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Dutch Royal

A Wikipedia Compilation by Michael A. Linton

PDF generated using the open source mwlib toolkit. See http://code.pediapress.com/ for more information. PDF generated at: Fri, 08 Nov 2013 22:31:29 UTC Contents

Articles Dutch monarchs 1 Chalon-Arlay 6 Philibert of Chalon 8 Claudia of Chalon 9 Henry III of - 10 René of Chalon 14 16 Johann V of Nassau-Vianden-Dietz 34 William I, of Nassau- 35 Juliana of Stolberg 37 William the Silent 39 John VI, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg 53 Philip William, of Orange 56 Maurice, 58 Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange 63 Amalia of - 67 Ernest Casimir I, Count of Nassau-Dietz 70 William II, Prince of Orange 73 Mary, and Princess of Orange 77 Charles I of 80 Countess Albertine Agnes of Nassau 107 William Frederick, Prince of Nassau-Dietz 110 William III of England 114 Mary II of England 133 Henry Casimir II, Prince of Nassau-Dietz 143 John William III, of Saxe-Eisenach 145 John William Friso, Prince of Orange 147 Landgravine Marie Louise of - 150 Princess Amalia of Nassau-Dietz 155 Frederick, Hereditary Prince of Baden-Durlach 158 William IV, Prince of Orange 159 Anne, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange 163 George II of Great Britain 167 Princess Carolina of Orange-Nassau 184 Charles Christian, Prince of Nassau- 186 William V, Prince of Orange 188 Wilhelmina of , Princess of Orange 192 Princess Louise of Orange-Nassau 195 William I of the 197 Wilhelmine of Prussia, Queen of the Netherlands 206 John IV of Chalon-Arlay 208 Louis of Nassau 210 of Nassau (1540–1568) 212 Henry of Nassau-Dillenburg 213 Countess Louise Juliana of Nassau 214 Countess Elisabeth of Nassau 216 Justinus van Nassau 218 William Louis, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg 220 John VII, Count of Nassau- 222 William of Nassau (1601–1627) 224 Louis of Nassau, of De and Beverweerd 225 Frederick V, Elector 227 Henri de la Tour d'Auvergne, Vicomte de Turenne 242 James II of England 249 Charles II of England 267 Countess Louise Henriette of Nassau 284 Frederick William, Elector of 288 Frederick Nassau de Zuylestein 292 Earl of Rochford 294 Henry Casimir I of Nassau-Dietz 296 John Maurice, Prince of Nassau-Siegen 297 Georg Friedrich, Prince of Prussia 300 Princess Augusta of Great Britain 305 Prince Frederick of Orange-Nassau 309 Frederick William, Prince of Nassau-Weilburg 312 William, Duke of Nassau 315 Adolphe, Grand Duke of 318 Grand Ducal Family of Luxembourg 320 William II of the Netherlands 327 Anna Pavlovna of 334 Prince Frederick of the Netherlands 337 Princess Pauline of Orange-Nassau 338 Prince Albert of Prussia (1809–1872) 341 Emma of Waldeck and Pyrmont 344 William III of the Netherlands 347 Sophie of Württemberg 354 Prince Alexander of the Netherlands 357 Prince Henry of the Netherlands (governor) 363 Princess Sophie of the Netherlands 365 Charles Alexander, Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach 368 Louise of the Netherlands 371 Charles XV of 376 Princess Marie of the Netherlands 379 William, Prince of Wied 381 William, Prince of Albania 383 Wilhelmina of the Netherlands 388 Duke Henry of - 396 William, Prince of Orange 398 Prince Maurice of the Netherlands 401 Alexander, Prince of Orange 402 Juliana of the Netherlands 404 Prince Bernhard of -Biesterfeld 415 Beatrix of the Netherlands 428 Prince Claus of the Netherlands 437 Princess Irene of the Netherlands 441 Princess Margriet of the Netherlands 447 452 Princess Christina of the Netherlands 456 Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands 459 Prince of Orange 468 Queen Máxima of the Netherlands 483 Prince Friso of Orange-Nassau 490 Prince Constantijn of the Netherlands 494 Princess Laurentien of the Netherlands 497 Catharina-Amalia, Princess of Orange 501 Princess Alexia of the Netherlands 504 Princess Ariane of the Netherlands 506 Countess Eloise of Orange-Nassau van Amsberg 509 Count Claus-Casimir of Orange-Nassau van Amsberg 511 Countess Leonore of Orange-Nassau van Amsberg 513 References Article Sources and Contributors 515 Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 525 Article Licenses License 539 Dutch monarchs family tree 1 Dutch monarchs family tree

The of Orange The following is a family tree for the Princes of Orange, a line which culminated in the Dutch monarchy with the accession of Prince William VI to the newly created throne of the Netherlands in 1815. Dates given are those of birth and death; for Princes of Orange (shown in bold), the intermediate date is the date of accession to the Princedom. By virtue of his to Mary II of England, Prince William III, himself a grandson of Charles I of England, became of England 1689–1702 (jointly with Mary II until her death in 1694) following the overthrow of his and -in-law James II of England in the . The family lineage is of note as John William Friso is the most recent common of all the current monarchs of .

HOUSE OF HOUSE OF NASSAU CHALON-ARLAY

Philibert John V of 1502–1530 Nassau-Dillenburg 1475–1516 m. Elizabeth of Hesse

Claudia of Châlon Henry III of William the Rich 6 others 1498–1521 Nassau-Breda 1487–1559 1483–1538 m.(2) Juliana of Stolberg

René of Châlon William I the Silent John VI the Elder 1519–1530–1544 1533–1544–1584 1535–1606 m. Anna of married 4 times, 15 m.(1) Elisabeth of Leuchtenberg children

Philip William Maurice Frederick Henry Ernest Casimir 1554–1584–1618 1567–1618–1625 1584–1625–1647 1573–1632 m. Eleonora, dau. of Henri I m. Amalia of m. Sophia Hedwig of de Condé Solms-Braunfels Brunswick-Lüneburg

William II 7 others Albertine Agnes William Frederick 1626–1647–1650 1634–1696 1613–1664 m. Mary, dau. of Charles I of England

William III Henry Casimir II Amalia 1650–1650-(Eng 1657–1696 m. John William III of 1689)–1702 m. Henriette Amalia of Saxe-Eisenach m. Mary II of England Anhalt-Dessau

John William Friso 1687–1702–1711 m. Marie Luise of Hesse-Kassel

Amalia of Nassau-Dietz William IV 1710–1777 1711–1711–1751 m. Friedrich of m. Anne, dau. of George II Baden-Durlach of England Dutch monarchs family tree 2

2 stillborn Carolina William V 1 died in infancy 1743–1787 1748–1751–1806 m. Karl Christian of m. Wilhelmina of Prussia Nassau-Weilburg

2 died in infancy Frederika Luise Wilhelmina William VI (King William Willem Georg Frederik 1770–1819 I) 1774–1799 m. Prince Karl of 1772–1806-(King 1815-40)–1843 m. Wilhelmine of Prussia

John V Count of Nassau-Dietz, 1455-1516, Stadholder of John IV Prince of Orange, 1475-1502

William the Rich Count of Nassau-Dillenburg 1487- 1559 Henry III Count of Nassau-Breda 1483-1538 Claudia of Châlon 1498–1521

William I "the Silent" 1533-1584, Prince of Orange 1544, Stadholder of , & , assassinated by Spanish agent Louis 1538–1574 died in battle against Adolf 1540–1568, died in battle against Spain Henry 1550-1574 died in battle against Spain John VI "the Elder" 1535–1606, Stadholder of Gelderland René of Châlon 1519–1544, Prince of Orange,1521

Philip William 1554–1618, Prince of Orange, 1584 Maurice 1567–1625, Prince of Orange,1618, Stadholder of Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, etc. Frederick Henry 1584–1647, Prince of Orange, 1625, of Holland, , & etc. Louise Juliana 1576-1644 married Frederick IV Elector Palatinefrom whom the British royal family descends Elisabeth 1577-1642 married Henri de La Tour d'Auvergne, Duke of William Louis "Us Heit", Count of Nassau-Dillenburg 1560–1620, Stadtholder of , , and Ernst Casimir, Count of Nassau-Dietz 1573–1632, Stadtholder of Friesland, Groningen, and Drenthe John VII "the Middle", Count of Nassau-Siegen, 1561–1623

illeg illeg Frederick V, Elector Palatine, 1610 & King of 1619-21 Henri de la Tour d'Auvergne, Vicomte de Turenne & Marshal-General of 1611-1675

William of Nassau (1601–1627), lord of de Lek Louis of Nassau, Lord of De Lek and Beverweerd (1602– 1665)

Charles I, King of England 1625-1649

William II 1626-1650,Prince of Orange & Stadholder of Holland, Zealand, etc, 1647 Mary,Princess Royal James II Louise Henriette (1627-1667) married Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg descendants of Prussia, German illeg. Albertine Agnes(1634– 1696) William Frederick,1613-1664 Count later Prince of Nassau-Dietz,Stadtholder of Friesland, Groningen and Drenthe Henry Casimir I Count of Nassau-Dietz,1612–1640,Stadtholder of Friesland, Groningen and Drenthe John Maurice "the Brazilian", Prince of Nassau-Siegen,1604–1679,gov. of , Field Marshal of the Dutch Army

Frederick Nassau de Zuylestein (1608–1672)

general of the army, descedants Earls of Rochford in England Dutch monarchs family tree 5

References Chalon-Arlay 6 Chalon-Arlay

This page is a list of the of Chalon-Arlay (in the of ) and the of Orange. The lords of Chalons and Arlay were a of the ruling house of the county of Burgundy, the Anscarids or House of Ivrea. For more details, and a family tree, see below.

Lord of Chalon-Arlay • John, Count of Chalon, founder of the seigneurie of Chalon-Arlay • John I of Chalon-Arlay (1258-1315), seigneur of Arlay (1266-1315) and vicomte of Besançon ( of the above). • Hugh I of Chalon-Arlay (1288-1322), seigneur of Arlay and of Vitteaux (son of the above). • John II of Chalon-Arlay (1312-), seigneur of Arlay (son of the above). • Hugh II of Chalon-Arlay (1334-1388) seigneur of Arlay (son of the above).

Lord of Chalon-Arlay and Prince of Orange • John III of Chalon-Arlay (?-1418) seigneur d'Arlay and prince of Orange (nephew of the former). • Louis II of Chalon-Arlay (1390-1463), seigneur of Arlay and Arguel and prince of Orange (son of the former). • William VII of Chalon (?-1475), prince of Orange (son of the former). • John IV of Chalon-Arlay (1443-1502), prince of Orange, seigneur of Arlay, of Nozeroy and of Montfort (son of the former) • Philibert of Chalon (1502-1530), prince of Orange, seigneur of Arlay and seigneur of Nozeroy (son of the former, died childless) • René of Chalon (1519-1544) prince of Orange, stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland, of the Diocese of Utrecht and of (nephew of the former, died childless, succeeded as prince of Orange by William the Silent).

Arms

Heraldic shield of the house of Heraldic shield of the house of Heraldic shield of the house of Arms of Louis de Châlon Chalon. Chalon, cadet branch of the lords Chalon of Orange. The 1st and 4th (1448-1476) of Arlay. They eventually quarters show the arms of the succeeded to the undifferenced Chalons-Arlay (the gold bend, the 2nd arms as well as to the principality and 3rd the princes of Orange (the of Orange. bugle). The blue and gold cross is the arms of Jeanne of , who married one of the Chalons princes. UNIQ-ref-2-f50aae89a7b7a85a-QINU Chalon-Arlay 7

Arms of Philbert of Arms of Rene of Orange-Chalon (1502-1530) Orange-Nassau-Breda : In the 2nd and 3rd quarters (1530-1544) : overall in the are the arms of Bretagne, center are the quartered arms of overall the arms of Nassau and Vianden/Breda. Luxembourg.

References

External links • Family Tree of the of Burgundy, The Free County,Franche Comté,(capital Besançon) 914-1678 AD by

Kelley Ross with documentation citation (http:/ / www. friesian. com/ lorraine. htm#franchecomte)

• family tree of Chalons-Arlay: Les Sires de Chalon Arlay et Princes d'Orange de 1259 et 1544 (http:/ / gilles.

maillet. free. fr/ histoire/ genealogie_bourgogne/ famille_chalon. htm) Philibert of Chalon 8 Philibert of Chalon

Philibert of Châlon, Prince of Orange

Philibert of Châlon

Noble family House of Châlon-Arlay

Father John IV of Chalon-Arlay

Mother Philiberta of Luxembourg

Born 18 1502 Nozeroy, Franche-Comté

Died 3 August 1530 (aged 28) Outside Florence,

Philibert de Châlon (18 March 1502 – 3 August 1530) was the last prince of Orange from the house of Chalon, although he was succeeded by his nephew, René of Chalon. Born at Nozeroy to John IV of Chalon-Arlay, Philibert served Charles V as commander in Italy, fighting in the War of the League of Cognac. He took part in the Sack of Rome (1527) and was killed during the final stages of the siege of Florence (1530). An interesting exchange of letters during the siege between him and Charles still survives. He was succeeded as prince of Orange by his 's son, Renatus of Nassau-Breda.

Ancestors Philibert of Chalon 9

Philibert of Chalon House of Châlon-Arlay Born: 18 March 1502 3 August Preceded by Prince of Orange Succeeded by John II of Châlon 1502–1530 René of Chalon Preceded by Viceroy of Succeeded by Ugo de Moncada Naples Pompeo Colonna 1528–1530

External links • The Prince of Orange in Medieval History of Navarre [1]

References

[1] http:/ / www. lebrelblanco. com/ anexos/ a0339. htm

Claudia of Chalon

Claudia of Châlon-Orange (1498 – May 31, 1521, ) was the second of Henry III of Nassau-Breda, whom she had married in 1515. She was the of René of Châlon, lord of Breda, the first Nassau to be Prince of Orange. Claudia of Châlon was the of John of Châlon-d'Arlay and Philiberte of Luxemburg Ligny. She was raised mainly at the French court. She was buried in the Grote kerk ("big church") in Breda. After the death of her Philibert of Châlon the title of Prince of Orange went to her son René of Châlon. Henry III of Nassau-Breda 10 Henry III of Nassau-Breda

Henry III of Nassau-Dillenburg-Dietz

Henry III by Jan Mabuse Born 12 January 1483 Siegen, Died 14 September 1538 Breda, of Brabant Allegiance Habsburg Rank Captain General

Battles/wars War of the League of Cambrai Italian War of 1521

Count Henry III of Nassau-Dillenburg-Dietz (12 January 1483, Siegen – 14 September 1538, Breda), Lord (from 1530 Baron) of Breda, Lord of the Lek, of Dietz, etc. was a count of the House of Nassau. He was the son of Count John V of Nassau-Dillenburg and Elisabeth of Hesse-Marburg. His younger brother was William I, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg (the father of William the Silent).

Career In 1499 Henry's uncle, count Engelbert II, invited Henry to the Netherlands as his heir. He travelled with Philip the Handsome to Castile in 1501-1503. Upon the death of his uncle in 1504 Henry inherited the Nassau possessions in the Netherlands, including the wealthy lordship of Breda in the . The next year he was chosen a knight of the Golden Fleece. He again travelled to Spain in 1505-1506. He became a close confidant of the young Charles V as well as his Chamberlain (1510), becoming his Upper Chamberlain upon the death of William of Croÿ-Chièvres in 1521. The good relation between Charles and Henry is evident in the fact that Charles did not name a new Upper Chamberlain after Henry's death. In 1519 he was part of the delegation that had Charles chosen . He was also prominently present at Charles' coronation to Emperor in Bologna in 1530. He was a member of the of Charles since 1515 and of the Privy Council of Archduchess Margaret of between 1525-1526. He temporarily served as Stadtholder of the conquered parts of Guelders and was Stadtholder of Holland and Zeeland between 1515 and 1521. Henry was again in Spain between 1522 and 1530 (accompanying Charles) and in 1533-1534 (with his wife and son). Henry III of Nassau-Breda 11

Military Commander Henry served as an important military commander in the Netherlands, defending Brabant from Guelders in 1508. He was Captain General in the war with Guelders between 1511 and 1513, and fought with Maximilian of Austria against France until 1514, participating in the battle of Guinegate (1513). He again commanded the armies against Guelders and France between 1516 and 1521, defeating the Black Band, which was in the employ of Charles of Guelders, in 1518 and defeating van der Marck, Lord of Sedan in 1521. He also repelled , who invaded Hainaut that same year. Subsequently Henry conquered Tournai.

Beliefs

Although Henry, who attended the Diet of in 1530, was at first not averse to and his teachings, he later followed Charles' example and remained a staunch Catholic. He didn't approve of the choice of his brother William, who did become a Lutheran, but remained supportive of him throughout his life. He was very impressed with the Renaissance and The Castle of Breda after it was rebuilt in the especially its arts, examples of which he Renaissance style. encountered on his journeys to Spain and Italy. For example, he commissioned Italian architect Tomasso Vincidor da Bologna to completely rebuild his castle at Breda in a renaissance style in 1536, one of the first of such buildings north of the Alps. However, his interests seem to have been superficial. Desiderius Erasmus only considered him a "platonic friend of science".

Guilliam van Schoor (landscape) and Gillis van Tilborgh (figures). Het Paleis van Nassau te Brussel. 1658. Brussel, Koninklijke Musea voor Schone Kunsten van België. Henry III of Nassau-Breda 12

Family Life and Death

Henry married three times: • Louise-Françoise of Savoy († 17 September 1511) on 3 August 1503. • Claudia of Châlon (° 1498 – † 31 May 1521) in May 1515. • Mencia de Mendoza y Fonseca (° 30 November 1508 – † 4 January 1544) on 26 June 1524. With Claudia of Châlon he had a son, René of Châlon (° 5 February 1519), who became prince of Orange in 1530 on the death of Claudia's brother Philibert. Henry had no further legitimate children, although he is known to have had some bastard offspring. His marriage to Mencia de The grave monument of Engelbert II at the Grote kerk in Breda, Netherlands. Both Henry III and his son René are buried here. Mendoza y Fonseca was mainly encouraged by Charles V, as part of his plan to make the nobility of Spain and the Low mix. Henry was however never really liked by the Spaniards, who regarded him as a loud and barbarian German parvenu. Upon his death in 1538 he was succeeded by his only son, but René was himself slain in battle only a few years later in 1544. Henry lies buried beneath the grave monument he had erected for his uncle Engelbert in the Grote kerk at Breda.

References

References

• Hans Cools, Mannen met Macht (Walburg Pers, , 2001) • H.P.H. Jansen, Nassau en Oranje in de Nederlandse geschiedenis (Sijthoff, Alphen a/d Rijn, 1979) • Grew, Marion Ethel, "The House of Orange" ( Methuen & Co. Ltd., 36 Essex Street, Strand, W.C.2, 1947) •• Rowen, Herbert H., "The princes of Orange: the stadholders in the ", (Cambridge University Press, 1988). •• Motley, John Lothrop "The Rise of the Dutch Republic" vol.1. (Harper Publishers, 1855) Coat of arms of Henry III. The 1st and 4th quarters show the arms of Nassau. The 2nd and 3rd show the arms of the lordship of Breda & Vianden. Henry III of Nassau-Breda 13

Henry III of Nassau-Breda House of Nassau Born: 12 January 1483 Died: 14 September 1538 Preceded by Lord (Baron) of Breda Succeeded by Engelbert II of Nassau 1504–1538 René of Châlon Preceded by Stadtholder of Holland and Succeeded by John III of Egmond Zeeland Antoine de Lalaing, Count of Hoogstraten 1515–1521 Preceded by Count of Nassau-Dillenburg Succeeded by John V 1516–1538 William I, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg Preceded by Count of Nassau-Beilstein John III 1525–1538 René of Chalon 14 René of Chalon

René of Châlon, Prince of Orange

René of Châlon

Noble family Châlon-Arlay and Nassau-Breda

Father Henry III of Nassau-Breda

Mother Claudia of Châlon

Born 5 February 1519 Breda, Duchy of Brabant

Died 15 July 1544 Saint-Dizier

René of Châlon (5 February 1519 – 15 July 1544), also known as Renatus of Châlon, was a Prince of Orange and stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht and Gelre. René was born in Breda, the only son of Count Henry III of Nassau-Breda and Claudia of Châlon. Claudia's brother, Philibert of Châlon, was the last Prince of Orange from the house of Châlon. When Philibert died in 1530, René inherited the Princedom of Orange on condition that he used the name and coat of arms of the Châlon-Orange family. History knows him therefore as René of Châlon instead of as "René of Nassau-Breda." René of Chalon 15

René of Châlon married Anna of Lorraine (1522–1568) on 20 August 1540 at -le-Duc. They had only one , a daughter named Maria, who lived only 3 weeks and was buried in the Grote Kerk in Breda. In 1544, René took part in the siege of St. Dizier in the service of Emperor Charles V. He was mortally wounded in battle and died with the Emperor attending at his bedside. René was buried in Grote Kerk in Breda, near the resting-place of his short-lived daughter. A commemorative cenotaph stands in the church of St. Etienne in Bar-le-Duc.

René of Châlon, as the last descendant of the original princes, left the principality to his first William of Nassau-Dillenburg (better known as "William the Silent"), who was not a descendant of the original Orange family but the legal heir to the , Coat of arms of Rene of Chalons as Prince of Orange. The 1st and 4th grand quarters show the and heir of all of René's lands. arms of the Chalons-Arlay (the gold bend) The principality of Orange had already passed, through the female line, princes of Orange (the bugle). The blue and gold from the first dynasty of Orange to the Les Baux, and De checkers represent the arms of Jeanne of Geneva, who married one of the Chalons prices. The 2nd Châlon. William added the name of Orange to his own paternal and 3rd show the quarterings of Brittany and dignities and thus became in 1544 the founder of the -St. Pol. The inescutcheon overall is Orange-Nassau. his paternal arms quartered of Nassau and Breda.

References

René of Chalon House of Nassau Born: 5 February 1519 Died: 15 July 1544 Preceded by Prince of Orange Succeeded by Philibert of Châlon 1530–1544 William of Orange-Nassau Preceded by Baron of Breda Succeeded by Henry III of Nassau-Breda 1538–1544 William of Orange-Nassau Preceded by Stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland and Succeeded by Antoine de Lalaing Utrecht Louis of Praet 1540–1544 Preceded by Stadtholder of Guelders Succeeded by Floris van Egmont 1543–1544 Philippe de Lalaing House of Nassau 16 House of Nassau

The House of Nassau is a diversified aristocratic dynasty in Europe. It is named after the lordship associated with Nassau Castle, located in present-day Nassau, -, . The lords of Nassau were originally titled Count of Nassau, then elevated to the princely class as princely counts. At the end of the , they proclaimed themselves of Nassau.

All Dutch monarchs since 1890 and the Grand Dukes of Luxembourg since 1912 have been descended in the female line from the House of Nassau. According to German tradition, the family name is passed only in the male line of succession. The house is therefore, from this perspective, extinct since 1985.[1] However Dutch aristocratic customs (and Luxembourg's, which are based on the aforementioned) differ, and do not consider the House extinct.

Origins

Count Dudo-Henry of Laurenburg (ca. 1060 – ca. 1123) is considered Coat of arms of the House of Nassau (since the the founder of the House of Nassau. He is first mentioned in the 13th century) purported founding-charter of Maria Laach Abbey in 1093 (although many historians consider the document to be fabricated). The Castle Laurenburg, located a few miles upriver from Nassau on the , was the seat of his lordship. His family probably descended from the Lords of Lipporn. In 1159, Nassau Castle became the ruling seat, and the house is now named after this castle.

The Counts of Laurenburg and Nassau expanded their authority under the brothers Robert (Ruprecht) I (1123–1154) and Arnold I of Laurenburg (1123–1148). Robert was the first person to call himself Count of Nassau, but the title was not confirmed until 1159, five years after Robert's death. Robert's son Walram I (1154–1198) was the first person to be legally titled Count of Nassau. The chronology of the Counts of Laurenburg is not certain and the link between Robert I and Walram I is especially controversial. Also, some sources consider Gerhard, listed as co-Count of Laurenburg in 1148, to be the son of Robert I's brother, Arnold I.[2] However, Erich Brandenburg in his Die Nachkommen Karls des Großen states that it is most likely that Gerhard was Robert I's son, because Gerard was the name of Beatrix of 's maternal grandfather.[3] House of Nassau 17

Counts of Laurenburg (ca. 1093–1159) • ca. 1060 – ca. 1123: Dudo-Henry • 1123–1154: Robert (Ruprecht) I - son of Dudo-Henry • 1123–1148: Arnold I - son of Dudo-Henry •• 1148: Gerhard - son (probably) of Robert I • 1151–1154: Arnold II - son of Robert I • 1154–1159: Robert II - son of Robert I

Counts of Nassau (1159–1255) • 1154–1198: Walram I - son of Robert I • 1158–1167: Henry (Heinrich) I - son of Arnold I, died in Rome during the August 1167 epidemic (after the Battle of Monte Porzio) • 1160–1191: Robert III, the Bellicose - son of Arnold I • 1198–1247: Henry II, the Rich - son of Walram I • 1198–1230: Robert IV - son of Walram I; from 1230–1240: Knight of the Teutonic Order • 1247–1255: Otto I; from 1255–1289: Count of Nassau in Dillenburg, , Siegen, Herborn and Beilstein • 1249–1255: Walram II; from 1255–1276: Count of Nassau in , , and Weilburg In 1255, Henry II's , Walram II and Otto I, split the Nassau possessions. The descendants of Walram became known as the Walram Line, which became important in the Countship of Nassau and Luxembourg. The descendants of Otto became known as the Ottonian Line, which would inherit parts of Nassau, France and the Netherlands. Both lines would often themselves be divided over the next few centuries. In 1783, the heads of various branches of the House of Nassau sealed the Nassau Family Pact (Erbverein) to regulate future succession in their states.

The Walram Line (1255–1344)

Counts of Nassau in Wiesbaden, Idstein, and Weilburg (1255–1344)

• 1255–1276: Walram II • 1276–1298: Adolf of Nassau, crowned King of Germany in 1292 • 1298–1304: Robert VI of Nassau • 1298–1324: Walram III, Count of Nassau in Wiesbaden, Idstein, and Weilnau • 1298–1344: Gerlach I, Count of Nassau in Wiesbaden, Idstein, Weilburg, and Weilnau After Gerlach's death, the possessions of the Walram line were divided into Nassau-Weilburg and Nassau-Wiesbaden-Idstein.

Arms of the Walram line House of Nassau 18

Nassau-Weilburg (1344–1816)

Count Walram II began the Countship of Nassau-Weilburg, which existed to 1816. The sovereigns of this house afterwards governed the Duchy of Nassau until 1866 and from 1890 the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. The branch of Nassau-Weilburg ultimately became rulers of Luxembourg. The Walram line received the lordship of Merenberg in 1328 and Saarbrücken (by marriage) in 1353.

Flag of Nassau-Weilburg

Weilburg House of Nassau 19

Counts of Nassau-Weilburg (1344–1688) • 1344–1371: John I • 1371–1429: Philipp I of Nassau-Weilburg, and (from 1381) Count of Saarbrücken • 1429–1492: Philip II • 1492–1523: Louis I • 1523–1559: Philip III • 1559–1593: Albert • 1559–1602: Philip IV • 1593–1625: Louis II, Count of Nassau-Weilburg and in Ottweiler, Saarbrücken, Wiesbaden, and Idstein • 1625–1629: William Louis, John IV and Ernest Casimir • 1629–1655: Ernest Casimir • 1655–1675: Frederick • 1675–1688: John Ernst

Princely counts of Nassau-Weilburg (1688–1816)

• 1688–1719: John Ernst • 1719–1753: Charles August • 1753–1788: Charles Christian • 1788–1816: Frederick William • 1816: Wilhelm, Prince of Nassau-Weilburg and Duke of Nassau — Nassau-Weilburg merged into Duchy of Nassau

Dukes of Nassau (1816–1866) Map of Nassau-Weilburg as of 1789

• 1816–1839: Wilhelm • 1839–1866: Adolf In 1866, Prussia annexed the Duchy of Nassau as the duke had been an ally of Austria in the Second Austro-Prussian War. In 1890, Duke Adolf would become Grand Duke Adolphe of Luxembourg.

Grand Dukes of Luxembourg (from the House of Nassau-Weilburg) - 1890–1912 and succession through a female onwards • 1890–1905: Adolphe • 1905–1912: William IV • 1912–1919: Marie-Adélaïde • 1919–1964: Charlotte • 1964–2000: Jean • 2000–present: Henri From a morganatic marriage, contracted in 1868, descends a family, see Count of Merenberg, which in 1907 was declared non-dynastic. Had they not been excluded from the succession, they would have inherited the headship of the house in 1912. House of Nassau 20

Counts of Nassau-Wiesbaden-Idstein (1344–1728) • 1344–1370: Adolph I • 1370–after 1386: Gerlach II, Count of Nassau-Wiesbaden • 1370–1393: Walram IV, Count of Nassau-Idstein; inherited Wiesbaden when Gerlach II died • 1393–1426: Adolph II • 1426–1480: John II • 1480–1509: Philip, Count of Nassau-Idstein • 1480–1511: Adolf III, Count of Nassau-Wiesbaden; inherited Idstein in 1509 • 1511–1558: Philip I • 1558–1566: Philip II • 1566–1568: Balthasar • 1568–1596: John Louis I • 1596–1599: John Philip, jointly with his brother John Louis II • 1596–1605: John Louis II • 1605–1627: Louis II • 1627–1629: William Louis • 1629–1677: John, Count of Nassau-Idstein, and (from 1651) in Wiesbaden, Sonnenberg, Wehen, Burg-Schwalbach and Lahr • 1677–1721: George August Samuel (1688–1721) • 1721–1723: Charles Louis • 1723–1728: Frederick Louis, Count of Nassau-Ottweiler (1680–1728), and in Rixingen (1703–28), and Idstein (1721–1728), and in Wiesbaden, etc. (1723–28) After Frederick Louis's death, Nassau-Wiesbaden-Idstein fell to Charles, Prince of Nassau-Usingen

Counts of Nassau-Saarbrücken (1429–1797) • 1429–1472: John II • 1472–1545: John Louis I • 1545–1554: Philip II • 1554–1574: John III • 1574–1602: Philip IV, as Philip III of Nassau-Saarbrücken • 1602–1625: Louis II, Count of Nassau-Saarbrücken and Ottweiler • 1629–1640: William Louis, Count of Nassau-Saarbrücken and Ottweiler • 1640–1642: Crato • 1642–1659: John Louis II, Count of Nassau-Saarbrücken and (1659–80) in Ottweiler, Jungenheim, and Wöllstein • 1659–1677: Gustav Adolph • 1677–1713: Louis Crato • 1713–1723: Charles Louis • 1723–1728: Frederick Louis • 1728–1735: Charles • 1735–1768: William Henry, first Prince of Nassau-Saarbrücken • 1768–1794: Louis • 1794–1797: Henry Louis After Henry Louis's death, Nassau-Saarbrücken fell to Charles William, Prince of Nassau-Usingen House of Nassau 21

Princes of Nassau-Usingen (1659–1816) • 1659–1702: Walrad, elevated to Prince • 1702–1718: William Henry • 1718–1775: Charles • 1775–1803: Charles William • 1803–1816: Frederick Augustus In 1816, Nassau-Usingen merged with Nassau-Weilburg to form the Duchy of Nassau.

The Ottonian Line • 1255–1290: Otto I, Count of Nassau in Siegen, Dillenburg, Beilstein, and Ginsberg • 1290–1303: Joint rule by Henry, John and Emicho I, sons of Otto I In 1303, Otto's sons divided the possessions of the Ottonian line. Henry received Nassau-Siegen, John received Nassau-Dillenburg and Emicho I received Nassau-Hadamar. After John's death. Nassau-Dillenburg fell to Henry.

Counts of Nassau-Dillenburg • 1303–1328: John in Dillenburg, Beilstein and Herborn, and (from 1320) in Katzenelnbogen • 1328–1343: Henry, from 1303 in Siegen, Ginsberg, , and the , and from 1328 in Dillenburg, Herborn, and Beilstein • 1343–1350: Otto II • 1350–1416: John I •• Tetrarchy • 1416–1420: Adolf • 1420–1429: John III • 1420–1442: Engelbert I • 1420–1443: John II • 1442–1451: Henry II • 1448–1475: John IV • 1475–1504: Engelbert II • 1504–1516: John V • 1516–1538: Henry III • 1538–1559: William I • 1559–1606: John VI • 1606–1620: William Louis • 1620–1623: George • 1623–1662: Louis Henry, Prince of Nassau-Dillenburg from 1654 • 1662–1701: Henry • 1701–1724: William II • 1724–1739: Christian In 1739, Nassau-Dillenburg fell to Nassau-Dietz, a.k.a. Orange-Nassau. House of Nassau 22

Counts of Nassau-Beilstein In 1343, Nassau-Beilstein was split off from Nassau-Dillenburg. • 1343–1388: Henry I • 1388–1410: Henry II, jointly with his brother Reinhard • 1388–1412: Reinhard • 1412–1473: John I, jointly with his brother Henry III • 1412–1477: Henry III • 1473–1499: Henry IV • 1499–1513: John II • 1513–1561: John III, jointly with his brother Henry V • 1513–1525: Henry V After John III's death, Nassau-Beilstein fell back to Nassau-Dillenburg. It was split off again in 1607 for George, who inherited the rest of Nassau-Dillenburg in 1620.

Counts and Princes of Nassau-Hadamar • 1303–1334: Emicho I, Count in , Esterau, and Hadamar, married Anna of Nuremberg • 1334–1364: John, married Elisabeth of Waldeck • 1334–1359: Emicho II, son of Emicho I, married Anna of Dietz • 1364–1369: Henry, son of John, Count of Nassau-Hadamar • 1369–1394: Emicho III, son of John After Emicho III's death, Nassau-Hadamar fell back to Nassau-Dillenburg. In 1620, the younger line of Nassau-Hadamar was split off from Nassau-Dillenburg • 1620–1653: John Louis, son of John VI of Nassau-Dillenburg, Prince from 1650 • 1653–1679: Maurice Henry, son of John Louis • 1679–1711: Francis Alexander, son of Maurice Henry In 1711, Nassau-Hadamar was divided between Nassau-Dietz, Nassau-Dillenburg, and Nassau-Siegen.

Nassau-Siegen The branch of Nassau-Siegen was a collateral line of the House of Nassau, and ruled in Siegen. The first Count of Nassau in Siegen was Count Henry, Count of Nassau in Siegen (d. 1343), the elder son of Count Otto I of Nassau. His son Count Otto II of Nassau ruled also in Dillenburg. • 1303–1343: Henry, Count of Nassau in Siegen, Ginsberg, Haiger, and the Westerwald, and (1328–1343) in Dillenburg, Herborn, and Beilstein In 1328, John of Nassau-Dillenburg died unmarried and childless, and Dillenburg fell to Henry of Nassau-Siegen. For counts of Nassau-Siegen in between 1343 and 1606, In 1606 the younger line of Nassau-Siegen was split off from the House of Nassau-Dillenburg. After the main line of the House became extinct in 1734, Emperor Charles VI transferred the county to the House of Orange-Nassau. House of Nassau 23

Counts and Princes of Nassau-Siegen

• 1606–1623 John I • 1623–1638 John II • 1638–1674 George Frederick • 1674–1679 John Maurice • 1679–1691 William Maurice • 1691–1699 John Francis Desideratus Gozdzki - de Nassau in that belonged • 1699–1707 William Hyacinth to wealthy Karolina Gozdzka (1747–1807) and her • 1707–1722 Frederick William Adolf Charles Henry de Nassau-Siegen • 1722–1734 Frederick William II (1745–1808). In 1734, Nassau-Siegen fell to Nassau-Dietz, a.k.a. Orange-Nassau.

Counts and Princes of Nassau-Dietz

• 1606–1632: Ernst Casimir • 1632–1640: Henry Casimir I • 1640–1664: William Frederick, Prince from 1650 • 1664–1696: Henry Casimir II of Nassau-Dietz, Prince of Nassau-Dietz • 1696–1711: John William Friso, Prince of Nassau-Dietz (after 1702 also Prince of Orange)

Princes of the House of Nassau-Dietz from the Stadhouderlijk Hof of Paleis in Leeuwaarden, H.Prince of Nassau, Henry Casimir, Prince of Nassau, George, Prince of Nassau, and Willem Frederick, Prince of Nassau_Dietz House of Nassau 24

Oranienstein Castle, Diez

Orange-Nassau The House of Orange-Nassau stems from the Ottonian Line. The connection was via Engelbert I, who offered his services to the , married a Dutch noblewoman and inherited lands in the Netherlands, with the of Breda as the core of his Dutch possessions. The importance of the Nassaus grew throughout the 15th and . Henry III of Nassau-Breda was appointed stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland and Utrecht by Emperor Charles V in the beginning of the 16th century. Henry was succeeded by his son, René of Châlon-Orange in 1538, who was, as can be inferred from his name, a Prince of Orange. When René died prematurely on the battlefield in 1544 his possessions and the princely title passed to his cousin, William the Silent, a Count of Nassau-Dillenburg. By dropping the suffix name "Dillenburg" (of the Orange-Nassau-Dillenburg), from then on the family members called themselves "Orange-Nassau."

With the death of William III, the legitimate direct male line of William the Silent became extinct and thereby the first House of Orange-Nassau. John William Friso, the senior agnatic descendant of William the Silent's brother and a cognatic descendant of Frederick Henry, grandfather of William III, inherited the princely title and all the possessions in the and William I. "the Silent" (1545–1584), Germany, but not the Principality of Orange itself. The Principality was ceded founder of the Netherlands, statue at to France under the Treaty of Utrecht that ended the wars with King Louis Wiesbaden XIV. John William Friso, who also was the Prince of Nassau-Dietz, founded thereby the second House of Orange-Nassau (the suffix name "Dietz" was dropped of the combined name Orange-Nassau-Dietz).

After the post-Napoleonic reorganization of Europe, the head of House of Orange-Nassau gained the title "King/Queen of the Netherlands". House of Nassau 25

Princes of Orange

House of Orange-Nassau(-Dillenburg), first creation • 1544–1584: William I, also Count of Katzenelnbogen, Vianden, Dietz, and Leerdam and Lord of IJsselstein • 1584–1618: Philip William, also Count of Nassau-Dillenburg, Count of Vianden, Buren and Leerdam and Lord of IJsselstein • 1618–1625: Maurice, also Count of Nassau-Dillenburg, Count of Vianden, Buren and Leerdam and Lord of IJsselstein • 1625–1647: Frederick Henry, also Count of Nassau-Dillenburg, Count of Vianden, Buren and Leerdam and Lord of IJsselstein • 1647–1650: William II, also Count of Nassau-Dillenburg, Count of Vianden, Buren and Leerdam and Lord of IJsselstein • 1650–1702: William III, also Count of Nassau-Dillenburg, Count of Vianden, Buren and Leerdam, Lord of IJsselstein and (from 1689) King of England, , and Ireland In 1702, the Orange-Nassau-Dillenburg line died out and its possessions fell to the Nassau-Dietz line.

House of Orange-Nassau(-Dietz), second creation • 1702–1711: John William Friso, also Prince of Nassau-Dietz, Count of Vianden, Buren and Leerdam and Lord of IJsselstein • 1711–1751: William IV, also Prince of Nassau-Dietz, Count of Vianden, Buren and Leerdam and Lord of IJsselstein • 1751–1806: William V, also Prince of Nassau-Dietz, Count of Vianden, Buren and Leerdam and Lord of IJsselstein • 1806–1815: William VI, also Prince of Fulda and Count of Corvey, and ; in 1815 became King William I of the Netherlands

Kings and Queens of the Netherlands (from the House of Orange-Nassau-Dietz)

• 1815–1840: William I, also Duke and Grand Duke of Luxemburg and Duke of Limburg • 1840–1849: William II, also Grand Duke of Luxemburg and Duke of Limburg • 1849–1890: William III, also Grand Duke of Luxemburg and Duke of Limburg • 1890–1948: Wilhelmina

Following German laws, the House of Orange-Nassau(-Dietz) has been extinct Royal Coat of Arms of the since the death of Wilhelmina (1962). Dutch laws and the Dutch nation do not Netherlands consider it extinct. • 1948–1980: Juliana • 1980–2013: Beatrix • 2013-present: Willem-Alexander House of Nassau 32

Adolphe Princess (1817 +1905) Adelheid-Marie of Duke of Nassau 1839-1866 Anhalt-Dessau Grand Duke of Luxembourg 1890-1905

William IV, Grand Infanta Marie Duke of Anne of Luxembourg, 1852–1912

Marie-Adélaïde, Grand Charlotte 1896–1985, Felix of Duchess of Luxembourg, Grand Duchess of Bourbon-Parma 1894–1924 Luxembourg 1919–1964

Princess Jean 1921-, Grand Duke Prince Charles of Joséphine-Charlotte of of Luxembourg Luxembourg 1964-2000

Archduchess Marie-Astrid Henri 1955-, Grand Maria Teresa Prince Jean of Princess Prince of Austria Duke of Luxembourg, Luxembourg Margaretha of Guillaume of 2000 Liechtenstein Luxembourg

small arms grand arms

Guillaume, Hereditary Prince Félix of Prince Louis of Princess Alexandra of Prince Sébastien Grand Duke of Luxembourg Luxembourg Luxembourg of Luxembourg Luxembourg Johann V of Nassau-Vianden-Dietz 34 Johann V of Nassau-Vianden-Dietz

John V of Nassau-Vianden-Dietz (s) Elisabeth of Hesse-Marburg

Noble family House of Nassau

Father John IV of Nassau

Mother Maria of Loon-

Born 1455 Breda

Died 30 July 1516 Dillenburg

Buried Siegen

Johann V of Nassau-Vianden-Dietz (Breda, 1455 – Dillenburg, 30 July 1516) was count of Nassau (in Siegen, Dillenburg, Hadamar and Herborn), Vianden and Diez, and Lord of Breda. He was the paternal grandfather of William the Silent. He was the son of Jan IV of Nassau and his wife Maria of Loon-Heinsberg. Johann V was in 1504 and 1505 stadtholder of Guelders and Zutphen. In 1504, he inherited Breda and Vianden from his brother Engelbrecht II of Nassau. Johann V married in 1482 to Elisabeth of Hesse-Marburg, a daughter of Henry III, Landgrave of Upper Hesse and his wife Anna of Katzenelnbogen.[1] They had 6 children: • Henry III of Nassau-Breda (1483–1538) • Johann of Nassau-Vianden-Dietz (1484–1504) • Ernst (1486) • William I, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg (1487–1559), father of William the Silent. • Elisabeth of Nassau (1488–1559) • Maria of Nassau (1491–1547) Count Johann V was buried at Siegen. His Dutch possessions went to his eldest son Henry, his German possessions to his other son William.

