–591 BC 796–552 BC 895–792 BC 749–412 BC 808–590 BC 997–846 BC 818–592 BC 763–431 BC 792–547 BC 749–408 BC 751–409 BC 818–557 BC 794–540 BC 788–542 BC 795–542 BC 729–404 BC 516–385 BC 133–322 AD 133–322 AD 236–386 AD 252–389 AD 134–322 AD 605–661 1005–846 BC 901–1025 AD 901–1025 from 1648 AD 9116–8547 BC 9116–8547 BC 1500–1311 6566–6423 BC 7953–7756 BC 1616–1506 BC 1600–1435 BC 1416–1301 BC 95.4% probabilit Calibrated age (BC/AD) C 14 190±30 bp Bomb C14 Bomb C14 Bomb C14 9420±60 bp 2542±32 bp 7622±34 bp 2495±43 bp 2489±28 bp 2709±27 bp 1800±40 bp 1799±24 bp 1740±30 bp 1719±24 bp 1797±23 bp 2193±38 bp 2621±25 bp 8791±18 bp 3282±22 bp 3230±22 bp 3150±30 bp 3094±14 bp 2530±30 bp 2491±28 bp 2240±30 bp 2567±24 bp 2538±23 bp 2655±29 bp 2445±18 bp 2570±27 bp 2776±24 bp 2585±30 bp 2464±25 bp 2523±24 bp 1406±23 bp 2437±24 bp 2443±27 bp 2581±34 bp 2516±32 bp 1053±26 bp 2783±27 bp 2509±24 bp 2520±30 bp 2414±23 bp 2361±28 bp age in years bp Conventional Site name Janruwa A Janruwa A Janruwa A Janruwa B Janruwa B Janruwa B Janruwa C Janruwa C Janruwa C Janruwa C Janruwa C Janruwa E Joh Mari Kachama 1 Kachama 2 Kachama 2 Kachama 2 Kachama 2 Kachama 2 Kachama 2 Kachama 2 Kachama 2 Kaguni 1 Kaguni 2 Kangale Kasangwai 2 Kolin Kuchimi Furnace Kolin Kuchimi Furnace Kudu 3 Kufai Gwari 2 Kufai Kuku 2 Kurmin Uwa 1 Kurmin Uwa 2 Kurmin Uwa 2 Kushe 3 Kushe 7 Kusuma Kusuma Mashikin Dandoka Mashikin Dandoka Mashikin Kadun Mashikin Kadun Pabeki Pabeki Pandauke Site no. 2006/04 2006/04 2006/04 2009/02 2009/02 2009/02 2010/04 2010/04 2010/04 2010/04 2010/04 2011/50 2006/05 2009/03 2009/14 2009/14 2009/14 2009/14 2009/14 2009/14 2009/14 2009/14 2011/24 2012/01 2011/52 2011/53 2013/03 2013/03 2011/55 2011/06 2011/57 2010/05 2010/06 2010/06 2010/07 2010/08 2010/09 2010/09 2011/59 2011/59 2011/60 2011/60 2009/05 2009/05 2009/06

278 Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 14 (3) Special Issue, 2016 A Chronology of the Central Nigerian Nok Culture Context information for sample Context information for AB 37) stone circle, 25 cm (#275, AB 105) unit F: 17 cm, (#454, unit E: feature 12, 57 cm (#5017) AB 44) stone circle, feature 4, 86 cm (#487, AB 78) unit E: feature 12, 55 cm (#5224, unit C: near pottery (early Nok), 29 cm (#2002) AB 40) unit B: feature 2B, 73 cm (#1013, AB 112) 74 cm (#5794, unit E: feature 11, unit E: feature 12, 89 cm (#5932) AB 72) 48 cm (#5346, unit E: near feature 11, AB 126) 153 cm (#6636, unit E: feature 11, AB 70) unit D: feature 9 – lower level, 123 cm (#3753, AB 68) unit E: feature 10, 53 cm (#4829, AB 123) unit D: feature 9, 86 cm (#3406, AB 129) stone circle: feature 4, 120 cm (#505, AB 116) unit E: feature 10, 96 cm (#6106, AB 107) cm (#6240, unit E: feature 12, 110 AB 32) unit B: feature 2B, 77 cm (#1352, and 12, 171 cm (#6648) unit E: between feature 11 AB 104) unit F: find concentration, 43 cm (#756, unit E: east of feature 10, 124 cm (#6620) 182 cm (#6692) unit E: feature 11, unit D: feature 8, 50 cm (#3242) AB 54) unit D: feature 9 – upper level, 54 cm (#2910, unit F: feature 13, 31 cm (#752) unit E: feature 10, 90 cm (#6103) AB 43) unit B: feature 2B, 45 cm (#1105, AB 48) unit C: near terracotta part, 28 cm (#1808, test excavation (unit B), 60–80 cm depth (AB 523) 2011 AB 73) – middle level, 72 cm (#5750, unit E: feature 11 AB 108) unit E: feature 10, 54 cm (#4924, AB 55) unit D: feature 8, 50 cm (#3246, AB 56) unit D: near pottery (early Nok), 36 cm (#2698, AB 77) unit F: charcoal and terracotta, 26 cm (#289, AB 39) unit B: feature 3 (possible fire pit), 37 cm depth (#1357, AB 50) unit C: feature 6, 41 cm (#2051, unit D: near pottery (early Nok), 14 cm (#2421) unit D: 30–50 cm depth A: 50 cm depth (AB 289) unit unit B: 30 cm depth (AB 286) furnace context (AB 350) AB 451) unit E: area Ib – inside stone circle (#977, AB 457) unit E: area Ia – outside stone circle (#161, AB 454) unit E: area III (#1150, unit D: 90 cm depth (AB 455) unit B: 100 cm depth (AB 441) KIA 49509 KIA 49508 KIA 49510 KIA Beta–347870 Beta–347871 Beta–347873 Beta–313507 Beta–347872 MAMS 11170 MAMS 11171 MAMS 11172 MAMS 17858 MAMS 19307 MAMS 17851 MAMS 17859 MAMS 17845 MAMS 19303 MAMS 17852 MAMS 19306 MAMS 19301 MAMS 19309 MAMS 19304 MAMS 19305 MAMS 17842 MAMS 17854 MAMS 19308 MAMS 17853 MAMS 17855 MAMS 19300 MAMS 17849 MAMS 17857 MAMS 19299 MAMS 17844 MAMS 19302 MAMS 17850 MAMS 17848 MAMS 17856 MAMS 17843 MAMS 17846 MAMS 17847 MAMS 13643 MAMS 13626 MAMS 13646 MAMS 13645 MAMS 13625 MAMS 13644 Laboratory no. 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 Year Year 2013 2014 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2014 2013 2013 2014 2013 2013 2014 2014 2014 2014 2013 2013 2014 2013 2013 2014 2013 2013 2013 2014 2013 2012 2013 2014 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2010 2010 2010 dated C in ‰ –7.6 –8.6 –6.5 –8.8 –7.9 –8.7 –9.4 –9.8 –8.1 –9.4 –7.6 –5.6 –9.0 –6.3 13 –11.8 –15.1 –15.9 –26.3 –25.1 –26.3 –10.4 –14.3 –29.6 –27.1 –24.8 –23.7 –23.9 –43.8 –23.8 –23.1 –23.6 –13.0 –10.2 –19.8 –26.3 –13.0 –25.4 –22.9 –26.2 –26.8 –26.7 –17.7 –18.3 –16.5 –21.2 –17.0 δ Material dated Pennisetum Seed fragment Canarium Pennisetum Pennisetum Charcoal Pennisetum Pennisetum Charcoal Pennisetum Pennisetum Pennisetum Pennisetum Pennisetum Pennisetum Pennisetum Pennisetum Pennisetum Charcoal Pennisetum Charcoal Charcoal Canarium Pennisetum Charcoal Charcoal Pennisetum Seed fragment Pennisetum Pennisetum Pennisetum Pennisetum Pennisetum Seed fragment Seed fragment Seed fragment Charcoal Charcoal Canarium Canarium Charcoal Pennisetum Pennisetum Pennisetum Pennisetum Pennisetum y Bomb C14 191–54 BC 754–411 BC 754–411 BC 411–235 812–791 BC 804–794 BC 826–771 BC 826–763 BC 806–775 BC 805–774 BC 803–773 BC 801–771 BC 801–771 BC 800–597 BC 799–556 BC 790–553 BC 776–547 BC 776–543 BC 770–540 BC 762–540 BC 774–434 BC 758–435 BC 757–431 BC 791–541 BC 927–814 BC 810–598 BC 93 BC–5 AD 93 BC–5 1120–977 BC 1120–977 1025–918 BC 1001–848 BC 1356–1211 BC 1356–1211 BC 1260–1125 BC 1193–1015 BC 1391–1126 1497–1415 BC 1416–1298 BC 1381–1056 BC 1257–1044 BC 1489–1310 BC 1214–1030 BC 1209–1021 BC 1019–1150 AD 1019–1150 AD 1042–1184 1449–1616 AD 1449–1616 AD 1454–1624 AD 1659–1955 95.4% probabilit Calibrated age (BC/AD) C 14 971±14 bp 904±15 bp 383±14 bp 365±14 bp 199±14 bp Bomb C14 3011±37 bp 3011±37 3172±18 bp 3093±16 bp 3016±16 bp 2985±40 bp 2973±19 bp 2940±30 bp 2826±17 bp 2780±21 bp 2617±15 bp 2610±17 bp 2610±30 bp 2600±30 bp 2591±18 bp 2590±18 bp 2581±17 bp 2577±17 bp 2574±15 bp 2553±16 bp 2545±22 bp 2524±15 bp 2510±16 bp 2504±18 bp 2490±21 bp 2481±16 bp 2480±30 bp 2463±18 bp 2461±19 bp 2450±30 bp 2310±30 bp 2105±21 bp 2037±14 bp 3135±21 bp 2907±21 bp 2874±21 bp 2512±30 bp 2925±27 bp 2918±26 bp 2730±29 bp 2580±25 bp age in years bp Conventional Site name Pangwari Pangwari Pangwari Pangwari Pangwari Pangwari Pangwari Pangwari Pangwari Pangwari Pangwari Pangwari Pangwari Pangwari Pangwari Pangwari Pangwari Pangwari Pangwari Pangwari Pangwari Pangwari Pangwari Pangwari Pangwari Pangwari Pangwari Pangwari Pangwari Pangwari Pangwari Pangwari Pangwari Pangwari Pangwari Pangwari Pangwari Pantaki 1 Pantaki 3 Pantaki 3 Pulu Puntun Dutse Puntun Dutse Puntun Dutse Puntun Dutse Puntun Dutse Site no. 2012/34 2012/34 2012/34 2012/34 2012/34 2012/34 2012/34 2012/34 2012/34 2012/34 2012/34 2012/34 2012/34 2012/34 2012/34 2012/34 2012/34 2012/34 2012/34 2012/34 2012/34 2012/34 2012/34 2012/34 2012/34 2012/34 2012/34 2012/34 2012/34 2012/34 2012/34 2012/34 2012/34 2012/34 2012/34 2012/34 2012/34 2010/11 2011/12 2011/12 2011/62 2011/63 2011/63 2011/63 2011/63 2011/63

Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 14 (3) Special Issue, 2016 279 G. Franke C age and 1-sigma 14 C ages are calibrated with C ages are calibrated 14 Context information for sample Context information for 40–60 cm depth (AB 486) 60–80 cm depth (AB 556) 50 cm depth (AB 565) unit 2: 80–100 cm depth (AB 480) 20–40 cm depth unit F, furnace B, infilling (AB 140) A, infilling (AB 139) furnace unit 2 (#341) AB 340) unit 1: furnace context (#386, AB 402) 80 cm depth (#2207, feature 3 (AB 424) feature 4 (AB 408) AB 445) sediment from anthropomorph vessel (#3216, 40–60 cm depth (AB 282) unit 1: 40–60 cm depth (AB 465) unit 2: 40–60 cm depth (AB 468) feature 1, 70 cm depth (AB 398) AB 321) unit 2: upper layer (#251, unit 2: lower layer (#495) 10–20 cm depth unit 1: pit feature, 80 cm depth (#81) AB 123) unit 6 (#431, AB 121) unit 16 (#264, AB 84) unit 5 (#271, AB 123) unit 6 (#431, AB 69) unit 1 (#202, AB 85) unit 5 (#420, AB 107) unit 9–2 (#1899, AB 118) unit 16 (#185, unit 1: next to terracotta head, 80 cm depth (#345) AB 120) unit 14 (#419, AB 97) unit 7 (#356, AB 94) unit 7 (#430, AB 123) unit 6 (#431, AB 114) unit 12 (#1358, unit 12: pit feature, 80 cm depth (#634) AB 99) unit 9 (#684, cm depth (#1764) unit 9: 110 AB 394) unit 6 (#251, unit H unit 5 (#94) unit H, 60 cm depth Erl–12293 Erl–12294 Erl–12295 KIA 36367 KIA 36368 KIA Beta–297286 Beta–382633 Beta–382626 Beta–382624 Beta–383627 Beta–382631 Beta–382628 Beta–382629 Beta–320724 Beta–384855 Beta–382630 MAMS 15111 MAMS 11173 MAMS 15113 MAMS 15114 MAMS 13647 MAMS 13648 MAMS 19312 MAMS 19310 MAMS 13649 MAMS 13658 MAMS 14878 MAMS 14877 MAMS 13627 MAMS 13651 MAMS 13652 MAMS 13653 MAMS 13654 MAMS 14387 MAMS 13660 MAMS 15414 MAMS 13662 MAMS 13661 MAMS 13655 MAMS 16184 MAMS 13659 MAMS 13650 Laboratory no. 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 Year Year 2012 2012 2012 2014 2014 2012 2012 2010 2008 2014 2014 2012 2014 2014 2014 2008 2014 2014 2012 2014 2008 2014 2008 2013 2008 dated C in ‰ –5.4 –8.5 –8.7 –9.3 –7.1 –9.5 –7.8 –8.3 –9.7 –8.4 –8.9 –8.8 13 –11.5 –11.2 –15.5 –28.9 –20.8 –27.9 –19.5 –29.4 –24.0 –29.0 –14.2 –21.6 –10.3 –16.6 –10.8 –10.3 –25.7 –23.1 –17.9 –23.8 –23.1 –26.0 –15.5 –25.5 –24.4 –10.1 –12.7 –28.2 –35.5 –24,4 δ C value, laboratory number and year of dating, and context information for the dated sample (“AB” 13 δ Material dated Pennisetum Canarium Pennisetum Charcoal Canarium Pennisetum Pennisetum Elais Charcoal Pennisetum Pennisetum Pennisetum Canarium Pennisetum Pennisetum Pennisetum Pennisetum Pennisetum Pennisetum Plant fragment Charcoal Pennisetum Pennisetum Seed fragment Pennisetum Pennisetum Canarium Pennisetum Pennisetum Pennisetum Pennisetum Pennisetum Pennisetum Pennisetum Pennisetum Pennisetum Pennisetum Pennisetum Pennisetum Canarium Canarium Charcoal y Bomb C14 895–795 BC 772–540 BC 801–549 BC 803–555 BC 731–408 BC 908–806 BC 753–412 BC 916–815 BC 895–797 BC 798–549 BC 771–540 BC 802–594 BC 801–553 BC 808–591 BC 768–430 BC 830–788 BC 831–775 BC 814–590 BC 803–770 BC 799–547 BC 799–547 BC 799–547 BC 794–551 BC 801–485 BC 771–431 BC 768–431 BC 758–429 BC 751–408 BC 739–401 BC 748–371 BC 536–383 BC 400–186 BC 810–775 BC 761–431 BC 763–430 BC 727–397 BC 130–238 AD 130–238 1107–927 BC 1107–927 1015–906 BC 1375–1128 BC 1375–1128 8547–8285 BC 95.4% probabilit Calibrated age (BC/AD) 2013). C 14 et al.

