University of Miami Scholarly Repository Open Access Dissertations Electronic Theses and Dissertations 2012-11-21 Consuls, Corsairs, and Captives: the Creation of Dutch Diplomacy in the Early Modern Mediterranean, 1596-1699 Erica Heinsen-Roach University of Miami, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarlyrepository.miami.edu/oa_dissertations Recommended Citation Heinsen-Roach, Erica, "Consuls, Corsairs, and Captives: the Creation of Dutch Diplomacy in the Early Modern Mediterranean, 1596-1699" (2012). Open Access Dissertations. 891. https://scholarlyrepository.miami.edu/oa_dissertations/891 This Embargoed is brought to you for free and open access by the Electronic Theses and Dissertations at Scholarly Repository. It has been accepted for inclusion in Open Access Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Scholarly Repository. For more information, please contact [email protected]. UNIVERSITY OF MIAMI CONSULS, CORSAIRS, AND CAPTIVES: THE CREATION OF DUTCH DIPLOMACY IN THE EARLY MODERN MEDITERRANEAN, 1596-1699 By Erica Heinsen-Roach A DISSERTATION Submitted to the Faculty of the University of Miami in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Coral Gables, Florida December 2012 ©2012 Erica Heinsen-Roach All Rights Reserved UNIVERSITY OF MIAMI A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy CONSULS, CORSAIRS, AND CAPTIVES: THE CREATION OF DUTCH DIPLOMACY IN THE EARLY MODERN MEDITERRANEAN, 1596-1699 Erica Heinsen-Roach Approved: ________________ _________________ Mary Lindemann, Ph.D. M. Brian Blake, Ph.D. Professor of History Dean of the Graduate School ________________ _________________ Hugh Thomas, Ph.D. Ashli White, Ph.D. Professor of History Professor of History ________________ Frank Palmeri, Ph.D. Professor of English HEINSEN-ROACH, ERICA (Ph.D., History) Consuls, Corsairs, and Captives: the Creation of Dutch (December 2012) Diplomacy in the Early Modern Mediterranean, 1596-1699. Abstract of a dissertation at the University of Miami. Dissertation supervised by Professor Mary Lindemann. No. of pages in text. (418) In the seventeenth-century western Mediterranean, the conflict between the Dutch Republic and North African principalities over the issues of corsairing and the capture of Christians created a type of diplomacy that significantly deviates from our traditional understanding of how early modern diplomacy evolved, namely as an exchange of resident ambassadors between European states. As a study in the New Diplomatic History, this dissertation emphasizes the significance of cultural practices and political interests between Europe and other parts of the world. Over the course of the seventeenth century, North African society greatly influenced the rhythms and patterns of the evolving diplomatic relations, practices, and policies in the western Mediterranean in four particular ways. First, Europe and the Maghreb employed a mixed group of negotiators to conduct their affairs and did not exchange resident ambassadors as sovereigns in Europe usually did. Dutch consuls, whose role as merchant-consuls transformed into that of state- representatives, became the pre-eminent diplomats conducting the Republic’s affairs in North Africa. Second, Dutch and North African negotiators sought to combine commercial and political interests rather than follow the grand political agendas that governments in Europe often developed and pursued. Third, because the Dutch and North Africans did not exchange plenipotentiary resident ambassadors, Dutch consuls stationed in the Maghreb were forced to adjust to North African customary practices, especially those of ransoming captives and lavish gift-giving. Finally, these adjustments to North African negotiating practices, especially the giving of gifts that eventually became a form of paying tribute, demonstrate how early modern diplomacy in the western Mediterranean did not evolve in a linear manner. Thus, by examining Dutch-North African relations in the seventeenth century, this study raises new questions about the origins and the development of early modern diplomacy and invites us to rethink the position of European states in global power relations. To my parents, Jan and Jannie Heinsen iii Acknowledgements I owe a great debt of gratitude to Mary Lindemann, my advisor, for all her encouragement, criticisms, and brilliant insights. No matter what the distance or the occasional language barrier, she has always been there for me and still is. She has read and commented on, endlessly and tirelessly, innumerable drafts of chapters. Without her, I could not have written the dissertation I did. But of all things, her greatest gift was to teach me what it means to be an historian. I can only hope to have acquired a fraction of her historical acuity. I am also grateful to the members of my dissertation committee: Hugh Thomas for teaching high standards of interpreting source material; Ashli White for expanding my world beyond the history and historiography of Europe; and Frank Palmeri for showing me that reading English novels is not just fun but also a source of inspiration for the field of history. Michael Miller, Guido Ruggiero, Robin Bachin, Karl Gunther, Edmund Abaka, and Julia Clancy-Smith have all made valuable comments along the way. I also would like to thank Rudolf Dekker and Maartje van Gelder in Amsterdam. My discussions with them helped me to rethink significant concepts of the dissertation. No less important are my friends and fellow students, with whom I shared many a laugh and a scream: Silvia Mitchell, Simonetta Marin, Jacqueline Grant, Lauren Lane, Stephen Lazer, and Carolyn Zimmerman. The generous support of several institutions has greatly facilitated my research in the Netherlands, Germany, and the United States. The Department of History at the University of Miami funded initial summer research in the Netherlands and provided an additional research assistantship. The Max and Peggy Kriloff Graduate Student Travel Scholarship and the Provost Travel Award of the College of Arts and Sciences funded iv travel to the Netherlands. Also, the University of Miami College of Arts & Sciences Dissertation Award allowed me to spend valuable time completing the dissertation. In addition, the American Friends of the Herzog August Bibliothek Travel Grant paid for my journey to Wolfenbüttel, Germany. Finally, the Friends of Princeton University Library Research Grant helped me to uncover Portuguese sources. During these trips, the kindness and assistance of curators, archivists, and librarians have made my research pleasant and worthwhile. I would like to thank, in particular, Marijke Best of Archief Eemland in Amersfoort, Evelien St. Nicolaas of the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam, and Sandra Law of Interlibrary Loan at the University of South Florida in Tampa. My family and friends have patiently withstood many storms. The understanding my father, my mother (if she had still been alive), and sister Marleen have shown for my academic endeavors know no boundaries. I do not know how to return their unconditional love and support, but I can only hope to give my niece Eline and nephew Tom the same. Friends, far away, turned out to be close by, always caring and knowing where to find me with a funny story, a sigh, or plain gossip: so, thank you, Caro van Eijden, Femke Linnartz, Willemijn Zeevenhooven, Eric Bervoets, Kelly Briley, Olaf Herlaar, Ingrid Donsu, Jelle Piersma, Janneke van der Hulst, Tineke Hulsbergen, and Sandra Biesterveld, for your warm friendship. Without my husband Steve the journey of writing the dissertation would have been barren. His intellectual curiosity is a driving force, always inspiring me to think one step further. More times than he might have imagined, his quips and sheer being have saved my sanity. Every adventure begins and ends with him. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................................... vii LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................... ix LIST OF TABLES....................................................................................................... x Chapter Introduction............................................................................................................ 1 1 The Origins of Dutch Diplomacy in North Africa, 1596 -1622 ...................... 27 2 Redefining the Consul...................................................................................... 92 3 Consuls and the Liberation of Captives, 1616-1630........................................ 138 4 Diplomatic Immunity....................................................................................... 183 5 Public Ministers and Jewish Competitors, 1650-1675 .................................... 229 6 Redemption in the Republic............................................................................. 285 7 Gift-giving and Tribute, 1675-1699................................................................. 339 Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 390 Appendix .............................................................................................................. 399 Bibliography .............................................................................................................. 401 vi