References

[1][1]John Morby, of the World: a chronological and genealogical handbook (Oxford, Oxfordshire, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 1989), page 135. William I, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg 35 William I, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg

William I, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg

William I, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg

Spouse(s) Walburga of Egmont Juliane of Stolberg-Wernigerode

Noble family House of Nassau

Father John V of Nassau-Dillenburg

Mother Elisabeth of Hesse-Marburg

Born 10 April 1487 Dillenburg

Died 6 October 1559 (aged 72) Dillenburg

William I, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg (nicknamed William the Rich, Dutch: Willem de Rijke; 10 April 1487 – 6 October 1559) was a count of Nassau-Dillenburg from the House of Nassau. He was not wealthy; his nickname the Rich refers to him having many children. William was born in Dillenburg as the younger son of Count John V of Nassau-Dillenburg and Landgravine Elisabeth, daughter of Landgrave Henry III of Hesse-Marburg and Anna of Katzenelnbogen He was the brother of count Henry III of Nassau-Breda and the father of William I of Orange. His eldest son William inherited the principality of Orange. The early House of Orange-Nassau descends from the younger William, while the later House of Orange-Nassau (and the Dutch royal family) descends from both the younger William and his younger brother John. William I, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg 36

Family and children William of Nassau was married twice. Firstly, he married on 29 October 1506 Countess Walburga of Egmont (29 October 1490 – March 1529), daughter of John III of Egmont. She gave him two : 1. Elisabeth ( October 1515 – 31 January 1523) 2. Magdalene ( 6 October 1522 – 18 August 1567), married on 16 July 1538 to Count Herman of Neuenahr and After her death, he married on 20 September 1531 Countess Juliane of Stolberg-Wernigerode (15 February 1506 – 18 June 1580). They had twelve children: 1. William I of Orange (24 April 1533 – 10 July 1584) 2.2.Hermanna (b. 9 August 1534), died young 3. John VI "The Elder" (22 November 1536 – 28 October 1606) 4. Louis of Nassau (10 January 1538 – 14 April 1574) 5. Maria (15 March 1539 – May 1599), married on 11 November 1556 to Count William IV of Berg-s'Heerenberg 6. Adolf (11 July 1540 – 23 May 1568) 7. Anna (21 September 1541 – 12 February 1616), married on 16 June 1559 to Count Albert of Nassau-Weilburg 8. Elisabeth (25 September 1542 – 18 November 1603), married 16 June 1559 to Count Conrad of Solms-Braunfels 9. Catharine (19 December 1542 – 25 December 1624), married on 17 November 1560 to Count Günther XLI of Schwarzburg-Arnstadt 10. Juliana (10 August 1546 – 31 August 1588), married 14 June 1575 to Count Albrecht VII of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt 11. Magdalena (15 December 1547 – 16 May 1633), married on 27 January 1567 to Count Wolfgang of Hohenlohe-Weikersheim 12. Henry (15 October 1550 – 14 April 1574)

William I, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg House of Nassau Born: 10 April 1487 Died: 6 October 1559 Preceded by Count of Succeeded by John V Nassau-Dillenburg John VI 1516–1559 Juliana of Stolberg 37 Juliana of Stolberg

Juliana, Countess of Stolberg-Wernigerode

Juliana, Countess of Stolberg-Wernigerode (1506–1580)

Spouse(s) Philip II, Count of -Münzenberg William I, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg

Noble family House of Stolberg

Father Bodo VIII, Count of Stolberg-Wernigerode

Mother Anna of Eppstein-Königstein

Born 15 February 1506 Stolberg, Saxony-Anhalt

Died 18 June 1580 (aged 74)

Juliana, Countess of Stolberg-Wernigerode (15 February 1506, Stolberg, Saxony-Anhalt – 18 June 1580) was the mother of William the Silent, the leader of the successful against the Spanish in the 16th century. Juliana was born in Stolberg as the daughter of Bodo VIII, Count of Stolberg-Wernigerode and Anna of Eppstein-Königstein. She was raised a Roman Catholic but changed her religion twice, first to and later to . She, along with her second husband, was a convinced Protestant and raised their children in the Protestant ways. After the death of her second husband in 1559 she remained living at Dillenburg castle, now belonging to her second son John, where she died in 1580. Her entire life, she kept close to her children, especially William. When William began his rebellion against Philip II of Spain she supported her son morally and financially. Because of this financial support, William was able to campaign against Spain in the Netherlands. Juliana of Stolberg 38

Marriages and children In 1523 Juliana married Philip II of Hanau-Münzenberg (d. 1529). From this marriage five children were born: 1.1.Reinhard (born: 10 April 1524; died 12 April 1524) 2. Catherine (born: 26 March 1525; died 20 August 1581), married John IV, Count of Wied-Runkel and Isenburg 3. Philip III (1526–1561), Count of Hanau-Münzenberg 4. Reinhard (born: 8 April 1528; died: 11 October 1554), halfbrother of William of Orange, he died in battle in service of the army of Charles V in the war against France. 5. Juliana (born: 30 March 1529; died: 8 July 1595), married Thomas, Wild- and Rhinegrave of -Kyrburg (1529–1549) On 20 September 1531 Juliana married William, Count of Nassau. From this marriage twelve children were born: 1. William I of Orange (1533–1584) 2. Hermanna (1534 - † young) 3. John VI "the Elder" (1536–1606) 4. Louis of Nassau (1538–1574) 5. Maria (1539–1599) She married William IV, Count of Berg 6. Adolf (1540–1568) 7. Anna (1541–1616). She married Albert of Nassau-Weilburg 8. Elisabeth (1542–1603). She married Conrad, Count of Solms-Braunfels 9. Catherine (1543–1624). She married Count Günther XLI of Schwarzburg-Arnstadt 10. Juliana (1546–1588). She married Count Albrecht VII of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt 11. Magdalena (1547–1633). She married Count Wolfgang of Hohenlohe-Weikersheim 12. Henry (1550–1574) Juliana of Stolberg had in total 17 children and 123 grandchildren. William the Silent 39 William the Silent

William the Silent

Key, Adriaen Thomas (ca. 1570–84), William of Orange

Prince of Orange

In office 1544–1584

Preceded by René of Châlon

Succeeded by Philip William, Prince of Orange

Stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Friesland Leader of the Dutch Revolt

In office 1559–1584

Stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland, and Utrecht

In office 1559 – 1567 (removed from office after flight)

Monarch Philip II of Spain

Preceded by Maximilian II of Burgundy

Succeeded by Maximilien de Hénin-Liétard

Stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland, and Utrecht (reinstated by States General)

In office 1572 – 1584 (assassination)

Preceded by Maximilien de Hénin-Liétard

Succeeded by Adolf van Nieuwenaar (Utrecht) Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange (Holland and Zeeland)

Republican Stadtholder of Friesland

In office 1580 – 1584 (assassination)

Personal details William the Silent 40

Born 24 April 1533 Dillenburg, Nassau, Holy Roman Empire (now Germany)

Died 10 July 1584 (aged 51) Delft, Holland, Holy Roman Empire (now Netherlands)

Spouse(s) Anna of Egmond (1551–58) (1561–71) Charlotte of Bourbon (1575–82) (1583-84)

Children 16

Religion Calvinism

William I, Prince of Orange (24 April 1533 – 10 July 1584), also widely known as William the Silent (Dutch: Willem de Zwijger), or simply William of Orange (Dutch: Willem van Oranje), was the main leader of the Dutch revolt against the Spanish that set off the Eighty Years' War and resulted in the formal independence of the United in 1648. He was born in the House of Nassau as Count of Nassau-Dillenburg. He became Prince of Orange in 1544 and is thereby the founder of the branch House of Orange-Nassau and the ancestor of the monarchy of the Netherlands. A wealthy nobleman, William originally served the Habsburgs as a member of the court of , governor of the . Unhappy with the centralisation of political power away from the local estates and with the Spanish persecution of Dutch Protestants, William joined the Dutch uprising and turned against his former masters. The most influential and politically capable of the rebels, he led the Dutch to several successes in the fight against the Spanish. Declared an outlaw by the Spanish king in 1580, he was assassinated by Balthasar Gérard (also written as "Gerardts") in Delft four years later (1584).

Early life

Castle and of Dillenburg in the duchy Nassau, the birthplace of William the Silent

William the Silent in 1555

Anna of Egmond in c. 1550 William was born on 24 April 1533 in the castle of Dillenburg in the duchy of Nassau in the Holy Roman Empire, now in Hesse, Germany. He was the eldest son of William, Count of Nassau, and Juliana of Stolberg-Werningerode, and was raised a Lutheran. He had four younger brothers and seven younger : John, Hermanna, Louis, Maria, Anna, Elisabeth, Katharine, Juliane, Magdalene, Adolf and Henry. William the Silent 41

When his cousin, René of Châlon, Prince of Orange, died childless in 1544, the eleven-year-old William inherited all Châlon's property, including the title Prince of Orange, on the condition that he receive a Roman Catholic education. This was the founding of the house of Orange-Nassau. Besides Châlon's properties, he also inherited vast estates in the Low Countries (present-day Netherlands and Belgium). Because of his young age, the Charles V served as the regent of the principality until William was fit to rule. William was sent to the Netherlands to receive the required education, first at the family's estate in Breda, later in under the supervision of Mary of Habsburg (Mary of Hungary), the sister of Charles V and governor of the (). In Brussels, he was taught foreign languages and received a military and diplomatic education[1] under the direction of Champagney (Jérôme Perrenot), brother of Granvelle. On 6 July 1551, he married Anna van Egmond en Buren, the wealthy heir to the lands of her father, and William gained the titles Lord of Egmond and Count of Buren. They had three children. Later that same year, William was appointed captain in the cavalry. Favoured by Charles V, he was rapidly promoted, and became commander of one of the Emperor's armies at the age of 22. He was made a member of the Raad van State, the highest political advisory council in the Netherlands.[2] It was in November 1555, shortly after Charles had abdicated in favour of his son, Philip II of Spain that the gout-afflicted Emperor leaned on William's shoulder during his abdication ceremony.[3] His wife Anna died on 24 March 1558. Later, William had a brief relationship with Eva Elincx, leading to the birth of their illegitimate son, Justinus van Nassau:[4][5] William officially recognised him and took responsibility for his education – Justinus would become an admiral in his later years. In 1559, Philip appointed William as the stadtholder (governor) of the provinces Holland, Zeeland and Utrecht, thereby greatly increasing his political power.[6] A stadtholdership over Franche-Comté followed in 1561.

From politician to rebel Although he never directly opposed the Spanish king, William soon became one of the most prominent members of the opposition in the Council of State, together with Philip de Montmorency, Count of Hoorn, and Lamoral, Count of Egmont. They were mainly seeking more political power for themselves against the de facto government of Count Berlaymont, Granvelle and Viglius of Aytta, but also for the Dutch nobility and, ostensibly, for the Estates, and complained that too many Spaniards were involved in governing the Netherlands. William was also dissatisfied with the increasing persecution of Protestants in the Netherlands. Brought up as a Lutheran and later a Catholic, William was very religious but was still a proponent of freedom of religion for all people. The activity of the Inquisition in the Netherlands, directed by Cardinal Granvelle, prime minister to the new governor Margaret of Parma (1522–83) (natural half-sister to Philip II), increased opposition to Spanish rule among the – then mostly Catholic – population of the Netherlands. Lastly, the opposition wished to see an end to the presence of Spanish troops. On 25 August 1561, William of Orange married for the second time. His new wife, Anna of Saxony, was described by contemporaries as "self-absorbed, weak, assertive, and cruel", and it is generally assumed that William married her to gain more influence in Saxony, Hesse and the Palatinate.[7] The couple had five children. William the Silent 42

Up to 1564, any criticism of governmental measures voiced by William and the other members of the opposition had ostensibly been directed at Granvelle; however, after the latter's departure early that year, William, who may have found increasing confidence in his alliance with the Protestant princes of Germany following his second marriage,[8] began to openly criticize the King's anti-Protestant politics. In an iconic speech to the Council of State, William to the shock of his audience justified his conflict with Philip by saying that, even though he had decided for himself to keep to the Catholic faith, he could not agree that monarchs should rule over the souls of their subjects and take from them their freedom of belief and religion.[9]

Later, in his Apology (1580), William stated that his resolve to oppose the King's policies had originated in June 1559. William and the Duke of Alva had been sent to France as hostages for the proper fulfillment of the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis following the Hispano-French war. During a trip to Anna of Saxony, second wife of the Bois de Vincennes with King Henry II of France, William and Alva had William the Silent openly discussed a secret understanding between Philip and Henry which aimed at the extermination of the Protestants in both France and the Netherlands. William at that time had kept silent, but had decided for himself that he would not allow the slaughter of so many innocent subjects.

In early 1565, a large group of lesser noblemen, including William's younger brother Louis, formed the Confederacy of Noblemen. On 5 April, they offered a petition to Margaret of Parma, requesting an end to the persecution of Protestants. From August to October 1566, a wave of iconoclasm (known as the ) spread through the Low Countries. Calvinists (the major Protestant denomination), Anabaptists, and Mennonites, angered by Catholic repression and theologically opposed to the Catholic use of images of saints (which in their eyes conflicted with the Second Commandment), destroyed statues in hundreds of churches and monasteries throughout the Netherlands. Following the Beeldenstorm, unrest in the Netherlands grew, and Margaret agreed to grant the wishes of the Confederacy, provided the noblemen would help to restore order. She also allowed more important noblemen, including William of Orange, to assist the Confederacy. In late 1566, and early 1567, it became clear that she would not be allowed to fulfil her promises, and when several minor rebellions failed, many Calvinists and Lutherans fled the . Following the announcement that Philip II, unhappy with the situation in the Netherlands, would dispatch his loyal general Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, Duke of Alba (also known as "The Iron Duke"), to restore order, William laid down his functions and retreated to his native Nassau in April 1567. He had been (financially) involved with several of the rebellions. William the Silent 43

After his arrival in August 1567, Alba established the (known to the people as the Council of Blood) to judge those involved in the rebellion and the iconoclasm. William was one of the 10,000 to be summoned before the Council, but he failed to appear. He was subsequently declared an outlaw, and his properties were confiscated. As one of the most prominent and popular politicians of the Netherlands, William of Orange emerged as the leader of armed resistance. He financed the Watergeuzen, refugee Protestants who formed bands of corsairs and raided the coastal of the Netherlands (often killing Spanish and Dutch alike). He also raised an army, consisting mostly of German mercenaries, to fight Alba on land. William allied with the French , following the end of the second Religious War in France when they had troops to spare.[10] Led by his brother Louis, the army invaded the northern Philip II of Spain berating William the Silent. Prince of Orange by Netherlands in 1568. However the plan failed almost from the start. The Cornelis Kruseman, painting from Huguenots were defeated by French royal troops before they could invade, and a 19th century. This scene was small force under Jean de Villers was captured within two days. Villers gave all purported to have happened on the the plans of the campaign to the Spanish following his capture.[11] On 23 May, dock in Flushing when Philip departed the Netherlands. the army under the command of Louis won the Battle of Heiligerlee in the northern of Groningen against a Spanish army led by the stadtholder of the northern provinces, Jean de Ligne, Duke of Aremberg. Aremberg was killed in the battle, as was William's brother Adolf. Alba countered by killing a number of convicted noblemen (including the Counts of Egmont and Hoorn on 6 June), and then by leading an expedition to Groningen. There, he annihilated Louis’ forces on German in the Battle of Jemmingen on 21 July, although Louis managed to escape.[12] These two battles are now considered to be the start of the Eighty Years' War.

War

In October 1568, William responded by leading a large army into Brabant, but Alba carefully avoided a decisive confrontation, expecting the army to fall apart quickly. As William advanced, disorder broke out in his army, and with winter approaching and money running out, William turned back.[13] William made several more plans to invade in the next few years, but little came of them, since he lacked support and money. He remained popular with the public, in part through an extensive propaganda campaign conducted through pamphlets. One of his most important claims, with which he attempted to justify his actions, was that he was not fighting the rightful ruler of the land, the King of Spain, but only the inadequate rule of the foreign governors in the Netherlands, and the presence of foreign soldiers.

On 22 August 1571, his second wife Anna gave birth to a daughter - Coat of Arms of William named Christina Dietz - fathered by Jan Rubens, best known as the father of painter ; Jan Rubens had been sent by her uncle in 1570 to manage her finances.[14] Later that year, William had this marriage legally dissolved on the grounds that Anna was insane. William the Silent 44

On 1 April 1572 a band of Watergeuzen captured the city of , which had been left unattended by the Spanish garrison. Contrary to their normal "hit and run" tactics, they occupied the and claimed it for the prince by raising the Prince of Orange's above the city.[15] This event was followed by other cities opening their gates for the Watergeuzen, and soon most cities in Holland and Zeeland were in the hands of the rebels, notable exceptions being and Middelburg. The rebel cities then called a meeting of the Staten Generaal (which they were technically unqualified to do), and The so-called Prinsenvlag (Prince's flag), based on the colours in the coat of arms of William of reinstated William as the stadtholder of Holland and Zeeland. Orange, was used by the Dutch rebels, and was Concurrently, rebel armies captured cities throughout the entire the basis of the current . country, from to Mons. William himself then advanced with his own army and marched into several cities in the south, including Roermond and Leuven. William had counted on intervention from the Huguenots as well, but this plan was thwarted after the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre on 24 August, which signalled the start of a wave of violence against the Huguenots. After a successful Spanish attack on his army, William had to flee and he retreated to Enkhuizen, in Holland. The Spanish then organised countermeasures, and sacked several rebel cities, sometimes massacring their inhabitants, such as in or Zutphen. They had more trouble with the cities in Holland, where they took after seven months and a loss of 8,000 soldiers, and they had to break off their .

In 1573, William joined the Calvinist Church.[16] In 1574, William's armies won several minor battles, including several naval encounters. The Spanish, led by Don Luis de Zúñiga y

Requesens since Philip replaced Alba in 1573, also had their successes. Charlotte de Bourbon-Montpensier Their decisive victory in the Battle of Mookerheyde in the south east, on the Meuse embankment, on 14 April cost the lives of two of William's brothers, Louis and Henry. Requesens's armies also besieged the city of . They broke off their siege when nearby dykes were breached by the Dutch. William was very content with the victory, and established the University of Leiden, the first university in the Northern Provinces.

William married for the third time on 24 April 1575 to Charlotte de Bourbon-Monpensier, a former French nun, who was also popular with the public. They had six daughters. The marriage, which seems to have been a love match on both sides, was happy. After failed peace negotiations in Breda in 1575, the war continued. The situation improved for the rebels when Don Requesens died unexpectedly in March 1576, and a large group of Spanish soldiers, not having received their salary in months, mutinied in November of that year and unleashed the on the city of , a tremendous propaganda coup for the rebels. While the new governor, Don , was en route, William of Orange got most of the provinces and cities sign the Pacification of , in which they declared themselves ready to fight for the expulsion of Spanish troops together. However, he failed to achieve unity in matters of religion. Catholic cities and provinces would not allow freedom for Calvinists, and vice versa. When Don John signed the in February 1577, promising to comply with the conditions of the , it seemed that the war had been decided in favour of the rebels. However, after Don John took the city of Namur in 1577, the uprising spread throughout the entire Netherlands. Don John attempted to negotiate William the Silent 45

peace, but the prince intentionally let the negotiations fail. On 24 September 1577, he made his triumphal entry in the capital Brussels. At the same time, Calvinist rebels grew more radical, and attempted to forbid Catholicism in areas under their control. William was opposed to this both for personal and political reasons. He desired freedom of religion, and he also needed the support of the less radical Protestants and Catholics to reach his political goals. On 6 January 1579, several southern provinces, unhappy with William's radical following, signed the Treaty of , in which they agreed to accept their Catholic governor, Alessandro Farnese, (who had succeeded Don John). Five northern provinces, later followed by most cities in Brabant and , then signed the on 23 January, confirming their unity. William was initially opposed to the Union, as he still hoped to unite all provinces. Nevertheless, he formally gave his support on 3 May. The Union of Utrecht would later become a de facto constitution, and would remain the only formal connection between the Dutch provinces until 1795.

Declaration of Independence

In spite of the renewed union, the Duke of Parma was successful in reconquering most of the southern part of the Netherlands. Because he had agreed to remove the Spanish troops from the provinces under the Treaty of Arras, and because Philip II needed them elsewhere subsequently, the Duke of Parma was unable to advance any further until the end of 1581. In the mean time, William and his supporters were looking for foreign support. The prince had already sought French assistance on several occasions, and this time he managed to gain the support of Francis, Duke of Anjou, brother of King Henry III of France. On 29 September 1580, the Staten Generaal (with the exception of Zeeland and Holland) signed the Treaty of The Duke of Anjou, who had been Plessis-les-Tours with the Duke of Anjou. The Duke would gain the recruited by William as the new title "Protector of the Liberty of the Netherlands" and become the new sovereign of the Netherlands, was sovereign. This, however, required that the Staten Generaal and hugely unpopular with the public. William renounce their formal support of the King of Spain, which they had maintained officially up to that moment.

On 22 July 1581, the Staten Generaal declared that they no longer recognised Philip II of Spain as their ruler, in the . This formal declaration of independence enabled the Duke of Anjou to come to the aid of the resisters. He did not arrive until 10 February 1582, when he was officially welcomed by William in Flushing. On 18 March, the Spaniard Juan de Jáuregui attempted to assassinate William in Antwerp. Although William suffered severe injuries, he survived thanks to the care of his wife Charlotte and his sister Mary. While William slowly recovered, Charlotte became exhausted from providing intensive care, and died on 5 May. The Duke of Anjou was not very popular with the population. The provinces of Zeeland and Holland refused to recognise him as their sovereign, and William was widely Louise de Coligny criticised for what were called his "French politics". When Anjou's French troops arrived in late 1582, William's plan seemed to pay off, as even the Duke of Parma feared that the Dutch would now gain the upper hand. William the Silent 46

However, Anjou himself was displeased with his limited powers, and secretly decided to seize Antwerp by force. The citizens, who had been warned in time, ambushed Anjou and his troops as they entered the city on 18 January 1583, in what is known as the "French Fury". Almost all of Anjou's men were killed, and he was reprimanded from both Catherine de Medici and of England (whom he had courted). The position of Anjou after this attack became untenable, and he eventually left the country in June. His departure also discredited William, who nevertheless maintained his support for Anjou. He stood virtually alone on this issue, and became politically isolated. Holland and Zeeland nevertheless maintained him as their stadtholder, and attempted to declare him and Zeeland, thus making him the official sovereign. In the middle of all this, William married for the fourth and final time on 12 April 1583 to Louise de Coligny, a French Huguenot and daughter of Gaspard de Coligny. She was to be Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange the mother of Frederick Henry (1584–1647), William's fourth legitimate son.

Assassination

The Catholic Frenchman Balthasar Gérard (born 1557) was a supporter of Philip II, and in his opinion, William of Orange had betrayed the Spanish king and the Catholic religion. After Philip II declared William an outlaw and promised a reward of 25,000 crowns for his assassination, and of which Gérard learned in 1581, he decided to travel to the Netherlands to kill William. He served in the army of the governor of Luxembourg, Peter Ernst I von Mansfeld-Vorderort, for two years, hoping to get close to William when the armies met. This never happened, and Gérard left the army in 1584. He went to the Duke of Parma to present his plans, but the Duke was unimpressed. In May 1584, he presented himself to William as a French nobleman, and gave him the seal of the Count of Mansfelt. This seal would allow forgeries of the messages of Mansfelt to be made. William sent Gérard back to France to pass the seal on to his French allies.

Gérard returned in July, having bought two wheel-lock pistols on his Bullet holes from the murder at the Prinsenhof in Delft return voyage. On 10 July, he made an appointment with William of Orange in his home in Delft, nowadays known as the Prinsenhof. That day, William was having dinner with his guest Rombertus van Uylenburgh. After William left the dining room and walked down-stairs, Van Uylenburgh heard Gérard shoot William in the chest at close range. Gérard fled to collect his reward.

According to official records,[17] William's last words are said to have been:[18] Mon Dieu, ayez pitié de mon âme; mon Dieu, ayez pitié de ce pauvre peuple. My God, have pity on my soul; my God, have pity on this poor people. Gérard was caught before he could flee Delft, and imprisoned. He was tortured before his trial on 13 July, where he was sentenced to be brutally – even by the standards of that time – killed. The magistrates decreed that the right William the Silent 47

hand of Gérard should be burned off with a red-hot iron, that his flesh should be torn from his bones with pincers in six different places, that he should be quartered and disembowelled alive, that his heart should be torn from his bosom and flung in his face, and that, finally, his head should be cut off. Traditionally, members of the Nassau family were buried in Breda, but as that city was in Spanish hands when William died, he was buried in the New Church in Delft. His monument on his tomb was originally very modest, but it was replaced in 1623 by a new one, made by Hendrik de Keyser and his son Pieter. Since then, most of the members of the House of Orange-Nassau, including all Dutch monarchs, have been buried in the same church. His great-grandson William the third, King of England and Scotland and Stadtholder in the Netherlands, was buried in According to a British historian of science Lisa Jardine, he is reputed to be the first world to be assassinated by handgun. The Scottish Regent Moray had been shot 13 years earlier, being the first recorded firearm assassination.

Legacy

Philip William, William's eldest son by his first marriage, to Anna of Egmond, succeeded him as the Prince of Orange at the suggestion of Johan van Oldenbarneveldt. Phillip William died in Brussels on 20 February 1618 and was succeeded by his half-brother Maurice, the eldest son by William's second marriage, to Anna of Saxony, who became Prince of Orange. A strong military leader, he won several victories over the Spanish. Van Oldenbarneveldt managed to sign a very favourable twelve-year armistice in 1609, although Maurice was unhappy with this. Maurice was a heavy drinker and died on 23 April 1625 from liver disease. Maurice had several sons by Margaretha van Mechelen, but he never married her. So, Frederick Henry, Maurice's half-brother (and William's youngest son from his fourth marriage, to Louise de Coligny) inherited the title of Prince of Orange. Frederick Henry continued the battle against the Spanish. Frederick Henry died on 14 March 1647 and is buried with his father William The statue of William of Orange in "The Silent" in , Delft. The Netherlands became formally . His finger originally pointed towards the Binnenhof, but independent after the Peace of in 1648. the statue has since been moved. A The son of Frederick Henry, William II of Orange succeeded his father as similar statue stands in Voorhees Mall on the campus of Rutgers stadtholder, as did his son, William III of Orange. The latter also became king of University. England, Scotland and Ireland from 1689. Although he was married to Mary II, Queen of Scotland and England for 17 years, he died childless in 1702. He appointed his cousin Johan Willem Friso (William's great-great-great-grandson) as his successor. Because Albertine Agnes, a daughter of Frederick Henry, married William Frederik of Nassau-Dietz, the present royal house of the Netherlands is descended from William the Silent through the female line. As the chief financer and political and military leader of the early years of the Dutch revolt, William is considered a national hero in the Netherlands, even though he was born in Germany, and usually spoke French.

Many of the Dutch national symbols can be traced back to William of Orange: • He is the ancestor of the Dutch monarchy • The flag of the Netherlands (red, and blue) is derived from the flag of the prince, which was orange, white and blue. • The coat of arms of the Netherlands is based on that of William of Orange. Its motto Je maintiendrai (French, "I maintain") was also used by William of Orange, who based it on the motto of his cousin René of Châlon, who used Je maintiendrai Châlon. William the Silent 48

• The national anthem of the Netherlands, the , was originally a propaganda song for William. It was probably written by Philips of Marnix, Lord of Saint-Aldegonde, a supporter of William of Orange. •• The national colour of the Netherlands is orange, and it is used, among other things, in the clothing of Dutch athletes. • The orange sash of the Prussian Order of the Black Eagle was in honour of the Dutch Dynasty of William the Silent, since the order's founder, Frederick I of Prussia's mother, Louise Henrietta of Nassau, was the granddaughter of William the Silent. Other remembrances of William of Orange: •• A statue of William the Silent stands on the main campus of Rutgers University in New Brunswick, New Jersey, a legacy of the university's founding by ministers of the in 1766. The statue is commonly known to students and alumni as "Willie the Silent" and contains an inscription referring to William as "Father of his Fatherland." • In January 2008, the asteroid 12151 Oranje-Nassau was named after him.

Descended and monarchs in the Netherlands In the 19th century the Netherlands became a , currently with King Willem-Alexander as head of state: he is cognatically descended from William of Orange. All stadtholders after William of Orange where drawn from his descendants or the descendants of his brother.

Epithet There are several explanations for the origin of the style, "William the Silent" (Dutch: Willem de Zwijger) . The most common one relates to his prudence in regard to a conversation with the king of France. One day, during a stag-hunt in the Bois de Vincennes, Henry, finding himself alone with the Prince, began to speak of the great number of Protestant sectaries who, during the late war, had increased so much in his kingdom to his great sorrow. His conscience, said the King, would not be easy nor his realm secure until he could see it purged of the "accursed vermin," who would one day overthrow his government, under the cover of religion, if they were allowed to get the upper hand. This was to be feared since some of the chief men in the kingdom, and even some princes of the blood, were on their side. But he hoped by the grace of God and the good understanding that he had with his new son, the King of Spain, that he would soon get the better of them. The King talked on thus to Orange in the full conviction that he was aware of the secret agreement recently made with the Duke of Alba for the extirpation of heresy. But the Prince, subtle and adroit as he was, answered the good King in such a way as to leave him still under the impression that he, the Prince, knew all about the scheme proposed by Alba; and on this understanding the King revealed all the details of the plan which had been arranged between the King of Spain and himself for the rooting out and rigorous punishment of the heretics, from the lowest to the highest rank, and in this service the Spanish troops were to be mainly employed.[19] Exactly when and by whom the nickname "the Silent" (Modern Dutch: "de Zwijger", meaning more "the Taciturn". The verbs "zwijgen" in Dutch, "schweigen" in German, "tiga" in Swedish, "se taire" in French, "callar/callarse" in Spanish and "tacere" in Italian have no real equivalent in English; they mean the opposite of "to talk".) was used for the first time is not known with certainty. It is traditionally ascribed to Cardinal de Granvelle, who is said to have referred to William as "the silent one" sometime during the troubles of 1567. Both the nickname and the accompanying anecdote are first found in a historical source from the early 17th century.[20] In the Netherlands, William is known as the Vader des Vaderlands, "Father of the Fatherland", and the Dutch national anthem, the Wilhelmus,[21] was written in his honour. William the Silent 49

Issue

Name Birth Death Notes

By Anna of Egmond (married 6 July 1551; b. est 1534, d. 24 March 1558)

Countess Maria of 22 November ca. 23 July Died in infancy. Nassau. 1553 1555

Philip William, Prince 19 December 20 February married Eleonora of Bourbon-Condé. of Orange 1554 1618 and Count of Nassau

Countess Maria of 7 February 10 October married Count Philip of Hohenlohe-Neuenstein Nassau 1556 1616

By Anna of Saxony (married 25 August 1561 annulled 22 March 1571; b. 23 December 1544, d. 18 December 1577)

Countess Anna of 31 October 23 November Died in infancy Nassau 1562 1562

Countess Anna of 5 November 13 June 1588 married Count Wilhelm Ludwig von Nassau-Dillenburg Nassau 1563

Maurits August Philips 18 December 8 December Count, Died in infancy. of Nassau 1564 1566

Maurice of Nassau, 14 November 23 April 1625 never married Prince of Orange 1567 and Count of Nassau

Countess Emilia of 10 April 1569 16 March married Manuel de Portugal (son of to the Portuguese throne António, Prior of Nassau 1629 Crato), 10 children

By Charlotte of Bourbon (married 24 June 1575; b. about 1546, d. 5 May 1582)

Countess Louise Juliana 31 March 15 March married Frederick IV, Elector Palatine, 8 children. Her son, Frederick V, Elector Palatine of Nassau 1576 1644 would be the grandfather of George I of Great Britain.

Countess Elisabeth of 1577 1642 married to Henri de La Tour d'Auvergne, and had issue, including Frédéric Maurice, duc Nassau de Bouillon and Henri de la Tour d'Auvergne, Vicomte de Turenne

Countess Catharina 1578 1648 Countess, married to Count Philip Louis II of Hanau-Münzenberg Belgica of Nassau

Countess Charlotte 1579 1640 A nun. After her mother's death in 1582 her French grandfather asked for Charlotte Flandrina of Nassau Flandrina to stay with him. She converted to Roman Catholicism and entered a convent in 1593.

Countess Charlotte 1580 1631 married Claude, Duc de Thouars, and had issue, including Charlotte Stanley, Countess of Brabantina of Nassau Derby.

Countess Emilia 1581 1657 married Frederick Casimir, of Zweibrücken-Landsberg Antwerpiana of Nassau

By Louise de Coligny (married 24 April 1583; b. 23 September 1555, d. 13 November 1620)

Frederick Henry, Prince b. 29 January d. 14 March married to Countess Amalia of Solms-Braunfels, father of William II and grandfather of Orange 1584 1647 of William III, King of England, Scotland, Ireland and Stadtholder of the Netherlands and Count of Nassau

Between his first and second , William had an extramarital affair with Eva Elincx. They had a son, Justinus van Nassau (1559–1631), whom William acknowledged. William the Silent 50

Coats of arms and Titles A noble's power was often based on his ownership of vast tracts of land and lucrative offices. Besides being sovereign over the principality of Orange, William possessed these other estates, most enfoefed to some other sovereign, either the King of France or the Habsburgs: • Marquis of Veere and •• Count of Nassau-Dillenburg • Katzenelnbogen, and Vianden • of Antwerp • Baron of Breda, Lands of Cuijk, City of Grave, Diest, Herstal, Warneton, Beilstein, Arlay, and Nozeroy; Lord of Dasburg, Geertruidenberg, Hooge en Lage Zwaluwe, Klundert, Montfort, Naaldwijk, Niervaart, Polanen, Steenbergen, Willemstad, Bütgenbach, Sankt Vith, and Besançon William used two sets of arms in his lifetime. The first one shown below was his ancestral arms of Nassau. The second arms he used most of his life from the time he became Prince of Orange on the death of his cousin René of Châlon. He placed the arms of Châlon-Arlay as princes of Orange as an inescutcheon on his father's arms. In 1582, William purchased the marquisate of Veere and Vlissingen in Zeeland. It had been the property of Philip II since 1567, but had fallen into arrears to the province. In 1580, the Court of Holland ordered it sold. William bought it as it gave him two more votes in the States of Zeeland. He owned the government of the two , and so could appoint their magistrates. He already had one as First Noble for Philip William, who had inherited Maartensdijk. This made William the predominant member of the States of Zeeland. It was a smaller version of the countship of Zeeland (and Holland) promised to William, and was a potent political base for his descendants. William then added the shield of Veere and Buren to his arms as shown in the third coat of arms below. It shows how arms were used to represent political power in general, and the growing political power of William.

Coat of arms of the House Coat of arms of William as The coat of arms used by Arms of William the Silent [22] [23] of Nassau (since the 13th Prince of Orange until 1582 William from 1582 on from the wall of the century) Archives of the House of Orange in Noordeinde Palce in the Hague. William the Silent 51

Notes

[1][1]Wedgwood (1944) p. 29. [2][2]As of 1549, the Low Countries, also known as the "Seventeen Provinces" comprised the present-day Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, and parts of northern France. [3] J. Thorold Rogers, The Story of Nations: Holland. London, 1889; Romein, J., and Romein-Verschoor, A. Erflaters van onze beschaving

(http:/ / www. dbnl. org/ tekst/ rome002erfl01_01/ rome002erfl01_01_0006. htm). Amsterdam 1938–1940, p. 150. (Dutch, at DBNL.org

(http:/ / www. dbnl. org)). [4] "Justinus of Nassau is the son, probably born in September 1559, of the Prince and Eva Elinx, who, according to some, was the daughter of a

mayor of Emmerich." ( Adriaen Valerius, Nederlandtsche gedenck-clanck. (http:/ / www. dbnl. org/ tekst/ vale001nede01_01/

vale001nede01_01_0012. htm) P.J. Meertens, N.B. Tenhaeff and A. Komter-Kuipers (eds.). Wereldbibliotheek, Amsterdam 1942; p. 148, note. (Dutch, on DBNL)).

[5] "...our son Justin van Nassau" in letter from William of Orange to Diederik Sonoy dated 16 July 1582, facsimile at Inghist.nl (http:/ / www.

inghist. nl/ pdf/ wvo/ pictures/ 10000-10999/ 10284. pdf) [6][6]Wedgwood (1944) p. 34. [7][7]Wedgwood (1944) p. 49-50. [8] Herman Kaptein, De Beeldenstorm (2002), 22 [9] "Et quamquam ipse Catholicae Religioni adhaerere constituerit, non posse tamen ei placere, velle Principes animis hominum imperare, libertatemque Fidei & Religionis ipsis adimere." C.P. Hoynck van Papendrecht, Vita Viglii ab Aytta, in Analecta belgica I, 41–42 (F. Postma, "Prefigurations of the future? The views on the boundaries of Church and State of William of Orange and Viglius van Aytta (1565–1566)", in A.A. McDonald and A.H. Huussen (eds.), Scholarly environments: centres of learning and institutional contexts, 1560–1960 (2004), 15–32, esp. 15). [10][10]Wedgwood (1944) p. 104. [11][11]Wedgwood (1944) p. 105. [12][12]Wedgwood (1944) p. 108. [13][13]Wedgwood (1944) p. 109.

[14] H. C. Erik Midelfort, "Mad Princes of Renaissance Germany" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=dDu1OHSZ1_8C& pg=PA58&

lpg=PA58& dq=Anna+ of+ Saxony+ rubens+ christina& source=bl& ots=3_rxJ2wIlp& sig=7u8LkfT8kGa-auFY-QEvBIPPMFE& hl=en&

sa=X& ei=tfMMUaywGoPHiwK3wICoDA& ved=0CC4Q6AEwADgK#v=onepage& q=Anna of Saxony rubens christina& f=false), page 58, University of Virginia Press, 22 January 1996. Retrieved 2 February 2013. [15][15]Wedgwood (1944) p. 120. [16] G. Parker, The Dutch Revolt (revised edition, 1985), p. 148 [17] Minutes of the States-General of 10 July 1584, quoted in JW Berkelbach van der Sprenkel, De Vader des Vaderlands, Haarlem 1941, p. 29: "Ten desen daghe es geschiet de clachelycke moort van Zijne Excellentie, die tusschen den een ende twee uren na den noen es ghescoten met een pistolet gheladen met dry ballen, deur een genaempt Baltazar Geraert... Ende heeft Zijne Excellentie in het vallen gheroepen: Mijn God, ontfermpt U mijnder ende Uwer ermen ghemeynte (Mon Dieu ayez pitié de mon âme, mon Dieu, ayez pitié de ce pauvre peuple)". [18] Although commonly accepted, his last words might have been modified for propaganda purposes. See Charles Vergeer, "De laatste woorden van prins Willem", Maatstaf 28 (1981), no. 12, pp. 67–100. The debate has some history, with critics pointing to sources saying that William died immediately after having been shot and proponents stating that there would have been little opportunity to fabricate the words between the time of the assassination and the announcement of the murder to the States-General. Of the final words themselves, several slightly different versions are in circulation, the main differences being of style. [19] William the Silent by Frederic Harrison pp. 22–23 [20] "den swijger", "den Schweiger": Emanuel van Meteren, 1608 and 1614; cf. "Taciturnus": Famiano Strada, 1635. The Dutch historian Fruin (1864) has argued that this is in fact an erroneous rendering of the phrase "astutus Gulielmus", "cunning William", found in a source of 1574 and attributed there to the Flemish inquisitor Pieter Titelmans. See Leiden University, De Tachtigjarige Oorlog. Willem de Zwijger

(http:/ / dutchrevolt. leiden. edu/ dutch/ spreuken/ Pages/ zwijger. aspx). [21] The song is named after the first word of the first line, Wilhelmus, a Latinised form of the prince's first name. [22][22]Wedgwood (1944) p. 29. [23][23]As of 1549, the Low Countries, also known as the "Seventeen Provinces" comprised the present-day Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, and parts of northern France. William the Silent 52

References • Herbert H. Rowen, The princes of Orange: the stadholders in the Dutch Republic. Cambridge and : Cambridge University Press, 1988. • John Lothrop Motley, "The Rise of the Dutch Republic". New York: Harper & Brothers, 1855. • John Lothrop Motley, "History of the United Netherlands from the Death of William the Silent to the Synod of Dort". London: John Murray, 1860. • John Lothrop Motley, "The Life and Death of John of Barenvelt". New York & London: Harper and Brothers Publishing, 1900. • Petrus Johannes Blok, "History of the people of the Netherlands". New York: G. P. Putnam's sons, 1898. •• Jardine, Lisa. The Awful End of William the Silent: The First Assassination of a Head of State with A Handgun. London: HarperCollins: 2005: ISBN 0-00-719257-6 • van der Lem, Anton. 1995. De Opstand in de Nederlanden 1555–1609. Utrecht: Kosmos. ISBN 90-215-2574-7. • Various authors. 1977. Winkler Prins – Geschiedenis der Nederlanden. Amsterdam: Elsevier. ISBN 90-10-01745-1. • Wedgwood, Cicely. 1944. William the Silent: William of Nassau, Prince of Orange, 1533–1584.

External links

• The Revolt of the Netherlands (https:/ / dutchrevolt. leiden. edu/ english/ Pages/ default. aspx)

• Het Huis van Oranje-Nassau en de Nederlandse geschiedenis (http:/ / members. home. nl/ pushkar/ ) (Dutch)

• Willem van Oranje (http:/ / historie. couprie. org/ oranje/ index. html). Dutch history website (Dutch)

• The Complete Correspondence of William I of Orange (http:/ / www. historici. nl/ Onderzoek/ Projecten/ WVO). Digital archive by the Huygens Institute for Dutch History (Dutch)

William the Silent House of Orange-Nassau Cadet branch of the House of Nassau Born: 24 April 1533 Died: 10 July 1584 Regnal titles Preceded by Prince of Orange Succeeded by René Baron of Breda Philip William 1544–1584

Political offices

Preceded by Stadtholder of Holland and Succeeded by Maximilian II of Burgundy, Zeeland Maximilian of Hennin Marquess of Veere Stadtholder of Utrecht (during the Eighty Years War) 1559–1567 Preceded by Stadtholder of Holland and Succeeded by Philip of Noircarmes Zeeland Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange (during the Eighty Years War) 1572–1584 Stadtholder of Utrecht Succeeded by 1572–1584 Adolf van Nieuwenaar

New title Republican Stadtholder of Succeeded by Creation of the Dutch Republic Friesland William Louis of Nassau 1580–1584 John VI, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg 53 John VI, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg

John VI, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg

John VI, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg

Spouse(s) Elisabeth of Leuchtenberg Kunigunde Jakobäa of Johannetta of -Wittgenstein

Noble family House of Nassau

Father William I of Nassau-Dillenburg

Mother Juliane of Stolberg-Wernigerode

Born 22 November 1536 Dillenburg

Died 8 October 1606 (aged 69) Dillenburg

Count John VI of Nassau-Dillenburg (November 22, 1536, Dillenburg – October 8, 1606, Dillenburg) was a Count of Nassau in Dillenburg. Other names he had were Jan VI or Jan de Oude ("John the Elder", to distinguish him from his 2nd son, "John the Middle", and his grandson "John the Younger"). John VI was second son of Count William I of Nassau-Dillenburg and his second wife Juliane of Stolberg-Wernigerode and brother of William I of Orange. He was the principal author of the Union of Utrecht. John VI, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg 54

Family and children John VI was married three times and had a total of 24 children:[1] First, he was married on 16 June 1559 with Elisabeth of Leuchtenberg (ca. March 1537 – 6 July 1579), who bore him 13 children: 1. Count Willem Lodewijk "Us Heit" (13 March 1560 – 31 May 1620) 2. Count John VII (7 June 1561 – 27 September 1623) 3. Count George (1 September 1562 – 9 August 1623) 4. Elisabeth (24 January 1564 – 5 May 1611), married: 1. on 3 October 1583 to Count Philip IV, Count of Nassau-Weilburg 2.2.on 7 May 1603 to Count Wolfgang Ernst I of Isenburg-Büdingen 5. Juliana (6 October 1565 – 4 October 1630), married: 1.1.on 24 April 1588 to Wild- and Rhinegrave Adolf Henry of Dhaun 2. on 8 February 1619 to Count John Albrecht I of Solms-Braunfels 6. Philip (1 December 1566 – 3 September 1595) 7. Maria (12 November 1568 – 10 May 1625), married on 2 December 1588 to Count John Louis I of Nassau-Wiesbaden-Idstein 8. Anna Sibylla (29 September 1569 – 19 December 1576) 9. Mathilde (27 December 1570 – 10 May 1625), married on 24 June 1592 to Count Wilhelm V of Mansfeld-Arnstein 10.10.Albert (born and died in 1572) 11. Count Ernst Casimir of Nassau-Dietz (22 December 1573 – 2 June 1632) 12. Louis Gunther (15 February 1575 – 12 September 1604) 13.13.Stillborn son (6 July 1579) Secondly, he married on 13 September 1580 with Kunigunde Jakobäa of Simmern (9 October 1556 – 26 January 1586), who bore him 4 children: 1.1.Stillborn son (19 July 1581) 2. Maria Amalia (27 July 1582 – 31 October 1635), married on 23 August 1600 to Count Wilhelm I of Solms-Braunsfeld-Greiffenstein 3. Kunigunde (12 July 1583 – 4 April 1584) 4.4.Stillborn son (23 February 1585) Thirdly, he married on 14 June 1586 to Johannetta of Sayn-Wittgenstein (15 February 1561 – 13 April 1622), who bore him 7 children: 1. George Louis (12 April 1588 – 16 April 1588) 2. Prince John Louis of Nassau-Hadamar (6 August 1590 – 10 March 1653) 3. Johannette Elisabeth (13 February 1593 – 13 September 1654), married on 16 December 1616 to Count Conrad Gumprecht of Bentheim-Limburg 4. Anna (24 November 1594 – 11 February 1660), married on 19 June 1619 to Count Philipp Ernst of Isenburg-Birstein 5. Magdalene (13 November 1595 – 31 July 1633), married on 29 May 1624 to Count Georg Albrecht I of Erbach 6. Anna Amalie (19 July 1599 – 4 May 1667), married on 25 November 1648 to Count Wilhelm Otto of Isenburg-Birstein 7. Juliane (9 June 1602 – 26 August 1602). John VI, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg 55

References

[1] database by Herbert Stoyan at uni-erlangen.de (http:/ / wwperson. informatik. uni-erlangen. de/ cgi-bin/ l3/ LANG=engl/

F=Johann@VI. @(I)/ N=zu@Nassau-Katzenelnbogen-Diez) (retrieved 6 October 2012)

John VI, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg House of Nassau Born: 22 November 1536 Died: 8 October 1606 Preceded by Count of Succeeded by William I Nassau-Dillenburg William Louis 1559–1606 Preceded by Count of Nassau-Beilstein John III 1561–1606 Philip William, Prince of Orange 56 Philip William, Prince of Orange

Philip William, Prince of Orange

Portrait of Philip William by Michiel Jansz van Mierevelt

Born 19 December 1554 Buren, Seventeen Provinces

Died 20 February 1618 (aged 63) Brussels,

Resting place Diest, Belgium

Religion Roman Catholic

Spouse(s) Eleonora of Bourbon-Condé

Parents William the Silent Anna van Egmont

Philip William, Prince of Orange (19 December 1554, Buren, Gelderland – 20 February 1618) was the eldest son of William the Silent, who played an important role during the Dutch Revolt, by his first wife Anna van Egmont. He became Prince of Orange in 1584 and Knight of the Golden Fleece in 1599.