Reimer Bomb C14 2811±22 bp 2811±22 2661±28 bp 2494±21 bp 1829±20 bp 2546±30 bp 2555±27 bp 2425±20 bp 2703±31 bp 2450±27 bp 2848±24 bp 2723±27 bp 2665±28 bp 2539±28 bp 2493±21 bp 2560±20 bp 2549±26 bp 3001±23 bp 2571±26 bp 2470±40 bp 9177±56 bp 2627±25 bp 2620±30 bp 2580±30 bp 2579±20 bp 2540±30 bp 2540±30 bp 2540±30 bp 2531±21 bp 2520±49 bp 2475±30 bp 2470±30 bp 2460±30 bp 2440±30 bp 2410±30 bp 2374±46 bp 2360±30 bp 2241±53 bp 2600±22 bp 2463±22 bp 2463±30 bp 2392±27 bp age in years bp Conventional 2009; Bronk Ramsey AMS-radiocarbon dates obtained between 2005 and 2014 by the Frankfurt Nok project (n=174). Information includes site number & name, conventional Site name Abutu Rafin Adada Rafin Rafin Dako Rafin Pah 1 Rafin Pah 2 Ruga Fulani Furnace Ruga Fulani Furnace Sabon Janruwa Sabon Janruwa Lafiya Taka Lafiya Taka Lafiya Taka Lafiya Taka Bakka 1 Tsaunim Gurara 1 Tsaunim Gurara 1 Tsaunim Maganda Tsaunim Dosa Tudun Dosa Tudun Kaura Tudun Ungwar Kura Ungwar Kura Ungwar Kura Ungwar Kura Ungwar Kura Ungwar Kura Ungwar Kura Ungwar Kura Ungwar Kura Ungwar Kura Ungwar Kura Ungwar Kura Ungwar Kura Ungwar Kura Ungwar Kura Ungwar Kura Ungwar Kura Ungwar Kura Utak Kamuan Garaje Kagoro Utak Kamuan Garaje Kagoro Utak Kamuan Garaje Kagoro Utak Kamuan Garaje Kagoro Site no. 2011/64 2012/04 2012/19 2011/65 2012/26 2011/07 2011/07 2011/66 2011/66 2011/67 2011/67 2011/67 2011/67 2010/13 2011/68 2011/68 2011/69 2011/70 2011/70 2011/04 2007/01 2007/01 2007/01 2007/01 2007/01 2007/01 2007/01 2007/01 2007/01 2007/01 2007/01 2007/01 2007/01 2007/01 2007/01 2007/01 2007/01 2007/01 2008/05 2008/05 2008/05 2008/05 error in years bp, dated calibrated material age and (BC/AD) with 2-sigma probability, conventional The number). find recorded individually the gives “#” taken; was material dated the which from sample, archaeobotanical the of number the to refers OxCal 4.2, IntCal13 ( Table 1 (end). Table

280 Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 14 (3) Special Issue, 2016 A Chronology of the Central Nigerian Nok Culture Remarks excavation unit 72, 70 cm depth collected from looting hole collected from looting hole collected from looting hole received from locals received from locals received from locals A furnace # 198 A furnace furnace B furnace C excavation unit B, 50 cm depth test trench unit 6 furnace B A furnace furnace C furnace B collected from looting hole unit 3: #143 collected from looting hole A furnace furnace B unit 1: #441 # 3631 Dated material terracotta fragment terracotta fragment terracotta fragment terracotta fragment terracotta fragment terracotta fragment terracotta fragment tuyère fragment terracotta fragment furnace fragment furnace fragment furnace fragment terracotta fragment potsherd furnace fragment furnace fragment furnace fragment furnace fragment furnace fragment terracotta fragment potsherd terracotta fragment furnace fragment furnace fragment furnace fragment vessel fragment 2007 2007 2007 2007 2007 2007 2007 2014 2013 2014 2014 2014 2007 2013 2013 2014 2014 2014 2014 2007 2013 2007 2014 2014 2013 2013 Base year n 2011 2011 2011 2006 2006 2006 2006 2005 2005 2005 2013 2013 2013 2013 2005 2010 2010 2013 2013 2013 2013 2005 2009 2006 2013 2013 Year of Year collectio 5A72 3POL K 955 K 953 K 957 K 959 K 951 2ANK 1ANK 4AKW MAL 10123 MAL 10090 MAL 10126 MAL 10127 MAL 10128 MAL 10091 MAL 10095 MAL 10130 MAL 10129 MAL 10131 MAL 10132 MAL 10093 MAL 10124 MAL 10125 MAL 10094 MAL 10096 MAL Laboratory no. TL TL TL TL TL TL TL TL TL TL TL TL TL TL TL TL OSL OSL OSL OSL OSL OSL OSL OSL OSL OSL Method , if any). 930–588 BC 758–438 BC 518–248 BC 747–389 BC 728–392 BC 599–229 BC 860–488 BC 687–287 BC 510–204 BC 445–157 BC 164–364 AD 164–364 AD 164–364 AD 164–464 AD 214–514 AD 414–714 AD 364–664 AD 264–464 1064–720 BC years BC/AD 713–1013 AD 713–1013 1113–1333 AD 1113–1333 1238–1388 AD 1238–1388 36 BC–264 AD 36 BC–264 AD 36 BC–264 AD 36 BC–164 AD 387 BC–13 337 BC–163 AD 337 BC–163 Age range in calendar Age range in calendar 700±75 800±100 1150±150 2899±172 2766±171 2605±160 2390±248 2575±179 2567±168 2421±185 1750±100 2100±250 1900±150 1900±150 1750±100 2681±186 2500±200 1700±150 1650±150 1450±150 1500±150 2364±153 2308±144 1950±100 1650±100 2200±200 Age in years Site name Akura Akwaya Daji Ankoro Ankoro Anzah Gida Anzah Gida Anzah Gida Baidesuru Daji Gwana Daji Gwana Furnace Daji Gwana Furnace Daji Gwana Furnace Iddah 3 Ido Intini Janjala Furnace Janjala Furnace Janjala Furnace Kolin Kuchimi Kurmin Lemu Pabeki Polwaya Ruga Fulani Ruga Fulani Sabon Janruwa Lafiya Taka Luminescence dates obtained by the Frankfurt Nok project (n=27). Information includes site number & name, age and 1-sigma error in years, age range in years BC/AD, method Site no. 2006/01 2006/09 2011/38 2011/38 2005/03 2005/03 2005/03 2013/02 2011/40 2013/14 2013/14 2013/14 2005/01 2009/01 2010/03 2013/15 2013/15 2013/15 2013/03 2005/15 2009/05 2006/16 2011/07 2011/07 2011/66 2011/67 Table 2a. Table used year (OSL=optically sample stimulated TL=thermoluminescence), laboratory luminescence, was number, collected and dated (base year for calendar year calculation), dated material, and context information (“#” gives the individually recorded find number

Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 14 (3) Special Issue, 2016 281 G. Franke 75 50 100 250 150 150 100 200 150 150 200 150 150 150 100 100 200 years Error in Error 700 800 1150 1750 2100 1900 1850 1750 2500 1650 1700 1450 1450 1950 1650 2200 2510 years Age in (quartz e,ß 5.2 ± 0.6 5.5 ± 0.5 5.2 ± 0.8 5.4 ± 0.4 4.0 ± 1.5 5.3 ± 0.5 5.3 ± 0.6 3.4 ± 0.7 8.8 ± 1.1 5.4 ± 0.5 5.4 ± 0.6 4.0 ± 0.1 6.6 ± 0.9 11.5 ± 0.3 11.5 10.5 ± 1.5 5.3 ± 0.44 13.0 ± 2.8 D minerals) [Gy] n/a 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.11 0.11 0.08 0.12 0.14 0.14 0.08 0.18 0.09 0.15 0.12 0.07 a-value (Dβ/Dα) n/a (fine-grain 8.9 ± 0.3 9.0 ± 0.4 8.9 ± 0.6 9.6 ± 0.4 5.2 ± 0.4 7.9 ± 0.5 5.7 ± 1.2 7.7 ± 0.5 8.3 ± 0.8 8.2 ± 0.4 6.6 ± 0.3 16.0 ± 1.5 13.8 ± 0.7 10.9 ± 0.2 10.5 ± 0.5 14.2 ± 1.0 e,ß particles) [Gy] D n/a n/a K [%] 2.3 ± 0.3 3.7 ± 0.3 2.8 ± 0.2 3.2 ± 0.2 1.2 ± 0.1 1.3 ± 0.04 1.4 ± 0.04 1.4 ± 0.04 1.3 ± 0.04 0.9 ± 0.03 1.3 ± 0.05 1.0 ± 0.05 1.8 ± 0.07 1.2 ± 0.04 1.3 ± 0.04 /g] μg n/a n/a U [ 3.8 ± 0.1 6.3 ± 0.4 3.7 ± 0.2 3.6 ± 0.2 4.2 ± 0.2 3.8 ± 0.3 3.2 ± 0.2 6.0 ± 0.2 4.8 ± 0.2 3.9 ± 0.2 3.9 ± 0.2 2.4 ± 0.1 2.8 ± 0.1 4.0 ± 0.2 4.1 ± 0.2 Environment /g] μg n/a n/a 6.8 ± 0.2 9.6 ± 0.3 8.3 ± 0.3 8.2 ± 0.2 Th [ 11.7 ± 0.2 11.7 11.0 ± 0.2 11.0 12.5 ± 0.4 13.4 ± 0.4 12.5 ± 0.4 6.83 ± 0.2 12.5 ± 0.4 16.9 ± 0.3 13.2 ± 0.3 14.8 ± 0.3 13.0 ± 0.3 1 6 3 3 5 11 11 12 29 16 13 14 16 15 26 n/a n/a Δ [%] K [%] 1.1 ± 0.2 4.8 ± 0.4 1.1 ± 0.1 2.9 ± 0.2 1.1 ± 0.1 1.7 ± 0.1 3.1 ± 0.2 2.1 ± 0.04 1.0 ± 0.03 1.3 ± 0.04 1.3 ± 0.04 0.9 ± 0.03 1.4 ± 0.04 1.0 ± 0.04 1.3 ± 0.05 1.4 ± 0.04 1.2 ± 0.04 /g] μg U [ 2.9 ± 0.1 4.1 ± 0.3 4.3 ± 0.1 3.8 ± 0.2 3.7 ± 0.2 2.4 ± 0.2 4.9 ± 0.2 5.3 ± 0.2 5.6 ± 0.2 4.5 ± 0.1 4.3 ± 0.2 3.7 ± 0.1 4.5 ± 0.3 3.8 ± 0.1 5.9 ± 0.3 4.1 ± 0.2 3.1 ± 0.2 Object /g] μg 6.6 ± 0.2 6.4 ± 0.2 8.3 ± 0.3 8.0 ± 0.2 Th [ 17.7 ± 0.4 15.5 ± 0.3 13.6 ± 0.3 12.8 ± 0.3 27.6 ± 0.6 16.3 ± 0.3 10.1 ± 0.3 27.0 ± 0.5 34.8 ± 0.7 16.4 ± 0.3 18.0 ± 0.4 33.5 ± 0.7 15.3 ± 0.3 3 2 1 8 2 2 11 13 15 10 14 15 16 12 10 1.0 2.0 Δ [%] no. MAL 10123 MAL MAL 10090 MAL 10126 MAL MAL 10127 MAL 10128 MAL MAL 10091 MAL MAL 10095 MAL 10129 MAL MAL 10130 MAL 10131 MAL MAL 10132 MAL 10124 MAL MAL 10093 MAL 10125 MAL 10094 MAL 10096 MAL MAL 10092 MAL Laboratory Values of thermoluminescence measurements on the ceramic objects and the environmental samples performed by the Klaus-Tschira-Centre in Mannheim, Germany (MAL). of thermoluminescence measurements on the ceramic objects and environmental samples performed by Klaus-Tschira-Centre Values Site name Baidesuru Daji Gwana Daji Gwana Furnace Daji Gwana Furnace Daji Gwana Furnace Ido Intini Janjala Furnace Janjala Furnace Janjala Furnace Kolin Kuchimi Pabeki Ruga Fulani Ruga Fulani Sabon Janruwa Lafiya Taka Dosa Tudun Table 2b. Table Site no. 2013/02 2011/40 2013/14 2013/14 2013/14 2009/01 2010/03 2013/15 2013/15 2013/15 2013/03 2011/07 2009/05 2011/07 2011/66 2011/67 2011/70

