Navajo weaving and silverwork: change and continuity in response to contact Item Type text; Thesis-Reproduction (electronic) Authors Thomas, Janet Fairbanks, 1943- Publisher The University of Arizona. Rights Copyright © is held by the author. Digital access to this material is made possible by the University Libraries, University of Arizona. Further transmission, reproduction or presentation (such as public display or performance) of protected items is prohibited except with permission of the author. Download date 26/09/2021 09:39:58 Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/10150/552024 NAVAJO WEAVING AND SILVERWORK: CHANGE AND CONTINUITY IN RESPONSE TO CONTACT by Janet Fairbanks Thomas A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of the DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of MASTER OF ARTS In the Graduate College THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA 1969 STATEMENT BY AUTHOR This thesis has been submitted in partial fulfillment of re­ quirements for an advanced degree at The University of Arizona and is deposited in the University Library to be made available to borrowers under rules of the Library. Brief quotations from this thesis are allowable without special permission, provided that accurate acknowledgment of source is made. Requests for permission for extended quotation from or reproduction of this manuscript in whole or in part may be granted by the head of the major department or the Dean of the Graduate College when in his judg­ ment the proposed use of the material is in the interests of scholar^- ship. In all other instances, however, permission must be obtained from the author. SIGNED: APPROVAL BY THESIS DIRECTOR This thesis has been approved on the date shown below: PREFACE This paper was written in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the M. A. Degree in the Department of Anthropology of The University of Arizona. It is an attempt to bring into proper focus the effects of contact with alien cultures on Navajo weaving and silversmithing and includes an analysis of Evon Vogt's "incorporation” model of Navajo culture change. I wish to express my appreciation to my thesis committee, Clara Lee Tanner, chairman, Harry T. Getty, and James F. Downs, for their guidance in the preparation of this manuscript. Host of the research was accomplished during the summers of 1966 and 1967 although the paper itself was written in absentia. Aid during the research was given by a number of institutions and individuals. To all listed below I wish to express my thanks for their valuable assistance: The Amerind Foundation, the Interlibrary Loan division of Colorado State University Library, the Museum of Northern Arizona, Mr. and Mrs. Paul Huldermann, Mr. and Mrs. John Lynch, Ambrose Roanhorse, Mr. and Mrs. Tom Shirley, John Tanner, and the late M. L. Woodard. Additional thanks are due those who willingly gave of their time to fill out my questionnaire and to answer my questions both in interviews and in letters. I would like to extend special thanks to my husband, Larry, whose interest in and enthusiasm toward the subject of this paper have been invaluable. ill TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES.................... viii ABSTRACT................................................. ix 1* INTRODUCTION ............................................. 1 Problems to be Treated . Hypotheses to be Tested ............. Temporal and Spatial Considerations . Methods of Obtaining Data ......... 2. A BRIEF SURVEY OF NAVAJO CONTACT HISTORY Southern Athapascan Migration to the Southwest: 1000-1300 Before Present-A.D. 1300 .......... Prehistoric and Early Historic Southwestern Period: 1000-1630 .............. ........... Prehistoric Southwestern Cultural Relations <0 to © H 0> ISJ G> G> Navajo Culture: 1630 ............................. 10 Spanish-Mexican Period: 1630-1846 . 10 Navajo-Pueblo Relations ........................... 12 Navajo-Spanish Relations .......................... 13 Navajo Relations with Other Cultural Groups ....... 15 Cultural and Economic Development of the Navajos .. 15 Anglo-American Period: 1848-Present .................. 17 Navajo Defeat and Captivity at Ft. Sumner: 1848-1868 ...................................... 17 Intra-Reservation Period: 1868-1945 .............. 20 Navajo Participation in American Culture and Society: 1945-Present .................. 22 Navajo Contacts During the American Period ............ 23 Navajo and Anglo-American Relations ............... 23 Navajo and Spanish-American Relations ............. 28 Navajo Relations with Other Indians ............ 29 3. NAVAJO WEAVING: A BRIEF DEVELOPMENTAL HISTORY ........... 30 Origins and Early Growth: 1700-1800 .................. 30 Developmental Period: 1800-1850 ...................... 