Biography Philip William, Filips Willem in Dutch, was born on 19 December 1554 in Buren, Guelders, Seventeen Provinces. He was the first son of William the Silent and Anna van Egmont. When his father William the Silent ignored Alva's summons to return to Brussels, remaining in Germany, Philip William, only a of 13, was studying at the University at Leuven in Brabant. He was seized in February 1568, and taken to Spain partly as a hostage, but especially to be raised as a good Catholic and loyal subject. He would never see his father again, and his mother had died in 1558. In Spain he continued his studies at the university of Alcalá de Henares. He remained in Spain until 1596 when he returned to the southern Netherlands. His interests in the Dutch Republic were vigorously defended by his sister, Maria of Nassau, against his half-brother Maurice of Nassau who contested his brother's right to the barony and city of Breda. In 1606 Philip William was recognized in the Republic as Lord of Breda and Steenbergen, and his right to appoint magistrates was acknowledged, provided he did so maintaining the "Union and the Republic's religion". He duly made his ceremonial entry into his town of Breda in July 1610 and from then until his death, regularly appointed the magistrates in his lordship. Though he restored Catholic services in the castle of Breda, he did not try to challenge the ascendancy of the Protestant-Calvinist Reformed Church in the city. He had a difference with the States-General in 1613, when they annulled his appointment of a Catholic drost. He had to cooperate with the military governor in Breda, his illegitimate stepbrother Justinus van Nassau, staunchly loyal to the States-General. In 1596 in Philip William, Prince of Orange 57

Fontainebleau, Philip William was married to Eleonora of Bourbon-Condé, daughter of Henry I, Prince de Condé, and cousin of King Henry IV of France, but he died in 1618 without any children. Therefore Maurice of Nassau could at last inherit the title Prince of Orange. As Lord of Diest and a pious Catholic at the time of his death, Philip William of Orange commanded that the parish church of Saint Sulpice in the same city, should celebrate a yearly Requiem Mass for his soul. Diest is also the site of his burial in the Catholic Roman Rite. Diest is known as the "Orange City", and Philip William as "the Catholic prince of Orange", as his father in 1573 – leading the Dutch Revolt – had become a Calvinist Protestant instead of a Catholic as he had been before.

References • The Dutch Republic. Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall 1477–1806, Jonathan I. Israel, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1998 ISBN 0-19-820734-4. Pages 298–300.

External links

Philip William, Prince of Orange House of Orange-Nassau Cadet branch of the House of Nassau Born: 19 December 1554 Died: 20 February 1618 Regnal titles Preceded by Prince of Succeeded by William the Silent Orange Maurice of Nassau 1584–1618 Baron of Breda 1584–1618 Maurice, Prince of Orange 58 Maurice, Prince of Orange

Maurice of Nassau Prince of Orange

Portrait by Michiel Jansz. van Mierevelt

Prince of Orange

In office 1618–1625

Preceded by Philip William

Succeeded Frederick Henry by

Stadtholder of Holland and Zeeland

In office 1585–1625

Preceded by William the Silent

Succeeded Frederick Henry by

Stadtholder of Utrecht, Guelders and

In office 1590–1625

Preceded by Adolf van Nieuwenaar

Succeeded Frederick Henry by

Stadtholder of Groningen

In office 1620–1625

Preceded by William Louis

Succeeded Ernst Casimir by

Personal details

Born 14 November 1567 Dillenburg, Nassau

Died 23 April 1625 (aged 57) The Hague, Dutch Republic Maurice, Prince of Orange 59

Resting Nieuwe Kerk, Delft, Netherlands, the resting place of his father, assassinated William the Silent and many other later members of place the Orange Princes family till today.

Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange (Dutch: Maurits van Oranje) (14 November 1567, Dillenburg – 23 April 1625) was sovereign Prince of Orange from 1618, on the death of his eldest half brother, Philip William, Prince of Orange, (1554–1618). Maurice was stadtholder of the United Provinces of the Netherlands (except in the province of Friesland) from earliest 1585 until his death in 1625. Maurice organised the Dutch rebellion against Spain into a coherent, successful revolt and won fame as a military strategist. Maurice set out to revive and revise the classical doctrines of Vegetius and pioneered the new European forms of armament and drill.

Life Maurice was a son of William the Silent and Princess Anna of Saxony and was born at the castle of Dillenburg. He was named after his maternal grandfather, the Elector Maurice of Saxony, who was also a noted general. Maurice never married but was the father of illegitimate children by Margaretha van Mechelen (including Willem of Nassau, lord of the Lek and Louis of Nassau, lord of den Lek and Beverweerd) and Anna van de Kelder. He was raised in Dillenburg by his uncle Johan of Nassau (Jan the Old). Together with his cousin Willem Lodewijk he studied in and later with his eldest half brother Philip William, Prince of Orange in Leiden where he met Simon Stevin. The States of Holland and Zeeland paid for his studies, as their father had run into financial problems after spending his entire fortune in the early stages of the Dutch revolt. Only 16 when his father was murdered in Delft in 1584, he soon took over as stadtholder (Stadhouder), though this title was not inheritable. The monarchs of England and France had been requested to accept sovereignty, but had refused. This had left Maurice as the only acceptable candidate for the position of Stadtholder. He became stadtholder of Holland and Zeeland in 1585, of Guelders, Overijssel and Utrecht in 1590 and of Groningen and Drenthe in 1620 (following the death of Willem Lodewijk, who had been Stadtholder there and in Friesland).

Protestant Maurice was preceded as Prince of Orange (not a Dutch title) by his Roman Catholic eldest half-brother Philip William, Prince of Orange, deceased 1618. However, Philip William was in the custody of Spain, remaining so until 1596, and was thus unable to lead the Dutch independence cause. Maria of Nassau, (1556–1616), full sister of Philip William, Prince of Maria of Nassau (1556–1616), was a full sister of Philip William from the first Orange, half-sister of Maurice of marriage of William I, Prince of Orange, (assassinated 1584), to wealthy and Nassau powerful aristocrat Anna van Egmont, (1533–1558), and a furious contender to Maurice of Nassau. He was appointed captain-general of the army in 1587, bypassing the Earl of Leicester, who returned to England on hearing this news. Maurice, Prince of Orange 60

Military career

Maurice organised the rebellion against Spain into a coherent, successful revolt. He reorganised the Dutch States Army together with Willem Lodewijk, studied military history, strategy and tactics, mathematics and astronomy, and proved himself to be among the best strategists of his age. The Eighty Years' War was a challenge to his style, so he could prove himself a good leader by taking several Spanish Outposts. Paying special attention to the siege theories of Simon Stevin, he took valuable key The Cavalcade of princes of the House of Orange and Nassau, 1. Front Row: fortresses and towns: Breda in 1590, Maurice (1567-1625), Philip William (1558-1618), Frederick Henry (1584-1647), Zutphen in 1591, Steenwijk in 1592, and 2. Second Row: William Louis (1560- 1632), Ernst Casimir (1573–1632) und Geertruidenberg in 1593. These victories Johann Ernst. after a print by W. J. Delff (1621) after a painting from A. P. van de rounded out the borders to the Dutch Venne Republic, solidifying the revolt and allowing a national state to develop behind secure borders. They also established Maurice as the foremost general of his time. Many of the great generals of the succeeding generation, including his brother Frederick Henry and many of the commanders of the English Civil War learned their trade under his command.

His victories in the cavalry battles at Turnhout (1597) and at Nieuwpoort (1600) earned him military fame and acknowledgment throughout Europe. Despite these successes, the House of Orange did not attain great respect among European Royalty, as the Stadtholdership was not inheritable. The training of his army is especially important to early modern warfare. Previous generals had made use of drill and exercise in order to instill discipline or to keep the men physically fit, but for Maurice, they "were the fundamental postulates of tactics."[1] This change affected the entire conduct of warfare, since it required the officers to train men in addition to leading them, decreased the size of the basic infantry unit for functional purposes since more specific orders had to be given in battle, and the decrease in herd behavior required more initiative and intelligence from the average soldier.[2] One major contributions was the introduction of volley fire, making the inaccurate firearms work like the later shotgun with devastating effect. It was first used in European combat at the in 1600.[3] As part of his efforts to find allies against Spain, Maurice received Moroccan envoys such as Al-Hajari. They discussed the possibility of an alliance between Holland, the , Morocco and the Moriscos, against the common enemy Spain.[4][5] Al-Hajari's account mentions in detail the discussion for a combined offensive against Spain.[6] Maurice, Prince of Orange 61

Maurice and Oldenbarnevelt

Maurice started out as the protégé of Landsadvocaat (Land's Advocate, a kind of secretary) . But gradually tensions rose between these two men. Against Maurice's advice, and despite his protests, Van Oldenbarnevelt decided to sign the Twelve Years' Truce with Spain, which lasted from 1609–1621. The required funds to maintain the army and navy, and the general course of the war were other topics of constant struggle.

With the religious troubles between Gomarists (Calvinists) and Arminians, the struggle between Van Oldenbarnevelt and Maurice reached a climax. Van Oldenbarnevelt was arrested, tried and The Seven United Provinces known as decapitated despite numerous requests for mercy. From 1618 till his Netherlands, protagonists of the Eighty Years' death Maurice now enjoyed uncontested power over the Republic. He War against Spain from a 1658 map by expanded the Stadtholder's palace at the Binnenhof in the Hague. The Janssonius Maurice Tower is nowadays part of the building complex of the Senate of the Netherlands.

Maurice urged his cadet half brother, Frederick Henry to marry in order to preserve the dynasty. In 1621 the war resumed after a 12-year period of truces, and the Spanish, led by Ambrogio Spinola, had notable successes, including the siege of Breda, the old family residence of the Nassau's, in 1625. Maurice died on 23 April 1625, with the siege still underway. Justin of Nassau surrendered Breda in June 1625 after a costly eleven-month siege. Meanwhile, the Dutch also lost formerly occupied Baia de Todos os Santos, Salvador de Bahia in Brazil, 1 May 1625, under the heavy attacks of the Spanish–Portuguese Fleet, commanded by the Captain General of the Spanish Navy, since 1617, Admiral Fadrique II de Toledo Osorio y Mendoza (Naples, Italy, May 1580 – 11 December 1634), 1st Marquis of Villanueva de Valdueza, and, since 17 January 1624, Knight of the Order of Santiago.

Coat of Arms and Titles

Maurice, besides being Stadholder of several provinces and Captain-General, both non-hereditary and appointive titles, was the hereditary sovereign of the principality of Orange in what is today Provence in France. He also was the lord of many other estates, which formed his wealth: • Marquis of Veere and Vlissingen • Count of Nassau-Dillenburg, Buren, Leerdam, Katzenelnbogen, and Vianden • Viscount of Antwerp • Baron of Aggeris, Breda, Cranendonck, Lands of Cuijk, Daesburg, Eindhoven, City of Grave, Lek, IJsselstein, Diest, Grimbergen, Herstal, Warneton, Beilstein, Bentheim-Lingen, Moers, Arlay, and Nozeroy; Lord of Dasburg, Geertruidenberg, Hooge en Lage Zwaluwe, Klundert, Montfort, Naaldwijk, Niervaart, Polanen, Steenbergen, Sint-Maartensdijk, Willemstad, The coat of arms used by Maurice Bütgenbach, Sankt Vith, and Besançon. showing the county of Moers (top During his lifetime he used the arms shown, and never changed to the simpler left center and bottom right center) arms used by his father and half brothers. and his mother's arms of Saxony (center) Maurice, Prince of Orange 62

Legacy • The island nation of Mauritius, located in the Indian Ocean, was named after him. The island was named in the prince's honor by Dutch explorers in 1598 and was first settled by Dutch emigrants in 1638. • In 1624, English explorer Henry Hudson named what is now known as the Hudson River the Mauritius River in honor of the prince.

References

[1] , Michael. The Military Revolution 1560–1660 in Rogers, Clifford. The Military Revolution Debate, p. 14. ISBN 978-0-8133-2054-0 [2][2]Roberts, op. cit. p. 15 [3] Geoffrey Parker, "The Limits to Revolutions in Military Affairs: Maurice of Nassau, the Battle of Nieuwpoort (1600), and the Legacy," Journal of Military History (2007) 71#2 pp 331-372

[4] The mirror of Spain, 1500–1700: the formation of a myth by J. N. Hillgarth p.210ff (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=vXTs8jJiuu8C& pg=PA210)

[5] Romania Arabica by Gerard Wiegers p.410 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=62SKVQNKMr0C& pg=PA410)

[6] In the Lands of the Christians by Nabil Matar, p.37 ISBN 0-41-593228-9 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=QI8b8jUpJDkC& pg=PA37)

Further reading • Parker, Geoffrey. "The Limits to Revolutions in Military Affairs: Maurice of Nassau, the Battle of Nieuwpoort (1600), and the Legacy," Journal of Military History (2007) 71#2 pp 331-372. • Herbert H. Rowen, The princes of Orange: the stadholders in the Dutch Republic. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988. • John Lothrop Motley, "History of the United Netherlands from the Death of William the Silent to the Synod of Dort". London: John Murray, 1860. • John Lothrop Motley, "The Life and Death of John of Barenvelt". New York & London: Harper and Brothers Publishing, 1900. • Petrus Johannes Blok, "History of the people of the Netherlands". New York: G. P. Putnam's sons, 1898.

External links

Maurice, Prince of Orange House of Orange-Nassau Cadet branch of the House of Nassau Born: November 14 1567 Died: 23 April 1625 Regnal titles Preceded by Prince of Orange Succeeded by Philip William 1618–1625 Frederick Henry Baron of Breda 1618–1625

Political offices

Preceded by Stadtholder of Holland and Zeeland Succeeded by William of Orange 1585–1625 Frederick Henry Preceded by Stadtholder of Utrecht, Guelders and Adolf van Nieuwenaar Overijssel 1590–1625 Preceded by Stadtholder of Groningen Succeeded by Willem Lodewijk 1620–1625 Ernst Casimir Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange 63 Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange

Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange

Prince Frederick Henry by Michiel Jansz van Mierevelt

Prince of Orange

In office 1625–1647

Preceded by Maurice

Succeeded by William II

Stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Guelders, and Overijssel

In office 1625–1647

Preceded by Maurice, Prince of Orange

Succeeded by William II, Prince of Orange

Personal details

Born 29 January 1584 Delft, Dutch Republic

Died 14 March 1647 (aged 63) The Hague, Dutch Republic

Resting place Nieuwe Kerk, Delft, Netherlands [1] 52.0123°N 4.3609°E

Spouse(s) Amalia of Solms-Braunfels

Frederick Henry, or Frederik Hendrik in Dutch (29 January 1584 – 14 March 1647), was the sovereign Prince of Orange and stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Guelders, and Overijssel from 1625 to 1647. As the leading soldier in the Dutch wars against Spain, his main achievement was the successful Siege of 's-Hertogenbosch in 1629, It was the main Spanish base and a well-fortified city protected by an experienced Spanish garrison and by formidable water defenses. His strategy was the successful neutralization of the threat of inundation of the area around 's-Hertogenbosch and his capture of the Spanish storehouse at .[2] Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange 64

Biography

Early life Frederick Henry was born on 29 January 1584 in Delft, Holland, Dutch Republic. He was the youngest child of William the Silent and Louise de Coligny. His father William was stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, and Friesland. His mother Louise was daughter of the Huguenot leader Gaspard de Coligny, and was the fourth wife of his father. He was thus the half brother of his predecessor Maurice of Orange, deceased in 1625. Frederick Henry was born six months before his father's assassination on 10 July 1584. The boy was trained to arms by his elder brother Maurice, one of the finest generals of his age. After Maurice threatened to legimitize his illegitimate children if he did not marry, Frederick Henry married Amalia of Solms-Braunfels in 1625. His illegitimate son by Margaretha Catharina Bruyns (1595–1625), Frederick Nassau de Zuylenstein was born in 1624 before his marriage. This son later became the governor of the young William III of England for seven years.

Stadtholder On the death of Maurice in 1625 without legitimate issue, Frederick Henry succeeded him in his paternal dignities and estates, and also in the stadtholderates of the five provinces of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Overijssel and Guelders, and in the important posts of captain and admiral-general of the Union (commander-in-chief of the Dutch States Army and of the Dutch navy). Frederick Henry proved himself almost as good a general as his brother, and a far more capable statesman and politician. For twenty-two years he remained at the head of government in the United Provinces, and in his time the power of the stadtholderate reached its highest point. The "Period of Frederick Henry," as it is usually styled by Dutch writers, is generally accounted the golden age of the republic. It was marked by great military and naval triumphs, by worldwide maritime and commercial expansion, and by a wonderful outburst of activity in the domains of art and literature. The chief military exploits of Frederick Henry were the sieges and captures of Grol in 1627, 's-Hertogenbosch in 1629, of Maastricht in 1632, of Breda in 1637, of Sas van Gent in 1644, and of in 1645. During the greater part of his administration the alliance with France against Spain had been the pivot of Frederick Henry's foreign policy, but in his last years he sacrificed the French alliance for the sake of concluding a separate peace with Spain, by which the United Provinces obtained from that power all the advantages they had been seeking for eighty years. Frederick Henry built the country houses Huis Honselaarsdijk, Huis ter Nieuwburg, and for his wife , and he renovated the in The Hague. Huis Honselaarsdijk and Huis ter Nieuwburg are now demolished.

Death

The funeral procession of Frederik Hendrik Frederick Henry died on 14 March 1647 in The Hague, Holland, Dutch Republic. He left a wife, a son William II, Prince of Orange, four daughters, and the illegitimate son Frederick Nassau de Zuylenstein. On Frederick Henry's death, he was buried with great pomp beside his father and brother at Delft. The treaty of Munster, ending the long struggle between the Dutch and the Spaniards, was not actually signed until 30 January 1648, the illness and death of the stadtholder having caused a delay in the negotiations. Frederick Henry left an account of his campaigns in his Mémoires de Frédéric Henri (Amsterdam, 1743). See Cambridge Mod. Hist. vol. iv. chap. 24. Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange 65

Children

Frederick Henry and his wife Amalia van Solms had nine children: • William II, Prince of Orange (27 May 1626 – 6 November 1650) • Luise Henriette of Nassau (27 December 1627 – 18 June 1667) • Henriëtte Amalia of Nassau (26 October 1628 – December 1628) •• Elisabeth of Nassau (4 August 1630) • Isabella Charlotte of Nassau (22 January/28 April 1632 – 17 May 1642) • Albertine Agnes of Nassau (9 April 1634 – 24 May 1696) • Henriette Catherine of Nassau (10 February 1637 – 3 November Prince Frederick Henry and his wife Amalia of 1708) Solms-Braunfels and his three youngest • Hendrik Lodewijk of Nassau (30 November 1639 – 19 December daughters, portrayed by Gerard van Honthorst. 1639) • Maria of Nassau (5 September 1642 – 17/20 March 1688)

Ancestors

Frederick Henry's ancestors in three generations

Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange Father: Paternal Grandfather: Paternal Great-grandfather: William the Silent William I, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg Count John V of Nassau-Dillenburg

Paternal Great-grandmother: Landgravine Elisabeth of Hesse-Marburg

Paternal Grandmother: Paternal Great-grandfather: Juliana of Stolberg Bodo VIII, Count of Stolberg-Wernigerode

Paternal Great-grandmother: Anna of Eppstein-Königstein

Mother: Maternal Grandfather: Maternal Great-grandfather: Louise de Coligny Gaspard de Coligny Gaspard I de Coligny

Maternal Great-grandmother: Louise de Montmorency

Maternal Grandmother: Maternal Great-grandfather: Charlotte de Laval Guy XVI de Laval, Comte de Laval

Maternal Great-grandmother: Antoinette de Daillon Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange 66

References

[1] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Frederick_Henry%2C_Prince_of_Orange& params=52. 0123_N_4. 3609_E_ [2] Israel, The Dutch Republic (1995) p 507 • This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press

Further reading • Israel, Jonathan I. The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall 1477-1806 (1998) excerpt and text search

(http:/ / www. amazon. com/ Dutch-Republic-Greatness-1477-1806-History/ dp/ 0198207344/ ) pp 506-45

External links

• (Dutch) Frederik Hendrik. Prins van Oranje. Een biografisch drieluik (http:/ / www. dbnl. org/ tekst/

poel003fred01_01/ index. htm), a biography by J.J. Poelhekke

Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange House of Orange-Nassau Cadet branch of the House of Nassau Born: 29 January 1584 Died: 14 March 1647 Regnal titles Preceded by Prince of Orange Succeeded by Maurice of Nassau 1625–1647 William II Baron of Breda 1625–1647

Political offices

Preceded by Stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Guelders and Succeeded by Maurice of Nassau Overijssel William II 1625–1647 Amalia of Solms-Braunfels 67 Amalia of Solms-Braunfels

Amalia of Solms-Braunfels

Amalia of Solms-Braunfels, portrait by Gerrit van Honthorst

Spouse(s) Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange

Noble family House of Solms-Braunfels

Father John Albert I of Solms-Braunfels

Mother Agnes of Sayn-Wittgenstein

Born 31 August 1602 Braunfels Castle in Braunfels

Died 8 September 1675 (aged 73) the Hague

Amalia of Solms-Braunfels (31 August 1602, Braunfels – 8 September 1675), was a regent of Orange. She was the wife of Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange. She was the daughter of count John Albert I of Solms-Braunfels and countess Agnes of Sayn-Wittgenstein.

Biography

Childhood Amalia of Solms-Braunfels spent her childhood at the parental castle at Braunfels. She became part of the train of Elizabeth, wife of Frederick V, Elector Palatine, the "Winter King" of Bohemia. After imperial forces defeated Frederick V, she fled with the pregnant queen to the west. Shelter was denied to them because the emperor forbade it. Elizabeth went into labour during their flight and Amalia helped her with her delivery. The end of their journey was The Hague, where stadtholder Maurice of Nassau gave them asylum in 1621. They often appeared at his court, where Maurice's younger half-brother Frederick Henry became infatuated with Amalia in 1622. She refused to become his lover and held out for marriage. Amalia of Solms-Braunfels 68

Marriage and Children When Maurice of Nassau died, he made his half-brother Frederick Henry promise to wed. Frederick married Amalia on 4 April 1625. Their marriage produced five children who lived to adulthood, and four who died young: • Stadtholder William II (1626–1650), married Mary of England • Luise Henriette of Nassau (1627–1667), married Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg •• Henriette Amalia of Nassau (1628) •• Elisabeth of Nassau (1630) • Isabella Charlotte of Nassau (1632–1642) • Albertine Agnes of Nassau (1634–1696), married William Frederick, Count of Nassau-Dietz • Henriette Catherine of Nassau (1637–1708), married John George II, Family portrait by Gerrit van Honthorst, 1647 Prince of Anhalt-Dessau •• Henry Louis of Nassau (1639) • Maria of Nassau (1642–1688), married Louis Henry Maurice, son of Louis Philip of Palatine-Simmern-

Wife to the Stadtholder When Frederick Henry became stadtholder after the death of his half-brother Prince Maurice, his influence grew substantially, as did Amalia's. Together Frederick Henry and Amalia succeeded in expanding court life in The Hague. They had several built, including Huis ten Bosch. Amalia was a great art collector, and was described as intelligent, arrogant and ambitious, not beautiful but with a fresh and appealing appearance. Amalia was the prime mover of several royal marriages, including that of her son William II to Mary, Princess Royal of England and Scotland (daughter of King Charles I of England) and of their daughters with several German princes. She had a large influence upon policy; she acted as the political advisor of Frederick, and after he became sick in 1640, she openly participated in politics and received foreign diplomats. Her influence is regarded to have contributed to the in 1648. As a recognition, King Philip IV of Spain granted her the area around Turnhout in 1649.

Regency Portrait by van Rijn, After the death of her son William II she became the main guardian of her 1632 grandson William III (Prince William III of Orange and later also King William III of England). Ernest Casimir I, Count of Nassau-Dietz 70 Ernest Casimir I, Count of Nassau-Dietz

Ernst Casimir I Count of Nassau-Dietz

Portrait (1633) by Wybrand de Geest, oil on panel, 66.8 × 58 cm, , Muiderslot

Successor Henry Casimir

Spouse(s) Sophia Hedwig of Brunswick-Lüneburg

Noble family House of Nassau

Father John VI, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg

Mother Countess Elisabeth of Leuchtenberg

Born 22 December 1573 Dillenburg

Died 2 June 1632 Roermond

Ernst Casimir I of Nassau-Dietz (Dillenburg, 22 December 1573 – Roermond, 2 June 1632) was count of Nassau-Dietz and Stadtholder of Friesland, Groningen and Drenthe. Ernest Casimir I, Count of Nassau-Dietz 71

Biography

He was the eleventh child of John VI, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg and Countess Elisabeth of Leuchtenberg. After the death of his father, the county of Nassau was divided among his five living sons, Ernst Casimir followed him as Count of Nassau-Dietz. Ernst Casimir was primarily known as an outstanding military leader during the Eighty Years War. He served under Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange in the siege of the cities of Steenwijk and Oldenzaal, and Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange during the Siege of (1627) and the Siege of 's-Hertogenbosch. As Stadholder of Groningen he founded the Nieuweschans fortress in 1628. Although he owned little in Friesland, he was popular there, and people granted his heir the right to rule after his death. Sophia Hedwig and some children, by Paulus Moreelse. Death

He was killed by a bullet at the Siege of Roermond while he was inspecting the trenches in June 1632. His son, Hendrik Casimir I succeeded him as count of Nassau-Dietz and as stadholder of Friesland, Groningen and Drenthe.

Family

In 1607 Ernst Casimir married Sophia Hedwig of Brunswick-Lüneburg, daughter of Henry Julius, Duke of Prince Frederick Henry and Count Ernst Casimir Brunswick-Lüneburg. From this marriage nine children were born: during the Siege of 's-Hertogenbosch •• stillborn daughter (1608) •• stillborn son (1609) •• unnamed son (1610-1610) • Hendrik Casimir I of Nassau-Dietz (, 1612-1640) • Willem Frederik of Nassau-Dietz (Arnhem, 1613-1664), married Albertine Agnes of Orange-Nassau. •• Elisabeth (, July 25, 1614 - Leeuwarden, 18 Sept, 1614) •• Johan Ernst (Arnhem, , 1617 - May 1617) •• Maurice (Groningen, February 21, 1619 - Groningen, 18 Sept, 1628) •• Elisabeth Friso (Leeuwarden, 25 Nov, 1620 - Groningen, 20 September 1628)

References Ernest Casimir I, Count of Nassau-Dietz 72

Ernest Casimir I, Count of Nassau-Dietz House of Nassau Born: 22 December 1573 Died: 2 June 1632

Political offices

Preceded by Stadtholder of Friesland, Succeeded by Willem Lodewijk 1620-1632 Henry Casimir Preceded by Stadtholder of Groningen and Succeeded by Maurice of Nassau Drenthe Henry Casimir 1625-1632 Regnal titles Preceded by Count of Nassau-Dietz Succeeded by None 1606-1632 Henry Casimir New Title (as Count of Nassau-Dietz) William II, Prince of Orange 73 William II, Prince of Orange

William II

Willem II, Prince of Orange (1651) by Gerard van Honthorst

Prince of Orange

Reign 14 March 1647 – 6 November 1650

Predecessor Frederick Henry

Successor William III

Spouse Mary, Princess Royal

Issue

William III of England

House House of Orange-Nassau

Father Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange

Mother Amalia of Solms-Braunfels

Born 27 May 1626 The Hague, Dutch Republic

Died 6 November 1650 (aged 24) The Hague, Dutch Republic

Religion Calvinism

William II (27 May 1626 – 6 November 1650) was sovereign Prince of Orange and stadtholder of the United Provinces of the Netherlands from 14 March 1647 until his death three years later.

Biography William II, Prince of Orange, was the son of stadtholder Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange, and Amalia of Solms-Braunfels. William the Silent had been succeeded in the position of stadtholder and as commander of the Dutch States Army by his son Maurits of Nassau, who in turn was followed by his brother Frederick Henry. William II’s ancestors governed in conjunction with the States-General, an assembly made up of representatives of each of the seven provinces but usually dominated by the largest and wealthiest province, Holland. On 2 May 1641, William married Mary Henrietta, Princess Royal, the eldest daughter of King Charles I of England and of France in the Chapel Royal, Whitehall Palace, London. In 1648 he opposed acceptance of the Treaty of Münster, despite the fact that it recognized the independence of the Netherlands. Secretly, William opened his own negotiations with France with the goal of extending his own territory under a centralized government. In addition, he worked for the restoration of his brother-in-law, Charles II, to the throne of England. In 1650 William II became involved in a bitter quarrel with the province of Holland and the powerful regents of Amsterdam, like Andries Bicker and his cousin Cornelis over troop reduction following the Treaty of Münster. William opposed the reduction in the size of the army which would diminish his powerbase. This resulted in William putting eight members (oa. ) of the provincial assembly in prison in the castle of Loevestein. In addition he sent his cousin Willem Frederik of Nassau-Dietz with an army of 10 thousand troops with the aim of taking Amsterdam by force. Bad weather foiled this campaign.[1] William II, Prince of Orange 74

After having served as stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Guelders and Overijssel for only three years, he died of smallpox in 1650. His son William was born one week after his death. This was the beginning of the First Stadtholderless Period for the provinces Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Guelders and Overijssel. His son succeeded him in 1672 as stadtholder and later, in 1689, also became king of England.

Arms William II used the following arms during his time as prince of Orange, Stadholder or Holland, etc., and Captain-General:

The coat of arms used by Frederick Henry, his son William II, and [2] his grandson William III before becoming King of England William II, Prince of Orange 75

Depictions

Double portrait to commemorate the bethrothal of William II of Orange and Mary Stuart, Princess William and Mary Henrietta Stuart, by Anthony van Royal. Dyck.

Ancestors

William II's ancestors in three generations

William II, Prince of Orange Father: Paternal Grandfather: Paternal Great-grandfather: Frederik Hendrik of Orange William the Silent William I, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg

Paternal Great-grandmother: Juliana of Stolberg

Paternal Grandmother: Paternal Great-grandfather: Louise de Coligny Gaspard de Coligny

Paternal Great-grandmother: Charlotte de Laval

Mother: Maternal Grandfather: Maternal Great-grandfather: Amalia of Solms-Braunfels John Albert I of Solms-Braunfels Conrad, Count of Solms-Braunfels

Maternal Great-grandmother: Elisabeth of Nassau-Dillenburg

Maternal Grandmother: Maternal Great-grandfather: Agnes of Sayn-Wittgenstein Louis I, Count of Sayn-Wittgenstein

Maternal Great-grandmother: Elisabeth of Solms-Laubach William II, Prince of Orange 76

References

[1] Russel Shorto. The Island at the Centre of the World. ISBN 0-552-99982-2 [2] Russel Shorto. The Island at the Centre of the World. ISBN 0-552-99982-2

Bibliography • Herbert H. Rowen, The princes of Orange: the stadholders in the Dutch Republic. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988. • Herbert H. Rowen, The princes of Orange: the stadholders in the Dutch Republic. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003. • Herbert H. Rowen, "John de Witt, Grand of Holland, 1625-1672". Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1978. • Herbert H. Rowen, "John de Witt: Statesman of the "True Freedom"". Cambridge University Press, 2003. • Petrus Johannes Blok, "History of the people of the Netherlands". New York: G. P. Putnam's sons, 1898. • Pieter Geyl, "Orange and Stuart, 1641-1672". Scribner, 1970. • Jonathan I. Israel, "The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall, 1477–1806" Oxford University Press, 1995. ISBN 0-19-820734-4

External links

William II, Prince of Orange House of Orange-Nassau Cadet branch of the House of Nassau Born: May 27 1626 Died: November 6 1650 Regnal titles Preceded by Prince of Orange Succeeded by Frederick Henry 1647–1650 William III Baron of Breda 1647–1650

Political offices

Preceded by Stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Guelders and Succeeded by Frederick Henry Overijssel William III 1647–1650 Mary, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange 77 Mary, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange

Mary of England Princess Royal

Mary Henrietta Stuart (detail of a 1641 painting by Antoon van Dijck)

Princess of Orange; Countess of Nassau

Tenure 14 March 1647 – 6 November 1650

Spouse William II, Prince of Orange

Issue

William III of England

Full name

Mary Henrietta

House

Father Charles I of England

Mother Henrietta Maria of France

Born 4 November 1631 St. James's Palace, London

Died 24 December 1660 (aged 29) Whitehall Palace, London

Burial Westminster Abbey, London

Mary, Princess Royal (Mary Henrietta; 4 November 1631 – 24 December 1660) was Princess of Orange and Countess of Nassau as the wife of Prince William II. She was the eldest daughter of King Charles I of England, Scotland, and Ireland and his wife, Henrietta Maria of France. Her only child later reigned as King William III of England and Ireland and II of Scotland. Mary was the first daughter of a British sovereign to hold the title Princess Royal. She was co-regent for her son as Sovereign Prince of Orange from 1651 to 1660. Mary, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange 78

Early life

Princess Mary Henrietta was born at St. James's Palace, London. Charles I designated her Princess Royal in 1642, thus establishing the tradition that the eldest daughter of the British Sovereign might bear this title. The title came into being when Queen Henrietta Maria, the daughter of King Henry IV of France wished to imitate the way the eldest daughter of the French king was styled (Madame Royale). Until that time, the eldest daughters of English and Scottish kings were variously titled or Princess (The younger daughters of British Sovereigns were not consistently titled princesses of Great Britain and styled Royal Highness until the ascension of George I in 1714).

Betrothed William and Mary

Marriage

Her father, Charles I, wished the Princess Royal to marry a son of Philip IV, king of Spain, while her first cousin, Karl Ludwig, the Elector Palatine, was also a suitor for her hand. Both proposals fell through and she was betrothed to Willem, the son and heir of Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange and Stadtholder of the United Provinces, and of Amalia of Solms-Braunfels. The marriage took place on 2 May 1641 at the Chapel Royal, Whitehall Palace, London. The marriage was not consummated for several years due to the bride's age when married: nine. In 1642, Mary moved to the Dutch Republic with her mother, Queen Henrietta Maria, and in 1644, as the daughter-in-law of the stadtholder, Frederick Henry, she became visible in courtly and public events.

Later life

In March 1647, Mary's husband, William II, succeeded his father as stadholder. However, in November 1650, just after his attempt to capture Amsterdam from his political opponents, he died of smallpox. Mary Stuart, Princess Royal, and William II, The couple's only child, Willem (later William III), was born a few Prince of Orange. days later. Mary, now the Dowager Princess of Orange, was obliged to share the guardianship of her infant son with her mother-in-law, Amalia of Solms-Braunfels, and uncle-in-law, Frederick William I, Elector of Brandenburg. She was unpopular with the Dutch because of her sympathies with her family, the Stuarts. She lived in the palace of the Stadthouder at the Binnenhof in the Hague, the building complex

that now houses the Senate of the Netherlands. Her boudoir is still intact. At length, public opinion having been further angered by the hospitality that she showed to her brothers, the exiled Charles II and the (later Mary, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange 79

James II), she was forbidden to receive her relatives. From 1654 to 1657, the princess was usually not in Holland. In 1657, she became regent on behalf of her son for the principality of Orange, but the difficulties of her position led her to implore the assistance of her first cousin Louis XIV of France; the French king answered by seizing the principality. The restoration of Charles II in England and Scotland greatly enhanced the position of the Princess of Orange and her son in Holland. In September 1660, she returned to England. She died of smallpox on 24 December 1660, at Whitehall Palace, London and was buried in Westminster Abbey.

References • , ed. (1893). "Mary (1631-1660)". Dictionary of National Biography 36. London: Smith, Elder & Co.

External links Media related to Mary, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange at Wikimedia Commons

Mary, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange House of Stuart Born: 4 November 1631 Died: 24 December 1660 British royalty New title Princess Succeeded by Royal Anne 1642–1660 Charles I of England 80 Charles I of England

Charles I

Portrait from the studio of Anthony van Dyck, 1636

King of England and Ireland (more...)

Reign 27 March 1625 – 30 January 1649

Coronation 2 February 1626

Predecessor James I

Successor Charles II (de jure) Council of State (de facto)

King of Scotland (more...)

Reign 27 March 1625 – 30 January 1649

Coronation 18 June 1633

Predecessor James VI

Successor Charles II

Spouse Henrietta Maria of France

Detail

Issue

Charles II Mary, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange James II & VII Elizabeth Anne Henry, Duke of Gloucester Henrietta, Duchess of Orléans

House House of Stuart

Father James VI of Scotland and I of England

Mother Anne of

Born 19 November 1600 Palace, Dunfermline, Scotland

Died 30 January 1649 (aged 48) Whitehall, London

Burial 9 February 1649 St George's Chapel, , England

Religion Anglican

Charles I (19 November 1600 – 30 January 1649[1]) was monarch of the three kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland from 27 March 1625 until his execution in 1649. Charles was the second son of King James VI of Scotland, but after his father inherited the English throne in 1603, he moved to England, where he spent much of the rest of his life. He became to the English, Irish and Scottish thrones on the death of his elder brother in 1612. An unsuccessful and unpopular attempt to marry him to a Spanish Habsburg princess culminated in an eight-month visit to Spain in 1623 that demonstrated the futility of the Charles I of England 81

marriage negotiations. Two years later he married the Bourbon princess Henrietta Maria of France instead. After his succession, Charles engaged in a struggle for power with the , attempting to obtain royal revenue while Parliament sought to curb his royal prerogative. Charles believed in the divine right of kings and thought he could govern according to his own conscience. Many of his subjects opposed his policies, in particular his interference in the English and Scottish churches and the levying of taxes without parliamentary consent, and perceived his actions as those of a tyrannical absolute monarch. Charles's religious policies, coupled with his marriage to a Roman Catholic, generated the antipathy and mistrust of reformed groups such as the and Calvinists, who thought his views too Catholic. He supported controversial ecclesiastics, such as Richard Montagu and , whom Charles appointed Archbishop of Canterbury, and failed to successfully aid Protestant forces during the Thirty Years' War. His attempts to force religious reforms upon Scotland led to the Bishops' Wars, strengthened the position of the English and Scottish parliaments and helped precipitate his own downfall. From 1642, Charles fought the forces of the English and Scottish parliaments in the English Civil War. After his defeat in 1645, he surrendered to a Scottish force that eventually handed him over to the English Parliament. Charles refused to accept his captors' demands for a constitutional monarchy, and temporarily escaped captivity in November 1647. Re-imprisoned on the Isle of Wight, Charles forged an alliance with Scotland, but by the end of 1648 's had consolidated its control over England. Charles was tried, convicted, and executed for high treason in January 1649. The monarchy was abolished and a republic called the was declared. In 1660, the English Interregnum ended when the monarchy was restored to Charles's son, Charles II.