282 Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 14 (3) Special Issue, 2016 A Chronology of the Central Nigerian Nok Culture Pottery Classification Gurara / Pandauke group Tsaunim Gimba group n/a Puntun Dutse group (in excavation units) Ungwar Kura group (surface collection) n/a Pandauke group Gimba group Gurara group Tsaunim Puntun Dutse / Ifana n/a Pandauke group n/a Janruwa group Gurara group Tsaunim Puntun Dutse (mostly unit 3) / Pangwari (unit 1) group Gimba group Gimba group Gurara group Tsaunim Gimba group Gimba group Pangwari group (special vessels) C C 14 14 Chronological classification Chronological Middle Nok of Middle Nok (based on OSL terracotta fragment) Middle Nok (based on Early, of surface terracotta finds) OSL of Middle Nok (based on OSL terracotta fragment) Probably Nok (based on date) Post-Nok Middle Nok Probably Nok (based on date) Late Nok Post-Nok Post-Nok Middle Nok Middle, Post-Nok Early, Post-Nok Middle Nok Post-Nok Post-Nok Middle Nok - terracotta Finds slag, charcoal, iron object (axe), pottery, Burnt clay, stone artefacts, terracotta stone settings, terracotta Pottery, stone artefacts, terracotta charcoal, pottery, Burnt clay, (only surface finds) terracotta Pottery, slag, Seven furnaces. Charcoal, iron object, pottery, stone artefacts, tuyère fragments slag Charcoal, pottery, slag, Almost complete terracotta. Charcoal, pottery, stone artefacts, terracotta slag, stone artefacts, Three furnaces. Charcoal, pottery, terracotta, tuyère fragments slag, terracotta (incl. a double-head pottery, Burnt clay, ed terracotta figure) Seven to eight furnaces. Charcoal, pottery slag, stone charcoal, iron objects, pottery, Burnt clay, artefacts slag, terracotta, tuyère fragments Charcoal, pottery, charcoal, iron head in trench 1. Burnt clay, Terracotta object, slag, stone artefact, pottery, slag, stone artefacts charcoal, pottery, Burnt clay, stone artefacts, terracotta charcoal, pottery, Burnt clay, slag, stone artefacts Charcoal, iron objects, pottery, Pottery terracotta Charcoal, pottery, No No No No No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Key area ), total station (ca. 7900 Sites investigated by the Frankfurt Nok project for which absolute dates are available (n=69). Information includes site number & name, information on ) in arbitrary levels 2 ) in arbitrary levels 2 2 ) in arbitrary levels ) in arbitrary levels ) in arbitrary levels 2 2 2 ) in arbitrary levels total) in arbitrary levels 2 2 ), total station (ca. 380 finds) ), total station (ca. 2900 finds) ), total station (ca. 800 finds) ), total station (ca. 600 finds) ), total station (ca. 1400 finds) ) in arbitrary levels 2 2 2 2 2 2 ) in arbitrary levels, extensive 2 ) 2 Form and size of excavation 1 trench (6 m testing (51m Not excavated, finds collected from looting holes 3 trenches (9 m Not excavated, finds collected from looters and looting holes 1 trench (22.5 m 5 trenches (205 m 1 trench (30 m 1 trench (29.25 m 2 trenches (18 m Not excavated. Dating sample from 20 cm depth 1 trench (30 m 2 trenches (18 m 3 trenches (66.5 m finds) 1 trench (40 m 1 trench (51 m 1 trench (40 m 1 trench (16 m 3 trenches (9 m Site name & number Akura 2006/01 Akwaya Daji 2006/09 Ankoro 2011/38 Anzah Gida 2005/03 Baidesuru Furnace 2013/02 Choribariki 2006/02 Daji Gwana 2011/40 Daji Gwana Furnace 2013/04 Dakko 1 2011/41 Damaisa 2 2011/08 Damba 2012/18 Dogon Daji 1 2011/42 Doguwa 1 2010/01 Dutsen Rema 2011/44 Gidan Danazumi 2010/02 Gimba 2011/46 Gona Kishimi 2011/47 Iddah 3 2005/01 3 (continued on next page). Table excavation, location and finds, an absolute-chronological as well a pottery classification.

Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 14 (3) Special Issue, 2016 283 G. Franke Pottery Classification Puntun Dutse / Ido group Gimba group Ifana / Pangwari group Gurara / Pandauke group Tsaunim Pandauke group Gimba group Gurara group Tsaunim Pangwari / Gurara group Tsaunim Janruwa group Janruwa group Janruwa group n/a Pangwari group Puntun Dutse / Ido /Pangwari group n/a n/a Gurara group Tsaunim Gimba group Pangwari group n/a Puntun Dutse group (one sherd) / Gurara group Tsaunim C date) C date) 14 14 Chronological classification Chronological Middle, Post-Nok Early, Middle Nok Middle Nok Middle Nok on (based Nok Probably Middle Nok Middle Post-Nok Post-Nok Late Nok Middle Nok Middle Nok Early, Late Nok Middle Nok Middle, Post-Nok (trench 2) Middle Nok on (based Nok Probably Middle Nok Excavation to terracotta, tuyère fragments Finds slag, pottery, objects, metal charcoal, clay, burnt fragments, Bone stone artefacts, terracotta, tuyère fragments stone pottery, charcoal, clay, Burnt 1. IFA in figures terracotta Six artefacts, terracotta stone slag, pottery, object, iron charcoal, clay, Burnt furnaces. Two artefacts, slag, terracotta Complete terracotta. Charcoal, pottery, charcoal, slag, terracotta fragment, Three furnaces. Burnt clay, tuyère fragment Features with terracotta, stone pottery, beads. Charcoal, pottery, stone artefacts, terracotta terracotta artefacts, stone pottery, object, iron charcoal, clay, Burnt slag, stone artefacts charcoal, iron objects, pottery, Burnt clay, slag, stone charcoal, artefacts. pottery, Burnt clay, check a geomagnetic anomaly charcoal, iron pieces, slag furnaces. Burnt clay, Two stone artefacts, terracotta charcoal, pottery, Burnt clay, Burnt clay, charcoal, iron objects, pottery, slag, stone artefacts, terracotta terracotta Pottery, terracotta Pottery, slag Charcoal, iron object, pottery, stone artefacts, terracotta charcoal, pottery, Burnt clay, slag, tuyère fragments Three furnaces. Charcoal, pottery, Charcoal, pottery No No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Key area ) ) 2 2 ) 2 ), extensive 2 ) in arbitrary ) in arbitrary ), total stationtotal ), ) ), total station ), total station ), total 2 2 2 ) in arbitrary ) in arbitrary ) in arbitrary ), total station ), total station ), total 2 2 2 ), total station ), total station ), total station ), total station 2 2 2 2 ) 2 2 2 2 Sites investigated by the Frankfurt Nok project for which absolute dates are available (n=69). Information includes site number & name, information on ) 2 Form and size of excavation 1 trench (130 m finds) (ca. 1100 m (89 trenches 2 (ca. 1500 finds) m (75 trenches 6 (ca. 1400 finds) 10 test pits (ca. 30 m 1 trench (25 m levels m 20 (ca. pits test 6 testing (ca. 30 m 1 trench (120 m (ca. 500 finds) 1 trench (96 m (ca. 12,000 finds) pit (6 m Test 1 trench (1.5 m 1 trench (60 m (ca. 400 finds), test pits (5 m m (114 trenches 4 (ca. 950 finds), test pits (9 m Not excavated, finds collected from looting holes Not excavated, finds collected from looting holes 3 trenches (22 m levels 1 trench (72 m (ca. 1500 finds) 2 trenches (25 m levels 1 trench (15 m levels Site name & number Ido 2009/01 Ifana 2011/48 Intini 2010/03 A Janjala 2006/03 Janjala Furnace 2013/05 Janruwa A 2006/04 Janruwa B 2009/02 Janruwa C 2010/04 Janruwa E 2011/50 Joh Mari 2006/05 Kachama 1 2009/03 Kachama 2 2009/04 Kaguni 1 2011/24 Kaguni 2 2012/01 Kangale 2011/52 Kasangwai 2 2011/53 Furnace Kuchimi Kolin 2013/03 Kudu 3 2011/55 Table 3 (continued on next page). Table excavation, location and finds, an absolute-chronological as well a pottery classification.