33 Classic Period: 1850-1875 ........................... 33 Flamboyant Period: 1875-1890 ........... 35 iv V TABLE OF CONTENTS— Continued Page Development of the Rug: 1890-1910 ................... 36 Development of Regional Styles: 1910-Present ......... 38 Regional Styles ................................. 40 Gallup Area ....................................... 40 Crystal Area ...................................... 40 Two Grey Hills Area ............ 41 Teec Nos Pos Area .......... 42 Shiprock-Faraington Area .......................... 42 Lukachukai-Greasewood Area 42 Chinle Area ................................. 43 Wide Ruins Area ................................... 43 Ganado Area ....................................... 44 Kayenta Area ..................................... 44 Tuba City Area 44 Western Reservation ............................... 45 Other Types of Navajo R u g s ......... ............ 45 Trends in Navajo Weaving Since 1945 .................. 46 4. NAVAJO SILVBRSMITHING: A BRIEF DEVELOPMENTAL HISTORY.... 48 Origins and Development of the Craft .................. 48 Turquoise and Silver in Navajo Jewelry ................ 52 Turquoise ......................................... 52 Silver ............................................ 53 The Origins and Development of Forms of Navajo Silverwork ............... 54 Silverwork in the Eastern United States ........... 54 Spanish-Mexican Silver Ornaments .................. 55 Forms of Navajo Silverwork ........................ 56 Trends in Navajo Silverwork Since 1945 ................ 63 5. THE ECONOMICS OF CONTEMPORARY NAVAJO WEAVING AND SILVBRSMITHING ......................... 67 Traders and Dealers 69 6. RECENT ATTEMPTS TO IMPROVE, PROTECT, AND ENCOURAGE NAVAJO WEAVING AND SILVERWORK .......................... 72 Wool Improvement Programs ............................. 72 Safeguards and Standards 73 Bureau of Indian Affairs Programs ..................... 76 Annual Exhibitions ...... 77 Art Education ......................................... 78 ONEO Arts and Crafts Program ...................... 78 Rough Rock Demonstration School ................... 81 vi TABLE OF CONTENTS— Continued Page Southwest Indian Arts Project ................. 82 The Institute of American Indian A r t s ......... 82 Possible Suggestions for the Improvement of Weaving and Silverwork .................... 84 7. THE STUDY OF CULTURE CHANGE IN CONTACT SITUATIONS ...... 86 Socio-Cultural Factors .............................. 87 Conditions of Contact ............................... 88 The Processes of Selection and Modification of Culture Elements .................. 90 8. FACTORS OF IMPORTANCE IN THE ADOPTION OF WEAVING AND SILVERSMITHING....................................... 92 Weaving......... 92 Silverwork ......... 95 9. FACTORS OF IMPORTANCE IN THE CHANGES OF NAVAJO WEAVING AND SILVERWORK..................... 98 Bosque Redondo: 1864-1868 .......................... 98 Intra-Reservation Period: 1868-1945 .......... 100 Traders ......................................... 100 The Railroad....... 104 Navajo Participation in American Culture and Society: 1945-Present ................... 104 Wage Labor and C a s h ....... 106 Improved Transportation.... ............... 106 Traders, Dealers, and the Mar k e t .... ........... 107 Directed Programs ............................... 108 Creativity of the Arti s t..... .................. 109 10. FACTORS OF IMPORTANCE IN THE CONTINUITY OF NAVAJO WEAVING AND SILVERWORK............................... 110 Bosque Redondo: 1864-1868 ............ 110 Weaving .................. 110 Silverwork ........ Ill Intra-Reservation Period: 1868-1945 ................ 112 Weaving....................... 112 Silverwork..... ......... 112 Navajo Participation in American Culture and Society: 1945-Present ......................... 113 Traditional V a l u e s ....... 113 vii TABLE OF CONTENTS— Continued Page Economic Factors ....... ............ 114 Directed Programs ................ 114 Arts and Crafts Exhibitions ....................... 116 11. CONCLUSIONS.................................... 117 Analysis of Vogt’s Factors for Change ................. 118 Analysis of Vogt’s Factors for Continuity ............. 121 Conclusions of this Study ............................. 123 Possible Future Directions of Navajo Weaving and Silverwork..... .......................... 125 APPENDIX 1 ............................................... 128 REFERENCES............................................... 131 LIST OF TABLES Page TABLE 1 NAVAJO INCOME FOR THE YEARS 1940 AND 1958 68 viii ABSTRACT It has generally been felt that the nature of the integration of Navajo culture facilitated the adoption of elements of alien cultures under permissive contact conditions and the rejection of them when forced to change. The adoption of