Early life

The second son of King James VI of Scotland and , Charles was born in Dunfermline Palace, , on 19 November 1600.[2] He was baptised in the Chapel Royal at on 23 December 1600 by Lindsay, Bishop of Ross, and at the same ceremony was created , the traditional title of the second son of the King of Scotland, with the subsidiary titles of Marquess of Ormond, Earl of Ross and Lord Ardmannoch.[3]

James VI was the first cousin twice removed of Queen Elizabeth I of England, and when she died childless in March 1603, he became King of England as James I. Charles was a weak and sickly infant, and while his and older left for England in April and early June that year, he was not considered [4] Engraving by Simon de Passe of strong enough to make the journey to London due to his fragile health. He Charles and his parents, King James remained in Scotland with his father's friend Alexander Seton, Lord Fyvie, and Queen Anne, c. 1612 appointed as his guardian.[5]

By 1604, Charles was three and a half and as he was able to walk the length of the great hall at Dunfermline Palace without assistance, it was decided that he was now strong enough to make the journey to England to be reunited with his family. In mid-July 1604, Charles left Dunfermline for England where he was to spend most of the rest of his life.[6] In England, Charles was placed under the charge of Elizabeth, Lady Carey, the wife of courtier Sir Robert Carey, who put him in boots made of Spanish leather and brass to help strengthen his weak ankles.[7] His speech development was also slow, and he retained a stammer, or hesitant speech, for the rest of his life.[8]

In January 1605, Charles was created Duke of York, as is customary in the case of the English sovereign's second son, and made a Knight of the Bath.[9] Thomas Murray, a Presbyterian Scot, was appointed as a tutor.[10] Charles learnt the usual subjects of classics, languages, mathematics and religion.[11] In 1611, he was made a Knight of the Garter.[12] Charles I of England 82

Eventually, Charles apparently conquered his physical infirmity,[12] which might have been caused by rickets,[7] and grew to a peak height of 5 feet 4 inches (163 cm).[8] He became an adept horseman and marksman, and took up fencing.[11] Even so, he was not as valued as his physically stronger and taller elder brother, Henry Frederick, , whom Charles adored and attempted to emulate.[13] However, in early November 1612, two weeks before Charles's 12th birthday, Henry died at the age of 18 of what is suspected to have been typhoid (or possibly porphyria),[14] and Charles became heir apparent. As the eldest living son of the sovereign, Charles automatically gained several titles (including and ). Four years later, in November 1616, he was created Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester.[15]

Heir apparent Portrait by Robert Peake of Charles as Duke of York and Albany, c. 1610 In 1613, his sister Elizabeth married Frederick V, Elector Palatine, and moved to Heidelberg.[16] In 1617, the Habsburg Archduke Ferdinand of Austria, a Catholic, was elected king of Bohemia. The following year, the Bohemians rebelled, defenestrating the Catholic governors. In August 1619, the Bohemian diet chose as their monarch Frederick V, who was leader of the , while Ferdinand was elected Holy Roman Emperor in the . Frederick's acceptance of the Bohemian crown in defiance of the emperor marked the beginning of the turmoil that would develop into the Thirty Years' War, which the English Parliament and public quickly grew to see as a polarised continental struggle between Catholics and Protestants.[17] James, however, had been seeking marriage between the new Prince of Wales and Ferdinand's niece, Habsburg princess Infanta Maria of Spain, and began to see the Spanish match as a possible diplomatic means of achieving peace in Europe.[18]

Unfortunately for James, negotiation with Spain proved generally unpopular, both with the public and with James's court.[19] The English Parliament was actively hostile towards Spain and Catholicism, and thus, when called by James in 1621, the members hoped for an enforcement of recusancy laws, a naval campaign against Spain, and a Protestant marriage for the Prince of Wales.[20] Parliament's attacks upon the monopolists for their abuse of prices led to the scapegoating of James's Lord Chancellor, Francis Bacon,[21] and then to Bacon's impeachment before the House of Lords. The impeachment was the first since 1459 without the king's official sanction in the form of a bill of attainder. The incident set an important precedent as the process of impeachment would later be used against Charles and his supporters: the Duke of Buckingham, Archbishop Laud, and the Earl of Strafford. James insisted that the House of Commons be concerned exclusively with domestic affairs, while the members protested that they had the privilege of free speech within the Commons' walls, demanding war with Spain and a Protestant Princess of Wales.[22] Charles, like his father, considered the discussion of his marriage in the Commons impertinent and an infringement of his father's royal prerogative.[23] In January 1622, James dissolved Parliament, angry at what he perceived as the members' impudence and intransigence.[24] Charles I of England 83

The Thirty Years' War, originally confined to Bohemia, spiralled into a wider European war. In 1620, Charles's brother-in-law, Frederick V, was defeated at the near Prague and his hereditary lands in the were invaded by a Habsburg force from the Spanish Netherlands.[25] Charles and the Duke of Buckingham, James's favourite and a man who had great influence over the prince,[26] travelled incognito to Spain in February 1623 to try to reach agreement on the long-pending Spanish match.[27] In the end, however, the trip was an embarrassing failure.[28] The Infanta thought Charles was little more than an infidel, and the Spanish at first demanded that Charles convert to Roman Catholicism as a condition of the match.[29] The Spanish Portrait of Charles as Prince of insisted on toleration of Catholics in England and the repeal of the penal laws, Wales after Daniel Mytens, c. 1623 which Charles knew would never be agreed by Parliament, and that the Infanta remain in Spain for a year after any wedding to ensure that England complied with all the terms of the treaty.[30] A personal quarrel erupted between Buckingham and the Count of Olivares, the Spanish chief minister, and so Charles conducted the ultimately futile negotiations personally.[31] When Charles returned to London in October, without a bride and to a rapturous and relieved public welcome,[32] he and Buckingham pushed a reluctant King James to declare war on Spain.[33]

With the encouragement of his Protestant advisers, James summoned the English Parliament in 1624 so that he could request subsidies for a war. Charles and Buckingham supported the impeachment of the Lord Treasurer, Lionel Cranfield, 1st Earl of Middlesex, who opposed war on grounds of cost and who quickly fell in much the same manner as Bacon had.[34] James told Buckingham he was a fool, and presciently warned his son that he would live to regret the revival of impeachment as a parliamentary tool.[35] An under-funded makeshift army under Ernst von Mansfeld set off to recover the Palatinate, but it was so poorly provisioned that it never advanced beyond the Dutch coast.[36] By 1624, James was growing ill, and as a result was finding it difficult to control Parliament. By the time of his death in March 1625, Charles and the Duke of Buckingham had already assumed de facto control of the kingdom.[37]

Scottish and English Royalty House of Stuart

Charles I •• Charles II • James II & VII •• Henry, Duke of Gloucester •• Mary, Princess Royal •• Henriette, Duchess of Orléans •• Princess Elizabeth of England Charles I of England 84

Early reign With the failure of the Spanish match, Charles and Buckingham turned their attention to France.[38] On 1 May 1625 Charles was married by proxy to the fifteen-year-old French princess Henrietta Maria in front of the doors of the Notre Dame de .[39] Charles had seen Henrietta Maria in Paris while en route to Spain.[40] The couple married in person on 13 June 1625 in Canterbury. Charles delayed the opening of his first Parliament until after the second ceremony, to forestall any opposition.[41] Many members of the Commons were opposed to the king's marriage to a Roman Catholic, fearing that Charles would lift restrictions on Catholic recusants and undermine the official establishment of the reformed Church of England. Although he told Parliament that he would not relax religious restrictions, he promised to do exactly that in a secret marriage treaty with Louis XIII of France.[42] Moreover, the treaty placed under French command an English naval force that would be used to suppress the Protestant Huguenots at . Charles was crowned on 2 February 1626 at Westminster Abbey, but without his wife at his side because she refused to participate in a Protestant religious ceremony.[43] Distrust of Charles's religious policies increased with his support of a controversial anti-Calvinist ecclesiastic, Richard Montagu, who was in disrepute among the Puritans.[44] In his pamphlet A New Gag for an Old Goose (1624), a reply to the Catholic pamphlet A New Gag for the New Gospel, Montagu argued against Calvinist predestination, the doctrine that salvation and damnation were preordained by God. Anti-Calvinists—known as Arminians—believed that human beings could influence their own fate through the exercise of free will.[45] Arminian divines had been one of the few sources of support for Charles's proposed Spanish marriage.[46] With the support of King James, Montagu produced another pamphlet, entitled Appello Caesarem, in 1625 shortly after the old king's death and Charles's accession. To protect Montagu from the stricture of Puritan members of Parliament, Charles made the cleric one of his royal chaplains, increasing many Puritans' suspicions that Charles favoured Arminianism as a clandestine attempt to aid the resurgence of Catholicism.[47] Rather than direct involvement in the European land war, the English Parliament preferred a relatively inexpensive naval attack on Spanish in the New World, hoping for the capture of the Spanish fleets. Parliament voted to grant a subsidy of £140,000, which was an insufficient sum for Charles's war plans.[48] Moreover, the House of Commons limited its authorisation for of tonnage and poundage (two varieties of customs duties) to a period of one year, although previous sovereigns since Henry VI of England had been granted the right for life.[49] In this manner, Parliament could delay approval of the rates until after a full-scale review of customs revenue.[50] The bill made no progress in the House of Lords past its first reading.[51] Although no Parliamentary Act for the levy of tonnage and poundage was obtained, Charles continued to collect the duties.[52]

Portrait by Gerrit van Honthorst, 1628 A poorly conceived and executed naval expedition against Spain under the leadership of Buckingham went badly, and the House of Commons began proceedings for the impeachment of the duke.[53] In May 1626, Charles nominated Buckingham as Chancellor of Cambridge University in a show of support,[54] and had two members who had spoken against Buckingham—Dudley Digges and Sir John Eliot—arrested at the door of the House. The Commons were outraged by the imprisonment of two of their members, and after about a week in custody, both were released.[55] On 12 June 1626, the Commons launched a direct protestation attacking Buckingham, stating, "We protest before your Majesty and the whole world that until this great person be removed from intermeddling with the great affairs of state, we are out of hope of any good success; and do fear that any money we shall or can give will, through his misemployment, Charles I of England 85

be turned rather to the hurt and prejudice of this your kingdom than otherwise, as by lamentable experience we have found those large supplies formerly and lately given."[56] Despite Parliament's protests, however, Charles refused to dismiss his friend, dismissing Parliament instead.[57] Meanwhile, domestic quarrels between Charles and Henrietta Maria were souring the early years of their marriage. Disputes over her jointure, appointments to her , and the practice of her religion culminated in the king expelling the vast majority of her French attendants in August 1626.[58] Despite Charles's agreement to provide the French with English ships as a condition of marrying Henrietta Maria, in 1627 he launched an ultimately unsuccessful attack on the French coast to defend the Huguenots at La Rochelle.[59] The action, led by Buckingham, drove a wedge between the English and French crowns that was not surmounted for the duration of the Thirty Years' War. Buckingham's failure to protect the Huguenots—and his retreat from Saint-Martin-de-Ré—spurred Louis XIII's siege of La Rochelle and furthered the English Parliament's and people's detestation of the duke.[60] Charles provoked further unrest by trying to raise money for the war through a "forced loan": a tax levied without parliamentary consent. In November 1627, the test case in the King's Bench, the "Five Knights' Case", found that the king had a prerogative right to imprison without trial those who refused to pay the forced loan.[61] Summoned again in March 1628, on 26 May Parliament adopted a Petition of Right, calling upon the king to acknowledge that he could not levy taxes without Parliament's consent, not impose martial law on civilians, not imprison them without due process, and not quarter troops in their homes.[62] Charles assented to the petition on 7 June,[63] but by the end of the month he had prorogued Parliament and re-asserted his right to collect customs duties without authorisation from Parliament.[64] On 23 August 1628, Buckingham was assassinated.[65] Charles was deeply distressed, throwing "himself upon his bed, lamenting with much passion and with abundance of tears".[66] He remained grieving in his room for two days.[67] In contrast, the public rejoiced at Buckingham's death, which accentuated the gulf between the court and the nation, and between the crown and the Commons.[68] Although the death of Buckingham effectively ended the war with Spain and eliminated his leadership as an issue, it did not end the conflicts between Charles and Parliament.[69] It did, however, coincide with an improvement in Charles's relationship with his wife, and by November 1628 their old quarrels were at an end.[70] Perhaps Charles's emotional ties were transferred from Buckingham to Henrietta Maria;[71] she became pregnant for the first time, and the bond between them grew ever stronger.[72] Together, they embodied an image of virtue and family life, and their court became a model of formality and morality.[73]

Personal rule

Parliament prorogued

In January 1629 Charles opened the second session of the English Parliament, which had been prorogued in June 1628, with a moderate speech on the tonnage and poundage issue.[77] Members of the House of Commons began to voice opposition to Charles's policies in light of the case of John Rolle, a Member of Parliament whose goods had been confiscated for failing to pay tonnage and poundage.[78] Many MPs

viewed the imposition of the tax as a breach of the Petition of Right. Charles depicted as a victorious and chivalrous [79] When Charles ordered a parliamentary adjournment on 2 March, Saint George in an English landscape by Rubens, [74] members held the Speaker, Sir John Finch, down in his chair so that 1629–30. The landscape is modelled on the Thames Valley, and the central figures of Saint the ending of the session could be delayed long enough for resolutions George (England's patron saint) and a maiden [75] against Catholicism, Arminianism and poundage and tonnage to be resemble the king and queen. The dragon of [80] [76] read out and acclaimed by the chamber. The provocation was too war lies slain under Charles's foot. Charles I of England 86

much for Charles, who dissolved Parliament and had nine parliamentary leaders, including Sir John Eliot, imprisoned over the matter,[81] thereby turning the men into martyrs,[82] and giving popular cause to their protest.[83] Shortly after the prorogation, without the means in the foreseeable future to raise funds from Parliament for a European war, or the influence of Buckingham, Charles made peace with France and Spain.[84] The following eleven years, during which Charles ruled England without a Parliament, are referred to as the personal rule or the "eleven years' tyranny".[85] Ruling without Parliament was not exceptional, and was supported by precedent.[86] Only Parliament, however, could legally raise taxes, and without it Charles's capacity to acquire funds for his treasury was limited to his customary rights and prerogatives.[87]

Finances

The reigns of Elizabeth I and James I had generated a large fiscal deficit.[88] Notwithstanding Buckingham's short lived campaigns against both Spain and France, there was in reality little economic capacity for Charles to wage wars overseas. Throughout his reign Charles was obliged to rely primarily on volunteer forces for defence and on diplomatic efforts to support his sister, Elizabeth, and his foreign policy objective for the restoration of the Palatinate.[89] Sixpence of Charles I England was still the least taxed country in Europe, with no official excise and no regular direct taxation.[90] To raise revenue without reconvening Parliament, Charles resurrected an all-but-forgotten law called the "Distraint of Knighthood", in abeyance for over a century, which required anyone who earned £40 or more from land each year to present himself at the king's coronation to be knighted. Relying on this old statute, Charles fined individuals who had failed to attend his coronation in 1626.[91][92]

The chief tax imposed by Charles was a feudal levy known as ship money,[93] which proved even more unpopular, and lucrative, than poundage and tonnage before it. Previously, collection of ship money had been authorised only during wars, and only on coastal . Charles, however, argued that there was no legal bar to collecting the tax for defence during peacetime and throughout the whole of the kingdom. Ship money, paid directly to the Treasury of the Navy, provided between £150,000 to £200,000 annually between 1634 and 1638, after which yields declined.[94] Opposition to ship money steadily grew, but the 12 common law judges of England declared that the tax was within the king's prerogative, though some of them had reservations.[95] The prosecution of for non-payment in 1637–38 provided a platform for popular protest, and the judges only found against Hampden by the narrow margin of 7–5.[96] The king also derived money through the granting of monopolies, despite a statute forbidding such action, which, though inefficient, raised an estimated £100,000 a year in the late 1630s.[97][98] Charles also raised funds from the Scottish nobility, at the price of considerable acrimony, by the Act of Revocation (1625), whereby all gifts of royal or church land made to the nobility since 1540 were revoked, with continued ownership being subject to an annual rent.[99] In addition, the boundaries of the royal forests in England were extended to their ancient limits as part of a scheme to maximize income by exploiting the land and fining land users within the enlarged boundaries for encroachment.[100] Charles I of England 87

Religious conflicts

Throughout Charles's reign, the issue of how far the English should progress was constantly brought to the forefront of political debate. Arminian theology emphasised clerical authority and the individual's ability to reject or accept salvation, and was consequently viewed as heretical and a potential vehicle for the reintroduction of Roman Catholicism by its Calvinist opponents. Charles's sympathy to the teachings of Arminianism, and specifically his wish to move the Church of England away from Calvinism in a more traditional and sacramental direction, were perceived by Puritans as irreligious tendencies.[101] In addition, Charles's subjects followed news of the European war closely[102] and grew increasingly dismayed by Charles's diplomacy with Spain and his failure to support the Protestant cause abroad effectively.[103]

In 1633, Charles appointed William Laud as Archbishop of Canterbury.[104] Together, they began a series of anti-Calvinist reforms Charles I with M. de St Antoine by Anthony van that attempted to ensure religious uniformity by restricting Dyck, 1633 non-conformist preachers, insisting that the liturgy be celebrated as prescribed in the Book of Common Prayer, organising the internal architecture of English churches so as to emphasise the sacrament of the altar, and re-issuing King James's Declaration of Sports, which permitted secular activities on the sabbath.[105] The Feoffees for Impropriations, an organisation that bought benefices and so that Puritans could be appointed to them, was dissolved.[106] To prosecute those who opposed his reforms, Laud used the two most feared and powerful courts in the land, the Court of High Commission and the Court of Star Chamber.[107] The courts became unpopular among the propertied classes for inflicting degrading punishments on gentlemen.[108] For example, in 1637 , Henry Burton and John Bastwick were pilloried, whipped and mutilated by cropping and imprisoned indefinitely for publishing anti-episcopal pamphlets.[109]

When Charles attempted to impose his religious policies in Scotland he faced numerous difficulties. Although born in Scotland, Charles had become estranged from his northern kingdom; his first visit since early childhood was for his Scottish coronation in 1633.[110] To the dismay of the Scots, who had removed many traditional rituals from their liturgical practice, Charles insisted that the coronation be conducted in the Anglican rite.[111] In 1637, the king ordered the use of a new prayer book in Scotland that was almost identical to the English Book of Common Prayer, without consulting either the Scottish Parliament or the Kirk.[112] Although written, under Charles's direction, by Scottish Triple portrait of Charles I from three angles by bishops, it was resisted by many Scots, who saw the new prayer book Anthony van Dyck, 1635–36 as a vehicle for introducing Anglicanism to Scotland.[113] On 23 July, riots erupted in Edinburgh upon the first Sunday of the prayer book's usage, and unrest spread throughout the Kirk. The public began to mobilise around a re-affirmation of the National Covenant, whose signatories pledged to uphold the reformed religion of Scotland and reject any innovations that were not authorised by Kirk and Parliament.[114] When the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland met in November 1638, it condemned the new prayer book, abolished episcopal church government by bishops, and adopted Presbyterian government by elders and deacons.[115] Charles I of England 88

Bishops' Wars Charles perceived the unrest in Scotland as a rebellion against his authority, precipitating the First Bishops' War in 1639.[116] Charles did not seek subsidies from the English Parliament to wage war, but instead raised an army without parliamentary aid and marched to Berwick-upon-Tweed, on the border of Scotland.[117] Charles's army did not engage the as the king feared the defeat of his forces, whom he believed to be significantly outnumbered by the Scots.[118] In the Treaty of Berwick, Charles regained custody of his Scottish fortresses and secured the dissolution of the Covenanters' interim government, albeit at the decisive concession that both the Scottish Parliament and General Assembly of the Scottish Church were called.[119] Charles's military failure in the First Bishops' War caused a financial and diplomatic crisis for Charles that deepened when his efforts to raise finance from Spain, while simultaneously continuing his support for his Palatine relatives, led to the public humiliation of the , where the Dutch destroyed a Spanish bullion fleet off the coast of Kent in sight of the impotent English navy.[120] Charles continued peace negotiations with the Scots in a bid to gain time before launching a new military campaign. Because of his financial weakness, he was forced to call Parliament into session in an attempt to raise funds for such a venture.[121] Both English and Irish parliaments were summoned in the early months of 1640.[122] In March 1640, the Irish Parliament duly voted in a subsidy of £180,000 with the promise to raise an army 9,000 strong by the end of May.[122] In the English general election in March, however, court candidates fared badly,[123] and Charles's dealings with the English Parliament in April quickly reached stalemate.[124] The earls of Northumberland and Strafford attempted to broker a compromise whereby the king would agree to forfeit ship money in exchange for £650,000 (although the cost of the coming war was estimated at around £1 million).[125] Nevertheless, this alone was insufficient to produce consensus in the Commons.[126] The Parliamentarians' calls for further reforms were ignored by Charles, who still retained the support of the House of Lords. Despite the protests of Northumberland,[127] the (as it came to be known) was dissolved in May 1640, less than a month after it assembled.[128]

[129] The Earl of Strafford (left) and William Laud (right): two of Charles's most influential advisors during the personal rule

By this stage Strafford, Lord Deputy of Ireland since 1632,[130] had emerged as Charles's right hand man and together with Laud, pursued a policy of "Thorough" that aimed to make central royal authority more efficient and effective at the expense of local or anti-government interests.[131] Although originally a critic of the king, Strafford defected to royal service in 1628 (due in part to Buckingham's persuasion),[132] and had since emerged, alongside Laud, as the most influential of Charles's ministers.[133] Bolstered by the failure of the English Short Parliament, the Scottish Parliament declared itself capable of governing without the king's consent and, in August 1640, the Covenanter army moved into the county of Northumberland.[134] Following the illness of the earl of Northumberland, who was the king's commander-in-chief, Charles and Strafford went north to command the English forces, despite Strafford being ill himself with a combination of gout and dysentery.[135] The Scottish soldiery, many of whom were veterans of the Thirty Years' War,[136] had far greater morale and training compared to their English counterparts, and met virtually no resistance until reaching where, at the Battle of Newburn, they defeated the English forces and occupied the city, as well as the Charles I of England 89

neighbouring county of Durham.[137] Advised from all sides to call a parliament,[138] Charles took the unusual step of summoning a great council of peers, which met on 24 September at York. After informing the peers that a parliament would convene in November, Charles asked them to consider how he could acquire funds to maintain his army against the Scots. They recommended making peace.[139] A cessation of arms, although not a final settlement, was agreed in the humiliating Treaty of Ripon, signed in October 1640.[140] The treaty stated that the Scots would continue to occupy Northumberland and Durham and be paid £850 per day, until peace was restored and the English Parliament recalled, which would be required to raise sufficient funds to pay the Scottish forces.[141] Consequently, in November Charles summoned what later became known as the . Once again, Charles's supporters fared badly at the polls. Of the 493 members of the Commons, over 350 were opposed to the king.[142]

Long Parliament

Tensions escalate The Long Parliament proved just as difficult for Charles as had the Short Parliament. It assembled on 3 November 1640 and quickly began proceedings to impeach the king's leading counsellors of high treason.[143] Strafford was taken into custody on 10 November; Laud was impeached on 18 December; Lord Keeper Finch was impeached the following day, and he consequently fled to the Hague with Charles's permission on 21 December.[144] To prevent the king from dissolving it at will, Parliament passed the Triennial Act, to which royal assent was granted in February 1641.[145] The Act required Parliament to be summoned at least once every three years, and permitted the Lord Keeper of the Great Seal and 12 peers to summon Parliament if the king failed to do so.[146] Strafford had become the principal target of the Parliamentarians, particularly , and he went on trial for high treason on 22 March 1641.[147] However, the key allegation by Sir Henry Vane that Strafford had threatened to use the Irish army to subdue England was not corroborated and on 10 April Pym's case collapsed.[148] Pym and his allies immediately launched a bill of attainder, which simply declared Strafford guilty and pronounced the sentence of death.[149] Charles assured Strafford that "upon the word of a king you shall not suffer in life, honour or fortune",[150] and the attainder could not succeed if Charles withheld assent.[151] Furthermore, many members and most peers were opposed to the attainder, not wishing, in the words of one, to "commit murder with the sword of justice".[152] However, increased tensions and an attempted coup by royalist army officers in support of Strafford and in which Charles was involved began to sway the issue. The Commons passed the bill on 20 April by a large margin (204 in favour, 59 opposed, and 230 abstained), and the Lords acquiesced (by 26 votes to 19, with 79 absent) in May.[153] Charles, fearing for the safety of his family in the face of unrest, assented reluctantly on 9 May after consulting his judges and bishops.[154] Strafford was beheaded three days later.[155] On 3 May, Parliament's Protestation had attacked the "wicked counsels" of Charles's "arbitrary and tyrannical government"; while those who signed the petition undertook to defend the king's "person, honour and estate", they also swore to preserve "the true reformed religion", parliament, and the "rights and liberties of the subjects".[156] Within a week, Charles had assented to an unprecedented Act, which forbade the dissolution of the English Parliament without Parliament's consent.[157] In the following months, ship money, fines in distraint of knighthood and excise without parliamentary consent were declared unlawful, and the Courts of Star Chamber and High Commission were abolished.[158] All remaining forms of taxation were legalised and regulated by the Tonnage and Poundage Act.[159] The House of Commons also launched bills attacking bishops and episcopacy, but these failed in the Lords.[160] Charles had made important concessions in England, and temporarily improved his position in Scotland by securing the favour of the Scots on a visit from August to November 1641 during which he conceded to the official Charles I of England 90

establishment of Presbyterianism.[161] However, following an attempted royalist coup in Scotland, known as "The Incident", Charles's credibility was significantly undermined.[162]

Irish Rebellion The population of Ireland was split into three main socio-political groups: the Gaelic Irish, who were Catholic; the Old English, who were descended from medieval Normans and were also predominantly Catholic; and the New English, who were Protestant settlers from England and Scotland aligned with the English Parliament and the Covenanters. Strafford's administration had improved the Irish economy and boosted tax revenue, but had done so by heavy-handedly imposing order.[163] He had trained up a large army in support of the king and had weakened the authority of the Irish Parliament,[164] while promoting a Laudian Anglicanism that was anathema to both Presbyterians and Catholics.[165] As a result, all three groups had become disaffected.[166] Strafford's impeachment provided a new departure for Irish politics whereby all sides joined together to present evidence against him.[167] In a similar manner to the English Parliament, the Old English members of the Irish Parliament argued that their opposition to Strafford did not negate their loyalty to Charles. They argued that Charles had been led astray by the malign influence of the earl,[168] and that, moreover, a viceroy such as Strafford could emerge as a despotic figure instead of ensuring that the king was directly involved in the governance of Ireland.[169] Disputes concerning the transfer of land ownership from native Catholic to settler Protestant,[170] particularly in relation to the plantation of Ulster,[171] coupled with resentment at moves to ensure the Irish Parliament was subordinate to the Parliament of England,[172] sowed the seeds of rebellion. Strafford's fall from power weakened Charles's influence in Ireland,[173] while also providing a natural conduit for cooperation between the hitherto antagonistic Gaelic Irish and Old English.[174] When armed conflict arose between the Gaelic Irish and New English, in late October 1641, the Old English sided with the Gaelic Irish while simultaneously professing their loyalty to the king.[175] In November 1641, the House of Commons passed the Grand Remonstrance, a long list of grievances against actions by Charles's ministers committed since the beginning of his reign (that were asserted to be part of a grand Catholic conspiracy of which the king was an unwitting member),[176] but it was in many ways a step too far by Pym and passed by only 11 votes – 159 to 148.[177] Furthermore, the Remonstrance had very little support in the House of Lords, which the Remonstrance attacked.[178] The tension was heightened when news of the Irish rebellion reached Parliament, coupled with inaccurate rumours of Charles's complicity.[179] The Irish Catholic army, established by Strafford, whose dissolution had been unsuccessfully demanded three times by the Commons earlier in the year,[156] professed their loyalty to the king. This was combined with the massacres of New English in Ireland by Gaelic Irish who could not be controlled by the Old English lords.[180] Throughout November stories of Irish atrocities, coupled with rumours of "papist conspiracies" in England, circulated the kingdom and were published in a series of alarmist pamphlets.[181] English anti-Catholic opinion was strengthened, damaging Charles's reputation and authority.[182] Charles I of England 91

The English Parliament distrusted Charles's motivations when he called for funds to put down the Irish rebellion; many members of the House of Commons suspected that forces raised by Charles might later be used against Parliament itself.[183] Pym's Militia Bill was intended to wrest control of the army from the king, but it did not have the support of the Lords, let alone Charles.[184] Instead, the Commons passed the bill as an ordinance, which they claimed did not require royal assent.[185] The appears to have prompted more members of the Lords to support the king.[186] In an attempt to strengthen his position, Charles generated great antipathy in London, which was already fast falling into anarchy, when he placed the under the command of Colonel Thomas Lunsford, an infamous, albeit efficient, career officer.[187] When rumours reached Charles that Parliament intended to impeach his wife for Henrietta Maria by Sir Anthony van supposedly conspiring with the Irish rebels, the king decided to take drastic Dyck, 1632 action.[188]

Five members Charles suspected, probably correctly, that some members of the English Parliament had colluded with the invading Scots.[189] On 3 January, Charles directed Parliament to give up of the Commons – Pym, John Hampden, Denzil Holles, and Sir Arthur Haselrig – and one peer – Lord Mandeville – on the grounds of high treason.[190] When Parliament refused, it was possibly Henrietta Maria who persuaded Charles to arrest the five members by force, which Charles intended to carry out personally.[191] However, news of the warrant reached Parliament ahead of him, and the wanted men slipped away by boat shortly before Charles entered the House of Commons with an armed guard on 4 January 1642.[192] Having displaced the Speaker, William Lenthall, from his chair, the king asked him where the MPs had fled. Lenthall, on his knees,[193] famously replied, "May it please your Majesty, I have neither eyes to see nor tongue to speak in this place but as the House is pleased to direct me, whose servant I am here."[194] Charles abjectly declared "all my birds have flown", and was forced to retire, empty-handed.[195] The botched arrest attempt was politically disastrous for Charles.[196] No English sovereign had ever entered the House of Commons, and his unprecedented invasion of the chamber to arrest its members was considered a grave breach of parliamentary privilege.[197] In one stroke Charles destroyed his supporters' efforts to portray him as a defence against innovation and disorder.[198] Parliament quickly seized London, and Charles fled the capital for on 10 January 1642,[199] moving two days later to Windsor Castle.[200] After sending his wife and eldest daughter to safety abroad in February, he travelled northwards, hoping to seize the military arsenal at Hull.[201] To his dismay, he was rebuffed by the town's Parliamentary governor, Sir John Hotham, who refused him entry in April, and Charles was forced to withdraw.[202] Charles I of England 92

English Civil War In mid-1642, both sides began to arm. Charles raised an army using the medieval method of commission of array, and Parliament called for volunteers for its militia.[203] Following futile negotiations, Charles raised the royal standard in Nottingham on 22 August 1642.[204] After a few skirmishes, the First Civil War began in earnest on 23 October 1642 with the inconclusive . At the start of the war, Charles's forces controlled roughly the Midlands, Wales, the West Country and northern England. He set up his court at Oxford. Parliament controlled London, the south-east and East Anglia, as well as the English navy.[205] Henrietta Maria returned to Britain for 17 months from February 1643.[206] The war continued indecisively through 1643 and 1644, until the tipped the military A nineteenth-century painting depicting Charles balance decisively in favour of Parliament.[207] There followed a series (centre in blue sash) before the battle of Edgehill, [208] of defeats for the royalists, and then the Siege of Oxford, from 1642 which Charles escaped (disguised as a servant) in April 1646.[209] He put himself into the hands of the Scottish Presbyterian army besieging Newark, and was taken northwards to Newcastle upon Tyne.[210] After nine months of negotiations, the Scots finally arrived at an agreement with the English Parliament: in exchange for £100,000, and the promise of more money in the future,[211] the Scots withdrew from Newcastle and delivered Charles to the parliamentary commissioners in January 1647.[212]

Captivity Parliament held Charles under house arrest at Holdenby House in Northamptonshire, until Cornet George Joyce took him by threat of force from Holdenby on 3 June in the name of the New Model Army.[213] By this time, mutual suspicion had developed between Parliament, which favoured army disbandment and Presbyterianism, and the New Model Army, which was primarily officered by Independent non-conformists who sought a greater political role.[214] Charles was eager to exploit the widening divisions, and apparently viewed Joyce's actions as an opportunity rather than a threat.[215] He was taken first to Newmarket, at his own suggestion,[216] and then transferred to Oatlands and subsequently Hampton Court, while more ultimately fruitless negotiations took place.[217] By November, he determined that it would be in his best interests to escape—perhaps to France, Southern England or to Berwick-upon-Tweed, near the Scottish border.[218] He fled Hampton Court on 11 November, and from the shores of Southampton Water made contact with Colonel Robert Hammond, Parliamentary Governor of the Isle of Wight, whom he apparently believed to be sympathetic.[219] Hammond, however, confined Charles in and informed Parliament that Charles was in his custody.[220] From Carisbrooke, Charles continued to try to bargain with the various parties. In direct contrast to his previous conflict with the Scottish Kirk, on 26 December 1647 he signed a secret treaty with the Scots. Under the agreement, called the "Engagement", the Scots undertook to invade England on Charles's behalf and restore him to the throne on condition that Presbyterianism be established in England for three years.[221] The royalists rose in May 1648, igniting the Second Civil War, and as agreed with Charles, the Scots invaded England. Uprisings in Kent, Essex, and Cumberland, and a rebellion in South Wales, were put down by the New Model Army, and with the defeat of the Scots at the in August 1648, the royalists lost any chance of winning the war.[222] Charles's only recourse was to return to negotiations,[223] which were held at Newport on the Isle of Wight.[224] On 5 December 1648, Parliament voted by 129 to 83 to continue negotiating with the king,[225] but Oliver Cromwell and the army opposed any further talks with someone they viewed as a bloody tyrant and were already taking action to consolidate their power.[226] Hammond was replaced as Governor of the Isle of Wight on 27 November, and placed Charles I of England 93

in the custody of the army the following day.[227] In Pride's Purge on 6 and 7 December, the members of Parliament out of sympathy with the military were arrested or excluded by Colonel Thomas Pride,[228] while others stayed away voluntarily.[229] The remaining members formed the . It was effectively a military coup.[230]

Trial

Charles was moved to at the end of 1648, and thereafter to Windsor Castle.[233] In January 1649, the Rump House of Commons indicted him on a charge of treason, which was rejected by the House of Lords.[234] The idea of trying a king was a novel one.[235] The Chief Justices of the three common law courts of England—Henry Rolle, and —all opposed the indictment as unlawful.[236] The Rump Commons declared itself capable of legislating alone, passed a bill creating a separate court for Charles's trial, and declared the bill an act without the need for royal assent.[237] The High Court of Justice established by the Act consisted of 135 commissioners, but many either refused to serve or chose to stay away.[238] Only 68 (all firm Parliamentarians) attended Charles's trial on charges of high treason and "other high crimes" that Charles at his trial, by Edward began on 20 January 1649 in Westminster Hall.[239] John Bradshaw acted as Bower, 1649. He let his beard and hair grow long because Parliament President of the Court, and the prosecution was led by the Solicitor General, John [240] had dismissed his barber, and he Cook. refused to let anyone else near him [231] with a razor. Charles was accused of treason against England by using his power to pursue his personal interest rather than the good of the country.[241] The charge stated that he, "for accomplishment of such his designs, and for the protecting of himself and his adherents in his and their wicked practices, to the same ends hath traitorously and maliciously levied war against the present Parliament, and the people therein represented", and that the "wicked designs, wars, and evil practices of him, the said Charles Stuart, have been, and are carried on for the advancement and upholding of a personal interest of will, power, and pretended prerogative to himself and his family, against the public interest, common right, liberty, justice, and peace of the people of this nation."[241] Reflecting the modern concept of command responsibility,[242] the indictment held him "guilty of all the treasons, murders, rapines, burnings, spoils, desolations, damages and mischiefs to this nation, acted and committed in the said wars, or occasioned thereby."[243] An estimated 300,000 people, or 6% of the population, died during the war.[244]

Charles (in the dock with his back to Over the first three days of the trial, whenever Charles was asked to plead, he [245] the viewer) facing the High Court of refused, stating his objection with the words: "I would know by what power [232] Justice, 1649 I am called hither, by what lawful authority...?"[246] He claimed that no court had jurisdiction over a monarch,[235] that his own authority to rule had been given to him by God and by the traditional laws of England, and that the power wielded by those trying him was only that of force of arms. Charles insisted that the trial was illegal, explaining that,

no earthly power can justly call me (who am your King) in question as a delinquent ... this day's proceeding cannot be warranted by God's laws; for, on the contrary, the authority of obedience unto Kings is clearly warranted, and strictly commanded in both the Old and New Testament ... for the law of this land, I am no less confident, that no learned lawyer will affirm that an impeachment can lie against the King, they all going in his name: and one of their maxims is, that the King can do no wrong ... the Charles I of England 94

higher House is totally excluded; and for the House of Commons, it is too well known that the major part of them are detained or deterred from sitting ... the arms I took up were only to defend the fundamental laws of this kingdom against those who have supposed my power hath totally changed the ancient government.[247] The court, by contrast, challenged the doctrine of sovereign immunity, and proposed that "the King of England was not a person, but an office whose every occupant was entrusted with a limited power to govern 'by and according to the laws of the land and not otherwise'."[248] At the end of the third day, Charles was removed from the court,[249] which then heard over 30 witnesses against the king in his absence over the next two days, and on 26 January condemned him to death. The following day, the king was brought before a public session of the commission, declared guilty and sentenced.[250] Fifty-nine of the commissioners signed Charles's death warrant.[251]

Execution

Charles's decapitation was scheduled for Tuesday, 30 January 1649. Two of his children remained in England under the control of the Parliamentarians: Elizabeth and Henry. They were permitted to visit him on 29 January, and he bid them a tearful farewell.[252] The following morning, he called for two shirts to prevent the cold weather causing any noticeable shivers that the crowd could have mistaken for fear:[253]

"the season is so sharp as probably may make me shake, which some observers may imagine proceeds from fear. I would have no such imputation." Contemporary German print of Charles I's He walked under guard from St James's Palace, where he had been decapitation confined, to the , where an execution scaffold was erected in front of the Banqueting House.[254] Charles was separated from spectators by large ranks of soldiers, and his last speech reached only those with him on the scaffold.[255] He blamed his fate on his failure to prevent the execution of his loyal servant Strafford: "An unjust sentence that I suffered to take effect, is punished now by an unjust sentence on me."[256] He declared that he had desired the liberty and freedom of the people as much as any, "but I must tell you that their liberty and freedom consists in having government ... It is not their having a share in the government; that is nothing appertaining unto them. A subject and a sovereign are clean different things."[257] He continued, "I shall go from a corruptible to an incorruptible Crown, where no disturbance can be."[258]

At about 2 p.m.,[259] Charles put his head on the block after saying a prayer and signalled the executioner when he was ready by stretching out his hands; he was then beheaded with one clean stroke.[260] According to observer Philip Henry, a moan "as I never heard before and desire I may never hear again" rose from the assembled crowd,[261] some of whom then dipped their handkerchiefs in the king's blood as a memento.[262] The executioner was masked and disguised, and there is debate over his identity. The commissioners approached Richard Brandon, the common hangman of London, but he refused, at least at first, despite being offered £200. It is possible he relented and undertook the commission after being threatened with death, but there are others who have been named as potential candidates, including George Joyce, William Hulet and Hugh Peters.[263] The clean strike, confirmed by an examination of the king's body at Windsor in 1813,[264] suggests that the execution was carried out by an experienced headsman.[265] It was common practice for the severed head of a traitor to be held up and exhibited to the crowd with the words "Behold the head of a traitor!"[266] Although Charles's head was exhibited,[267] the words were not used, possibly because the executioner did not want his voice recognised.[266] On the day after the execution, the king's head was Charles I of England 95

sewn back onto his body, which was then embalmed and placed in a lead coffin.[268]

Cromwell was said to have visited Charles's coffin, sighing "Cruel necessity!" as he did so.[269] The story was depicted by Delaroche in the nineteenth century.

Another of Delaroche's paintings, Charles I Insulted by Cromwell's Soldiers, is an allegory for later events in France and the mocking of Christ.[270] The commission refused to allow Charles's burial at Westminster, so his body was conveyed to Windsor on the night of 7 February.[271] He was buried in the Henry VIII vault in St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, in private on 9 February 1649.[272] The king's son, Charles II, later planned for an elaborate royal mausoleum to be erected in Hyde Park, London, but it was never built.[129]

Legacy Ten days after Charles's execution, on the day of his interment, a memoir purporting to be written by the king appeared for sale.[268] This book, the Eikon Basilike (Greek: the "Royal Portrait"), contained an apologia for royal policies, and it proved an effective piece of royalist propaganda. Anglicans and royalists fashioned an image of martyrdom,[273] and Charles was recognised as a martyr king by his followers.[129] John Milton wrote a Parliamentary rejoinder, the Eikonoklastes ("The Iconoclast"), but the response made little headway against the pathos of the royalist book.[274] Partly inspired by his visit to the Spanish court in 1623,[275] Charles became a passionate and knowledgeable art collector, amassing one of the finest art collections ever assembled.[276] In Spain, he sat for a sketch by Velázquez, and acquired works by and Correggio, among others.[277] In England, his commissions included the ceiling of the Banqueting House, Whitehall, by Rubens and paintings by other artists from the Low Countries such as van Honthorst, Mytens, and van Dyck.[278] In 1627 and 1628, he purchased the entire collection of the Duke of Mantua, which included work by Titian, Correggio, , Caravaggio, del Sarto and Mantegna.[279] Charles's collection grew further to encompass Bernini, Breughel, da Vinci, Holbein, Hollar, Tintoretto and Veronese, and self-portraits by both Dürer and Rembrandt.[280] By Charles's death, there were an estimated 1760 paintings,[281] most of which were sold and dispersed by Parliament.[282] Charles I of England 96

With the monarchy overthrown, England became a republic or "Commonwealth". The House of Lords was abolished by the Rump Commons, and executive power was assumed by a Council of State.[284] All significant military opposition in Britain and Ireland was extinguished by the forces of Oliver Cromwell in the Third English Civil War and the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland.[285] Cromwell forcibly disbanded the Rump Parliament in 1653,[286] thereby establishing The with himself as Lord Protector.[287] Upon his death in 1658, he was briefly succeeded by his ineffective son, Richard.[288] Parliament was reinstated, and the monarchy was restored [289] Charles depicted as a martyr in Eikon to Charles I's eldest son, Charles II, in 1660. [283] Basilike Carolina in North America – later North and South Carolina – was named after Charles I. To the north in Virginia, Cape Charles, Charles River and the Charles City Shire were all likewise named after him; the king personally named the Charles River.[290]

Assessments In the words of John Philipps Kenyon, "Charles Stuart is a man of contradictions and controversy".[291] Revered by high who considered him a saintly martyr,[129] he was condemned by Whig historians, such as , who thought him duplicitous and delusional.[292] In recent decades, most historians have criticised him;[293] the main exception being Kevin Sharpe who offered a more sympathetic view of Charles that has not been widely adopted.[294] Archbishop William Laud, who was beheaded by Parliament during the war, described Charles as "A mild and gracious prince who knew not how to be, or how to be made, great."[295] Charles was more sober and refined than his father,[296] but he was intransigent and deliberately pursued unpopular policies that ultimately brought ruin on himself.[297] Both Charles and James were advocates of the divine right of kings, but while James's ambitions concerning absolute prerogative were tempered by compromise and consensus with his subjects, Charles believed that he had no need to compromise or even to explain his actions.[298] He thought that he was answerable only to God. "Princes are not bound to give account of their actions," he wrote, "but to God alone".[299]

Titles, styles, honours and arms

Titles and styles • 23 December 1600 – 27 March 1625: Duke of Albany, Marquess of Ormonde, Earl of Ross and Lord Ardmannoch[300] • 6 January 1605 – 27 March 1625: Duke of York[300] • 6 November 1612 – 27 March 1625: Duke of Cornwall and Rothesay[300] • 4 November 1616 – 27 March 1625: Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester[300] • 27 March 1625 – 30 January 1649: His Majesty The King The official style of Charles I as king was "Charles, by the Grace of God, King of England, Scotland France and Ireland, Defender of the Faith, etc."[301] The style "of France" was only nominal, and was used by every English monarch from Edward III to George III, regardless of the amount of French territory actually controlled.[302] The authors of his death warrant referred to him as "Charles Stuart, King of England".[303] Charles I of England 97

Honours • KB: Knight of the Bath, 6 January 1605 – 27 March 1625[304] • KG: Knight of the Garter, 24 April 1611 – 27 March 1625

Arms As Duke of York, Charles bore the royal arms of the kingdom differenced by a label Argent of three points, each bearing three torteaux Gules.[305] As Prince of Wales he bore the royal arms differenced by a plain label Argent of three points. As king, Charles bore the royal arms undifferenced: Quarterly, I and IV Grandquarterly, Azure three fleurs-de-lis Or (for France) and Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England); II Or a rampant within a tressure flory-counter-flory Gules (for Scotland); III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent (for Ireland).

Coat of arms as Prince of Wales Coat of arms of Charles I Coat of arms of Charles I in Scotland

Issue

Charles had nine children, two of whom eventually succeeded as king, and two of whom died at or shortly after birth.[306]

Charles I's five eldest children, 1637. Left to right: Mary, James, Charles, Elizabeth and Anne. Charles I of England 98

Name Birth Death Notes

[307] Charles James, Duke of 13 May 1629 13 May 1629 Born and died the same day. Buried as "Charles, Prince of Wales". Cornwall and Rothesay

Charles II, King of 29 May 1630 6 February Married (1638–1705) in 1662. No legitimate liveborn issue. England, Scotland and 1685 Charles II is believed to have fathered such illegitimate children as James Scott, 1st Ireland Duke of Monmouth, who later rose against James VII and II.

Mary, Princess Royal 4 November 24 December Married William II, Prince of Orange (1626–1650) in 1641. She had one child: William 1631 1660 III of England

James VII and II, King of 14 October 6 September Married (1) (1637–1671) in 1659. Had issue including Mary II of England England, Scotland and 1633 1701 and Anne, Queen of Great Britain; Ireland Married (2) (1658–1718) in 1673. Had issue.

Princess Elizabeth 29 December 8 September No issue. 1635 1650

Princess Anne 17 March 5 November Died young. 1637 1640

Princess Catherine 29 June 1639 29 June 1639 Born and died the same day.

Henry, Duke of 8 July 1640 13 No issue. Gloucester September 1660

Princess Henrietta Anne 16 June 1644 30 June 1670 Married Philip I, Duke of Orléans (1640–1701) in 1661. Had issue.