284 Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 14 (3) Special Issue, 2016 A Chronology of the Central Nigerian Nok Culture Pottery Classification n/a Pangwari group n/a Puntun Dutse group (one sherd) / Pandauke Gimba group Pangwari group Janruwa / Gimba group Pangwari group Pangwari group Pangwari group Possibly Puntun Dutse group (two sherds) Gimba group group Gurara Tsaunim / (MK_2) group Dutse Puntun (MK_1) Pangwari group Gimba group Pandauke group Puntun Dutse / Ifana Pangwari group Gimba group Pangwari group Puntun Dutse group n/a n/a Puntun Dutse / Ido group Janruwa group (one sherd) C date) 14 Chronological classification Chronological Middle Nok Middle Nok Middle to Late Nok (based on of terracotta fragment) OSL Middle Nok Middle, Post-Nok Middle Nok Middle Nok Middle Nok Post-Nok Early to Middle Nok Middle Nok Middle Nok Middle, Post-Nok Early, Early Nok (based on Early Nok Middle to Late Nok (based on of terracotta fragment) OSL Middle Nok Middle Nok Early, - - Finds slag, stone artefacts charcoal, pottery, Burnt clay, terracotta charcoal, pottery, Burnt clay, stone artefacts, terracotta Pottery, Burnt clay, bone fragments, charcoal, iron object, slag, stone artefacts, terracotta pottery, terracotta artefacts, stone pottery, charcoal, clay, Burnt stone artefacts Charcoal, pottery, head) complete (including terracotta pottery, Charcoal, terracotta artefacts, stone pottery, charcoal, clay, Burnt (including small head) stone slag, pottery, objects, iron charcoal, clay, Burnt artefacts terracotta artefacts, stone pottery, charcoal, clay, Burnt terracotta artefacts, stone pottery, charcoal, clay, Burnt Burnt clay, charcoal, pottery, slag, stone artefacts, terracotta, tuyère fragments object,iron charcoal, clay, Burnt deposits. Terracotta slag, stone artefacts, terracotta pottery, Burnt charcoal, clay, iron object, slag, pottery, stone artefacts, terracotta terracotta artefacts, stone pottery, charcoal, clay, Burnt fragment slag, stone artefacts, terracotta fragments Pottery, deco (not pottery charcoal, clay, Burnt furnaces. Two rated), slag, tuyère fragments Burnt daub (with wattle impressions), charcoal, pot stone artefacts, terracotta (very few) tery, No No No No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Key area - - - - ) in 2 ), total sta ), total 2 total), total total), 2 ) in arbitrary ) in 2 ) in arbitrary ) in arbitrary ), total station total ), ), total station ), total ), total station ), total ) in arbitrary ) in arbitrary 2 2 2 2 2 ) total), total sta total total), sta total total), 2 2 2 ), total station (ca. station total ), (ca. station total ), ) in arbitrary levels 2 2 ) in arbitrary levels arbitrary ) in levels arbitrary ) in 2 2 2 Form and size of excavation m (6 trench 1 m (16 trench 1 Not excavated, finds collected from looting holes m (60 trench 1 2200 finds) m (89 trenches 3 tion (ca. 650 finds) m (2 trench 1 1 trench (7.5 m levels m (62 trenches 2 tion (ca. 1200 finds) 1 trench (ca. 95 m (ca. 1000 finds) 2 trenches (22 m levels 3 trenches (280 m (ca. 500 finds) m (44 trench 1 500 finds) m (2681 trenches 10 Excava finds). 12,000 (ca. station tion 2012-2014 5 trenches, 1 test pit (64 m arbitrary levels 2 trenches (18 m Not excavated, finds collected from looting holes 2 trenches (3.5 m (ca. 60 finds) 4 trenches (22.5 m m (16 trench 1 levels; tion (ca. 2000 finds) Site name & number Kufai Gwari 2 2011/06 Kufai Kuku 2 2011/57 Kurmin Lemu 2005/15 Kurmin Uwa 1 2010/05 Kurmin Uwa 2 2010/06 Kushe 3 2010/07 Kushe 7 2010/08 Kusuma 2010/09 Mashikin Dandoka 2011/59 Mashikin Kadun 2011/60 Pabeki 2009/05 Pandauke 2009/06 Pangwari 2012/34 Pantaki 1 2010/11 Pantaki 3 2010/12 Polwaya 2006/16 Pulu 2011/62 Puntun Dutse 2011/63

Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 14 (3) Special Issue, 2016 285 G. Franke Pottery Classification Pandauke group Pangwari group Janruwa group Pangwari group n/a n/a Pangwari group Puntun Dutse / Ido group Ifana / Pangwari group Gimba group Gurara group Tsaunim Gurara group Tsaunim Puntun Dutse Group Gurara group PuntunTsaunim Dutse group (one sherd) / Gimba group n/a Pangwari / Tsaunim Gurara / Pandauke / Ungwar Kura group Post-Nok (one sherd) Gurara group Tsaunim Gimba group C date) Chronological classification Chronological Middle Nok Middle Nok Post-Nok Middle Nok Early Nok Probably Nok (based on 14 Middle Nok Middle Nok Early, Middle Nok Middle Nok Early Nok Middle Age Stone Later possibly n/a, Middle, Late Nok Middle Nok - tuyère fragments Finds stone artefacts, terracotta Charcoal, pottery, stone artefacts, terracotta charcoal, pottery, Burnt clay, slag pottery, Burnt clay, stone artefacts, terracotta Charcoal, pottery, stone artefacts charcoal, pottery, Burnt clay, artefacts,stone slag, charcoal, clay, Burnt furnaces. Two tuyère fragments One furnace. Burnt clay, charcoal, pottery, slag, stone artefacts, terracotta, stone artefacts, terracotta charcoal, pottery, Burnt clay, terracotta artefacts, stone slag, pottery, charcoal, clay, Burnt terracotta artefacts, stone slag, pottery, charcoal, clay, Burnt terracotta (surface find) charcoal, pottery, Burnt clay, Burnt charcoal, clay, iron objects, stone pottery, artefacts, terracotta Dense distribution of microlithic quartz artefacts slag, stone arte charcoal, iron objects, pottery, Burnt clay, facts, terracotta (not all trenches contained finds) large and stones charcoal, containing deposits several 2008: terracotta fragments in otherwise sterile soil terracotta artefacts, stone pottery, charcoal, clay, Burnt 2011: No No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Key area - ) 2 ), total ), total 2 ), total sta ), total 2 ) in arbitrary ) in arbitrary ) in arbitrary ) in arbitrary ), total station ), total station ), total ), total station ), total 2 2 2 2 2 ) in arbitrary arbitrary ) in arbitrary ) in 2 2 2 ) in arbitrary levels ) in arbitrary levels ) in arbitrary levels ) in arbitrary levels ) in arbitrary levels 2 2 2 2 2 Form and size of excavation 1 trench (18 m levels m (6 trench 1 m (4 trench 1 2 trenches (18 m levels 2 trenches (10 m levels 1 trench (28 m levels, excavation 2013 m (123 trenches 2 (ca. 1000 finds) m 80 (ca. trench 1 (ca. 3500 finds) m (9 trench 1 2 trenches (29 m levels m (9 trench 1 2 trenches (51 m (ca. 600 finds) m (6 trench 1 16 trenches (460 m tion recording (ca. 6200 finds) 2008: 4 trenches (ca. 35 m 2011: 3 trenches (87 m station (ca. 500 finds) Sites investigated by the Frankfurt Nok project for which absolute dates are available (n=69). Information includes site number & name, information on excavation, location Site name & number Abutu Rafin 2011/64 Adada Rafin 2012/04 Rafin Dako 2012/19 Rafin Pah 1 2011/65 Rafin Pah 2 2012/26 Ruga Fulani Furnace 2011/07 Sabon Janruwa 2011/66 Lafiya Taka 2011/67 Bakka 1 Tsaunim 2010/13 Gurara 1 Tsaunim 2011/68 Maganda Tsaunim 2011/69 Dosa Tudun 2011/70 Kaura Tudun 2011/04 Ungwar Kura 2007/01 Utak Kamuan Garaje Kagoro 2008/05 3 (end). Table and finds, an absolute-chronological as well a pottery classification.