Notes

[1] All dates in this article are in the Old Style Julian calendar used in Britain throughout Charles's lifetime; however, years are assumed to start on 1 January rather than 25 March, which was the English New Year. [2][2]; . [3] Gregg 1981, pp. 4–5. [4][4]Cust 2005, p. 2. [5][5]Carlton 1995, p. 2. [6][6]; . [7][7]Gregg 1981, p. 11. [8][8]Gregg 1981, p. 12. [9][9]Gregg 1981, p. 13. [10][10]; . [11][11]Carlton 1995, p. 16. [12][12]Gregg 1981, p. 22. [13][13]; . [14][14]Gregg 1981, p. 29. [15][15]Gregg 1981, p. 47. [16][16]Hibbert 1968, p. 24. [17][17]; . [18][18]; . [19][19]Coward 2003, p. 152. [20][20]; . [21][21]Trevelyan 1922, p. 124. [22][22]Cust 2005, p. 8. [23] Cust 2005, pp. 5–9. [24][24]; . [25][25]; ; . [26][26]; . [27][27]; ; ; . [28][28]; ; . [29][29]Gregg 1981, p. 84. Charles I of England 99

[30] Gregg 1981, pp. 85–87. [31][31]; . [32][32]; ; ; ; ; . [33][33]; ; ; . [34] Gregg 1981, pp. 97–99. [35][35]; ; . [36][36]; ; ; . [37][37]Trevelyan 1922, p. 130. [38][38]; ; . [39][39]; ; . [40][40]; . [41][41]; . [42][42]Carlton 1995, pp. 55, 70. [43][43]; ; . [44] Gregg 1981, pp. 130–131. [45] Cust 2005, pp. 84–86. [46][46]Coward 2003, p. 153. [47][47]Gregg 1981, p. 131. [48][48]; . [49][49]; . [50][50]; . [51][51]Smith 1999, pp. 54, 114. [52][52]Gregg 1981, p. 138. [53][53]; ; ; . [54][54]Gregg 1981, p. 150. [55][55]; . [56] Loades 1974, pp. 369–370. [57][57]; . [58][58]; ; . [59][59]Howat 1974, p. 35. [60] Gregg 1981, pp. 173–174. [61][61]; . [62] Gregg 1981, pp. 170–173. [63][63]; ; . [64][64]; ; . [65][65]; ; ; . [66] Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon, quoted in . [67][67]; . [68][68]; . [69][69]; . [70][70]; ; . [71][71]; . [72][72]; ; . [73][73]; . [74] Rubens, who acted as the Spanish representative during peace negotiations in London, painted Landscape with Saint George and the Dragon in 1629–30.Gregg 1981, pp. 190–195. [75][75]; ; . [76][76]; . [77] Cust 2005, pp. 114–115. [78][78]Quintrell 1993, p. 42. [79][79]; ; . [80][80]; ; . [81][81]; ; . [82][82]; . [83] Cust 2005, pp. 121–122. [84][84]; ; ; . [85][85]; . [86] For example, James I ruled without Parliament between 1614 and 1621.Sharpe 1992, p. 603. [87][87]Starkey 2006, p. 104. Charles I of England 100

[88][88]Gregg 1981, p. 40. [89][89]; ; . [90][90]Gregg 1981, p. 220. [91][91]; . [92] For comparison, a typical farm labourer could earn 8d a day, or about £10 a year.Edwards 1999, p. 18. [93][93]; . [94][94]; . [95][95]; . [96][96]; ; . [97][97]Loades 1974, p. 385. [98] The statute forbade grants of monopolies to individuals but Charles circumvented the restriction by granting monopolies to companies.; ; ; . [99][99]; ; ; . [100][100]; ; ; . [101] Cust 2005, pp. 97–103. [102] Donaghan 1995, pp. 65–100. [103][103]; . [104][104]Cust 2005, p. 133. [105][105]; ; ; . [106][106]; . [107] Coward 2003, pp. 175–176. [108][108]; ; ; . [109][109]; . [110][110]; . [111][111]; . [112][112]; ; ; . [113][113]; . [114][114]; ; ; . [115] Cust 2005, pp. 236–237. [116][116]; ; . [117][117]; ; . [118][118]; ; . [119][119]; . [120][120]; . [121][121]; . [122][122]Adamson 2007, p. 11. [123][123]Loades 1974, p. 401. [124][124]Loades 1974, p. 402. [125][125]Adamson 2007, p. 14. [126][126]Adamson 2007, p. 15. [127][127]Adamson 2007, p. 17. [128][128]; ; ; . [129] Kishlansky & Morrill 2008. [130][130]Gregg 1981, p. 243. [131][131]; . [132][132]Quintrell 1993, p. 46. [133][133]Sharpe 1992, p. 132. [134] Stevenson 1973, pp. 183–208. [135][135]; . [136][136]Stevenson 1973, p. 101. [137][137]; . [138][138]; . [139][139]; ; . [140][140]; . [141][141]; . [142][142]; . [143][143]Gregg 1981, p. 323. [144] Gregg 1981, pp. 324–325. Charles I of England 101

[145][145]; . [146][146]; . [147][147]; . [148][148]; ; . [149][149]; and assume that Pym was involved with the launch of the bill; , quoting and agreeing with Gardiner, suspects that it was initiated by Pym's allies only. [150][150]; ; . [151] Hibbert 1968, pp. 154–155. [152][152]; see also and . [153][153]Gregg 1981, pp. 329, 333. [154][154]; ; ; . [155][155]; ; . [156][156]Kenyon 1978, p. 127. [157][157]; . [158][158]; . [159][159]Kenyon 1978, p. 129. [160][160]Kenyon 1978, p. 130. [161][161]; . [162][162]; ; . [163][163]; . [164][164]Gillespie 2006, p. 125. [165][165]Coward 2003, p. 172. [166][166]; . [167][167]Gillespie 2006, p. 130. [168][168]Gillespie 2006, p. 131. [169][169]Gillespie 2006, p. 137. [170][170]Gillespie 2006, p. 3. [171][171]; . [172][172]; . [173][173]; . [174] Moody & Martin 1967, p. 197. [175] Moody & Martin 1967, p. 200. [176][176]Starkey 2006, p. 112. [177][177]; ; ; . [178][178]; . [179][179]Loades 1974, p. 414. [180][180]Gillespie 2006, p. 144. [181][181]; ; ; . [182] Gregg 1981, pp. 341–342. [183][183]Coward 2003, p. 200. [184][184]Kenyon 1978, p. 136. [185][185]Carlton 1995, p. 237. [186][186]Smith 1999, p. 129. [187][187]Kenyon 1978, p. 137. [188][188]; ; ; ; . [189][189]Starkey 2006, p. 113. [190][190]; ; . [191][191]; ; ; . [192][192]; ; . [193][193]; . [194][194]Robertson 2005, p. 62. [195][195]Starkey 2006, p. 114. [196][196]; . [197][197]Gregg 1981, p. 344. [198][198]Loades 1974, p. 418. [199][199]; . [200][200]; . [201][201]; . [202][202]; ; . Charles I of England 102

[203][203]Cust 2005, p. 350. [204][204]; ; . [205] Loades 1974, pp. 423–424. [206][206]; . [207][207]; ; ; . [208][208]; ; ; . [209][209]; ; . [210][210]; ; . [211] The Scots were promised £400,000 in instalments.; . [212][212]Gregg 1981, p. 411. [213][213]; ; . [214][214]; ; . [215] Gregg 1981, pp. 412–414. [216][216]; . [217] Carlton 1995, pp. 312–314. [218] Cust 2005, pp. 435–436. [219][219]; . [220] Gregg 1981, pp. 419–420. [221][221]; . [222][222]; . [223][223]Cust 2005, p. 442. [224][224]; . [225][225]; . [226][226]; . [227][227]Gregg 1981, p. 429. [228][228]; . [229][229]; . [230][230]; ; . [231][231]; . [232][232]Gregg 1981, between pages 420 and 421. [233][233]; ; . [234][234]; ; . [235] Robertson 2002, pp. 4–6. [236][236]Edwards 1999, pp. 99, 109. [237][237]; ; . [238][238]Gregg 1981, p. 433. [239][239]; . [240][240]; . [241] Gardiner 1906, pp. 371–374. [242] Robertson 2005, pp. 15, 148–149. [243][243]; ; . [244][244]Carlton 1995, p. 304. [245][245]; ; . [246][246]; . [247] Gardiner 1906, pp. 374–376. [248][248]Robertson 2005, p. 15. [249][249]; . [250] Gregg 1981, pp. 440–441. [251][251]; . [252][252]; ; . [253][253]; . [254][254]; . [255][255]; ; ; ; . [256][256]; ; ; . [257][257]; see also a virtually identical quote in . [258][258]; ; ; . [259][259]; ; . [260][260]; . [261][261]Hibbert 1968, p. 280. Charles I of England 103

[262][262]; ; . [263][263]Edwards 1999, p. 173. [264][264]Robertson 2005, p. 201. [265][265]Robertson 2005, p. 333. [266][266]Edwards 1999, p. 183. [267][267]; . [268][268]Gregg 1981, p. 445. [269][269]; ; . [270][270]Higgins 2009. [271][271]; . [272][272]; . [273][273]Cust 2005, p. 461. [274][274]; . [275][275]; . [276][276]; ; ; . [277][277]Gregg 1981, p. 83. [278][278]; . [279][279]; see also ; and . [280] Gregg 1981, pp. 249–250, 278. [281][281]Carlton 1995, p. 142. [282][282]Carlton 1995, p. 143. [283][283]; . [284][284]; . [285][285]; ; . [286][286]; ; . [287][287]; . [288][288]; ; . [289][289]; . [290][290]Stewart 1967, p. 38. [291][291]Kenyon 1978, p. 93. [292][292]; . [293][293]; ; . [294][294]; ; . [295] Archbishop Laud, quoted by his chaplain Peter Heylin in Cyprianus Angelicus, 1688 [296][296]; . [297] Cust 2005, pp. 466–474. [298][298]; . [299][299]Gardiner 1906, p. 83. [300][300]Weir 1996, p. 252.

[301] Wallis 1921, p. 61 (http:/ / archive. org/ stream/ englishregalyear00wall#page/ 60/ mode/ 2up). [302][302]Weir 1996, p. 286. [303][303]; . [304][304]; . [305][305]Ashmole 1715, p. 532. [306] Weir 1996, pp. 252–254.

[307] Cokayne, Gibbs & Doubleday 1913, p. 446 (http:/ / archive. org/ stream/ completepeerageo03coka#page/ 446/ mode/ 1up). Charles I of England 104

References

Sources • Adamson, John (2007), The Noble Revolt, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, ISBN 978-0-297-84262-0 • Ashmole, Elias (1715), The History of the Most Noble , London: Bell, Taylor, Baker, and Collins • Boys, Jayne E. E. (2011), London's News Press and the Thirty Years War, Woodbridge, Suffolk and Rochester, NY: Boydell Press, ISBN 978-1-84383-677-3 • Carlton, Charles (1995), Charles I: The Personal Monarch (Second ed.), London: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-12141-8 • Cokayne, George Edward; Gibbs, Vicary; Doubleday, Arthur (1913), The Complete Peerage III, London: St Catherine Press • Cope, Joseph (2009), England and the 1641 Irish Rebellion, Woodbridge, Suffolk: Boydell Press, ISBN 978-1-84383-468-7 • Coward, Barry (2003), The Stuart Age (Third ed.), London: Longman, ISBN 978-0-582-77251-9 • Cust, Richard (2005), Charles I: A Political Life, Harlow: Pearson Education, ISBN 0-582-07034-1 • Donaghan, Barbara (1995), "Halcyon Days and the Literature of the War: England's Military Education before

1642", Past and Present 147: 65–100, JSTOR 651040 (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 651040) • Edwards, Graham (1999), The Last Days of Charles I, Stroud: Sutton Publishing, ISBN 0-7509-2079-3 • Fissel, Mark Charles (2001), English Warfare 1511–1641, London and New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-21481-0

• Gardiner, Samuel Rawson (1906), The Constitutional Documents of the Puritan Revolution 1625–1660 (http:/ /

openlibrary. org/ books/ OL13527275M/ The_constitutional_documents_of_the_Puritan_revolution_1625-1660) (Third ed.), Oxford: Clarendon Press • Gillespie, Raymond (2006), Seventeenth Century Ireland (Third ed.), Dublin: Gill & McMillon, ISBN 978-0-7171-3946-0 • Gregg, Pauline (1981), King Charles I, London: Dent, ISBN 0-460-04437-0 • Hibbert, Christopher (1968), Charles I, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson • Higgins, Charlotte (24 November 2009), "Delaroche masterpiece feared lost in war to go on show at National

Gallery" (http:/ / www. theguardian. com/ artanddesign/ 2009/ nov/ 24/ delaroche-painting-national-gallery), The Guardian, retrieved 22 October 2013 • Holmes, Clive (2006), Why was Charles I Executed?, London & New York: Hambledon Continuum, ISBN 1-85285-282-8 • Howat, G. M. D. (1974), Stuart and Cromwellian Foreign Policy, London: Adam & Charles Black, ISBN 0-7136-1450-1 • Kenyon, J. P. (1978), Stuart England, London: Penguin Books, ISBN 0-7139-1087-9 • Kishlansky, Mark A.; Morrill, John (October 2008) [2004], "Charles I (1600–1649)", Oxford Dictionary of

National Biography (online ed.), Oxford University Press, doi: 10.1093/ref:odnb/5143 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10.

1093/ ref:odnb/ 5143) (subscription or UK public library membership (http:/ / www. oup. com/ oxforddnb/ info/

freeodnb/ libraries/ ) required) • Loades, D. M. (1974), Politics and the Nation, London: Fontana, ISBN 0-00-633339-7 • Moody, T. W.; Martin, F. X. (1967), The Course of Irish History, Cork: Mercier Press • O'Hara, David A. (2006), English Newsbooks and the Irish Rebellion 1641–49, Dublin: Four Courts Press, ISBN 1-85182-892-3 • Quintrell, Brian (1993), Charles I: 1625–1640, Harlow: Pearson Education, ISBN 0-582-00354-7 • Robertson, Geoffrey (2002), Crimes Against Humanity: The Struggle for Global Justice (Second ed.), Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, ISBN 978-0-14-101014-4 Charles I of England 105

• Robertson, Geoffrey (2005), The Tyrannicide Brief, London: Chatto & Windus, ISBN 0-7011-7602-4 • Russell, Conrad (1990), The Causes of the English Civil War, Oxford: Clarendon Press, ISBN 978-0-19-822141-8 • Russell, Conrad (1991), The Fall of the British Monarchies 1637–1642, Oxford: Clarendon Press, ISBN 0-19-820588-0 • Schama, Simon (2001), A History of Britain: The British Wars 1603–1776, London: BBC Worldwide, ISBN 0-563-53747-7 • Sharpe, Kevin (1992), The Personal Rule of Charles I, New Haven & London: Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-05688-5 • Smith, David L. (1999), The Stuart Parliaments 1603–1689, London: Arnold, ISBN 0-340-62502-3 • Starkey, David (2006), Monarchy, London: HarperPress, ISBN 978-0-00-724750-9 • Stevenson, David (1973), The Scottish Revolution 1637–1644, Newton Abbot: David & Charles, ISBN 0-7153-6302-6 • Stewart, George R. (1967) [1945], Names on the Land: A Historical Account of Place-Naming in the (3rd ed.), Houghton Mifflin

• Trevelyan, G. M. (1922), England under the Stuarts (http:/ / archive. org/ details/ englandunderstu00trevgoog) (Tenth ed.), London: Putnam

• Wallis, John Eyre Winstanley (1921), English Regnal Years and Titles: Hand-lists, Easter dates, etc (http:/ /

archive. org/ stream/ englishregalyear00wall), London: Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge • Weir, Alison (1996), Britain's Royal Families: A Complete Genealogy (Revised ed.), London: Pimlico, ISBN 978-0-7126-7448-5 • Wilson, Peter H. (2009), Europe's Tragedy: A New History of the Thirty Years War, London: Penguin Books, ISBN 978-0-14-100614-7

Further reading • Ashley, Maurice (1987), Charles I and Cromwell, London: Methuen, ISBN 978-0-413-16270-0 • Hibbard, Caroline M. (1983), Charles I and the Popish Plot, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, ISBN 0-8078-1520-9 • Kishlansky, Mark A. (2005), "Charles I: A Case of Mistaken Identity", Past and Present 189 (1): 41–80, doi:

10.1093/pastj/gti027 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1093/ pastj/ gti027) • Lockyer, Roger, ed. (1959), The Trial of King Charles I: A contemporary account taken from the memoirs of Sir Thomas Herbert and John Rushworth, London: Folio Society • Reeve, L. J. (1989), Charles I and the Road to Personal Rule, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-52133-5 • Wedgwood, Cicely Veronica (1955), The Great Rebellion: The King's Peace, 1637–1641, London: Collins • Wedgwood, Cicely Veronica (1958), The Great Rebellion: The King's War, 1641–1647, London: Collins • Wedgwood, Cicely Veronica (1964), A Coffin for King Charles: The Trial and , London: Macmillan Charles I of England 106

External links

• Archival material relating to Charles I of England (http:/ / www. nationalarchives. gov. uk/ nra/ searches/

subjectView. asp?ID=P5401) listed at the UK National Archives

• Portraits of King Charles I (http:/ / www. npg. org. uk/ collections/ search/ person. php?LinkID=mp00840) at the National Portrait Gallery, London

• Official website of the British monarchy (http:/ / www. royal. gov. uk/ HistoryoftheMonarchy/

KingsandQueensoftheUnitedKingdom/ TheStuarts/ CharlesI. aspx)

• The Society of (http:/ / www. skcm. org)

• The Society of King Charles the Martyr (United States) (http:/ / www. skcm-usa. org)

• Books about Charles I available online at the Internet Archive (http:/ / archive. org/ search. php?query=mediatype:texts AND subject:"Charles I, King of England, 1600-1649")

Charles I of England House of Stuart Born: 19 November 1600 Died: 30 January 1649 Regnal titles Preceded by King of England and Vacant James I and VI Ireland Commonwealth 1625–1649 Title next held by Charles II King of Scotland Succeeded by 1625–1649 Charles II British royalty Preceded by Duke of Cornwall Vacant Henry Frederick Duke of Rothesay Title next held by 1612–1625 Charles Vacant Prince of Wales Title last held by 1616–1625 Henry Frederick Countess Albertine Agnes of Nassau 107 Countess Albertine Agnes of Nassau

Countess Albertine Agnes of Nassau

Albertine Agnes of Nassau

Spouse(s) William Frederick, Prince of Nassau-Dietz

Noble family House of Nassau

Father Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange

Mother Amalia of Solms-Braunfels

Born April 9, 1634 The Hague

Died May 26, 1696 (aged 62) Palace

Albertine Agnes (April 9, 1634 – May 26, 1696), was a regent of Friesland, Groningen and Drenthe. She was the sixth child and fifth daughter of stadtholder Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange and Amalia of Solms-Braunfels.

Albertine Agnes and her sisters Countess Albertine Agnes of Nassau 108

Family

Albertine Agnes was born in The Hague and was the sixth of nine children born to her parents. Some of her siblings died in childhood. Albertine and four other siblings lived to adulthood, her surviving siblings were: William II, Prince of Orange, Luise Henriette of Nassau, Henriette Catherine of Nassau and Mary of Nassau. Albertine's paternal were William the Silent and his fourth wife Louise de Coligny. Her grandfather, William was murdered on the orders of Philip II of Spain who believed that William had betrayed the Spanish king and the Catholic religion. Frederick Henry, Amalia and their youngest three daughters, Albertine Agnes is second on the right, Her maternal grandparents were Johan Albrecht I of Solms-Braunfels holding hands with her younger sister Henriette and his wife Agnes of Sayn-Wittgenstein. Catherine

In 1652 she married her second-cousin, William Frederick, Prince of Nassau-Dietz. They had three children: • Amalia of Nassau-Dietz, married to John William III, Duke of Saxe-Eisenach • Henry Casimir II, Count of Nassau-Dietz, married to Henriëtte Amalia of Anhalt-Dessau • Wilhelmina Sophia Hedwig (1664–1667)

Regency After the death of her husband in 1664, she became regent for her son in Friesland, Groningen and Drenthe. In 1665, both England and the bishopric of Münster declared war on the Netherlands. Because most of the money for defence had been used for the fleet, the army had been neglected. When Groningen was under siege, Albertine Agnes hastened to the city to give moral support. Pressure by King Louis XIV of France, then an ally, forced the forces of her enemies retreated, but six years later the Netherlands were attacked from the south, by the French under Louis XIV and from the north by the bishop of Münster and archbishop of . She organised defence and kept moral high. In 1676 Albertine Agnes bought a country seat in Oranjewoud and called it Oranjewoud Palace; it was here that she died in 1696. Countess Albertine Agnes of Nassau 109

Ancestors

Albertine Agnes's ancestors in three generations

Albertine Agnes of Nassau Father: Paternal Grandfather: Paternal Great-grandfather: Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange William the Silent William I, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg

Paternal Great-grandmother: Juliana of Stolberg

Paternal Grandmother: Paternal Great-grandfather: Louise de Coligny Gaspard de Coligny

Paternal Great-grandmother: Charlotte de Laval

Mother: Maternal Grandfather: Maternal Great-grandfather: Amalia of Solms-Braunfels John Albert I, Count of Solms-Braunfels Conrad, Count of Solms-Braunfels

Maternal Great-grandmother: Elisabeth of Nassau-Dillenburg

Maternal Grandmother: Maternal Great-grandfather: Agnes of Sayn-Wittgenstein Louis I, Count of Sayn-Wittgenstein

Maternal Great-grandmother: Elisabeth of Solms-Laubach

Sources • "Women in power 1640–1670" last accessed August 4, 2007 [1]

References

[1] http:/ / www. guide2womenleaders. com/ womeninpower/ Womeninpower1640. htm William Frederick, Prince of Nassau-Dietz 110 William Frederick, Prince of Nassau-Dietz

William Frederick of Nassau-Dietz

William Frederick of Nassau-Dietz by Wybrand de Geest, 1632

Spouse(s) Albertine Agnes of Nassau

Noble family House of Nassau

Father Ernst Casimir of Nassau-Dietz

Mother Sophia Hedwig of Brunswick-Lüneburg

Born 7 August 1613 Arnhem

Died 31 October 1664 (aged 51) Leeuwarden

William Frederick (Dutch: Willem Frederik; Arnhem 7 August 1613 – Leeuwarden 31 October 1664), Count (from 1654 Imperial Prince) of Nassau-Dietz, Stadtholder of Friesland, Groningen and Drenthe.

Biography

Family life William Frederick was the second son of Ernest Casimir I, Count of Nassau-Dietz and Sophia Hedwig of Brunswick-Lüneburg. He married Albertine Agnes of Nassau, the fifth daughter of Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange on 2 May 1652 in Cleves. They had three children: • Amalia of Nassau-Dietz, married to John William III of Saxe-Eisenach • Henry Casimir II, Count of Nassau-Dietz, married to Henriëtte Amalia of Anhalt-Dessau • Wilhelmina Sophia Hedwig (1664–1667) The fact that his wife was only the fifth daughter of Frederick Henry, and that they were married after the death of her father, would later take on a special significance in the quarrel about the of the title of Prince of Orange after the death of William III of England in 1702. This was because Frederick Henry had made a provision in his will that if his male line would die out (which was the case with William III) the title of Prince of Orange would be inherited by the male issue of the line of his elder daughter Louise Henriette of Nassau. This might even have been the case without this provision, had William III not himself left the inheritance to the descendants of William Frederick in his will. The inheritance therefore came down to a clash of testaments, with the outcome that both claimants eventually took the title and divided the material inheritance. William Frederick was a paternal grandson of John VI, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg, a younger brother of his wife's paternal grandfather William the Silent. When John died in 1606 his inheritance was divided among his five sons, one of which was William Frederick's father Ernest Casimir, who received the title of Count of Nassau-Dietz and William Frederick, Prince of Nassau-Dietz 111

followed his eldest brother William Louis, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg as Stadtholder of Friesland, Groningen and Drenthe in 1620. William Frederick inherited the Nassau-Dietz possessions from his elder brother Henry Casimir I of Nassau-Dietz, who died childless in 1640.

Career As a second son, William Frederick did not seem destined for the career he eventually would follow. He studied at Leiden University and the University of Groningen and subsequently took a commission in the army of the Dutch Republic, like his male ancestors and his brother. As such he was a junior partner of his future father in law and brother in law William II, Prince of Orange. However, his elder brother died in action near Hulst in 1640. As Henry Casimir was unmarried, and did not have children, William Frederick inherited his titles. However, as the office of stadtholder was not yet hereditary, William Frederick only managed to be appointed in Friesland. The stadtholdership in Groningen and Drenthe[1] went to Frederick Henry, not without a struggle with William Frederick, however.[2] After Frederick Henry's death in 1647 William II succeeded his father also in these two provinces as stadtholder. Only when William II died in 1650, just a week before his son William III was born, did William Frederick obtain the stadtholdership in the other two provinces also. At that time he might have obtained the stadtholdership in the five other provinces (Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Gelderland and Overijssel) also. After all, the stadtholderate was an appointive office. The elder branch of the Nassau family might have "first claim" to the office, but as the "claimant" was a newborn babe (William III), such a claim was not to be taken seriously. Yet, to avoid a quarrel with the members of that elder branch (William II's widow and mother) William Frederick did not press his personal claim, but offered to serve as lieutenant-stadtholder in the five provinces until the infant William III would come of age.[3] He might have been taken up on that offer, except for the events that preceded the death of William II. William had performed a military coup d'état against the States of Holland in the course of a quarrel about military policy. William Frederick had played a key role in that coup by leading the attempt to seize the city of Amsterdam by force in August, 1650. Though the attempted seizure was unsuccessful, the coup had not been.[4] However, after William's demise the Holland Regents seized their chance to revert to the status quo ante. They decided to leave the stadtholdership vacant in their province, followed by the four other provinces in which William had been stadtholder, thus inaugurating the First Stadtholderless Period. Because of his role in the coup William Frederick was politically unacceptable, not just as a stand-in for William III, but also on his own account.

William Frederick, Prince of Nassau-Dietz in later life William Frederick, Prince of Nassau-Dietz 112

The office of stadtholder was a provincial office. On the federal level William II had fulfilled the office of Captain general of the Union, like his father and uncle before him. William Frederick again would normally have been in line for this office (after all, he was a stadtholder in his own right), except for the same political awkwardness that blocked his appointment to stadtholder in Holland. Again he offered himself as lieutenant-captain-general (the function Marlborough would fulfil in England after 1702), but again the Regents decided to leave the function vacant. William Frederick did not even get the function of acting commander-in-chief (Field Marshal), which went to a noble from Holland.[5] This was to be the story of William Frederick's life. He tried to act as the de facto head of the Orangist party, in opposition to the States Party faction of Grand Pensionary and his uncle , but was usually outwitted and checked by De Witt at every step. The fact that the members of the senior branch of the family were suspicious of his ambitions made his position even more difficult, even after he married into that senior branch.[6] Nevertheless, outside the Netherlands those ambitions met with more success. In 1654 his title of Count was "upgraded" to Imperial Prince (Reichsfürst) by the Holy Roman Emperor. Within the Empire this provided him with more prestige, which however did not translate to more prestige in the Republic. For a while, in the late 1650s, there seemed to be a chance of becoming Commander-in-chief, as part of a political compromise, brought together by De Witt, but nothing came of it.[7] Only during the invasion of Bernhard von Galen during the Second Anglo-Dutch War, which threatened his home provinces of Groningen and Friesland (Drenthe was overrun), was he entrusted with a command in the field. He was successful in the reconquest of a strategic fortress (the Deilerschans), but shortly afterward he died on 31 October 1664 in an accident with a pistol that fired unexpectedly. Before his death he had persuaded the that his son Henry Casimir II (only 7 years old in 1664) should succeed him as stadtholder. The States kept their word, accepting a "regency" of the young boy's mother. The Frisian stadtholderate was made hereditary in 1675.

References

[1] Drenthe was a self-governing territory that was not represented in the States-General of the Netherlands, but was not one of the Generality Lands either, and usually appointed the same stadtholder as Groningen. [2] (1995), The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness and Fall, 1477–1806, Oxford University Press,ISBN 0-19-873072-1 hardback, ISBN 0-19-820734-4 paperback, pp. 538–539 [3] Israel, op. cit., p. 705 [4] Israel, op. cit., pp. 604–605, 607 [5] Israel, op. cit., pp. 707, 709 [6] Israel, op. cit., pp. 717–720 [7] Israel, op. cit., pp. 728–736

Sources • (Dutch) "Willem Frederik" in De Nederlandsche Leeuw; Maandblad van het Genealogisch-Heraldiek Genootschap. Jrg. 7, No. 12 (1889), p. 91

External links • (German) Wilhelm Friedrich (Fürst von Nassau-Diez, Müller, P. L., in: Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie (ADB).

Bd. 43, 1898, p. 133 ff. (http:/ / mdz10. bib-bvb. de/ ~db/ bsb00008401/ images/ index. html?seite=135)

• (Dutch) G.H. Jansen, Patronage en Corruptie (http:/ / www. tseg. nl/ 2005/ 4-janssen. pdf) – Essay about the way Willem Frederik used patronage William Frederick, Prince of Nassau-Dietz 113

William Frederick, Prince of Nassau-Dietz House of Nassau Born: 7 August 1613 Died: 31 October 1664

Political offices

Preceded by Stadtholder of Friesland, Groningen and Succeeded by Henry Casimir I Drenthe Henry Casimir II 1640(1650)-1664 Regnal titles Preceded by Count of Nassau-Dietz Title elevated Henry Casimir I 1640–1654 New title Prince of Nassau-Dietz Succeeded by 1654–1664 Henry Casimir II William III of England 114 William III of England

William III & II

William III by Sir Godfrey Kneller

Prince of Orange

Reign 4 November 1650 – 8 March 1702

Predecessor William II

Successor John William Friso

Stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Gelderland and Overijssel

Reign July 1672 – 8 March 1702

Predecessor William II

Successor William IV

King of England, Scotland and Ireland (more ...)

Reign 13 February 1689 – 8 March 1702

Coronation 11 April 1689

Predecessor James II & VII

Successor Anne

Co-monarch Mary II

Spouse Mary II of England

House House of Orange-Nassau

Father William II, Prince of Orange

Mother Mary, Princess Royal

Born 4 November 1650 [] [N.S.: 14 November 1650] Binnenhof, The Hague

Died 8 March 1702 (aged 51) [N.S.: 19 March 1702] , London

Burial Westminster Abbey, London

Signature

William III & II (Dutch: Willem III; 4 November 1650 – 8 March 1702) was a sovereign Prince of Orange of the House of Orange-Nassau by birth. From 1672 he governed as Stadtholder William III of Orange (Dutch: Willem III van Oranje) over Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Gelderland, and Overijssel of the Dutch Republic. From 1689 he reigned as William III over England and Ireland; it is a coincidence that his (III) was the same for both Orange and England. As King of Scotland, he is known as William II. He is informally known by sections of the population in Northern Ireland and Scotland as "King Billy". In what became known as the "Glorious Revolution", on 5 November 1688 William invaded England in an action that ultimately deposed King James II & VII and won him the crowns of England, Scotland and Ireland. In the British Isles, William ruled jointly with his William III of England 115

wife, Mary II, until her death on 28 December 1694. The period of their joint reign is often referred to as "William and Mary". A Protestant, William participated in several wars against the powerful Catholic king of France, Louis XIV, in coalition with Protestant and Catholic powers in Europe. Many Protestants heralded him as a champion of their faith. Largely because of that reputation, William was able to take the British crowns when many were fearful of a revival of Catholicism under James. William's victory over James at the in 1690 is still commemorated by the Orange Order. His reign marked the beginning of the transition from the personal rule of the Stuarts to the more Parliament-centred rule of the House of .

Early life

Birth and family

William Henry of Orange was born in The Hague in the Dutch Republic on 4 November 1650.[1] He was the only child of stadtholder William II, Prince of Orange, and Mary, Princess Royal. Mary was the eldest daughter of King Charles I of England, Scotland and Ireland, and sister of King Charles II and King James II & VII. Eight days before William was born, his father died of smallpox; thus William was the Sovereign Prince of Orange from the moment of his birth.[2] Immediately, a conflict ensued between the Princess Royal and William II's mother, Amalia of Solms-Braunfels, over the name to be given to the infant. Mary wanted to name him Charles after her brother, but her mother-in-law insisted on giving him the name William or Willem to bolster his prospects of becoming stadtholder.[3] William II had appointed his wife as his son's guardian William's parents, William II of Orange and Mary Stuart, Princess in his will; however the document remained unsigned at William II's death and [4] Royal was void. On 13 August 1651 the Hoge Raad van Holland en Zeeland (Supreme Court) ruled that guardianship would be shared between his mother, his paternal grandmother and Frederick William, the Elector of Brandenburg, whose wife, Louise Henriette, was his father's eldest sister.[5]

Childhood and education William's mother showed little personal interest in her son, sometimes being absent for years, and had always deliberately kept herself apart from Dutch society.[6] William's education was first laid in the hands of several Dutch governesses, and some of English descent, including Walburg Howard. From April 1656, the prince received daily instruction in the Reformed religion from the Calvinist preacher Cornelis Trigland, a follower of the Contra-Remonstrant theologian Gisbertus Voetius.[7] The ideal education for William was described in Discours sur la nourriture de S. H. Monseigneur le Prince d'Orange, a short treatise, perhaps by one of William's tutors, Constantijn Huygens.[8] In these lessons, the prince was taught that he was predestined to become an instrument of Divine Providence, fulfilling the historical destiny of the House of Orange.[9] William III of England 116

From early 1659, William spent seven years at the University of Leiden for a formal education, under the guidance of ethics professor Hendrik Bornius (though never officially enrolling as a student).[10] While residing in the Prinsenhof at Delft, William had a small personal retinue including Hans Willem Bentinck, and a new governor: Frederick Nassau de Zuylenstein, the illegitimate son of stadtholder Frederick Henry of Orange. He was taught French by Samuel Chappuzeau (who was dismissed by William's grandmother after the death of his mother).[11]

Grand Pensionary Johan de Witt and his uncle Cornelis de Graeff pushed the States of Holland to take charge of William's education. This was to ensure he would acquire the skills to serve in a future—though undetermined—state function; the States acted on 25 [12] September 1660. This first involvement of the authorities did not The young prince portrayed in a flower garland last long. On 23 December 1660, when William was ten years old, his painting by Jan Davidsz de Heem filled with mother died of smallpox at Whitehall Palace, London while visiting symbols of the House of Orange. her brother King Charles II. In her will, Mary requested that Charles look after William's interests, and Charles now demanded the States of Holland end their interference.[13] To appease Charles, they complied on 30 September 1661.[14] In 1661, Zuylenstein began to work for Charles. He induced William to write letters to Charles asking him to help William become stadtholder someday.[15] After his mother's death, William's education and guardianship became a point of contention between his dynasty's supporters and the advocates of a more republican Netherlands.[16]

The Dutch authorities did their best at first to ignore these intrigues, but in the Second Anglo-Dutch War one of Charles's peace conditions was the improvement of the position of his nephew. As a countermeasure in 1666, when William was sixteen, the States of Holland officially made him a ward of the government, or a "Child of State". All pro-English courtiers, including Zuylenstein, were removed from William's company. William begged De Witt to allow Zuylenstein to stay, but he refused.[17] De Witt, the leading politician of the Republic, took William's education into his own hands, instructing him weekly in state matters—and joining him in a regular game of real tennis.

Early offices William III of England 117

Exclusion from stadtholdership

After William's father's death, most provinces had left the office of stadtholder vacant.[18] The Treaty of Westminster, which ended the First Anglo-Dutch War, had a secret annexe attached on demand of Oliver Cromwell: this required the , which forbade the province of Holland to appoint a member of the House of Orange as stadtholder.[19] After the English Restoration, the Act of Seclusion, which had not remained a secret for very long, was declared void as the English Commonwealth (with which the treaty had been concluded) no longer existed.[20] In 1660, Mary and Amalia tried to persuade several provincial States to designate William as their future stadtholder, but they all initially refused. Johan de Witt took over William's education in 1666. In 1667, as William III approached the age of eighteen, the Orangist party again attempted to bring him to power by securing for him the offices of stadtholder and Captain-General. To prevent the restoration of the influence of the House of Orange, De Witt, the leader of the States Party, allowed the pensionary of Haarlem, Gaspar Fagel, to induce the States of Holland to issue the Perpetual Edict (1667).[21] The Edict declared that the Captain-General or Admiral-General of the Netherlands could not serve as stadtholder in any province. Even so, William's supporters sought ways to enhance his prestige, and on 19 September 1668, the States of Zeeland received him as First Noble.[22] To receive this honour, William had to escape the attention of his state tutors and travel secretly to Middelburg. A month later, Amalia allowed William to manage his own household and declared him to be of majority age.[23]

The province of Holland, the center of anti-Orangism, abolished the office of Gaspar Fagel replaced De Witt as Grand Pensionary, and was more stadtholder and four other provinces followed suit in March 1670, establishing friendly to William's interests. the so-called "Harmony". De Witt demanded an oath from each Holland regent ( member) to uphold the Edict; all but one complied. William saw all this as a defeat, but in fact this arrangement was a compromise: De Witt would have preferred to ignore the prince completely, but now his eventual rise to the office of supreme army commander was implicit.[24] De Witt further conceded that William would be admitted as a member of the Raad van State, the Council of State, then the generality organ administering the defence budget.[25] William was introduced to the council on 31 May 1670 with full voting powers, despite De Witt's attempts to limit his role to that of an advisor.[26]

Conflict with republicans In November 1670, William obtained permission to travel to England to urge Charles to pay back at least a part of the 2,797,859 guilder debt the House of Stuart owed the House of Orange.[27] Charles was unable to pay, but William agreed to reduce the amount owed to 1,800,000 guilder. Charles found his nephew to be a dedicated Calvinist and patriotic Dutchman, and reconsidered his desire to show him the with France, directed at destroying the Dutch Republic and installing William as "sovereign" of a Dutch rump state. In addition to differing political outlooks, William found that Charles's and James's lifestyles differed from his own, being more concerned with drinking, gambling, and cavorting with mistresses.[28] The following year, the Republic's security deteriorated quickly as an Anglo-French attack became imminent.[29] In view of the threat, the States of Gelderland wanted William to be appointed Captain-General of the Dutch States Army as soon as possible, despite his youth and inexperience.[30] On 15 December 1671 the States of Utrecht made William III of England 118

this their official policy.[31] On 19 January 1672 the States of Holland made a counterproposal: to appoint William for just a single campaign.[32] The prince refused this and on 25 February a compromise was reached: an appointment by the States-General of the Netherlands for one summer, followed by a permanent appointment on his twenty-second birthday. Meanwhile, William had written a secret letter to Charles in January 1672 asking his uncle to exploit the situation by exerting pressure on the States to appoint William stadtholder.[33] In return, William would ally the Republic with England and serve Charles's interests as much as his "honour and the loyalty due to this state" allowed. Charles took no action on the proposal, and continued his war plans with his French ally.

Becoming stadtholder

"Disaster year": 1672 For the Dutch Republic, 1672 proved calamitous, becoming known as the "disaster year" (Dutch: ) because of the Franco-Dutch War and the Third Anglo-Dutch War in which the Netherlands were invaded by France under Louis XIV, England, Münster, and Cologne. Although the Anglo-French fleet was disabled by the , in June the French army quickly overran the provinces of Gelderland and Utrecht. William on 14 June withdrew with the remnants of his field army into Holland, where the States had ordered the flooding of the Dutch Water Line on 8 June.[34] Louis XIV, believing the war was over, began negotiations to extract as large a sum of money from the Dutch as possible.[35] The presence of a large French army in the heart of the Republic caused a general panic, and the people turned against de Witt and his allies. On 4 July the States of Holland appointed William stadtholder, and he took the oath five days later.[36] The next day, a special envoy from Charles, Lord Arlington, met with William in Nieuwerbrug. He offered to make William Sovereign Prince of Holland in exchange for his capitulation—whereas a stadtholder was a mere civil servant.[37] When William refused, Arlington threatened that William would witness the end of the republic's existence. William made his famous answer: "There is one way to avoid this: to die defending it in the last ditch". On 7 July, the inundations were complete and the further advance of the French army was effectively blocked. On 16 July Zeeland offered the stadtholderate to William. Johan de Witt had been unable to function as Grand Pensionary after having been wounded by an attempt on his life on 21 June.[38] On 15 August William published a letter from Charles, in which the English King stated that he had made war because of the aggression of the de Witt faction.[39] The people thus incited, de Witt and his brother, Cornelis, were murdered by an Orangist civil militia in The Hague on 20 August. After this William replaced many of the Dutch regents with his followers.[40] Though William's complicity in the lynching has never been proved (and some 19th-century Dutch historians have made an effort to disprove that he was an accessory before the fact) he thwarted attempts to prosecute the ringleaders, and even rewarded some, like Hendrik Verhoeff, with money, and others, like Johan van Banchem and Johan Kievit, with high offices.[41] This damaged his reputation in the same fashion as his later actions at Glencoe. William III continued to fight against the invaders from England and France, allying himself with Spain and Brandenburg. In November 1672 he took his army to Maastricht to threaten the French supply lines.[42] By 1673, the situation further improved. Although Louis took Maastricht and William's attack against Charleroi failed, Lieutenant-Admiral defeated the Anglo-French fleet three times, forcing Charles to end England's involvement by the Treaty of Westminster; after 1673, France slowly withdrew from Dutch territory (with the exception of Maastricht), while making gains elsewhere.[43] Fagel now proposed to treat the liberated provinces of Utrecht, Gelderland and Overijssel as conquered territory (Generality Lands), as punishment for their quick surrender to the enemy.[44] William refused but obtained a special mandate from the States-General to newly appoint all delegates in the States of these provinces. William's followers in the States of Utrecht on 26 April 1674 appointed him hereditary stadtholder.[45] The States of Gelderland on 30 January 1675 offered the titles of Duke of Guelders and Count of Zutphen.[46] The negative reactions to this from William III of England 119

Zeeland and the city of Amsterdam, where the stock market collapsed, made William ultimately decide to decline these honours; he was instead appointed stadtholder of Gelderland and Overijssel.

Marriage

During the war with France, William tried to improve his position by marrying his first cousin Mary, elder surviving daughter of James, Duke of York, and eleven years his junior. Although he anticipated resistance to a Stuart match from the Amsterdam merchants who had disliked his mother (another Mary Stuart), William believed that marrying Mary would increase his chances of succeeding to Charles's kingdoms, and would draw England's monarch away from his pro-French policies.[47] James was not inclined to consent, but Charles pressured his brother to go along.[48] Charles wanted to use the possibility of marriage to gain leverage in negotiations relating to the war, but William insisted that the two issues be decided separately.[49] Charles relented, and Bishop Henry Compton married the couple on 4 November 1677.[50] Mary became pregnant soon after the marriage, but miscarried. After a further illness later in 1678, she never William married his first cousin, the future Queen conceived again.[51] Mary II, in 1677. Throughout William and Mary's marriage, William had only one acknowledged mistress, Elizabeth Villiers, in contrast to the many mistresses his openly kept.[52]

Peace with France, intrigue with England By 1678, Louis sought peace with the Dutch Republic.[53] Even so, tensions remained: William remained very suspicious of Louis, thinking the French king desired "Universal Kingship" over Europe; Louis described William as "my mortal enemy" and saw him as an obnoxious warmonger. France's small annexations in Germany (the Réunion policy) and the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, caused a surge of Huguenot refugees to the Republic.[54] This led William III to join various anti-French alliances, such as the Association League, and ultimately the League of Augsburg (an anti-French coalition that also included the Holy Roman Empire, Sweden, Spain and several German states) in 1686.[55] After his marriage in November 1677, William became a possible candidate for the English throne if his father-in-law (and uncle) James were excluded because of his Catholicism. During the crisis concerning the Exclusion Bill in 1680, Charles at first invited William to come to England to bolster the king's position against the exclusionists, then withdrew his invitation—after which Lord Sunderland also tried unsuccessfully to bring William over but now to put pressure on Charles.[56] Nevertheless, William secretly induced the States-General to send the Insinuation to Charles, beseeching the king to prevent any Catholics from succeeding him, without explicitly naming James.[57] After receiving indignant reactions from Charles and James, William denied any involvement. Portrait of William, aged 27, by Peter Lely In 1685, when James II succeeded Charles, William at first attempted a conciliatory approach, at the same time trying not to offend the Protestants in William III of England 120

England.[58] William, ever looking for ways to diminish the power of France, hoped James would join the League of Augsburg, but by 1687 it became clear that James would not join the anti-French alliance. Relations worsened between William and James thereafter.[59] In November, James's wife Mary of Modena was announced to be pregnant.[60] That month, to gain the favour of English Protestants, William wrote an open letter to the English people in which he disapproved of James's policy of religious toleration. Seeing him as a friend, and often having maintained secret contacts with him for years, many English politicians began to negotiate an armed invasion of England.[61]

Glorious Revolution

Invasion of England

William at first opposed the prospect of invasion, but most historians now agree that he began to assemble an expeditionary force in April 1688, as it became increasingly clear that France would remain occupied by campaigns in Germany and Italy, and thus unable to mount an attack while William's troops would be occupied in Britain.[62][63] Believing that the English people would not react well to a foreign invader, he demanded in a letter to Rear-Admiral Arthur Herbert that the most eminent English Protestants first invite him to invade.[64] In June, James's wife, Mary of Modena, bore a son (James Francis Edward Stuart), who displaced William's wife to become first The Arrival of William III by Sir James Thornhill. in the line of succession.[65] Public anger also increased because of the William landed in England on 5 November (Guy Fawkes day), a day already special in the trial of seven bishops who had publicly opposed James's Declaration of Protestant calendar. Indulgence granting religious liberty to his subjects, a policy which appeared to threaten the establishment of the Anglican Church.[66]

On 30 June 1688—the same day the bishops were acquitted—a group of political figures known afterward as the "Immortal Seven", sent William a formal invitation. William's intentions to invade were public knowledge by September 1688.[67] With a Dutch army, William landed at Brixham in southwest England on 5 November 1688.[68] He came ashore from the ship Brill, proclaiming "the liberties of England and the Protestant religion I will maintain". William had come ashore with approximately 11,000-foot and 4,000 horse soldiers.[69] James's support began to dissolve almost immediately upon William's arrival; Protestant officers defected from the English army (the most notable of whom was Lord Churchill of , James's most able commander), and influential noblemen across the country declared their support for the invader.[70]

James at first attempted to resist William, but saw that his efforts would prove futile. He sent representatives to negotiate with William, but secretly attempted to flee on 11 December.[71] A group of fishermen caught him and brought him back to London. He successfully escaped to France in a second attempt on 23 December. William permitted James to leave the country, not wanting to make him a martyr for the Roman Catholic cause.[72] William III of England 121

Proclaimed king

William summoned a Convention Parliament in England, which met on 22 January 1689, to discuss the appropriate course of action following James's flight.[73] William felt insecure about his position; though his wife ranked higher in the line of succession to the throne, he wished to reign as King in his own right, rather than as a mere consort.[74] The only precedent for a joint monarchy in England dated crown coin of William III, dated 1695. The from the sixteenth century, when Queen Mary I married Philip of Latin inscription is (obverse) GVLIELMVS III Spain.[75] Philip remained king only during his wife's lifetime, and DEI GRA[TIA] (reverse) MAG[NAE] restrictions were placed on his power. William, on the other hand, BR[ITANNIAE], FRA[NCIAE], ET [76] HIB[ERNIAE] REX 1695. English: "William III, demanded that he remain as king even after his wife's death. By the grace of God, King of Great Britain, Although the majority of Lords proposed to acclaim her as sole France, and Ireland, 1695." The reverse shows the ruler, Mary, remaining loyal to her husband, refused.[77] arms, clockwise from top, of England, Scotland, France, and Ireland, centred on William's The House of Commons, with a Whig majority, quickly resolved that personal arms of the House of Orange-Nassau. the throne was vacant, and that it was safer if the ruler was Protestant. There were more Tories in the House of Lords which would not initially agree, but after William refused to be a regent or to agree to remaining king only in his wife's lifetime, there were negotiations between the two houses and the Lords agreed by a narrow majority that the throne was vacant. The Commons made William accept a Bill of Rights, and on 13 February 1689, Parliament passed the Declaration of Right, in which it deemed that James, by attempting to flee, had abdicated the government of the realm, thereby leaving the throne vacant.[78] The Crown was not offered to James's eldest son, James Francis Edward (who would have been the heir apparent under normal circumstances), but to William and Mary as joint sovereigns. It was, however, provided that "the sole and full exercise of the regal power be only in and executed by the said Prince of Orange in the names of the said Prince and Princess during their joint lives".

William and Mary were crowned together at Westminster Abbey on 11 April 1689 by the Bishop of London, Henry Compton.[79] Normally, the coronation is performed by the Archbishop of Canterbury, but the Archbishop at the time, William Sancroft, refused to recognise James's removal. William also summoned a Convention of the Estates of Scotland which met on 14 March 1689, and sent a conciliatory letter while James sent haughty uncompromising orders, swaying a majority in favour of William. On 11 April, the day of the English coronation, the Convention finally declared that James was no longer King of Scotland.[80] William and Mary were offered the Scottish Crown; they accepted on 11 May.[81] William III of England 122

Revolution settlement

William III of England encouraged the passage of the Act of Toleration (1689), which guaranteed religious toleration to certain Protestant nonconformists. It did not, however, extend toleration as far as William wished, still restricting the religious liberty of Roman Catholics, non-trinitarians, and those of non-Christian faiths. In December 1689, one of the most important constitutional documents in English history, the Bill of Rights, was passed.[82] The Act, which restated and confirmed many provisions of the earlier Declaration of Right, established restrictions on the royal prerogative. It provided, amongst

other things, that the Sovereign could not suspend laws passed by Statue of an idealised William III by John Parliament, levy taxes without parliamentary consent, infringe the right Michael Rysbrack erected in Queen Square, to petition, raise a standing army during peacetime without Bristol in 1736 parliamentary consent, deny the right to bear arms to Protestant subjects, unduly interfere with parliamentary elections, punish members of either House of Parliament for anything said during debates, require excessive bail or inflict cruel and unusual punishments. William was opposed to the imposition of such constraints, but he chose not to engage in a conflict with Parliament and agreed to abide by the statute.[83]

The Bill of Rights also settled the question of succession to the Crown. After the death of either William or Mary, the other would continue to reign. Next in the line of succession was Mary II's sister, Princess Anne, and her issue. Finally, any children William might have had by a subsequent marriage were included in the line of succession. Roman Catholics, as well as those who married Catholics, were excluded.

Rule with Mary II

Resistance to validity of rule Although most in Britain accepted William and Mary as sovereigns, a significant minority refused to accept the validity of their claim to the throne, holding that the divine right of kings was authority directly from God, not delegated to the monarch by Parliament. Over the next 57 years Jacobites pressed for restoration of James and his heirs. Nonjurors in England and Scotland, including over 400 clergy and several bishops of the Church of England and Scottish Episcopal Church as well as numerous laymen, refused to take oaths of allegiance to William. Ireland was controlled by Roman Catholics loyal to James, and Franco-Irish Jacobites arrived from France with French forces in March 1689 to join the war in Ireland and contest Protestant resistance at the Siege of Derry. William sent his navy to the city in July, and his army landed in August. After progress stalled, William personally intervened to lead his armies to victory over James at the Battle of the Boyne on 1 July 1690,[84] after which James II fled back to France.

Upon King William's return to England, his close friend Dutch General Battle of the Boyne between James II and William III, 12 July 1690, Jan van Huchtenburg Godert de Ginkell, who had accompanied William to Ireland and had commanded a body of Dutch cavalry at the Battle of the Boyne, was named Commander in Chief of William's forces in Ireland and entrusted with further conduct of the war there. Ginkell took command in Ireland in the spring of 1691, and following several ensuing battles, succeeded in capturing both Galway and Limerick, thereby effectively suppressing the Jacobite forces in Ireland within a few more months. After difficult negotiations a capitulation was signed on 3 October 1691—the . Thus concluded William III of England 123

the Williamite pacification of Ireland, and for his services the Dutch general received the formal thanks of the House of Commons, and was awarded the title of Earl of Athlone by the King. A series of Jacobite risings also took place in Scotland, where Viscount Dundee raised Highland forces and won a victory on 27 July 1689 at the , but he died in the fight and a month later Scottish Cameronian forces subdued the rising at the Battle of Dunkeld.[85] William offered Scottish that had taken part in the rising a pardon provided they signed allegiance by a deadline, and his government in Scotland punished a delay with the of 1692, which became infamous in Jacobite propaganda as William had countersigned the orders.[86] Bowing to public opinion, William dismissed those responsible for the massacre, though they still remained in his favour; in the words of the historian John Dalberg-Acton, "one became a colonel, another a knight, a third a peer, and a fourth an earl." William's reputation in Scotland was further damaged when he refused English assistance to the Darien scheme, a which then failed disastrously.

Parliament and faction

Although the Whigs were William's strongest supporters, he initially favoured a policy of balance between the Whigs and Tories.[87] The Marquess of Halifax, a man known for his ability to chart a moderate political course, gained William's confidence early in his reign.[88] The Whigs, a majority in Parliament, had expected to dominate the government, and were disappointed that William denied them this chance.[89] This "balanced" approach to governance did not last beyond 1690, as the conflicting factions made it impossible for the government to pursue effective policy, and William called for new elections early that year.[90]

After the Parliamentary elections of 1690, William began to favour the Tories, led by Danby and Nottingham.[91] While the Tories favoured preserving the king's prerogatives, William found them unaccommodating when he asked Parliament to support his continuing war with France.[92] As a result, William began to prefer the Whig faction known as the Junto.[93] The Whig government A 1703 engraving of King William was responsible for the creation of the Bank of England. William's decision to III and Queen Mary II grant the Royal Charter in 1694 to the Bank, a private institution owned by bankers, is his most relevant economic legacy.[94] It laid the financial foundation of the English take-over of the central role of the Dutch Republic and Bank of Amsterdam in global commerce in the 18th century.

William dissolved Parliament in 1695, and the new Parliament that assembled that year was led by the Whigs. There was a considerable surge in support for William following the exposure of a Jacobite plan to assassinate him in 1696.[95] Parliament passed a bill of attainder against the ringleader, John Fenwick, and he was beheaded in 1697.[96]

War in Europe William continued to be absent from the realm for extended periods during his war with France, leaving each spring and returning to England each autumn.[97] England joined the League of Augsburg, which then became known as the Grand Alliance.[98] Whilst William was away fighting, his wife, Mary II, governed the realm, but acted on his advice. Each time he returned to England, Mary gave up her power to him without reservation, an arrangement that lasted for the rest of Mary's life.[99] After the Anglo-Dutch fleet defeated a French fleet at La Hogue in 1692, the allies for a short period controlled the seas, and Ireland was pacified thereafter by the Treaty of Limerick.[100] At the same time, the Grand Alliance fared poorly in Europe, as William lost Namur in the Spanish Netherlands in 1692, and was badly beaten at the Battle of William III of England 124

Landen in 1693.[101]

Later years Mary II died of smallpox on 28 December 1694, leaving William III to rule alone.[102] William deeply mourned his wife's death.[103] Despite his conversion to Anglicanism, William's popularity plummeted during his reign as a sole monarch.[104]

Allegations of homosexual relations During the rumours grew of William's alleged homosexual inclinations and led to the publication of many satirical pamphlets by his Jacobite detractors.[105] He did have several close, male associates, including two Dutch courtiers to whom he granted English titles: Hans Willem Bentinck became Earl of Portland, and Arnold Joost van Keppel was created Earl of Albemarle. These relationships with male friends, and his apparent lack of more than one mistress, led William's enemies to suggest that he might prefer homosexual relationships. William's modern biographers, however, still disagree on the veracity of these allegations, with many contending that they were just figments of his enemies' imaginations,[106] and others suggesting there may have been some truth to the rumours.[107] Bentinck's closeness to William did arouse jealousies in the at the time, but most modern historians doubt that there was a homosexual element in their relationship.[108] William's young protege, Keppel, aroused more gossip and suspicion, being 20 years William's junior and strikingly handsome, and having risen from being a royal page to an earldom with some ease.[109] Portland wrote to William in 1697 that "the kindness which your Majesty has for a young man, and the way in which you seem to authorise his liberties ... make the world say things I am ashamed to hear".[110] This, he said, was "tarnishing a reputation which has never before been subject to such accusations". William tersely dismissed these suggestions, however, saying, "It seems to me very extraordinary that it should be impossible to have esteem and regard for a young man without it being criminal."

Peace with France

In 1696, the Dutch territory of Drenthe made William its Stadtholder. In the same year, Jacobites plotted to assassinate William III in an attempt to restore James to the English throne, but failed. In accordance with the Treaty of Rijswijk (20 September 1697), which ended the Nine Years' War, Louis recognised William III as King of England, and undertook to give no further assistance to James II.[111] Thus deprived of French dynastic backing after 1697, Jacobites posed no further serious threats during William's reign.

As his life drew towards its conclusion, William, like many other European rulers, felt concern over the question of succession to the throne of Spain, which brought with it vast in Italy, the Low Countries and the New World. The King of Spain, Charles II, was an invalid with no prospect of having children; amongst his closest relatives were Louis XIV (the King of France) and Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor. William sought to prevent the Spanish inheritance Engraving from 1695 showing the Lord Justices from going to either monarch, for he feared that such a calamity would who administered the kingdom while William upset the balance of power. William and Louis XIV agreed to the First was on campaign. Partition Treaty, which provided for the division of the Spanish William III of England 125

Empire: Duke Joseph Ferdinand of would obtain Spain, while France and the Holy Roman Emperor would divide the remaining territories between them.[112] Charles II accepted the nomination of Joseph Ferdinand as his heir, and war appeared to be averted.[113] When, however, Joseph Ferdinand died of smallpox, the issue re-opened. In 1700, the two rulers agreed to the Second Partition Treaty (also called the Treaty of London), under which the territories in Italy would pass to a son of the King of France, and the other Spanish territories would be inherited by a son of the Holy Roman Emperor.[114] This arrangement infuriated both the Spanish, who still sought to prevent the dissolution of their empire, and the Holy Roman Emperor, to whom the Italian territories were much more useful than the other lands. Unexpectedly, the invalid King of Spain, Charles II, interfered as he lay dying in late 1700.[115] Unilaterally, he willed all Spanish territories to Philip, a grandson of Louis XIV. The French conveniently ignored the Second Partition Treaty and claimed the entire Spanish inheritance. Furthermore, Louis XIV alienated William III by recognising James Francis Edward Stuart, the son of the former King James II who had died in 1701, as King of England.[116] The subsequent conflict, known as the War of the Spanish Succession, continued until 1713. Louis XIV of France was William's lifelong enemy.

English succession

The Spanish inheritance was not the only one which concerned William. His marriage with Mary II had not yielded any children, and he did not seem likely to remarry. Mary's sister, the Princess Anne, had borne numerous children, all of whom died during childhood. The death of Prince William, Duke of Gloucester, in 1700 left the Princess Anne as the only individual left in the line of succession established by the Bill of Rights.[117] As the complete exhaustion of the line of succession would have encouraged a restoration of James II's line, Parliament saw fit to pass the , in which it was provided that the Crown would be inherited by a distant relative, Sophia, of Hanover, and her Protestant heirs if Princess Anne died without surviving issue, and if William III failed to have surviving issue by any subsequent marriage.[118] (Several dozen Catholics with genealogically senior claims to Sophia were omitted.) The Act extended to England and Ireland, but not to Scotland, whose Estates had not been consulted before the selection of Sophia. William III of England 126

Death

In 1702, William died of pneumonia, a complication from a broken collarbone following a fall from his horse, Sorrel.[119] Because his horse had stumbled into a mole's burrow, many Jacobites toasted "the little gentleman in the black velvet waistcoat."[120] Years later, Sir Winston Churchill, in his A History of the English-Speaking Peoples, stated that the fall "opened the door to a troop of lurking foes".[121] William was buried in Westminster Abbey alongside his wife. His sister-in-law Anne became of England, Scotland and Ireland.

William's death brought an end to the Dutch House of Orange, members of which had served as stadtholder of Holland and the majority of the other provinces of the Dutch Republic since the time of William the Silent (William I). The five provinces of which William III was stadtholder—Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Gelderland and Overijssel—all suspended the office after his death. Thus, he was the last agnatic descendant of William I to be named stadtholder for Statue of William III by Henry the majority of the provinces. Under William III's will, John William Friso stood Cheere in Petersfield to inherit the Principality of Orange as well as several lordships in the Netherlands.[122] He was William's distant agnatic relative, as well as son of William's Albertine Agnes. However, King Frederick I of Prussia also claimed the Principality as the senior cognatic heir, his mother Louise Henriette being Albertine Agnes's older sister.[123] Under the Treaty of Utrecht, which was agreed to in 1713, Frederick William I of Prussia (who kept the title as part of his titulary) ceded the Principality of Orange to the King of France, Louis XIV; Friso's son, William IV, shared the title of "Prince of Orange", which had accumulated high prestige in the Netherlands as well as in the entire Protestant world, with Frederick William after the Treaty of Partition (1732).[124]

Legacy

William's primary achievement was to contain France when it was in a position to impose its will across much of Europe. His life was largely opposed to the will of Louis XIV of France. This effort continued after his death during the War of the Spanish Succession. Another important consequence of William's reign in England involved the ending of a bitter conflict between Crown and Parliament that had lasted since the accession of the first English monarch of the House of Stuart, James I, in 1603. The conflict over royal and parliamentary power had led to the English Civil War during the 1640s and the Glorious Revolution of 1688.[125] During William's reign, however, the conflict was settled in Parliament's favour by the Bill of Rights 1689, the Triennial Act 1694 and the Act of Settlement 1701.

William endowed the College of William and Mary (in present day A modern Orange Banner representing the Williamsburg, Virginia) in 1693. Nassau, the capital of The Bahamas, Cooke's Defenders Lodge 609, Ballymacarrett is named after Fort Nassau, which was renamed in 1695 in his honour. number 6 Similarly Nassau County, New York a county on Long Island, is a namesake. Long Island itself was also known as Nassau during early Dutch rule. Though many alumni of Princeton University think that the town of Princeton, N.J. (and hence the William III of England 127

university) were named in his honour, this is probably untrue. Nassau Hall, at the university campus, is so named, however. The modern day Orange Order is named after William III, and makes a point of celebrating his victory at the Battle of the Boyne with annual parades by Orangemen in Northern Ireland, parts of Scotland and other countries as far afield as , Australia and Togo on 12 July. William or "Good King Billy" as he is sometimes known in Northern Ireland, has featured prominently in many loyalist murals. He is traditionally depicted mounted on his white horse.

New York City was briefly renamed New Orange for him in 1673 after the Dutch recaptured the city, which had been renamed New York by the British in 1665. His name was applied to the fort and administrative center for the city on two separate occasions reflecting his different sovereign status—first as Fort Willem Hendrick in 1673, and then as Fort William in 1691 when the English evicted Colonists who had seized the fort and city.[126]

Nassau Street (), NY was also named some time before 1696 in his Mural in Donegall Pass, a loyalist honor. area in south Belfast, depicting "Good King Billy" astride his white horse Titles, styles, and arms

Titles and styles • 4 November 1650 – 9 July 1672: His Highness[127] The Prince of Orange, Count of Nassau • 9–16 July 1672: His Highness The Prince of Orange, Stadholder of Holland • 16 July 1672 – 26 April 1674: His Highness The Prince of Orange, Stadholder of Holland and Zeeland • 26 April 1674 – 8 March 1702: His Highness The Prince of Orange, Stadholder of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Gelre and Overijssel • 13 February 1689 – 8 March 1702: His Majesty The King By 1674, William was fully styled as "Willem III, by God's grace Prince of Orange, Count of Nassau etc., Stadholder of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht etc., Captain- and Admiral-General of the United Netherlands".[128] After their accession in Great Britain in 1689, William and Mary used the titles "King and Queen of England, Scotland, France and Ireland, Defenders of the Faith, etc."

Arms The coat of arms used by the King and Queen was: Quarterly, I and IV Grandquarterly, Azure three fleurs-de-lis Or (for France) and Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England); II Or a lion rampant within a double tressure flory-counter-flory Gules (for Scotland); III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent (for Ireland); overall an escutcheon Azure billetty and a lion rampant Or (for Nassau). In his later coat of arms, William used the motto: Je Maintiendrai (medieval French for "I will maintain"). The motto represents the House of Orange-Nassau, since it came into the family with the Principality of Orange. William III of England 128

The coat of arms used by Coat of arms of King William Coat of arms of King William III Coat of arms of King William William III as Prince of III and Queen Mary II as joint and Queen Mary II used in III of England Orange Sovereigns Scotland

Coat of arms of King William in Scotland

Ancestry

Family tree

James I of England

Frederick Amalia of Charles I Elizabeth Henry, Prince Solms-Braunfels of Stuart of Orange England

Frederick Louise Albertine Agnes William II, Mary, Charles II James II Sophia of Nassau de Henriette of of Nassau Prince of Princess of of Hanover Zuylestein Nassau Orange Royal England England

Frederick I Henry Casimir II, William Mary II of Anne of James of Prussia Prince of III of England England Francis Nassau-Dietz England Edward

John William Friso, Prince of Orange William III of England 129

In popular culture William has been played on screen by Bernard Lee in the 1937 film The Black Tulip, based on the novel by Alexandre Dumas, père, Henry Daniell in the 1945 film Captain Kidd, Olaf Hytten in the 1952 film Against All , Alan Rowe in the 1969 BBC drama series The First Churchills, Laurence Olivier in the 1986 NBC TV mini-series , Thom Hoffman in the 1992 film Orlando, based on the novel by Virginia Woolf, Corin Redgrave in the 1995 film England, My England, the story of the composer Henry Purcell, Jochum ten Haaf in the 2003 BBC miniseries Charles II: The Power & the Passion, Bernard Hill in the 2005 film The League of Gentlemen's Apocalypse, and Russell Pate in the 2008 BBC film King Billy Above All.

References

Footnotes [1][1]Claydon, 9 [2][2]Claydon, 14 [3] Troost, 26; van der Zee, 6–7 [4][4]Troost, 26 [5] Troost, 26–27. The Prussian prince was chosen because he could act as a neutral party mediating between the two women, but also because as a possible heir he was interested in protecting the Orange family fortune, which Amalia feared Mary would squander. [6] Van der Kiste, 5–6; Troost, 27 [7] Troost, 34–37 [8] Troost, 27. The author may also have been Johan van den Kerckhoven. Ibid. [9] Troost, 36–37 [10] Troost, 37–40 [11][11]Meinel [12][12]Troost, 43 [13] Troost, 43–44 [14][14]Troost, 44 [15][15]Troost, 49 [16] Van der Kiste, 12–17 [17] Van der Kiste, 14–15 [18] In the province of Friesland that office was filled by William's uncle-by-marriage William Frederick, Prince of Nassau-Dietz. [19] Troost, 29–30 [20][20]Troost, 41 [21] Troost, 52–53 [22] Van der Kiste, 16–17 [23][23]Troost, 57 [24] Troost, 53–54 [25][25]Troost, 59 [26][26]Troost, 60 [27] Troost, 62–64 [28] Van der Kiste, 18–20 [29][29]Troost, 64 [30][30]Troost, 65 [31][31]Troost, 66 [32][32]Troost, 67 [33] Troost, 65–66 [34][34]Troost, 74 [35] Troost, 78–83 [36][36]Troost, 76 [37] Troost, 80–81 [38][38]Troost, 75 [39] Troost, 85–86 [40] Troost, 89–90 [41] (1986) John de Witt: Statesman of the "true Freedom", Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-52708-2, p. 222; (1893) Staatkundige Geschiedenis van Nederland. Tweede Deel, pp. 92–93, and fn.4 p. 92; , "De schuld van Willem III en zijn vrienden aan den William III of England 130

moord der gebroeders de Witt", in De Gids (1867), pp. 201–218 (http:/ / www. dbnl. org/ tekst/ _gid001186601_01/

_gid001186701_01_0008. htm) [42][42]Troost, 122 [43] Troost, 128–129 [44] Troost, 106–110 [45][45]Troost, 109 [46] Troost, 109–112 [47] Van der Kiste, 38–39 [48] Van der Kiste, 42–43 [49] Van der Kiste, 44–46 [50][50]Van der Kiste, 47 [51] Chapman, 86–93 [52] Van der Zee, 202–206 [53] Troost, 141–145 [54] Troost, 153–156 [55] Troost, 156–163 [56] Troost, 150–151 [57] Troost, 152–153 [58] Troost, 173–175 [59] Troost, 180–183 [60][60]Troost, 189 [61][61]Troost, 186 [62][62]e.g. Troost, 190 [63][63](Subscription required) [64][64]Troost, 191 [65] Troost, 191; van der Kiste, 91–92 [66][66]Van der Kiste, 91 [67] Troost, 193–196 [68] Troost, 200–203; van der Kiste, 102–103 [69][69]Van der Kiste, 105 [70] Troost, 204–205 [71] Troost, 205–207 [72] Baxter, 242–246; Miller, 208 [73] Davies, 614–615 [74] Troost, 207–210 [75][75]Davies, 469; Israel, 136 [76] Van der Kiste, 107–108 [77][77]Troost, 209 [78] Troost, 210–212 [79] Troost, 219–220 [80] Troost, 266–268 [81] Davies, 614–615. William was "William II" of Scotland, for there was only one previous Scottish King named William. [82] Van der Kiste, 114–115 [83] Troost, 212–214 [84] Due to the change to the , William's victory is commemorated annually by Northern Irish and Scottish Protestants on The Twelfth of July – cf. Troost, 278–280 [85] Troost, 270–273 [86] Troost, 274–275 [87] Troost, 220–223 [88][88]Troost, 221 [89] Van der Zee, 296–297 [90] Troost, 222; van der Zee, 301–302 [91] Troost, 223–227 [92][92]Troost, 226 [93] Troost, 228–232 [94] Claydon, 129–131 [95] Van der Zee, 402–403 [96][96]Van der Zee, 414 [97] Troost, 239–241; van der Zee, 368–369 William III of England 131

[98] Troost, 241–246 [99] Van der Kiste, 150–158 [100] Troost, 281–283 [101] Troost, 244–246 [102] Van der Kiste, 179–180 [103] Van der Kiste, 180–184 [104] Van der Kiste, 186–192; Troost, 226–237 [105][105]Culture and Society In Britain, J. Black (ed.), Manchester, 1997. p97 [106] Van der Kiste, 204–205; Baxter, 352; James Falkner, ‘Keppel, Arnold Joost van, first earl of Albemarle (1669/70–1718)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004. [107] Troost, 25–26; Van der Zee, 421–423 [108][108]Van der Kiste, 205 [109][109]Van der Kiste, 201 [110] Van der Kiste, 202–203 [111][111]Troost, 251 [112] Troost, 253–255 [113][113]Troost, 255 [114] Troost, 256–257 [115] Troost, 258–260 [116][116]Troost, 260 [117][117]Troost, 234 [118][118]Troost, 235 [119] Van der Kiste, 251–254 [120][120]Van der Kiste, 255 [121] Churchill, 30–31 [122] Israel, 959–960 [123][123]Israel, 962, 968 [124] Israel, 991–992 [125] Claydon, 3–4

[126] "The Dutch Under English Rule" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?vid=OCLC03046437& id=Jvy84lE_tHoC& dq="Willem+ Hendrick") The History of North America by Guy Carleton Lee Francis and Francis Newton Thorpe. Published 1904 by G. Barrie & Sons, p. 167 [127][127]Troost, 5 [128][128]Troost, 77

Bibliography • Baxter, Stephen B., William III and the Defense of European Liberty, 1650–1702 (1966) • Chapman, Hester W., Mary II: Queen of England (1953) • Churchill, Winston. A History of the English-Speaking Peoples: Age of Revolution. Weidenfeld & Nicolson, (2002). ISBN 0-304-36393-6 • Claydon, Tony, William III: Profiles in Power (2002) ISBN 0-582-40523-8 • Davies, Norman, The Isles: A History (1999) ISBN 0-19-513442-7 • Israel, Jonathan I., The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall, 1477–1806 (1995) ISBN 0-19-820734-4 • Meinel, Friedrich, Samuel Chappuzeau 1625–1701. Dissertation, University of Leipzig, (1908) • Mijers, Esther and Onnekink, David, eds., Redefining William III. The Impact of the King-Stadholder in

International Context (http:/ / www. ashgate. com/ default. aspx?page=637& calcTitle=1& title_id=7361& edition_id=7922) (Ashgate, 2007) • Miller, John, James II: A Study in Kingship (1991) ISBN 0-413-65290-4 • Robb, Nesca, William of Orange (1962) • Troost, Wout, William III, The Stadholder-king: A Political Biography (2005) (translation by J.C. Grayson) ISBN 0-7546-5071-5 • Van der Kiste, John, William and Mary (2003) ISBN 0-7509-3048-9 • Van der Zee, Henri and Barbara, William and Mary (1973) ISBN 0-394-48092-9 William III of England 132

• Waller, Maureen, Sovereign : Sex, Sacrifice, and Power. The Six Reigning Queens of England. St. Martin's Press, New York (2006) ISBN 0-312-33801-5

External links

• Official House of Orange website (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ english/ index. jsp)

• "King Billy", BBC (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ northernireland/ learning/ william/ )

• House of Orange (http:/ / www. friesian. com/ ross/ orange. htm)

• (http:/ / www. paleishetloo. nl/ )

• N. Japikse, ed., Correspondentie van Willem III en van Hans Willem Bentinck, eersten graaf van Portland (http:/ /

www. inghist. nl/ Onderzoek/ Projecten/ WillemIII)

• Archival material relating to William III of England (http:/ / www. nationalarchives. gov. uk/ nra/ searches/

subjectView. asp?ID=P30585) listed at the UK National Archives

• Portraits of King William III (http:/ / www. npg. org. uk/ collections/ search/ person. php?LinkID=mp04834) at the National Portrait Gallery, London

William III of England and Orange & II of Scotland House of Orange-Nassau Cadet branch of the House of Nassau Born: 4 November 1650 Died: 8 March 1702 Regnal titles Vacant Prince of Orange Succeeded by Title last held by Baron of Breda John William Friso 1650–1702 William II Vacant King of England, Scotland and Succeeded by Glorious Revolution Ireland Anne 1689–1702 Title last held by with Mary II (1689-1694) James II & VII

Political offices

Vacant Stadtholder of Holland and Zeeland Vacant First Stadtholderless Period 1672–1702 Second Stadtholderless Period Title last held by Stadtholder of Utrecht Title next held by William II 1674–1702 William IV Stadtholder of Guelders and Overijssel 1675–1702 Preceded by Lord High Admiral Succeeded by James II 1689 The Earl of Torrington Mary II of England 133 Mary II of England

Mary II

Queen of England, Scotland and Ireland (more...)

Reign 13 February 1689 – 28 December 1694

Coronation 11 April 1689

Predecessor James II & VII

Successor William III & II

Co-monarch William III & II

Spouse William III & II

House House of Stuart

Father James II & VII

Mother Lady Anne Hyde

Born 30 April 1662 (N.S.: 10 May 1662) St. James's Palace, London

Died 28 December 1694 (aged 32) (N.S.: 7 January 1695) Kensington Palace, London

Burial 5 March 1695 Westminster Abbey, London

Mary II (30 April 1662 – 28 December 1694) was joint Sovereign of England, Scotland, and Ireland with her husband (who was also her first cousin), William III and II, from 1689 until her death. William and Mary, both Protestants, became king and queen regnant, respectively, following the Glorious Revolution, which resulted in the deposition of her Roman Catholic father, James II and VII. William became sole ruler upon her death in 1694. Popular histories usually refer to their joint reign as that of "William and Mary". Mary wielded less power than William when he was in England, ceding most of her authority to him, though he heavily relied on her. She did, however, act alone when William was engaged in military campaigns abroad, proving herself to be a powerful, firm, and effective ruler.

Early life Mary, born at St. James's Palace in London on 30 April 1662, was the eldest daughter of James, Duke of York (the future James II & VII), and his first wife, Lady Anne Hyde. Mary's uncle was King Charles II, who ruled the three kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland; her maternal grandfather, Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon, served for a lengthy period as Charles's chief advisor. She was baptised into the Anglican faith in the Chapel Royal at St. James's, and was named after her ancestress, Mary, Queen of Scots. Her godparents included her father's cousin, Prince Rupert of the .[1] Although her mother bore eight children, all except Mary and her younger sister Anne died very young, and the King had no legitimate children. Consequently, for most of her childhood, Mary was second in line to the throne after her father.[2] Mary II of England 134

The Duke of York converted to Roman Catholicism in 1668 or 1669, but Mary and Anne were brought up as Anglicans, pursuant to the command of Charles II.[3] They were moved to their own establishment at , where they were raised by their governess Lady Frances Villiers, with only occasional visits to see their parents at St. James's or their grandfather Lord Clarendon at Twickenham.[4] Mary's education, from private tutors, was largely restricted to music, dance, drawing, French, and religious instruction.[5] Her mother died in 1671, and her father remarried in 1673, taking as his second wife Mary of Modena, a Catholic who was only four years older than Mary.[6]

From about the age of nine until her marriage, Mary wrote passionate letters to an older , Frances Apsley, the daughter of courtier Sir Allen Apsley. In time, Frances became uncomfortable with the [7] Mary in 1676, the year before her marriage correspondence, and replied more formally. At the age of fifteen, Mary was betrothed to her cousin, the Protestant Stadtholder of Holland, William of Orange. William was the son of the King's late sister, Mary, Princess Royal, and thus fourth in the line of succession after James, Mary, and Anne.[8] At first, Charles II opposed the alliance with the Dutch ruler—he preferred that Mary marry the heir to the French throne, the Dauphin Louis, thus allying his realms with Catholic France and strengthening the odds of a Catholic successor in Britain; but later, under pressure from Parliament and with a coalition with the Catholic French no longer politically favourable, he approved the union. The Duke of York agreed to the marriage, after pressure from chief minister Lord Danby and the King, who incorrectly assumed that it would improve James's popularity amongst Protestants.[9] When James told Mary that she was to marry her cousin, "she wept all that afternoon and all the following day".[10]

Marriage William and a tearful Mary were married in St. James's Palace by Bishop Henry Compton on 4 November 1677.[11] Mary accompanied her husband on a rough sea crossing back to the Netherlands later that month, after a delay of two weeks caused by bad weather.[12] was inaccessible because of ice, and they were forced to land at the small of Ter Heijde, and walk through the frosty countryside until met by coaches to take them to Huis Honselaarsdijk.[13] On 14 December, they made a formal entry to The Hague in a grand procession.[14] Mary's animated and personable nature made her popular with the , and her marriage to a Protestant prince was popular in Britain.[15] She became devoted to her husband, but he was often on campaign, which led to Mary's family supposing him to be cold and neglectful.[16] Within months of the marriage Mary was pregnant; however, on a visit to her husband at the fortified city of Breda, she suffered a miscarriage, which may have permanently impaired her ability to have children.[17] She suffered further bouts of illness that may have been miscarriages in mid-1678, early 1679, and early 1680.[18] Her childlessness would be the greatest source of unhappiness in her life.[19] From May 1684, the King's illegitimate son, James Scott, Duke of Monmouth, lived in the Netherlands, where he was fêted by William and Mary. Monmouth was viewed as a rival to the Duke of York, and as a potential Protestant heir who could supplant James in the line of succession. William, however, did not consider him a viable alternative and correctly assumed that Monmouth had insufficient support.[20] Mary II of England 135

James's reign

Upon the death of Charles II without legitimate issue in February 1685, the Duke of York became king as James II in England and Ireland and James VII in Scotland. Mary was playing cards when her husband informed her of her father's accession, and that she was heir presumptive.[21] When Charles's illegitimate son Monmouth assembled an invasion force at Amsterdam, and sailed for Britain, William informed James of Monmouth's departure, and ordered English regiments in the Low Countries to return to Britain.[22] To William's relief, Monmouth was defeated, captured and executed, but both he and Mary were dismayed by James's subsequent actions.[23]

James had a controversial religious policy; his attempt to grant freedom of religion to non-Anglicans by suspending acts of Parliament by royal decree was not well received.[24] Mary considered such action

illegal, and her chaplain expressed this view in a letter to the Mary's father, James II and VII, was the last Archbishop of Canterbury, William Sancroft, on her behalf.[25] She Catholic monarch in the British Isles. was further dismayed when James refused to help when the Catholic King of France, Louis XIV, invaded Orange and persecuted Huguenot refugees there. In an attempt to damage William, James encouraged his daughter's staff to inform her that William was having an affair with Elizabeth Villiers. Acting on the information, Mary waited outside Villiers's room and caught her husband leaving it late at night. William denied adultery, and Mary apparently believed and forgave him.[26] Possibly, Villiers and William were not meeting as lovers but to exchange diplomatic intelligence.[27] Mary's staff was dismissed and sent back to Britain.[28]

Glorious Revolution

Disgruntled Protestant politicians and noblemen were in contact with Mary's husband as early as 1686.[29] After James took the step of forcing Anglican clergymen to read the Declaration of Indulgence—the proclamation granting religious liberty to Catholics and dissenters—from their churches in May 1688, his popularity plunged further. Alarm amongst Protestants increased when his wife, Mary of Modena, gave birth to a son—James Francis Edward—in June 1688, for the son would, unlike Mary and Anne, be raised a Roman Catholic. Some charged that the boy was "supposititious", having been secretly smuggled into the Queen's room in a bed-warming pan as a substitute for her stillborn baby.[30] Seeking information, Mary sent a pointed list of questions to her sister, Anne, regarding the circumstances of the birth. Anne's reply, and continued gossip, seemed to confirm Mary's suspicions that the child was not her natural brother, Mary in 1685 and that her father was conspiring to secure a Catholic succession.[31]

On 30 June, the Immortal Seven secretly requested William—then in the Netherlands with Mary—to come to England with an army to depose James.[32] At first, William was reluctant; possibly he was jealous of his wife's position as the heiress to the English Crown and feared she would become more powerful than he was. According to Mary II of England 136

Gilbert Burnet, however, Mary convinced her husband that she did not care for political power, and told him "she would be no more but his wife, and that she would do all that lay in her power to make him King for life". She would, she assured him, always obey her husband as she had promised to do in her marriage vows.[33] William agreed to invade and issued a declaration which referred to James's newborn son as the "pretended Prince of Wales". He also gave a list of grievances of the English people and stated that his proposed expedition was for the sole purpose of having "a free and lawful Parliament assembled".[34] William and the Dutch army, without Mary who stayed behind in the Netherlands, finally landed on 5 November 1688, having been turned back by storms in October.[35] The disaffected English Army and Navy went over to William,[36] and on 11 December the defeated King James attempted to flee, but was intercepted. A second attempt at flight, on 23 December, was successful; William deliberately allowed James to escape to France where he lived in exile until his death.[37] Mary was upset by the circumstances surrounding the deposition of her father, and was torn between concern for him and duty to her husband, but was convinced that her husband's actions, however unpleasant, were necessary to "save the Church and State".[38] When Mary travelled to England after the New Year, she wrote of her "secret joy" at returning to her homeland, "but that was soon checked with the consideration of my father's misfortunes".[39] William ordered her to appear cheerful on their triumphant arrival in London. As a result, she was criticised for appearing cold to her father's plight.[40] James, too, wrote a diatribe against her criticising her disloyalty, an action which deeply affected the pious Mary. In January 1689, a Convention Parliament summoned by the Prince of Orange assembled, and much discussion relating to the appropriate course of action ensued.[41] A party led by Lord Danby held that Mary should be sole monarch, as the rightful hereditary heir, while William and his supporters were adamant that a husband could not be subject to his wife.[42] William wished to reign as a king, rather than function as a mere consort of a queen.[43] For her part, Mary did not wish to be queen regnant, believing that women should defer to their , and "knowing my heart is not made for a kingdom and my inclination leads me to a retired quiet life".[44]

On 13 February 1689, Parliament passed the Declaration of Right, in which it deemed that James, by attempting to flee on 11 December 1688, had abdicated the government of the realm, and that the Throne had thereby become vacant. Parliament offered the Crown not to James's eldest son, James Francis Edward (who would have been the Mary's husband, William of Orange heir-apparent under normal circumstances), but to William and Mary as joint sovereigns. The only precedent for a joint monarchy dated from the sixteenth century: when Queen Mary I married Philip of Spain, it was agreed that the latter would take the title of king, but only during his wife's lifetime, and restrictions were placed on his power. William, however, would be king even after his wife's death, and "the sole and full exercise of the regal power [would be] executed by the said Prince of Orange in the names of the said Prince and Princess during their joint lives." The declaration was later extended to exclude not only James and his heirs (other than Anne) from the throne, but all Catholics, since "it hath been found by experience that it is inconsistent with the safety and welfare of this Protestant kingdom to be governed by a papist prince".

The Bishop of London, Henry Compton, crowned William and Mary together at Westminster Abbey on 11 April 1689. Normally, the Archbishop of Canterbury performs coronations, but the incumbent Archbishop, William Sancroft, although an Anglican, refused to recognise the validity of James II's removal. Neither William nor Mary enjoyed the ceremony; she thought it "all vanity" and William called it "Popish".[45] On the same day, the Convention of the Estates of Scotland—which was much more divided than the English Parliament—finally declared that James was no longer King of Scotland, that "no Papist can be King or Queen of this Realm", that Mary II of England 137

William and Mary would be joint sovereigns, and that William would exercise sole and full power. On 11 May, William and Mary formally accepted the Scottish crown. Even after the declaration, there was still substantial support for James in Scotland. Viscount Dundee raised an army in the that won a convincing victory at Killiecrankie on 27 July. The huge losses suffered by Dundee's troops, however, coupled with his fatal wounding at the start of the battle, served to remove the only effective resistance to William and the uprising was quickly crushed, suffering a resounding defeat the next month at the Battle of Dunkeld.

Reign

In December 1689, Parliament passed one of the most important constitutional documents in English history, the Bill of Rights. This measure—which restated and confirmed many provisions of the earlier Declaration of Right—established restrictions on the royal prerogative; it declared, amongst other things, that the Sovereign could not suspend laws passed by Parliament, levy taxes without parliamentary consent, William and Mary on a guinea of 1691 infringe the right to petition, raise a standing army during peacetime without parliamentary consent, deny the right to bear arms to Protestant subjects, unduly interfere with Parliamentary elections, punish members of either House of Parliament for anything said during debates, require excessive bail, or inflict cruel or unusual punishments. The Bill of Rights also confirmed the succession to the Throne. Following the death of either William III or Mary II, the other was to continue to reign. Next in the line of succession would be any children of the couple, to be followed by Mary's sister Anne and her children. Last in the line of succession stood any children William III might have had from any subsequent marriage.