286 Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 14 (3) Special Issue, 2016 A Chronology of the Central Nigerian Nok Culture - et al. 1957) Barendsen et al. 1957) et al. 1957) et al. 1977) 1968) et al. 1977) et al. 1977) et al. 1977) Fagg Barendsen Burleigh Barendsen Burleigh 1957) Burleigh A. 1972) Burleigh 1965a) et al.

Fagg Fagg 1969) et al. 1957) Fagg et al. 1977) Barendsen . 1957) Barendsen A. 1972) et al

et al. 1977) et al. 1977) Fagg Burleigh et al. 1977) et al. 2002/2003) 1965b) et al. 2002/2003) et al. 2002/2003) et al. 2002/2003) et al. 2002/2003) et al. 2002/2003) et al. 2002/2003) et al. 2002/2003) et al. 2002/2003) et al. 2002/2003) et al. 2002/2003) et al. 2002/2003) et al. 2002/2003) et al. 2002/2003) et al. 2002/2003) et al. 2002/2003) et al. 2002/2003) Fagg Barendsen Burleigh Burleigh Boullier Boullier Burleigh Boullier Boullier Boullier Boullier Boullier Boullier Boullier Boullier Boullier Boullier Boullier Boullier Boullier Boullier Boullier Context information and citation party carbonised pounding stick, no clear relation to Nok Culture ( 1956) ( Nok G (wood from black clay, Nok D (wood from sand overlying basal gravel, 1951) ( Nok H (carbonised wood from sand and gravel at figurine horizon, 1956) ( Nok C (wood from basal tin-bearing gravel, at main figurine horizon, 1951) ( sent separately) ( Y-142-3, Nok C (same specimen as Acheulian artefacts, 1951) ( Nok E (carbonized wood from oldest alluvium, associated with Furnace 12 (charcoal, Sample K14a2, K14a3) ( sample 3) ( TA3, Furnace 4 (charcoal from within and below slag horizon, 2, Sample 9, charcoal) ( -90 to -107 cm (TA quarter, Sq 015a3, Layer 3, NW Lf 1961 (Layer 3, 40 cm, charcoal) ( TA 3 1967/68 (Furnace 2, charcoal from below slag layer) ( TA -55 to -90 cm) ( quarter, 2 1965/66 (Sq 015a3, layer 3, charcoal, NW TA Furnace 4 (see BM 532, charcoal) (Burleigh et al. 1977) 2 1965/66 (Sq 015a3, charcoal, 64 cm, below I-1459, associated with slag) ( TA Furnace 7 (Sample K13a1, charcoal) ( Furnace 1 (Sample J13d1, charcoal) ( Loto D (Sample N15d4, charcoal) ( (charcoal from lower part of occupation horizon) ( H.11.d.4 Trench (charcoal from basal deposit) ( H.11.d.4 Trench mass of charcoal in Nok culture occupation layer ( Charcoal from a large charcoal from interior of Fig 10j ( charcoal from interior of Fig 10q ( charcoal from interior of Fig 10u ( charcoal from interior of Fig 10i ( charcoal from interior of Fig 10s ( charcoal from interior of Fig 10o ( charcoal from interior of Fig 10l ( charcoal from interior of Fig 10g ( charcoal from interior of Fig 10t ( charcoal from interior of Fig 10n ( charcoal from interior of Fig 10p ( charcoal from interior of Fig 10h ( charcoal from interior of Fig 10m ( charcoal from interior of Fig 10v ( charcoal from interior of Fig 10r ( charcoal from interior of Fig 10k ( charcoal from interior of Fig 10w ( n/a 771–2 BC 741–41 BC 767–55 BC 793–411 BC 793–411 BC 781–511 818–166 BC 814–428 BC 894–402 BC 539–235 BC 792–167 BC 757–206 BC 729–364 BC 751–399 BC 807–210 BC 753–404 BC 758–408 BC 767–430 BC 793–486 BC 804–542 BC 930–434 BC 893–766 BC 912–799 BC 921–801 BC 138–394 AD 138–394 1262–856 BC 1014–431 BC 690–1207 AD 690–1207 2926–2153 BC 4509–4066 BC 4701–4346 BC 2130–1506 BC 1524–1955 AD 1524–1955 AD 1439–1635 748 BC–23 AD 748 BC–23 AD 399 BC–17 377 BC–219 AD 377 BC–219 AD 402 BC–121 with 95.4% probability Calibrated age (BC/AD) n/a 925 BC ± 70 92 BC ± 126 538 BC ± 84 591 BC ± 74 210 BC ± 95 200 AD ± 50 200 171 BC ± 116 3540 BC ± 85 3710 BC ± 90 280 BC ± 120 300 BC ± 100 319 BC ± 143 341 BC ± 133 440 BC ± 140 591 BC ± 104 885 AD ± 120 885 AD ± 40 1728 AD ± 45 1566 2110 BC ± 140 2110 1520 BC ± 115 Uncalibrated age in calendar years in calendar C age in years bp 14 222±40 bp 384±45 bp 1750±50 bp 2875±70 bp 5490±85 bp 5660±90 bp 2488±84 bp 2541±74 bp 2160±95 bp 2335±40 bp 2345±80 bp 2355±40 bp 2415±40 bp 2430±40 bp 2445±50 bp 2468±40 bp 2490±30 bp 2500±40 bp 2551±41 bp 2605±80 bp 2625±40 bp 2690±40 bp 2700±40 bp 2121±116 bp 2121±116 bp 3470±115 1065±120 bp 4060±140 bp 2042±126 bp 2230±120 bp 2250±100 bp 2269±143 bp 2291±133 bp 2390±140 bp 2541±104 bp 2340±120 bp 2420±120 bp 2635±100 bp > 39,000 years Laboratory no. I 1458 Y-474 Y-142-4 Y-475 Y-142-3 Y-142-3‘ Y-142-8 BM 939 BM 532 BM 534 I-1459 I-3400 BM 533 BM 942 I-2960 BM 940 BM 938 BM 941 I-4913 I-4914 BM 535 Pa 1568 Pa 1829 Pa 1488 Pa 1616 Pa 1495 Pa 1630 Pa 1558 Pa 1830 AA41221 Pa 1831 Pa 1621 AA41222 Pa 1496 Pa 1828 Pa 1627 Pa 1826 Pa 1827 Radiocarbon dates from Nok, Taruga, Samun Dukiya, Katsina Ala, and Samun from Dukiya, terracotta Katsina figuresRadiocarbon Information examineddates includes byfrom siteTaruga, conven C.Nok, name, Boullier. laboratory number, C age in years bp, uncalibrated age in calendar years (using 1950 as base year), calibrated age (BC/AD) with 2-sigma probability (OxCal 4.2, IntCal13), and context information and 14 Site Nok Nok Nok Nok Nok Nok Nok Taruga Taruga Taruga Taruga Taruga Taruga Taruga Taruga Taruga Taruga Taruga Samun Dukiya Samun Dukiya Ala Katsina Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Table 4. Table tional citation for the dated sample.

Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 14 (3) Special Issue, 2016 287 G. Franke

Site Sample Age in Base Age range in calendar Remarks no. years year years BC/AD

Nok 187.c 2530 ± 210 1975 555 BC ± 210 A: figure fragment 187f Fagg( 1990: 139) Jemaa 187.a 2095 ± 180 1975 120 BC ± 180 M: head (Fagg 1990: 120) Jemaa 187.m 2360 ± 210 1975 385 BC ± 210 E: head (formerly from Maitumbi) Jemaa (1) n/a 2480 ± 220 1970 510 BC ± 220 B: Jemaa head, found 1944 (Fagg 1990: 110), first measurement Jemaa (2) n/a 2570 ± 230 1970 600 BC ± 230 B: Jemaa head, found 1944 (Fagg 1990: 110), second measurement Taruga 187.o 2215 ± 170 1975 240 BC ± 170 L: arm fragment from excavation (Fagg 1990: 145) Taruga 187.p 2240 ± 185 1975 265 BC ± 185 K: head, from river bed near excavation (Fagg 1990: 145) Taruga 187.Jb 2325 ± 255 1970 355 BC ± 255 G: pottery “grater” from excavation Katsina Ala 187.rl 365 ± 23 1975 1610 AD ± 23 potsherd from 1963 excavation Katsina Ala 187.d 2375 ± 125 1975 400 BC ± 125 C: leg fragment, found 1954 Kagara Hill 187.h 2095 ± 190 1975 120 BC ± 190 N: head (Fagg 1990: 150) Kawu 187.k 2335 ± 205 1975 360 BC ± 205 F: head (Fagg 1990: 143) Kuchamfa 187.g 1970 ± 170 1975 5 AD ± 170 Q: fragment of large cylindrical figure Fagg( 1990: 90) Tudun Wada 187.b 2295 ± 190 1975 320 BC ± 190 H: head from a pit (Fagg 1990: 113) Unknown n/a 2460 ± 220 1970 490 BC ± 220 D: complete figure, context unknown Fagg( 1990: 151) Unknown n/a 2025 ± 185 1975 50 BC ± 185 P: female head and body (private collection) Ankiring 187.e 1720 ± 140 1975 255 AD ± 140 R: coarse potsherd (found with figurines, seeFagg 1990: 139) Ankiring 187.f 1580 ± 140 1975 395 AD ± 140 S: figure fragment (found with figurines , seeFagg 1990: 139) Chado n/a 1860 ± 160 1975 115 AD ± 160 V: female figure, sitting on a pot Fagg( 1990: 129) Chado n/a 1605 ± 180 1975 370 AD ± 180 T: head N 840.1 (first measurement, seeFagg 1990: 124) Chado n/a 1520 ± 130 n/a 450 AD ± 130 W: potsherds (from find context) Chado n/a 1505 ± 140 1975 470 AD ± 140 U: “initiation figure” Chado 187.n 1410 ± 135 1975 565 AD ± 135 T1: head N 840.1 (second measurement) Chado 187.x 1425 ± 130 1975 550 AD ± 130 X: associated potsherds and figures Chado n/a 1410 ± 135 n/a 570 AD ± 135 Y: potsherds (from find context)

Table 5. Thermoluminescence dates obtained by A. Fagg, B. Fagg, and J. Jemkur. Information includes site name, sample number, age and 1-sigma error in years, age range in years BC/AD with base year of calculation, and remarks (including the photo reference in Fagg 1990). The dates are taken from Jemkur 2014 and include the amendments made by A. Fagg, as mentioned in the text.

288 Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 14 (3) Special Issue, 2016 A Chronology of the Central Nigerian Nok Culture

Site Luminescence age Calibrated 14C age Comment Sample no. range BC/AD range BC/AD

Dates overlap between 728 and 720 BC. Pottery, however, suggests a younger Akura 1064–720 BC 728–365 BC age. Since samples come from different excavation units, the dates also may 5A72 indicate a longer occupation of the site.

Terracotta fragments were collected in 2006 from the slope of a hill. The OSL Ankoro 758–438 BC 1530–1316 BC dates overlap between 518 and 438 BC. Excavation took place in 201 on top of 1ANK, 2ANK 518–248 BC 1112–924 BC the hill. 14C dates fit the pottery from the excavation. There, no terracotta was found. Dates probably reflect different occupation episodes.

901–796 BC Daji Gwana TL date is at least 200 years younger than 14C dates. Either the TL date is 337 BC–163 AD 797–543 BC MAL 1009 erroneous or the terracotta reflects a later occupation episode. 781–511 BC

Iddah 860–488 BC 796–423 BC Samples come from the same excavation unit and match in age. K959

1107–927 BC TL date on an anthropomorph vessel is at least 200 years younger than 14C Taka Lafiya 916–815 BC dates. Vessel was found in a depth of almost 3 m. 14C dates could indicate a 387 BC–13 AD MAL 10096 895–797 BC longer occupation phase, which is confirmed by pottery classification. Either 798–549 BC the TL date is erroneous or the terracotta reflects a later occupation episode.

Table 6. Comparison of luminescence dates for terracotta figurines and radiocarbon dates for the respective sites. Information includes site name and sample number, luminescence and radiocarbon age ranges in calendar years (BC/AD), and comments.

Site Luminescence age Calibrated 14C age Comment Sample no. range BC/AD range BC/AD

Baidesuru 799–556 BC TL date is younger than 14C date. The few potsherds excavated could be 164–364 AD MAL 10123 395–209 BC Nok, but are too small for secure identification.

36 BC–264 AD TL dates of three furnaces overlap in the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD, matching Daji Gwana Furnace 787–542 BC 36 BC–264 AD one 14C date. Other 14C date falls in the Nok period. One terracotta fragment MAL 10126-28 54–218 AD 164–364 AD was excavated; some small potsherds may be Nok.

Intini 736–404 BC TL and 14C dates. Pottery classification puts the site towards the younger 687–287 BC MAL 10095 703–398 BC end, in the 5th century BC.

164–464 AD TL dates of three furnaces overlap. 14C dates vary extremely; neither matches Janjala Furnace 353–93 BC 214–514 AD the TL dates. While terracotta fragments were found in two furnaces, the MAL 10129-31 889–994 AD 414–714 AD potsherds are similar to pottery inventories in the Common Era.

Kolin Kuchimi 364–664 AD 749–412 BC Dates do not match. No pottery was found. MAL 10132

Ruga Fulani 36 BC–164 AD 803–555 BC While 14C samples date to the Nok period, TL dates are younger, not MAL 10124/25 264–464 AD 731–408 BC overlapping. No pottery was found.

Sabon Janruwa TL date is much younger than the Nok-period 14C date, younger than the 1113–1333 AD 753–412 BC MAL 10094 other TL dates as well. TL sample was taken from a depth of only 20 cm.

Table 7. Comparison of luminescence dates for furnaces and radiocarbon dates for the respective sites. Information includes site name and sample number, luminescence and radiocarbon age ranges in calendar years (BC/AD), and comments.

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