From 1690 onwards, William was often absent from England on campaign, each year generally from the spring until the autumn. In 1690, he fought Jacobites in Ireland, and whilst her husband was away, Mary administered the government of the realm with the advice of a nine-member Cabinet Council.[46][47] She was not keen to assume power and felt "deprived of all that was dear to me in the person of my husband, left among those that were perfect strangers to me: my sister of a humour so reserved that I could have little comfort from her."[48] Anne had quarrelled with William and Mary over money, and the relationship between the two sisters had soured.[49] William had crushed the Irish Jacobites by 1692, but he continued with campaigns abroad in order to wage war against France in the Netherlands. When her husband was away, Mary acted on her own if his advice was not available; whilst he was in England, Mary completely refrained from interfering in political matters, as had been agreed in the Declaration and Bill of Rights, and as she preferred.[50] She proved a firm ruler, ordering the arrest of her own uncle, Henry Hyde, 2nd Earl of Clarendon, for plotting to restore James II to the throne.[51] In January 1692, the influential John Churchill, 1st Earl of Marlborough, was dismissed on similar charges; the dismissal somewhat diminished her popularity and further harmed her relationship with her sister Anne (who was strongly influenced by Churchill's wife, Sarah).[52] Anne appeared at court with Sarah, obviously supporting the disgraced Churchill, which led to Mary angrily demanding that Anne dismiss Sarah and vacate her lodgings.[53] Mary fell ill with a fever in April, and missed Sunday church service for the first time in 12 years.[54] She also failed to visit Anne, who was suffering a difficult labour. After Mary's recovery and the death of Anne's baby soon after it was born, Mary did visit her sister, but chose the opportunity to berate Anne for her friendship with Sarah.[55] The sisters never saw each other again.[56] Marlborough was arrested and imprisoned, but then released after his accuser was revealed to be an impostor.[57] Mary recorded in her journal that the breach between the sisters was a punishment from God for the "irregularity" of the Revolution.[58] She was extremely devout, and attended prayers at least twice a day.[59] Many of her proclamations focus on combating licentiousness, insobriety and vice.[60] She often participated in the affairs of the Church—all matters of ecclesiastical patronage passed through her hands.[61] On the death of Archbishop of Mary II of England 138

Canterbury John Tillotson in December 1694, Mary was keen to appoint Bishop of Worcester Edward Stillingfleet to the vacancy, but William overruled her and the post went to Bishop of Lincoln Thomas Tenison.[62] Mary was tall (5 foot 11 inches; 180 cm) and apparently fit; she would regularly walk between her palaces at Whitehall and Kensington.[63] In late 1694, however, she contracted smallpox. She sent away anyone who had not previously had the disease, to prevent the spread of infection.[64] Anne, who was once again pregnant, sent Mary a letter saying she would run any risk to see her sister again, but the offer was declined by Mary's groom of the stole, the Countess of Derby.[65] Mary died at Kensington Palace shortly after midnight on the morning of 28 December.[66] William, who had grown increasingly to rely on Mary, was devastated by her death, and told Burnet that "from being the happiest" he was "now going to be the miserablest creature on earth". While the Jacobites considered her death divine retribution for breaking the fifth commandment ("honour thy father"), she was widely mourned in Britain.[67] During a cold winter, in which the Thames froze, her embalmed body lay in state in Banqueting House, Whitehall. On 5 March, she was buried at Westminster Abbey. Her funeral service was the first of any royal attended by all the members of both Houses of Parliament.[68] For the ceremony, composer Henry Purcell wrote Music for the Funeral of Queen Mary.[69]

Legacy

Mary endowed the College of William and Mary (in the present day Williamsburg, Virginia) in 1693, supported Thomas Bray, who founded the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, and was instrumental in the foundation of the Royal Hospital for Seamen, Greenwich, after the Anglo-Dutch victory at the Battle of La Hogue.[70] She is credited with influencing garden design at Het Loo and Hampton Court Palaces, and with popularising blue and white porcelain and the keeping of goldfish as pets.[71]

Mary was depicted by Jacobites as an unfaithful daughter who destroyed her father for her own and her husband's gain.[72] In the early years of their reign, she was often seen as completely under the spell of her husband, but after she had temporarily governed alone during his absences abroad, she was portrayed as capable and confident. Nahum Tate's A Present for the Ladies (1692) compared her to Queen [73] Elizabeth I. Her modesty and diffidence were praised in works such William and Mary depicted on the ceiling of the as A Dialogue Concerning Women (1691) by William Walsh, which Painted Hall. compared her to Cincinnatus, the Roman general who took on a great task when called to do so, but then willingly abandoned power.[74]

A week before her death, Mary went through her papers, weeding out some which were burnt, but her journal survives, as do her letters to William and to Frances Apsley.[75] The Jacobites lambasted her, but the assessment of her character that came down to posterity was largely the vision of Mary as a dutiful, submissive wife, who assumed power reluctantly, exercised it with considerable ability when necessary, and willingly deferred it to her husband.[76] Mary II of England 139

In film and television Mary is portrayed by: • Lisa Daniely in the 1969 mini-series The First Churchills • Sarah Crowden in the 1992 film Orlando • Rebecca Front in the 1995 film England, My England • Victoria Wood in the 2005 film The League of Gentlemen's Apocalypse

Title, styles, honours and arms

Titles and styles • 30 April 1662 – 13 February 1689: Her Highness The Lady Mary • 4 November 1677 – 13 February 1689: Her Highness The Princess of Orange • 13 February 1689 – 28 December 1694: Her Majesty The Queen The joint style of William III and Mary II was "William and Mary, by the Grace of God, King and Queen of England, France and Ireland, Defenders of the Faith, etc." when they ascended the Throne. From 11 April 1689—when the Estates of Scotland recognised them as Sovereigns—the royal couple used the style "William and Mary, by the Grace of God, King and Queen of England, Scotland, France and Ireland, Defenders of the Faith, etc.".

Arms The coat of arms used by the King and Queen were: Quarterly, I and IV Grandquarterly, Azure three fleurs-de-lis Or (for France) and Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England); II Or a lion rampant within a double tressure flory-counter-flory Gules (for Scotland); III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent (for Ireland); overall an escutcheon Azure billetty a lion rampant Or (for the House of Orange-Nassau).

Coat of arms of King William III and Queen Mary II as joint Sovereigns Mary II of England 140

Coat of arms of William and Mary used in Scotland

Ancestry

Family tree

Edward Charles I Hyde 1600–1649 1609–1674

Henry Anne Hyde James II & Mary Charles II Hyde 1637–1671 VII 1631–1660 1630–1685 1638–1709 1633–1701

James 1688–1766

Anne Mary II William III & James 1665–1714 1662–1694 II Scott 1650–1702 1649–1685 Mary II of England 141

Notes

[1][1]Waller, p. 249 [2][2]Waller, p. 252 [3][3]Van der Kiste, p. 32 [4][4]Waller, p. 251 [5] Waller, pp. 251–253 [6][6]Waller, p. 255 [7][7]Van der Kiste, p. 34 [8][8]Waller, p. 256 [9] Van der Kiste, pp. 44–45 [10][10]Mary's chaplain, Dr Edward Lake, quoted in Waller, p. 257 [11] Van der Kiste, pp. 47–48; Waller, p. 258 [12] Van der Kiste, pp. 50–51; Waller, p. 259 [13] Van der Kiste, p. 51; Waller, pp. 258–259 [14][14]Van der Kiste, p. 52 [15] Waller, pp. 257–259 [16] Waller, pp. 259–262 [17] Van der Kiste, pp. 55–58; Waller, p. 261 [18][18]Van der Kiste, pp. 57, 58, 62 [19][19]Van der Kiste, p. 162; Waller, p. 262 [20] Van der Kiste, pp. 72–73 [21][21]Van der Kiste, p. 76 [22][22]Van der Kiste, p. 78 [23][23]Van der Kiste, p. 79 [24][24]Van der Kiste, p. 91 [25][25]Waller, p. 265 [26][26]Van der Kiste, p. 81; Waller, p. 264 [27][27]Van der Kiste p. 64; Waller, p. 264 [28][28]Van der Kiste, p. 82; Waller, p. 264 [29][29]Van der Kiste, p. 86 [30][30]Van der Kiste, p. 92 [31] Van der Kiste, pp. 90, 94–95; Waller, pp. 268–269 [32] Van der Kiste, pp. 93–94 [33][33]Van der Kiste, p. 85; Waller, p. 266 [34][34]Van der Kiste, p. 98 [35] Van der Kiste, pp. 100–102 [36][36]Van der Kiste, p. 104 [37] Van der Kiste, pp. 105–107 [38] Van der Kiste, p. 95; Waller, pp. 269–271 [39][39]Mary, quoted by Van der Kiste, p. 113 and Waller, p. 271 [40] Van der Kiste, p. 113; Waller, pp. 272–273 [41][41]Waller, p. 274 [42] Waller, pp. 274–275 [43][43]Van der Kiste, p. 108; Waller, p. 273 [44][44]Mary, quoted in Van der Kiste, p. 114 and Waller, p. 273 [45][45]Van der Kiste, p. 118 [46][46]Van der Kiste, p. 138 [47] See also the Absence of King William Act 1689. [48] Memoirs of Mary, Queen of England edited by R. Doebner (1886), quoted in Van der Kiste, p. 138 [49] Van der Kiste, pp. 130–131 [50][50]Van der Kiste, p. 144; Waller, pp. 280, 284 [51][51]Waller, p. 281 [52] Van der Kiste, pp. 159–160 [53][53]Van der Kiste, p. 160 [54][54]Van der Kiste, p. 155 [55][55]Van der Kiste, p. 161 [56][56]Van der Kiste, p. 162 [57] Van der Kiste, pp. 161–162 Mary II of England 142

[58][58]Quoted in Waller, p. 279 [59][59]Waller, pp. 277, 282 [60][60]Van der Kiste, p. 164; Waller, pp. 281, 286 [61] Van der Kiste, pp. 163–164 [62][62]Van der Kiste, p. 176 [63][63]Waller, p.285 [64][64]Van der Kiste, p. 177 [65][65]Van der Kiste, p. 179 [66] Van der Kiste, pp. 179–180 [67][67]Waller, p. 288 [68][68]Van der Kiste, p. 186; Waller, p. 289 [69][69]Van der Kiste, p. 187 [70][70]Waller, p. 283 [71] Waller, pp. 260, 285–286 [72] Waller, pp. 277–279 [73] Waller, pp. 283–284 [74][74]Waller, p. 284 [75][75]Waller, p. 287 [76][76]Waller, p. 290 [77] Jones, W. A. (1853). "Lord Clarendon and his Trowbridge Ancestry", The Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Magazine, vol. 9, pp. 282–290 [78] Alsbury, Colin (2004). "Aylesbury, Sir Thomas, baronet (1579/80–1658)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press. Retrieved 20 September 2011. References • Van der Kiste, John (2003) William and Mary. Stroud, Gloucestershire: Sutton Publishing. ISBN 0-7509-3048-9. • Waller, Maureen (2006). Sovereign Ladies: The Six Reigning Queens of England. London: John Murray. ISBN 978-0-7195-6628-8.

External links

• Queen Mary II (http:/ / www. npg. org. uk/ collections/ search/ person. php?LinkID=mp02998) at the National Portrait Gallery, London

Mary II House of Stuart Born: 30 April 1662 Died: 28 December 1694 Regnal titles Vacant Queen of England, Scotland and Succeeded by Glorious Revolution Ireland William III & 1689–1694 II Title last held by with William III as sole monarch James II & VII Henry Casimir II, Prince of Nassau-Dietz 143 Henry Casimir II, Prince of Nassau-Dietz

Henry Casimir II

Henry Casimir II

Spouse(s) Henriëtte Amalia

Noble family House of Nassau

Father William Frederick

Mother Albertine Agnes

Born 18 January 1657 The Hague

Died 25 March 1696 (aged 39) Leeuwarden

Henry Casimir II of Nassau-Dietz (The Hague, 18 January 1657 – Leeuwarden, 25 March 1696) was Stadtholder of Friesland and Groningen from 1664 till 1696. He was the eldest son of Willem Frederik of Nassau-Dietz and Albertine Agnes of Nassau and succeeded, under guardianship of his mother, his father as Stadtholder of Friesland and Groningen. In 1675 the State of Friesland voted to make the Stadtholdership hereditary in the house of Nassau-Dietz. Hendrik Casimir II was therefore the first Friesian Stadtholder. He married in 1683 with his cousin Henriëtte Amalia of Anhalt-Dessau, daughter of John George II, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau. Hendrik Casimir was succeeded as Stadtholder by his son Johan Willem Friso of Orange-Nassau. Henry Casimir II, Prince of Nassau-Dietz 144

Issue From his marriage, Henry Casimir II had the following children: •• Willem George Friso (1685 - 1686), Hereditary Prince of Nassau-Dietz •• Henriette Albertine (1686-1754), Princess of Nassau-Dietz • Johan Willem Friso (1687-1711), Stadholder in Friesland and Groningen •• Maria Amalia (1689-1771) Princess of Nassau-Dietz • Sofia Hedwig (1690-1734), married in 1708 Duke Charles Leopold of Mecklenburg (1678-1747), son of Frederick, Duke of Mecklenburg-Grabow • Isabelle Charlotte (1692-1757), married in 1725 Prince Christian of Nassau-Dillenburg (1688-1739), son of Henry of Nassau-Dillenburg •• Johanna Agnes (1693-1765), Princess of Nassau-Dietz •• Louise Leopoldina (1695-1758), Princess of Nassau-Dietz •• Henriette Casimira (1696-1738), Princess of Nassau-Dietz

Ancestors

Henry Casimir II, Prince of Nassau-Dietz House of Nassau Born: 18 January 1657 Died: 25 March 1696 Regnal titles Preceded by Prince of Nassau-Dietz Succeeded by Willem Frederik 1664–1696 Johan Willem Friso

Political offices

Preceded by Stadholder of Friesland and Succeeded by Willem Frederik Groningen Johan Willem Friso 1664–1696 John William III, Duke of Saxe-Eisenach 145 John William III, Duke of Saxe-Eisenach

John William III

Duke of Saxe-Eisenach

Reign 1698–1729

Predecessor John George II

Successor Wilhelm Heinrich

Spouse Amalie of Nassau-Dietz Christine Juliane of Baden-Durlach Magdalene Sibylle of Saxe-Weissenfels Marie Christine Felizitas of Leiningen-Heidesheim

Issue

Wilhelm Heinrich Princess Albertine Johannetta Johannette, Duchess of Saxe-Weissenfels Karoline, Landgravine of Hesse-Philippsthal Prince Anton Gustav Princess Charlotte Wilhelmine Princess Johannetta Wilhelmine Prince Karl Wilhelm Prince Karl August Princess Johanna Magdalene Christiane, Princess of Nassau-Usingen Prince Johann Wilhelm

House House of Wettin

Father John George I, Duke of Saxe-Eisenach

Mother Johannetta of Sayn-Wittgenstein

Born 17 October 1666 Friedewald

Died 14 January 1729 (aged 62) Eisenach

Religion Lutheranism

John William III, Duke of Saxe-Eisenach (Friedewald, 17 October 1666 – Eisenach, 14 January 1729), was a duke of Saxe-Eisenach. He was the third son of John George I, Duke of Saxe-Eisenach and Johannetta of Sayn-Wittgenstein. His twin brother, Maximilian, died at the age of two years. He succeeded his brother John George II as duke of Saxe-Eisenach when his brother died in 1698. In Oranjewoud on 28 November 1690, John William married with Amalie of Nassau-Dietz, who was eleven years older. She was a daughter of William Frederick, Prince of Nassau-Dietz. They had two children: 1. Wilhelm Heinrich, Duke of Saxe-Eisenach (b. Oranjewoud, 10 November 1691 - d. Eisenach, 26 July 1741). 2.2.Albertine Johannetta (b. Oranjewoud, 28 February 1693 - d. Eisenach, 1 April 1700). In Wolfenbüttel on 27 February 1697 — two years of the death of his first wife — John William married secondly with Christine Juliane of Baden-Durlach, a daughter of Charles Gustav of Baden-Durlach. They had seven children: John William III, Duke of Saxe-Eisenach 146

1. Johannette Antoinette Juliane (b. Jena, 31 January 1698 - d. Schloss Dahme, 13 April 1726), married on 9 May 1721 to Duke Johann Adolf II of Saxe-Weissenfels. 2. Karoline Christine (b. Jena, 15 April 1699 - d. Philippsthal, 25 July 1743), married on 24 November 1725 to Landgrave Charles I of Hesse-Philippsthal. 3.3.Anton Gustav (b. Eisenach, 12 August 1700 - d. Eisenach, 4 October 1710). 4.4.Charlotte Wilhelmine Juliane (b. Eisenach, 27 June 1703 - d. Erfurt, 17 August 1774). 5.5.Johannetta Wilhelmine Juliane (b. Eisenach, 10 September 1704 - d. Eisenach, 3 January 1705). 6.6.Karl Wilhelm (b. Eisenach, 9 January 1706 - d. Eisenach, 24 February 1706). 7.7.Karl August (b. Eisenach, 10 June 1707 - d. Eisenach, 22 February 1711). In Weissenfels on 28 July 1708 — one year after the death of his second wife — John William married thirdly with Magdalene Sibylle of Saxe-Weissenfels, a daughter of Johann Adolf I, Duke of Saxe-Weissenfels. They had three children: 1.1.Johanna Magdalene Sophie (b. Eisenach, 19 August 1710 - d. Eisenach, 26 February 1711). 2. Christiane Wilhelmine (b. Altenkirchen, 3 September 1711 - d. Idstein, 27 November 1740), married on 26 November 1734 to Prince Charles of Nassau-Usingen. 3.3.Johann Wilhelm (b. Marksuhl, 28 January 1713 - d. Eisenach, 8 May 1713). In the Schloss Philippsruhe on 29 May 1727 — one year after the death of his third wife, John William married fourthly with Marie Christine Felizitas of Leiningen-Heidesheim, a daughter of John, Count of Leiningen-Dagsburg-Falkenburg and Dowager Princess of Baden-Durlach. This union was childless.

John William III, Duke of Saxe-Eisenach House of Wettin Born: 17 October 1666 Died: 14 January 1729 Preceded by Duke of Succeeded by Johann Georg II Saxe-Eisenach Wilhelm Heinrich 1698–1729 John William Friso, Prince of Orange 147 John William Friso, Prince of Orange

John William Friso

John William Friso, Prince of Orange (1710) by Louis Volders

Prince of Orange

Period 19 March 1702 – 14 July 1711

Predecessor William III

Successor William IV

Prince of Nassau-Dietz

Reign 25 March 1696 – ca. 1702

Predecessor Henry Casimir II

Prince of Orange-Nassau

Reign ca. 1702 – 14 July 1711

Successor William IV

Stadtholder of Friesland and Groningen

Reign 25 March 1696 – 14 July 1711

Predecessor Henry Casimir II

Successor William IV

Spouse Landgravine Marie Louise of Hesse-Kassel

Issue

Amalia of Nassau-Dietz William IV, Prince of Orange

House House of Orange-Nassau

Father Henry Casimir II, Prince of Nassau-Dietz

Mother Henriëtte Amalia of Anhalt-Dessau

Born 14 August 1687 Dessau, Anhalt

Died 14 July 1711 (aged 23) Hollands Diep, between and Moerdijk

John William Friso, Prince of Orange-Nassau (Dutch: Johan Willem Friso van Oranje-Nassau; 14 August 1687 – 14 July 1711) became the titular Prince of Orange in 1702. He was stadtholder of Friesland until his death by drowning in the Hollands Diep in 1711. John William Friso, Prince of Orange 148

Background He was the son of Henry Casimir II, Prince of Nassau-Dietz, and Princess Henriëtte Amalia of Anhalt-Dessau who were both first of William III. As such, he was a member of the House of Nassau and through the testamentary dispositions of William III became the of the new line of the House of Orange-Nassau.

Succession With the death of William III, Prince of Orange, the legitimate male line of William the Silent (the second House of Orange) became extinct. John William Friso, the senior agnatic descendant of William the Silent's brother and a cognatic descendant of Frederick Henry, grandfather of William III, claimed the succession as stadtholder in all provinces held by William III. This was denied to him by the republican faction in the Netherlands. The five provinces over which William III ruled – Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Gelderland and Overijssel – all suspended the office of Stadtholder after William III's death. The remaining two provinces – Friesland and Groningen – were never governed by William III, and continued to retain a separate Stadtholder, John William Friso. He established the third House of Orange, which went extinct in the male line in 1962. His son William IV, Prince of Orange, however, later became stadtholder of all seven provinces. Because William III's heir general was King Frederick I of Prussia, the latter also claimed part of the inheritance (for example Lingen). Under William III's will, Friso stood to inherit the Principality of Orange. However, the Prussian King Frederick I also claimed the Principality of Orange in the Rhône Valley, which he later ceded to France.

Military career and death On coming of age in 1707, John William Friso became a general of the Dutch troops during the War of Spanish Succession, under the command of the Duke of Marlborough, and turned out to be a competent officer. He commanded Dutch infantry in the battle of Oudenarde, siege of Lille, and battle of Malplaquet. The prestige that he acquired from his military service, could have favored his eventual election as a stadtholder in the remaining five provinces. However, in 1711, when traveling from the front in Flanders to The Hague in connection with his suit in the succession dispute, he drowned on 14 July, when the ferry boat on the Moerdyk was overturned in heavy weather. His son was born six weeks after his death.

Marriage and issue On 26 April 1709, he married Princess Maria Louise of Hesse-Kassel (1688–1765), daughter of Charles I, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel, and granddaughter of , Duke of Courland. They had two children.

Name Birth Death Notes

Anna Charlotte Amalia 1710 1777 married Frederick, Hereditary Prince of Baden-Durlach; had issue, including Charles Frederick, Grand Duke of Baden

William IV, Prince of 1711 1751 married Anne, Princess Royal; had issue, including William V, Prince of Orange Orange

John William Friso and his wife are the most recent common ancestors to all currently reigning European monarchs. John William Friso, Prince of Orange 149

References • Pieter Lodewijk Muller (1881), "Johann Wilhelm Friso", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie (ADB) (in German) 14, Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot, pp. 275–276

John William Friso, Prince of Orange House of Orange-Nassau (second creation) Cadet branch of the House of Nassau Born: 14 August 1687 Died: 14 July 1711 Dutch nobility Preceded by Prince of Orange Vacant William III 1702–1711 Title next held by William IV Regnal titles Preceded by Prince of Nassau-Dietz Title obsolete Henry Casimir II 1696–1702 merged into German principality of Orange-Nassau New title Prince of Orange-Nassau Succeeded by 1702–1711 William IV Preceded by Baron of Breda William III 1702–1711

Political offices

Preceded by Stadtholder of Friesland and Succeeded by Henry Casimir II Groningen William IV 1696–1711 Landgravine Marie Louise of Hesse-Kassel 150 Landgravine Marie Louise of Hesse-Kassel

Marie Louise of Hesse-Kassel Princess consort of Orange

A portrait of Marie Louise, c. 1710. Painted by Louis Volders.

Spouse John William Friso, Prince of Orange

Issue

Amalia, Hereditary Princess of Baden-Durlach William IV, Prince of Orange

Full name

German: Marie Luise Dutch: Maria Louise

House -Kassel (by birth) House of Orange-Nassau (by marriage)

Father Charles I, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel

Mother Princess Maria Amalia of Courland

Born 7 February 1688 Kassel

Died 9 April 1765 (aged 77) Leeuwarden, Netherlands

Landgravine Marie Louise of Hesse-Kassel (7 February 1688 – 9 April 1765) was a daughter of Charles I, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel, and Maria Amalia of Courland. By her marriage to John William Friso, Prince of Orange, she became Princess consort of Orange, a title last held by Mary II of England. Like her husband, she is an ancestor of all currently reigning monarchs in Europe. Marie Louise is notable for having served as Regent for two periods in Dutch history: during the reigns of her young son, William IV, Prince of Orange, and of her young grandson, William V, Prince of Orange. She was often fondly referred to as Marijke Meu (Aunt Mary) by her Dutch subjects.

Family Marie Louise was one of seventeen children born to Charles I, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel, by his wife and cousin, Maria Amalia of Courland. Two of her siblings included King and William VIII, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel. Marie Louise's paternal grandparents were William VI, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel, and Hedwig Sophia of Brandenburg. Her maternal grandparents were Jacob Kettler, Duke of Courland, and Louise Charlotte of Brandenburg. Landgravine Marie Louise of Hesse-Kassel 151

Marriage and children On 26 April 1709, Marie Louise was married to John William Friso, Prince of Orange. He was the eldest surviving son of Henry Casimir II, Prince of Nassau-Dietz, and Henriëtte Amalia of Anhalt-Dessau; he had inherited his title in 1702 from the childless William III, Prince of Orange, due to his descent from both William the Silent and Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange. The events behind their betrothal began after John William was almost killed by cannon fire and roundshot on two different occasions. His mother, Henriette Amalia, perhaps realizing how vulnerable her son was, quickly began looking for a suitable bride to ensure an heir. In the end, the choice came down to two German princesses. She apparently informed him that he should think of the choice as between two chairs, and that he should choose the most comfortable of the two.[1] John duly traveled to Hesse-Kassel and became engaged to the 20-year old Marie Louise within a week. He did not even bother meeting the other candidate. The main factor in this decision was probably that Marie Louise's father was a trusted general under the well-respected Duke of Marlborough. In addition, marriage to a daughter of the Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel would also have served to strengthen John William's place among the other ruling houses.[2] Marie Louise was not considered attractive, as her features were heavy and her face was dominated by a large nose. She was however very charming, and greeted those of all ranks with natural friendliness and sincere concern for their well being.[3] They had two children before his untimely death by drowning on 14 July 1711, the youngest of whom was born after his death.[4] William Charles Henry Friso's birth was met with great relief by the Frisans, and he automatically inherited the title Prince of Orange.

Name Birth Death Notes

Princess Anna Charlotte 1710 1777 married Frederick, Hereditary Prince of Baden-Durlach; had issue, including Charles Frederick, Amalia Grand Duke of Baden

William IV, Prince of 1711 1751 married Anne, Princess Royal; had issue, including William V, Prince of Orange Orange Landgravine Marie Louise of Hesse-Kassel 152

Widowhood

Regencies

Since her husband died while she was pregnant, her son William immediately became Prince of Orange upon his birth six weeks later. Marie Louise served as regent for her son from 1711 until he reached his majority in 1731. This regency was granted despite her inexperience with the affairs of her adopted country. Although she did not have any experience, Marie Louise successfully withstood a series of natural disasters, which included a sequence of bad harvests and severe winters from 1712 to 1716.[5] At the time of her marriage, Marie Louise quickly earned the affection of the Dutch population. She was known as a woman of intelligence and sensitivity, and was often fondly referred to as Marijke Meu.[6][7] She also dealt with a major problem concerning shipworms – parasites that upon arriving on ships from the Far East, proceeded to devour wooden sections of the vital, protective dykes. These damages threatened to collapse the entire dyke system, which would have destroyed vast amounts of land used for farming in the Dutch province of Friesland. The money needed to prevent such an occurrence from happening was hard to raise however; tax obligations to the Hague from this province were Marie Louise (left) with her two children, c. 1725 seldom realistically reviewed. In order to end the looming starvation, Marie Louise traveled to the Hague and pleaded in person before the States-General for help. She apparently spoke so eloquently that she returned home with not only a remittance on taxation, but also with a sizable detachment of soldiers to help repair the dykes.

After a 1736 visit, Marie Louise maintained a correspondence, in "abominable French," with religious and social reformer Nicolaus Ludwig Zinzendorf.[8] A deeply religious woman, she provided sanctuary to persecuted Protestants fleeing the Catholic Habsburgs. Despite her son's objections, Marie Louise allowed a group of Moravians to settle in the barony of IJsselstein, of which she was baroness. From 1759 until her death in 1765, Marie Louise also served as regent for her young grandson William V, Prince of Orange, after the previous regent (his mother and Marie Louise's daughter-in-law, Anne) died. Marie Louise was succeeded as regent by Duke Louis Ernest of Brunswick-Lüneburg.

Traits and relationship with children After her husband died, Marie Louise found herself a 23-year-old widow residing in a foreign country. She became inherently pessimistic and agonized over the affairs of her children. This pessimistic trait passed onto her daughter Amalia as well, causing her to be melancholy and withdrawn her whole life.[] Her son William inherited her heavy Germanic looks, rather than "the finely etched ascetic looks which his father had shared with William III".[9] William was sickly as a child, and was rigidly disciplined and educated by Marie Louise with great care in the city of Leeuwarden.[10] Marie Louise had a good relationship with her son, so that by the time of his coming of age in 1729, she was invited to take equal part in the celebrations. In his youth, she sent him daily letters reminding him to do such things as brush his teeth and get plenty of sleep; he duly responded to each letter patiently.[11] Marie Louise was described to be frugal, especially in comparison to the excesses of her mother-in-law Henriette Amalia. Due to this frugality, she was able to give large sums to various charitable causes. On one occasion, a Landgravine Marie Louise of Hesse-Kassel 153

nobleman offered her lavish hospitality; she replied by asking if he did not feel guilty at using money he could have donated to the poor.

Son's marriage Marie Louise's son William married Anne, Princess Royal, eldest daughter of George II of Great Britain, on 25 March 1734 at St. James' Palace in London. Upon return of the wedding party to the Netherlands, William had written his mother, warning her that Anne was allowed precedence over Marie Louise because she was a king's daughter. This warning was hardly needed, as Marie Louise had eagerly exited Prinsenhof as soon as her son came of age, opting to live in an elegant but unpretentious house in Harlingen. She had long displayed her disinterest in royal technicalities and the royal lifestyle. She welcomed her son and his new wife upon their arrival, but then returned to her quiet house, taking no part in their ceremonious entry.[12]

Death Marie Louise remained widowed for 54 years, finally dying on 9 April 1765 in Leeuwarden, the of the Dutch province of Friesland. She outlived her son William by 14 years.

References

[1][1]Baker-Smith, p. 32. [2][2]Rowen, p. 150. [3][3]Baker-Smith, p. 33. [4][4]Rowen, p. 151. [5][5]Baker-Smith, p. 37. [6] Van Loon, pp. 123–24. [7] Rowen, pp. 150–151. [8][8]Van Eijnatten, p. 50. [9][9]Baker-Smith, p. 36. [10][10]Van Loon, p. 122. [11] Baker-Smith, pp. 36–37. [12][12]Baker-Smith, p. 51.

Sources • Baker-Smith, Veronica P. M. (1995). A Life of Anne of Hanover, Princess Royal. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 90-04-10198-5. • Rowen, Herbert H. (1990). The Princes of Orange: The Stadholders in the Dutch Republic. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-39653-0. • van Eijnatten, Joris (2003). Liberty and concord in the United Provinces: religious toleration and the public in the eighteenth-century Netherlands. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 09208607 Check |isbn= value (help). • van Loon, Hendrik Willem (1913). The fall of the Dutch republic. Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Company.

External links Media related to Marie Luise von Hessen-Kassel at Wikimedia Commons Landgravine Marie Louise of Hesse-Kassel 154

Landgravine Marie Louise of Hesse-Kassel House of Hesse-Kassel Cadet branch of the House of Hesse Born: 7 February 1688 Died: 9 April 1765 Royal titles Vacant Princess consort of Vacant Title last held by Orange Title next held by 1709–1711 Mary II of England Princess Anne of Great Britain Princess Amalia of Nassau-Dietz 155 Princess Amalia of Nassau-Dietz

Amalia of Nassau-Dietz Hereditary Princess of Baden-Durlach

Spouse Frederick, Hereditary Prince of Baden-Durlach

Father Johan Willem Friso of Orange-Nassau

Mother Landgravine Marie Louise of Hesse-Kassel

Born 23 October 1710 Leeuwarden

Died 18 September 1777 (aged 66) Karlsburg Castle in Durlach

Princess Amalia of Nassau-Dietz (Anna Charlotte Amalie; 23 October [O.S. 13 October] 1710 – 18 September 1777) was the wife of Frederick, Hereditary Prince of Baden-Durlach, and mother of Charles Frederick, the first Grand Duke of Baden.

Life Anna Charlotte Amalia was the only daughter of Johan Willem Friso of Nassau-Dietz (after 1702 Prince of Orange) and his wife, Landgravine Marie Louise of Hesse-Kassel. She grew up in Friesland and spoke West Frisian herself. After her marriage to Friedrich of Baden-Durlach in 1727 she moved to Durlach. During her pregnancies, Amalia tyrannized her servants, and because of the princess's many tantrums, rumors circulated at the court of Durlach that she was mentally ill. Friedrich died on 26 March 1732, shortly after the birth of their second child. As further evidence of her alleged mental illness, it was charged that she shed no tears at the sight of her husband's corpse. Her father-in-law, Margrave Karl III Wilhelm, did not want Amalia influencing the new crown prince Karl Friedrich; though mother and son continued to live in Karlsburg Castle in Durlach, Amalia lived the rest of her life in a separate apartment in the castle, shielded from the outside world. The education of her two sons, Karl Friedrich and Wilhelm Ludwig, was taken over by her mother-in-law, Magdalena Wilhelmine of Württemberg. Princess Amalia of Nassau-Dietz 156

Marriage and children In 1727 Amalia married Frederick, Hereditary Prince of Baden-Durlach (1703–1732). They had two sons: • Charles Frederick (1728–1811) • William Louis (1732–1788)

Ancestry Princess Amalia of Nassau-Dietz 157

8. William Frederick, Count of Nassau-Dietz

4. Henry Casimir II, Count of Nassau-Dietz

9. Princess Albertine Agnes of Nassau

2. John William Friso, Prince of Orange

10. John George II, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau

5. Princess Henriëtte Amalia of Anhalt-Dessau

11. Princess Henriette Catherine of Nassau

1. Amalia of Nassau-Dietz

12. William VI, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel

6. Charles I, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel

13. Margravine Hedwig Sophia of Brandenburg

3. Landgravine Marie Louise of Hesse-Kassel

14. Jacob, Duke of Courland

7. Princess Maria Amalia of Courland

15. Margravine Louise Charlotte of Brandenburg Frederick, Hereditary Prince of Baden-Durlach 158 Frederick, Hereditary Prince of Baden-Durlach

Frederick, Hereditary Prince of Baden-Durlach Spouse(s) Amalia of Nassau-Dietz

Noble family House of Zähringen

Father Charles III William, Margrave of Baden-Durlach

Mother Magdalena Wilhelmine of Württemberg

Born 7 October 1703

Died 26 March 1732 (aged 28)

Frederick, Hereditary Prince of Baden-Durlach (7 October 1703 – 26 March 1732) was a German hereditary prince of the -Durlach. Frederick was the son of Charles III William, Margrave of Baden-Durlach, and Magdalena Wilhelmine of Württemberg (7 November 1677 - 30 October 1742), the daughter of William Louis, Duke of Württemberg. He became heir apparent when his elder brother Charles Magnus died in 1712. However, he died before his father did and therefore never came to government in Durlach. He served in the imperial army. In 1724, he was appointed colonel, in 1728, he was promoted to major general.

Marriage and descendants On 3 July 1727, Frederick married Amalia of Nassau-Dietz (born 13 October 1710, died 17 September 1777), the daughter of John William Friso, Prince of Orange. They had the following children: • Charles Frederick, Grand Duke of Baden (born 22 November 1728, died 10 June 1811), Margrave and later Duke of Baden • William Ludwig (born 14 January 1732, died 17 December 1788) William IV, Prince of Orange 159 William IV, Prince of Orange

William IV

Prince of Orange

Spouse Anne of Great Britain

House House of Orange

Father John William Friso, Prince of Orange

Mother Landgravine Marie Louise of Hesse-Kassel

Born 1 September 1711 Leeuwarden

Died 22 October 1751 (aged 40) Huis ten Bosch

William IV, Prince of Orange-Nassau (1 September 1711 – 22 October 1751), born Willem Karel Hendrik Friso, was the first hereditary stadtholder of the Netherlands.

Early life William was born in Leeuwarden, Netherlands, the son of John William Friso, Prince of Orange, head of the Frisian branch of the House of Orange-Nassau, and of his wife Landgravine Marie Louise of Hesse-Kassel (or Hesse-Cassel). He was born six weeks after the death of his father. William succeeded his father as Stadtholder of Friesland and also, under the regency of his mother until 1731, as Stadtholder of Groningen. In 1722 he was elected Stadtholder of Guelders.

Marriage and children In 1720 William was named the 549th Knight of the Order of the Garter. On 25 March 1734 he married at St. James' Palace Anne, Princess Royal, eldest daughter of King George II of Great Britain and . William and Anne had five children: •• a stillborn daughter (born 19 December 1736) •• a stillborn daughter (born 22 December 1739) • Princess Carolina of Orange-Nassau (28 February 1743 - 6 May 1787), married Karl Christian of Nassau-Weilburg •• Princess Anna of Orange-Nassau (15 November 1746 - 29 December 1746) • William V, Prince of Orange (1748–1806) William IV, Prince of Orange 160

Later life In 1739 William inherited the estates formerly owned by the Nassau-Dillenburg branch of his family, and in 1743 he inherited those formerly owned by the Nassau-Siegen branch of his family. In April 1747 the French army entered Flanders. In an effort to quell internal strife amongst the various factions, the States-General of the Netherlands appointed William to the hereditary position of General Stadtholder of all seven of the United Provinces. William and his family moved from Leeuwarden to The Hague. William first met Duke Louis Ernest of Brunswick-Lüneburg in 1747, and 2 years later appointed him field marshal of the Dutch States Army, which later led to his being one of the regents to William's heir. On 4 May 1747 he was confirmed as Hereditary Stattholder of the United Provinces (Netherlands).

William IV was considered an attractive, educated and accomplished prince in his prime. Although he had little experience in state affairs, William was at first popular with the people. He stopped the practice of indirect taxation by which independent contractors managed to make large sums for themselves. Nevertheless, he was also a Director-General of the , and his alliance with the business class deepened while the disparity between rich and

Portrait of William, 1751 poor grew. William served as General Stadtholder of all the Netherlands until his death in 1751 at The Hague. The city of Orangeburg, SC is named after him. William IV, Prince of Orange 161

Ancestry

8. William Frederick, Count of Nassau-Dietz

4. Henry Casimir II, Count of Nassau-Dietz

9. Princess Albertine Agnes of Nassau

2. John William Friso, Prince of Orange

10. John George II, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau

5. Princess Henriëtte Amalia of Anhalt-Dessau

11. Princess Henriette Catherine of Nassau

1. William IV, Prince of Orange

12. William VI, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel

6. Charles I, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel

13. Margravine Hedwig Sophia of Brandenburg

3. Landgravine Marie Louise of Hesse-Kassel

14. Jacob, Duke of Courland

7. Princess Maria Amalia of Courland

15. Margravine Louise Charlotte of Brandenburg William IV, Prince of Orange 162

External links

William IV, Prince of Orange House of Orange-Nassau Cadet branch of the House of Nassau Born: 1 September 1711 Died: 22 October 1751 Dutch nobility Preceded by Prince of Orange Vacant John William Friso 1711–1751 Title next held by William V Regnal titles Preceded by Prince of Orange-Nassau Succeeded by John William Friso Baron of Breda William V 1711–1751 Preceded by Prince of Nassau-Hadamar Francis Alexander 1739–1751 Preceded by Prince of Nassau-Dillenburg Christian 1739–1751 Preceded by Prince of Nassau-Siegen Frederick William II 1743–1751

Political offices

Preceded by Stadtholder of Titles obsolete John William Friso Friesland and Groningen merger of all stadtholderships 1711–1747 Vacant Stadtholder of Guelders Title last held by 1722–1747 William III Stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, and Overijssel 1747 New title General Stadtholder Succeeded by of the United Provinces William V 1747–1751 Anne, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange 163 Anne, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange

Princess Anne Princess Royal; Princess of Orange

Portrait by Bernard Accama, 1736

Spouse William IV, Prince of Orange

Issue

Princess Carolina of Orange-Nassau Princess Anna of Orange-Nassau William V, Prince of Orange

House

Father George II

Mother Caroline of Ansbach

Born 2 November 1709 (New Style) Palace, Hanover

Died 12 January 1759 (aged 49) The Hague

British Royalty House of Hanover

George II Anne, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange 164

Frederick, Prince of Wales Anne, Princess of Orange Princess Amelia Princess Caroline Prince William, Duke of Cumberland Mary, Landgravine of Hesse-Cassel Louise, Queen of Denmark Grandchildren Augusta, Duchess of Brunswick George III Edward, Duke of York Princess Elizabeth William Henry, Duke of Gloucester Henry, Duke of Cumberland Princess Louisa Prince Frederick Caroline Matilda, Queen of Denmark Great-grandchildren Princess Sophia of Gloucester William Frederick, Duke of Gloucester

Anne, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange (2 November 1709 – 12 January 1759) was the second child and eldest daughter of King George II of Great Britain and his consort, Caroline of Ansbach. She was the spouse of William IV, Prince of Orange, the first hereditary stadtholder of the Netherlands. Princess Anne was the second daughter of a British sovereign to hold the title Princess Royal. She was Regent of the Netherlands from 1751 until her death in 1759, exercising extensive powers on behalf of her son William V. Because of her English upbringing and family connections, she was known as an Anglophile - despite being unable to convince the Dutch Republic to enter the Seven Years' War on the side of the British.

Early life

Duchess Anne of Brunswick-Lunenburg was born at Herrenhausen Palace, Hanover, five years before her paternal grandfather, Elector George Louis, succeeded to the British throne as George I. She was christened shortly after birth at Herrenhausen Palace.[1] She was named after her paternal grandfather's second cousin Anne, Queen of Great Britain.[2]

She learned German, French and English,[3] and was taught music (including singing, harpsichord, and composition) by Georg Friedrich Händel. Händel did not like teaching, but said he would "make the only Anne with her sisters exception for Anne, flower of princesses".[4] She remained a lifelong supporter, attending his operas and subscribing to his music

She contracted and survived smallpox in 1720,[5] and two years later her mother helped to popularise the practice of variolation (an early type of immunisation against smallpox), which had been witnessed by Lady Mary Wortley Montagu and Charles Maitland in Constantinople. At the direction of Caroline, six prisoners condemned to death were offered the chance to undergo variolation instead of execution: they all survived, as did six orphan children Anne, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange 165

given the same treatment as a further test. Convinced of its medical value, the Queen had her two younger daughters, Amelia and Caroline, inoculated successfully.[6] Anne's face was scarred by the disease, and she was not considered as pretty as her two younger sisters.[7]

Princess Royal On 30 August 1727, George II created his eldest daughter Princess Royal. Charles I first bestowed this title on his eldest daughter, Mary, Princess of Orange (mother of William III), in 1642. However, the title fell from use until the reign of George II. (Princess Anne became Princess Royal during the lifetime of her aunt, Queen Sophia Dorothea of Prussia. Although the eldest daughter of a British monarch, George I, Sophia Dorothea had already married the King of Prussia eight years before her father's succession.)

Marriage A potential marriage contract between Anne and King Louis XV of France was eventually discarded when the French insisted that Anne convert to Roman Catholicism. On 25 March 1734 (New Style) in the Chapel Royal at St. James's Palace, she married William IV, Prince of Orange.[8] William had a spinal deformity, which affected his appearance, but Anne said she would marry him even "if he were a baboon".[9] She ceased to use her British style in favour of the title she gained by marriage. The music played on her wedding, This is the day was set by Händel to the princess's own words based on Psalms 45 and 118.[10] She quarreled with her brother, the Prince of Wales, about her choiceWikipedia:Please clarify. William and Anne sailed to Holland after a honeymoon at Kew. Anne soon felt homesick when her husband went on campaign in the Rhineland, and she travelled back to England believing herself to be pregnant. Eventually, her husband and father commanded her to return to Holland.[11] By April 1735, it was clear she was not with child after all.[12] In 1736, she did become pregnant, but the child (a daughter) was stillborn.[13]

Regency When her husband died at the age of 40 in 1751, Anne was appointed regent for her 3 year-old son, Prince William V. She was hard-working, but arrogant and imperious, which made her unpopular.[14] This would help William later in his tough life. The were years of increasing tension and commercial rivalry between Holland and Britain, which placed her in a difficult position.[15]

Later life She continued to act as regent until her death from dropsy in 1759, at The Hague, Netherlands, when she was replaced by her mother-in-law, Marie Louise of Hesse-Kassel, and by Duke Louis Ernest of Brunswick-Lüneburg. When she too died, Anne's daughter, Carolina, was made regent until William V turned 18 in 1766. Princess Anne, Maryland is named for her. Anne, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange 166

Titles, styles, honours and arms

Titles and styles • 2 November 1709 – 27 September 1714: Her Serene Highness Duchess Anne of Brunswick-Lüneburg • 27 September 1714 – 11 June 1727: Her Royal Highness Princess Anne[16] • 11 June 1727 – 30 August 1727: Her Royal Highness The Princess Anne • 30 August 1727 – 25 March 1734: Her Royal Highness The Princess Royal • 25 March 1734 – 22 October 1751: Her Royal Highness The Princess of Orange • 22 October 1751 – 12 January 1759: Her Royal Highness The Princess-Regent or "gouvernante"

Arms On 31 January 1719, as a grandchild of the sovereign, Anne was granted use of the arms of the realm, differenced by a label argent of five points, each bearing a cross gules. On 30 August 1727, as a child of the sovereign, Anne's difference changed to a label argent of three points, each bearing a cross gules.[17]

Issue The Prince and Princess of Orange-Nassau had a stillborn son, in 1735. Their other children were:

Name Birth Death Notes

Stillborn Daughter 19 December 1736 19 December 1736

Stillborn Daughter 22 December 1739 22 December 1739

Carolina, Princess-Regent of Friesland 28 February 1743 6 May 1787 married 1760, Karl Christian of Nassau-Weilburg; had issue

Anna of Orange-Nassau 15 November 1746 29 December 1746

Willem V Batavus 8 March 1748 9 April 1806 married, 1767, Princess Wilhelmina of Prussia; had issue

References

[1] Yvonne's Royalty Home Page: Royal Christenings (http:/ / users. uniserve. com/ ~canyon/ christenings. htm#Christenings) [2][2]Van der Kiste, p. 24 [3][3]Van der Kiste, p. 84 [4][4]Van der Kiste, p. 85 [5][5]Van der Kiste, p. 73 [6][6]Van der Kiste, p. 83 [7][7]Van der Kiste, p. 78 [8][8]Van der Kiste, p. 132 [9][9]Van der Kiste, p. 131 [10][10]Van der Kiste, p. 133 [11] Van der Kiste, pp. 135–136 [12][12]Van der Kiste, p. 136 [13][13]Van der Kiste, p. 150 [14][14]Van der Kiste, p. 198 [15][15]Van der Kiste, p. 209

[16] The London Gazette (http:/ / www. londongazette. co. uk/ ViewPDF. aspx?pdf=6148) refers to her before her father's accession as "Princess Anne"

[17] Marks of Cadency in the British Royal Family (http:/ / www. heraldica. org/ topics/ britain/ cadency. htm) • Van der Kiste, John (1997) George II and Queen Caroline. Stroud, Gloucestershire: Sutton Publishing. ISBN 0-7509-1321-5 Anne, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange 167

Anne, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange House of Hanover Cadet branch of the House of Welf Born: 2 November 1709 Died: 12 January 1759 Dutch royalty Vacant Princess consort of Vacant Title last held by Orange Title next held by 1734–1751 Marie Louise of Hesse-Kassel Wilhelmina of Prussia British royalty Vacant Princess Royal Vacant Title last held by 1727–1759 Title next held by Princess Mary Princess Charlotte

George II of Great Britain

George II George sitting on a throne

Portrait by Thomas Hudson, 1744

King of Great Britain and Ireland (more...)

Reign 11/22O.S./N.S. June 1727 – 25 October 1760

Coronation 11/22O.S./N.S. October 1727

Predecessor George I

Successor George III

Prime Ministers

Spouse Caroline of Ansbach

Detail

Issue

Frederick, Prince of Wales Anne, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange Princess Amelia Princess Caroline Prince George William Prince William, Duke of Cumberland Princess Mary, Landgravine of Hesse Louisa, Queen of Denmark and

Full name

George Augustus German: Georg August

House House of Hanover

Father George I

Mother Sophia Dorothea of George II of Great Britain 168

Born 30 October / 9 November 1683O.S./N.S. [1] [2] Herrenhausen Palace, or Leine Palace, Hanover, Electorate of Brunswick-Luneburg, Holy Roman Empire

Died 25 October 1760 (aged 76) Kensington Palace, London, England,

Burial 11 November 1760 Westminster Abbey, London

Signature

Religion Lutheran

George II (George Augustus; German: Georg II. August; 30 October / 9 November 1683O.S./N.S. – 25 October 1760) was King of Great Britain and Ireland, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg (Hanover) and Archtreasurer and Prince-elector of the Holy Roman Empire from 11 June 1727 (O.S.) until his death. George was the last British monarch born outside Great Britain: he was born and brought up in . In 1701, his grandmother, , became second in line to the British throne after about 50 Catholics higher in line were excluded by the Act of Settlement, which restricted the succession to Protestants. After the deaths of Sophia and Anne, Queen of Great Britain, in 1714, his father George I, Elector of Hanover, inherited the British throne. In the first years of his father's reign as king, George was associated with opposition politicians, until they re-joined the governing party in 1720. As king from 1727, George exercised little control over British domestic policy, which was largely controlled by the Parliament of Great Britain. As elector, he spent 12 summers in Hanover, where he had more direct control over government policy. He had a difficult relationship with his eldest son, Frederick, who supported the parliamentary opposition. During the War of the Austrian Succession, George participated at the Battle of Dettingen in 1743, and thus became the last British monarch to lead an army in battle. In 1745, supporters of the Catholic claimant to the British throne, James Francis Edward Stuart ("The Old Pretender"), led by James's son ("The Young Pretender" or "Bonnie Prince Charlie"), attempted and failed to depose George in the last of the Jacobite rebellions. After Prince Frederick died unexpectedly in 1751, George's grandson, George III, became heir apparent and ultimately king. For two centuries after the death of George II, history tended to view him with disdain, concentrating on his mistresses, short temper, and boorishness. Since then, some scholars have re-assessed his legacy and conclude that he held and exercised influence in foreign policy and military appointments. George II of Great Britain 169

Early life

George was born in the city of Hanover in Germany, and was the son of George Louis, Hereditary Prince of Brunswick-Lüneburg (later King George I of Great Britain), and his wife, Sophia Dorothea of Celle. Both of George's parents committed adultery, and in 1694 their marriage was dissolved on the pretext that Sophia had abandoned her husband.[3] She was confined to Ahlden House and denied access to her two children, George and his sister Sophia Dorothea of Hanover, who probably never saw their mother again.[4]

George spoke only French, the language of diplomacy and the court, until the age of four, after which he was taught German by one of his tutors, Johann Hilmar .[5] In addition to French and German, he was also schooled in English and Italian, and studied genealogy, military history and battle tactics with particular diligence.[6] George's second cousin once removed, Queen Anne, ascended the George as a young boy with his mother, Sophia Dorothea of Celle, and his sister, Sophia thrones of England, Scotland and Ireland in 1702. She had no surviving Dorothea of Hanover children, and by the Act of Settlement 1701 the English Parliament designated Anne's closest Protestant blood relations, George's grandmother Sophia and her descendants, as Anne's heirs in England and Ireland. Consequently, after his grandmother and father, George was third in line to succeed Anne in two of her three realms. He was naturalized as an English subject in 1705 by the Sophia Naturalization Act, and in 1706 he was made a Knight of the Garter and created Duke and Marquess of Cambridge, Earl of Milford Haven, Viscount Northallerton and Baron Tewkesbury in the .[7] England and Scotland united in 1707 to form the Kingdom of Great Britain, and jointly accepted the succession as laid down by the English Act of Settlement.[8]

Marriage George's father did not want his son to enter into a loveless arranged marriage as he had, and wanted him to have the opportunity of meeting his bride before any formal arrangements were made. Negotiations from 1702 for the hand of Princess Hedvig Sophia of Sweden, Dowager Duchess and regent of Holstein-Gottorp, came to nothing.[9] In June 1705, under the false name of "Monsieur de Busch", George visited the Ansbach court at their summer residence in Triesdorf to investigate incognito a marriage prospect: Caroline of Ansbach, the former ward of his aunt Queen Sophia Charlotte of Prussia. The English envoy to Hanover, Edmund Poley, reported that George was so taken by "the good character he had of her that he would not think of anybody else".[10] A marriage contract was concluded by the end of July.[11] On 22 August / 2 September 1705O.S./N.S. Caroline arrived in Hanover for her wedding, which was held the same evening in the chapel at Herrenhausen.[] George was keen to participate in the war against France in Flanders, but his father refused permission for him to join the army in an active role until he had a son and heir.[12] In early 1707, George's hopes were fulfilled when Caroline gave birth to a son, Frederick.[13] In July, Caroline fell seriously ill with smallpox, and George caught the infection after staying by her side devotedly during her illness.[14] They both recovered. In 1708, George participated in the Battle of Oudenarde in the vanguard of the Hanoverian cavalry; his horse and a colonel immediately beside him were killed, but George survived unharmed.[15] The British commander, Marlborough, wrote that George "distinguished himself extremely, charging at the head of and animating by his example [the Hanoverian] troops, who played a good part in this happy victory".[16] Between 1709 and 1713, George and Caroline had three more children, all : Anne, Amelia, and Caroline.[17] George II of Great Britain 170

By 1714, Queen Anne's health had declined, and British Whigs, politicians who supported the Hanoverian succession, thought it prudent for one of the Hanoverians to live in England, to safeguard the Protestant succession on Anne's death. As George was a peer of the realm (as Duke of Cambridge), it was suggested that he be summoned to Parliament to sit in the House of Lords. Both Anne and George's father refused to support the plan, although George, Caroline and Sophia were all in favour.[18] George did not go. Within the year, both Sophia and Anne were dead, and George's father was king.[19]

Prince of Wales

Quarrel with the king

George and his father sailed for England from The Hague on 16/27 September and arrived at Greenwich two days later.[20] The following day, they formally entered London in a ceremonial procession.[21] George was given the title of Prince of Wales. Caroline followed her husband to Britain in October with their daughters, while Frederick remained in Hanover to be brought up by private tutors.[22] London was like nothing George had seen before: it was 50 times larger than London, c. 1710 Hanover,# and the crowd was estimated at up to one and a half million spectators.[23] George courted popularity with voluble expressions of praise for the English, and claimed that he had no drop of blood that was not English.[24]

In July 1716, the king returned to Hanover for six months, and George was given limited powers, as "Guardian and Lieutenant of the Realm", to govern in his father's absence.[25] He made a royal progress through Chichester, Havant, and Guildford in southern England.[26] Spectators were allowed to see him dine in public at Hampton Court Palace.[27] An attempt on his life at Drury Lane Theatre, in which one person was shot dead before the assailant was brought under control, boosted his high public profile.[28] His father distrusted or was jealous of George's popularity, which contributed to the development of a poor relationship between them.[29] The birth in 1717 of George's second son, Prince George William, proved to be a catalyst for a family quarrel; the king, supposedly following custom, appointed the Lord Chamberlain, the Duke of Newcastle, as one of the baptismal sponsors of the child. The king was angered when George, who disliked Newcastle, verbally insulted the duke at the christening, which the duke misunderstood as a challenge to a duel.§ George and Caroline were temporarily confined to their apartments on the order of the king, who subsequently banished his son from St James's Palace, the king's residence.[30] The Prince and Princess of Wales left court, but their children remained in the care of the king.[31] George and Caroline missed their children, and were desperate to see them. On one occasion they secretly visited the palace without the approval of the king; Caroline fainted and George "cried like a child".[32] The king partially relented and permitted them to visit once a week, though he later allowed Caroline unconditional access.[33] The following February, George William died, with his father by his side.[34]

Political opposition Banned from the palace and shunned by his own father, for the next several years the Prince of Wales was identified with opposition to George I's policies,[35] which included measures designed to increase religious freedom in Great Britain and expand Hanover's German territories at the expense of Sweden.[36] His new London residence, Leicester House, became a frequent meeting place for his father's political opponents, including Sir and Viscount Townshend, who had left the government in 1717.[37] George II of Great Britain 171

The king visited Hanover again from May to November 1719. Instead of appointing George to the guardianship, he established a regency council.[38] In 1720, Walpole encouraged the king and his son to reconcile, for the sake of public unity, which they did half-heartedly.[39] Walpole and Townshend returned to political office, and rejoined the ministry.[40] George was soon disillusioned with the terms of the reconciliation; his three daughters who were in the care of the king were not returned and he was still barred from becoming regent during the king's absences.[41] He came to believe that Walpole had tricked him into the rapprochement as part of a scheme to regain power. Over the next few years, he and Caroline lived quietly, avoiding overt political activity. They had three more children: William, Mary and Louisa, who were brought up at Leicester House and Richmond Lodge, George's summer residence.[42] In 1721, the economic disaster of the South Sea Bubble allowed Walpole to rise to the pinnacle of government.[43] Walpole and his Whig Party were dominant in politics, as the king feared that the Tories would not support the succession laid down in the Act of Settlement.[44] The power of the Whigs was so great that the Tories would not come to hold power for another half-century.[45]

Early reign

George I died on 11/22 June 1727 during one of his visits to Hanover, and George II succeeded him as king and elector at the age of 43. The new king decided not to travel to Germany for his father's funeral, which far from bringing criticism led to praise from the English who considered it proof of his fondness for England.[46] He suppressed his father's will because it attempted to split the Hanoverian succession between George II's future grandsons rather than vest all the domains (both in Britain and Hanover) in a single person. Both British and Hanoverian ministers considered the will unlawful, as George I did not have the legal power to determine the succession personally.[47] Critics supposed that George II hid the will to avoid paying out his father's legacies.[48]

George II was crowned at Westminster Abbey on 11/22 October 1727. The composer George Frideric Handel was commissioned to write four new anthems for the coronation, including Zadok the Priest.[49] It was widely believed that George would dismiss Walpole, who had distressed him by joining his father's government, and replace him with Sir Spencer Compton.[50] George asked Compton, rather than Walpole,

Portrait by Charles Jervas, c. 1727 to write his first speech as king for him, but Compton asked Walpole to draft it. Caroline advised George to retain Walpole, who continued to gain royal favour by securing a generous civil list (a fixed annual amount set by Parliament for the king's official expenditure) of £800,000.[51] Walpole commanded a substantial majority in Parliament and George had little choice but to retain him or risk ministerial instability.[52] Compton was ennobled as Lord Wilmington the following year.[53] George II of Great Britain 172

Walpole directed domestic policy, and after the resignation of his brother-in-law Townshend in 1730 also controlled George's foreign policy.[54] Historians generally believe that George played an honorific role in Britain, and closely followed the advice of Walpole and senior ministers who made the major decisions.[55] Although the king was eager for war in Europe, his ministers were more cautious.[56] The Anglo-Spanish War was brought to an end, and George unsuccessfully pressed Walpole to join the War of the Polish Succession on the side of the German states.[57] In April 1733, Walpole withdrew an unpopular excise bill that had gathered strong opposition, including from within his own party. George lent support to Walpole by dismissing the bill's opponents from their court offices.[58]

Family problems

George II's relationship with his son and heir apparent, Frederick, Prince of Wales, worsened during the . Frederick had been left behind in Germany when his parents came to England, and they had not met for 14 years. In 1728, he was brought to England, and swiftly Portrait by Enoch Seeman, c. 1730 became a figurehead of the political opposition.[59] When George visited Hanover in the summers of 1729, 1732 and 1735, he left his wife to chair the regency council in Britain rather than his son.[60] Meanwhile, rivalry between George II and his brother-in-law Frederick William I of Prussia led to tension along the Prussian–Hanoverian border, which eventually culminated in the mobilization of troops in the border zone and suggestions of a duel between the two kings. Negotiations for a marriage between the Prince of Wales and Frederick William's daughter Wilhelmine dragged on for years but neither side would make the concessions demanded by the other, and the idea was shelved.[61] Instead, the prince married Princess Augusta of Saxe-Gotha in April 1736.[62]

In May 1736, George returned to Hanover, which resulted in unpopularity in England; a satirical notice was even pinned to the gates of St James's Palace decrying his absence. "Lost or strayed out of this house", it read, "a man who has left a wife and six children on the parish."[63] The king made plans to return in the face of inclement December weather; when his ship was caught in a storm, gossip swept London that he had drowned. Eventually, in January 1737, he arrived back in England.[64] Immediately he fell ill, with piles and a fever, and withdrew to his bed. The Prince of Wales put it about that the king was dying, with the result that George insisted on getting up and attending a social event to disprove the gossip-mongers.[65] When the Prince of Wales applied to Parliament for an increase in his allowance, an open quarrel broke out. The king, who had a reputation for meanness,[66] offered a private settlement, which Frederick rejected. Parliament voted against the measure, but George reluctantly increased his son's allowance on the advice of Walpole.[67] Further friction between them followed when Frederick excluded the king and queen from the birth of his daughter in July 1737 by bundling his wife, who was in labour, into a coach and driving off in the middle of the night.[68] George banished him and his family from the royal court, much like the punishment his own father had brought upon him with the exception that he allowed Frederick to retain custody of his children.[69] Soon afterwards, George's wife Caroline died on 20 November 1737 (O.S.). He was deeply affected by her death, and to the surprise of many displayed "a tenderness of which the world thought him before utterly incapable".[70] On her deathbed she told her sobbing husband to remarry, to which he replied, "Non, j'aurai des maîtresses!" (French for "No, I shall have mistresses!").[71] It was common knowledge that George had already had mistresses during his marriage, and he had kept Caroline informed about them.[72] Henrietta Howard, later Countess of Suffolk, had George II of Great Britain 173

moved to Hanover with her husband during the reign of Queen Anne,[73] and she had been one of Caroline's women of the bedchamber. She was his mistress from before the accession of George I until November 1734. She was followed by Amalie von Wallmoden, later Countess of Yarmouth, whose son, Johann Ludwig von Wallmoden, may have been fathered by George. Johann Ludwig was born while Amalie was still married to her husband, and George did not acknowledge him publicly as his own son.[74]

War and rebellion Against Walpole's wishes, but to George's delight, Britain once again entered into war, the War of Jenkins' Ear, with Spain in 1739.[75] Britain's war with Spain became part of the War of the Austrian Succession when a major European war broke out upon the death of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI in 1740. At dispute was the right of Charles's daughter, , to succeed to his Austrian dominions.[76] George spent the summers of 1740 and 1741 in Hanover, where he was more able to intervene directly in European diplomatic affairs in his capacity as elector.[77] Prince Frederick campaigned actively for the opposition in the British general election, 1741, and Walpole was unable to secure a stable majority. Walpole attempted to buy off the prince with the promise of an increased allowance and offered to pay off his debts, but Frederick refused.[78] With his support eroded, Walpole retired in 1742 after over 20 years in office. He was replaced by Spencer Compton, Lord Wilmington, whom George had originally considered for the premiership in 1727. Lord Wilmington, however, was a figurehead;[79] actual power was held by others, such as Lord Carteret, George's favourite minister after Walpole. When Wilmington died in 1743, Henry Pelham took his place at the head of the government.[80] The pro-war faction was led by Carteret, who claimed that French power would increase if Maria Theresa failed to succeed to the Austrian throne. George agreed to send 12,000 hired Hessian and Danish mercenaries to Europe, ostensibly to support Maria Theresa. Without conferring with his British ministers, George stationed them in Hanover to prevent enemy French troops from marching into the electorate.[82] The British army had not fought in a major European war in over 20 years, and the government had badly neglected its upkeep.[83] George had pushed for greater professionalism in the ranks, George II envisioned at the Battle of Dettingen in and promotion by merit rather than by sale of commissions, but 1743 by John Wootton without much success.[84] An allied force of Austrian, British, Dutch, Hanoverian and Hessian troops engaged the French at the Battle of Dettingen on 16/27 June 1743. George personally accompanied them, leading them to victory, thus becoming the last British monarch to lead troops into battle.[85] Though his actions in the battle were admired, the war became unpopular with the British public, who felt that the king and Carteret were subordinating British interests to Hanoverian ones.[86] Carteret lost support, and to George's dismay resigned in 1744.[87]

Tension grew between the Pelham ministry and George, as he continued to take advice from Carteret and rejected pressure from his other ministers to include William Pitt the Elder in the Cabinet, which would have broadened the government's support base.[88] The king disliked Pitt because he had previously opposed government policy and George II of Great Britain 174

attacked measures seen as pro-Hanoverian.[89] In February 1746, Pelham and his followers resigned. George asked Lord Bath and Carteret to form an administration, but after less than 48 hours they returned the seals of office, unable to secure sufficient parliamentary support. Pelham returned to office triumphant, and George was forced to appoint Pitt to the ministry.[90]

George's French opponents encouraged rebellion by the Jacobites, the supporters of the Roman Catholic claimant to the British throne, James Francis Edward Stuart, often known as the Old Pretender. Stuart was the son of James II, who had been deposed in 1688 and replaced by his

Protestant relations. Two prior rebellions in 1715 and 1719 had failed. Half-Crown of George II, 1746. The inscription In July 1745, the Old Pretender's son, Charles Edward Stuart, popularly reads GEORGIUS II DEI GRATIA (George II by known as Bonnie Prince Charlie or the Young Pretender, landed in the Grace of God). The word LIMA under the king's head signifies that the coin was struck from Scotland, where support for his cause was highest. George, who was [91] silver seized from the off summering in Hanover, returned to London at the end of August. Lima, Peru, during the War of the Austrian [81] The Jacobites defeated British forces in September at the Battle of Succession. Prestonpans, and then moved south into England. The Jacobites failed to gain further support, and the French reneged on a promise of help. Losing morale, the Jacobites retreated back into Scotland.[92] On 16/27 April 1746, Charles faced George's military-minded son Prince William, Duke of Cumberland, in the , the last pitched battle fought on British soil. The ravaged Jacobite troops were routed by the government army. Charles escaped to France, but many of his supporters were caught and executed. was all but crushed; no further serious attempt was made at restoring the House of Stuart.[93] The War of the Austrian Succession continued until 1748, when Maria Theresa was recognized as Archduchess of Austria. The peace was celebrated by a fête in Green Park, London, for which Handel composed Music for the Royal Fireworks.[94]

Later life

In the general election of 1747, the Prince of Wales again campaigned actively for the opposition but Pelham's party won easily.[95] Like his father before him, the Prince entertained opposition figures at his house in Leicester Square.[96] When the Prince of Wales died suddenly in 1751, his eldest son, Prince George, became heir apparent. The king commiserated with the Dowager Princess of Wales and wept with her.[97] As her son would not reach the age of majority until 1756, a new British Regency Act made her regent, assisted by a council led by the Duke of Cumberland, in case of George II's death.[98] The king also made a new will, which provided for Cumberland to be sole regent in Hanover.[99] After the death of his daughter Louisa at the end of the year, George lamented, "This has been a fatal year for my family. I lost my eldest son – but I am glad of it ... Now [Louisa] is gone. I know I did not love my children when they were young: I hated to have them

Portrait by John Shackleton, in or after 1755 running into my room; but now I love them as well as most ."[100]

Seven Years' War George II of Great Britain 175

In 1754, Pelham died, to be succeeded by his elder brother, the Duke of Newcastle. Hostility between France and Britain, particularly over the colonization of North America, continued.[101] Fearing a French invasion of Hanover, George aligned himself with Prussia, the enemy of Austria. Russia and France allied with their former enemy Austria. A French invasion of the British-held island of Minorca lead to the outbreak of the Seven Years' War in 1756. Public disquiet over British failures at the start of the conflict led to the resignation of Newcastle and the appointment of the Duke of Devonshire as prime minister and William Pitt the Elder as Secretary of State for the Southern Department.[102] In April the following year, George dismissed Pitt, in an attempt to construct an administration more to his liking. Over the succeeding three months attempts to form another stable ministerial combination failed. In June, James Waldegrave, 2nd Earl Waldegrave, held the seals of office for only four days. By the start of July, Pitt was recalled, and the Duke of Newcastle returned as prime minister. As Secretary of State, Pitt guided policy relating to the war. Great Britain, Hanover and Prussia and their allies Hesse-Kassel and Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel were pitted against other European powers, including France, Austria, Russia, Sweden and Saxony. The war involved multiple theatres from Europe to North America and India, where British dominance increased with the victories of Robert Clive over French forces and their allies at the Battle of Arcot and the Battle of Plassey.[103] George's son the Duke of Cumberland commanded the king's troops in Northern Germany. In 1757, Hanover was invaded and George gave Cumberland full powers to conclude a separate peace.[104] By September, however, he was furious at Cumberland's negotiated settlement, which he felt greatly favoured the French.[105] George said his son had "ruined me and disgraced himself".[106] Cumberland, by his own choice, resigned his military offices,[107] and George revoked the peace deal on the grounds that the French had infringed it by disarming Hessian troops after the ceasefire.[108] In the annus mirabilis of 1759 British forces captured Quebec and Guadeloupe. A French plan to invade Britain was defeated following naval battles at Lagos and Quiberon Bay,[109] and a resumed French advance on Hanover was halted by a joint British–Hanoverian force at the .[110]

Death By October 1760, George II was blind in one eye, and hard of hearing.[111] On the morning of 25 October, he rose as usual at 6:00 am, drank a cup of hot chocolate, and went to his close stool, alone. After a few minutes, his valet heard a loud crash. He entered the room to find the king on the floor.[112] The king was lifted into his bed, and Princess Amelia was sent for, but before she reached him, he was dead. At the age of nearly 77, he had lived longer than any of his English predecessors.[113] A post-mortem revealed that the right ventricle of the king's heart had ruptured as the result of an incipient aortic aneurysm.[114] George II was succeeded by his grandson George III, and was buried on 11 November in Westminster Abbey. He left instructions for the sides of his and his wife's coffins to be removed so that their remains could mingle.[115] George II of Great Britain 176

Legacy

George donated the royal library to the British Museum in 1757, four years after the museum's foundation.[117] He had no interest in reading,[118] or in the arts and sciences, and preferred to spend his leisure hours stag-hunting on horseback or playing cards.[119] In 1737, he founded the Georg August University of Göttingen, the first university in the , and visited it in 1748.[120] The asteroid 359 Georgia was named in his honour at the University in 1902. He served as the Chancellor of Trinity College, Dublin, between 1716 and 1727, and in 1754 issued the charter for King's College in , which later become Columbia University. The province of Georgia, founded by royal charter in 1732, was named after him.[121]

During George II's reign British interests expanded throughout the world, the Jacobite challenge to the Hanoverian dynasty was extinguished, and the power of ministers and Parliament in Britain Statue by John Van Nost erected in 1753 in [116] Golden Square, London became well-established. Nevertheless, in the memoirs of contemporaries such as Lord Hervey and , George is depicted as a weak buffoon, governed by his wife and ministers.[122] Biographies of George written during the nineteenth and first part of the twentieth century relied on these biased accounts.[123] Since the last quarter of the twentieth century, scholarly analysis of surviving correspondence has indicated that George was not as ineffective as previously thought.[124] Letters from ministers are annotated by George with pertinent remarks and demonstrate that he had a grasp of and interest in foreign policy in particular.[125] He was often able to prevent the appointment of ministers or commanders he disliked, or sideline them into lesser offices.[126] This academic re-assessment of George II, however, has not totally eliminated the popular perception of him as a "faintly ludicrous king".[127] His parsimony, for example, may have opened him to ridicule, but his biographers observe that parsimony is preferable to extravagance.[128] Lord Charlemont excused George's short temper by explaining that sincerity of feeling is better than deception, "His temper was warm and impetuous, but he was good-natured and sincere. Unskilled in the royal talent of dissimulation, he always was what he appeared to be. He might offend, but he never deceived."[129] Lord Waldegrave wrote, "I am thoroughly convinced that hereafter, when time shall have wore away those specks and blemishes which sully the brightest characters, and from which no man is totally exempt, he will be numbered amongst those patriot kings, under whose government the people have enjoyed the greatest happiness".[130] George may not have played a strong role in history, but he was influential at times and he upheld constitutional government.[131] Elizabeth Montagu said of him, "With him our laws and liberties were safe, he possessed in a great degree the confidence of his people and the respect of foreign governments; and a certain steadiness of character made him of great consequence in these unsettled times ... His character would not afford subject for epic poetry, but will look well in the sober page of history."[132]

Titles, styles, honours and arms George II of Great Britain 177

Royal styles of George II of Great Britain

Reference style His Majesty

Spoken style Your Majesty

[133] Alternative style Sir

Titles and styles In Britain: • From 9 November 1706 (O.S.): Duke and Marquess of Cambridge, Earl of Milford Haven, Viscount Northallerton and Baron of Tewkesbury.[134] • 1 August 1714 (O.S.) – 27 September 1714 (O.S.): His Royal Highness George Augustus, Prince of Great Britain, Electoral Prince of Brunswick-Lüneburg, Duke of Cornwall and Rothesay, etc.[135] • 27 September 1714 (O.S.) – 11/22 June 1727: His Royal Highness The Prince of Wales, etc. • 11/22 June 1727 – 25 October 1760: His Majesty The King. George II's full style was "George the Second, by the Grace of God, King of Great Britain, France and Ireland, Defender of the Faith, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, Archtreasurer and Prince-Elector of the Holy Roman Empire".[136]

Arms When George became Prince of Wales in 1714, he was granted the royal arms with an inescutcheon of gules plain in the Hanoverian quarter differenced overall by a label of three points argent. The arms included the royal crest with the single arched coronet of his rank, and the royal supporters charged on the shoulder with a similar label. As king, he used the royal arms as used by his father undifferenced.[137]

Arms of George as Crown Prince of Hanover 1698–1714 George II of Great Britain 178

Coat of Arms as the Prince of Wales 1714–1727

Coat of Arms of George II as King of Great Britain 1727–1760

Issue Caroline's ten pregnancies resulted in eight live births. One of their children died in infancy, and seven lived to adulthood.[138] George II of Great Britain 179

Name Birth Death Notes

Frederick, Prince of Wales 1 February 1707 31 March 1751 married 1736, Princess Augusta of Saxe-Gotha; had issue, including the future George III

Anne, Princess Royal 2 November 12 January 1759 married 1734, William IV, Prince of Orange; had issue 1709

Princess Amelia 10 June 1711 31 October 1786

Princess Caroline 10 June 1713 28 December 1757

Stillborn son 20 November 20 November 1716 1716

Prince George William 13 November 17 February died in infancy 1717 1718

Prince William, Duke of 26 April 1721 31 October 1765 Cumberland

Princess Mary 5 March 1723 14 January 1772 married 1740, Frederick II, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel; had issue

Princess Louisa 18 December 19 December married 1743, Frederick V, King of Denmark and Norway; had issue 1724 1751

Dates in this table are New Style

Ancestry

Notes • ^O.S./N.S. Over the course of George's life, two calendars were used: the Old Style Julian calendar and the New Style Gregorian calendar. Hanover switched from the Julian to the Gregorian calendar on 19 February (O.S.) / 1 March (N.S.) 1700. Great Britain switched on 3/14 September 1752. In this article, individual dates before September 1752 are indicated as either O.S. or N.S. or both. All dates after September 1752 are N.S. only. All years are assumed to start from 1 January and not 25 March, which was the English New Year. • ^# Hanover had about 1,800 houses, whereas London had 100,000.[141] • ^§ George shook his fist at Newcastle and said "You are a rascal; I shall find you out!", which the duke apparently misheard as "You are a rascal; I shall fight you!"[142]

Sources

[1][1]Cannon. [2][2]Thompson, p. 10. [3][3]Van der Kiste, p. 6. [4] Black, George II, pp. 35–36; Thompson, p. 19; Van der Kiste, p. 7. [5][5]Thompson, p. 16. [6][6]Trench, p. 7; Van der Kiste, p. 9. [7] Thompson, pp. 35–36.

[8] Union with Scotland Act 1706 (http:/ / www. legislation. gov. uk/ aep/ Ann/ 6/ 11/ contents) and Union with England Act 1707 (http:/ / www.

legislation. gov. uk/ aosp/ 1707/ 7/ contents), The National Archives, retrieved 20 September 2011. [9][9]Thompson, p. 28. [10][10]Van der Kiste, p. 15. [11][11]Thompson, p. 30; Van der Kiste, p. 16. [12][12]Thompson, p. 31; Van der Kiste, p. 18. [13][13]Van der Kiste, p. 19. [14][14]Van der Kiste, p. 21. [15][15]Thompson, p. 32; Trench, p. 18; Van der Kiste, p. 22. George II of Great Britain 180

[16][16]Van der Kiste, p. 23. [17][17]Thompson, p. 37. [18][18]Van der Kiste, p. 30. [19][19]Thompson, p. 38. [20][20]Van der Kiste, p. 36. [21][21]Trench, p. 38; Van der Kiste, p. 37. [22] Thompson, pp. 39–40; Trench, p. 39. [23][23]Van der Kiste, p. 37. [24][24]Trench, p. 55; Van der Kiste, p. 44. [25] Trench, pp. 63–65; Van der Kiste, p. 55. [26][26]Van der Kiste, p. 59. [27] Black, George II, p. 45; Thompson, p. 47. [28][28]Van der Kiste, p. 61. [29][29]Trench, p. 75; Van der Kiste, p. 61. [30][30]Trench, p. 77. [31] Black, George II, p. 46; Thompson, p. 53; Trench, p. 78. [32][32]Van der Kiste, p. 66. [33] Van der Kiste, pp. 66–67. [34][34]Trench, p. 80. [35][35]Trench, pp. 67, 87. [36] Thompson, pp. 48–50, 55. [37][37]Trench, pp. 79, 82. [38][38]Van der Kiste, p. 71. [39] Thompson, p. 57; Trench, pp. 88–90; Van der Kiste, pp. 72–74. [40] Black, George II, p. 52; Thompson, p. 58; Trench, p. 89. [41] Trench, pp. 88–89. [42] Black, George II, p. 54; Thompson, pp. 58–59. [43] Trench, pp. 104–105. [44] Trench, pp. 106–107. [45][45]Thompson, p. 45; Trench, p. 107. [46][46]Van der Kiste, p. 97. [47] Trench, pp. 130–131. [48] Black, George II, p. 88; Cannon; Trench, pp. 130–131. [49] Black, George II, p. 77. [50] Black, George II, p. 80; Trench, p. 132. [51] Trench, pp. 132–133. [52] Black, George II, pp. 81–84; Black, Walpole in Power, pp. 29–31, 53, 61. [53][53]Van der Kiste, p. 95. [54][54]Trench, p. 149. [55][55]Thompson, p. 92. [56] Black, George II, p. 95. [57] Trench, pp. 173–174; Van der Kiste, p. 138. [58] Black, George II, pp. 141–143; Thompson, pp. 102–103; Trench, pp. 166–167. [59] Trench, pp. 141–142; Van der Kiste, pp. 115–116. [60] Thompson, pp. 85–86; Van der Kiste, pp. 118, 126, 139. [61][61]Van der Kiste, p. 118. [62][62]Trench, p. 179. [63] Trench, pp. 182–184; Van der Kiste, pp. 149–150. [64] Trench, p. 185–187; Van der Kiste, p. 152. [65][65]Van der Kiste, p. 153. [66] Black, George II, p. 136; Thompson, pp. 7, 64; Trench, p. 150. [67] Trench, pp. 189–190; Van der Kiste, pp. 153–154. [68] Thompson, p. 120; Trench, p. 192; Van der Kiste, pp. 155–157. [69][69]Trench, p. 196; Van der Kiste, p. 158. [70][70]Hervey's Memoirs, vol. III, p. 916, quoted in Thompson, p. 124, and Van der Kiste, p. 165. [71][71]Thompson, p. 124; Trench, p. 199. [72][72]Thompson, p. 92; Trench, pp. 175, 181. [73][73]Van der Kiste, pp. 25, 137. [74] Black, George II, p. 157; Kilburn; Weir, p. 284. George II of Great Britain 181

[75] Trench, pp. 205–206. [76][76]Trench, p. 210. [77][77]Thompson, pp. 133, 139. [78] Black, George II, p. 174; Trench, p. 212. [79] Black, George II, p. 86. [80][80]Thompson, p. 150.

[81] "Silver 'Lima' crown (5 shillings) of George II" (http:/ / www. britishmuseum. org/ explore/ highlights/ highlight_objects/ cm/ s/

silver_lima_crown_5_shillings. aspx), British Museum, retrieved 26 August 2011 Archive (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20110429230829/

http:/ / www. britishmuseum. org/ explore/ highlights/ highlight_objects/ cm/ s/ silver_lima_crown_5_shillings. aspx) [82] Trench, pp. 211–212. [83] Trench, pp. 206–209. [84] Black, George II, p. 111; Trench, pp. 136, 208; Van der Kiste, p. 173. [85] Thompson, p. 148; Trench, pp. 217–223. [86] Black, George II, pp. 181–184; Van der Kiste, pp. 179–180. [87] Black, George II, pp. 185–186; Thompson, p. 160; Van der Kiste, p. 181. [88] Black, George II, pp. 190–193; Thompson, pp. 162, 169; Trench, pp. 234–235. [89] Black, George II, pp. 164, 184, 195. [90] Black, George II, pp. 190–193; Cannon; Trench, pp. 234–235. [91][91]Van der Kiste, p. 184. [92] Black, George II, pp. 190–191. [93] Van der Kiste, pp. 186–187. [94] Thompson, pp. 187–189. [95] Black, George II, p. 199; Trench, p. 243; Van der Kiste, p. 188. [96][96]Van der Kiste, p. 189. [97][97]Thompson, p. 208; Trench, p. 247. [98] Black, George II, pp. 207–211; Thompson, p. 209; Trench, p. 249; Van der Kiste, p. 195. [99][99]Thompson, p. 211. [100] Horace Walpole's memoirs, vol. I, p. 152, quoted in Thompson, p. 213 and Trench, p. 250. [101] Thompson, pp. 233–238. [102] Black, George II, pp. 231–232; Thompson, p. 252; Trench, pp. 271–274. [103][103]Ashley, p. 677. [104] Thompson, pp. 265–266; Trench, p. 283. [105][105]Thompson, p. 268; Trench, p. 284. [106][106]Horace Walpole's memoirs, vol. III, p. 61, quoted in Trench, p. 286. [107][107]Thompson, p. 276; Trench, p. 286. [108][108]Thompson, p. 270; Trench, p. 287. [109] Trench, pp. 293–296. [110] Thompson, pp. 282–283. [111][111]Thompson, p. 275; Trench, p. 292; Van der Kiste, p. 212. [112] Thompson, pp. 289–290; Van der Kiste, p. 213. [113][113]Van der Kiste, p. 213.

[114] Nicholls, Frank (1761) "Observations concerning the body of His Late Majesty" (http:/ / books. google. com/

books?id=bYWNFD7xRXkC& pg=PA265), Philos Trans Lond 52: 265–274. [115] Black, George II, p. 253; Thompson, p. 290. [116][116]Van der Kiste, between pp. 150 and 151. [117] Black, George II, pp. 68, 127. [118] Black, George II, p. 127; Thompson, pp. 97–98; Trench, p. 153. [119] Black, George II, p. 128; Trench, pp. 140, 152. [120] Black, George II, p. 128. [121][121]Thompson, p. 96. [122] Black, George II, pp. 255–257. [123] Black, George II, pp. 257–258. [124] Black, George II, pp. 258–259. [125] Black, George II, pp. 144–146; Cannon; Trench, pp. 135–136. [126] Black, George II, p. 195. [127][127]Best, p. 71. [128] Black, George II, p. 82; Trench, p. 300; Lord Waldegrave's Memoirs quoted in Trench, p. 270. [129][129]Charlemont quoted in Cannon and Trench, p. 299. [130][130]Quoted in Trench, p. 270. George II of Great Britain 182

[131] Black, George II, p. 138; Cannon; Trench, p. 300. [132] Quoted in Black, George II, p. 254. [133][133]e.g. Duke of Newcastle quoted in Van der Kiste, p. 203. [134][134]Weir, p. 277. [135][135]e.g.

[136] e.g. A Lima half-crown (MEC1598) (http:/ / collections. rmg. co. uk/ collections/ objects/ 39038. html), National Maritime Museum, retrieved 7 September 2011 [137][137]Pinches and Pinches, p. 206. [138] Weir, pp. 277–285. [139] Weir, pp. 272–275. [140] Haag et al., pp. 347–349. [141][141]Van der Kiste, p. 39. [142][142]Van der Kiste, p. 63.

Bibliography • Ashley, Mike (1998) The Mammoth Book of British Kings and Queens. London: Robinson. ISBN 1-84119-096-9 • Best, Nicholas (1995) The Kings and Queens of England. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 0-297-83487-8 • Black, Jeremy (2001) Walpole in Power. Stroud, Gloucestershire: Sutton Publishing. ISBN 0-7509-2523-X • Black, Jeremy (2007) George II: Puppet of the Politicians? : University of Exeter Press. ISBN 978-0-85989-807-2

• Cannon, John (2004) "George II (1683–1760)" (http:/ / www. oxforddnb. com/ view/ article/ 10539), Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, retrieved 16 August 2011 doi:

10.1093/ref:odnb/10539 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1093/ ref:odnb/ 10539) (subscription or UK public library

membership (http:/ / www. oup. com/ oxforddnb/ info/ freeodnb/ libraries/ ) required) • Haag, Eugène; Haag, Émile; Bordier, Henri Léonard (1877) La France Protestante. Paris: Sandoz et Fischbacher

(French) online edition (http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ lafranceprotesta05haaguoft) • Kilburn, Matthew (2004) "Wallmoden, Amalie Sophie Marianne von, suo jure countess of Yarmouth

(1704–1765)" (http:/ / www. oxforddnb. com/ view/ article/ 28579), Oxford Dictionary of National Biography,

Oxford University Press, retrieved 30 November 2012 doi: 10.1093/ref:odnb/28579 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10.

1093/ ref:odnb/ 28579) (subscription or UK public library membership (http:/ / www. oup. com/ oxforddnb/ info/

freeodnb/ libraries/ ) required) • Pinches, John Harvey; Pinches, Rosemary (1974) The Royal Heraldry of England. Slough, Buckinghamshire: Hollen Street Press. ISBN 0-900455-25-X • Thompson, Andrew C. (2011) George II: King and Elector. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-11892-6 • Trench, Charles Chevenix (1975) George II. London: Allen Lane. ISBN 0-7139-0481-X • Van der Kiste, John (1997) George II and Queen Caroline. Stroud, Gloucestershire: Sutton Publishing. ISBN 0-7509-1321-5 • Weir, Alison (1996) Britain's Royal Families: The Complete Genealogy. London: Random House. ISBN 0-7126-7448-9 George II of Great Britain 183

Further reading • Dickinson, Harry T.; introduced by A. L. Rowse (1973) Walpole and the Whig Supremacy. London: The English Universities Press. ISBN 0-340-11515-7 • Williams, Basil; revised by C. H. Stuart (1962) The Whig Supremacy 1714–1760. Second edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press

External links

• George II (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ history/ historic_figures/ george_ii_king. shtml) at BBC History

• George II (http:/ / www. royal. gov. uk/ HistoryoftheMonarchy/ KingsandQueensoftheUnitedKingdom/

TheHanoverians/ GeorgeII. aspx) at the official website of the British Monarchy

• Archival material relating to George II of Great Britain (http:/ / www. nationalarchives. gov. uk/ nra/ searches/

subjectView. asp?ID=P11126) listed at the UK National Archives

• Portraits of King George II (http:/ / www. npg. org. uk/ collections/ search/ person. php?LinkID=mp01749) at the National Portrait Gallery, London

George II of Great Britain House of Hanover Cadet branch of the House of Welf Born: 9 November 1683 Died: 25 October 1760 Regnal titles Preceded by King of Great Britain Succeeded by George I King of Ireland George III Elector of Hanover 11/22 June 1727 – 25 October 1760 British royalty Vacant Prince of Wales Succeeded by Title last held by Duke of Cornwall Frederick Duke of Rothesay James 1714–1727 Princess Carolina of Orange-Nassau 184 Princess Carolina of Orange-Nassau

Princess Carolina Princess of Nassau-Weilburg

Spouse Charles Christian, Prince of Nassau-Weilburg

Issue

Prince George Wilhelm Prince Wilhelm Ludwig Princess Maria Luise, Princess Heinrich XIII Reuss of Greiz Frederick William, Duke of Nassau Karoline, Princess of Wied Prince Karl Ludwig Amalie, Princess of Anhalt-Bernburg--Hoym Henriette, Duchess Louis of Württemberg Prince Karl

Father William IV, Prince of Orange

Mother Anne, Princess Royal

Born 28 February 1743

Died 6 May 1787 (aged 44)

Religion Dutch Reformed Church

Princess Carolina of Orange-Nassau, Princess of Nassau-Weilburg (Wilhelmine Carolina; 28 February 1743, Leeuwarden – 6 May 1787, ) was the daughter of William IV, Prince of Orange, Stadtholder of the Netherlands, and Anne, Princess Royal.

Regent Princess Carolina was born in Leeuwarden. In 1747, it was declared that the position of Stadtholder could be inherited by females, thus making the young Princess Carolina the heiress presumptive to the position of Stadtholder. However, in 1748, a male heir, Willem, was born to her parents, thus displacing her and putting her second in line to the position. Princess Carolina's father died in 1751, making her three-year-old brother Willem V of Orange. At that point, her mother was appointed Princess-Regent. However, in 1759, her mother died, and Willem V was still just ten years old. Then, Princess Carolina's paternal grandmother, Princess Marie-Luise, was made Princess-Regent. Princess Marie-Luise was regent until 1765, when she died. Willem V was now seventeen, but that was still not old enough to rule on his own. So, Princess Carolina was made regent. She ruled until 1766, when Willem V turned eighteen. Princess Carolina of Orange-Nassau 185

Marriage and children On 5 March 1760 in The Hague, during the regency of her grandmother Princess Marie Luise, Princess Carolina married Karl Christian, Prince of Nassau-Weilburg. They had fifteen children: • Georg Wilhelm Belgicus of Nassau-Weilburg (The Hague, 18 December 1760 - Honselaarsdijk, 27 May 1762) • Wilhelm Ludwig Karl Flamand of Nassau-Weilburg (The Hague, 12 December 1761 - Kirchheim, 16 April/26 April 1770) • Augusta Carolina Maria of Nassau-Weilburg (The Hague, 5 February 1764 - Weilburg, 25 January 1802). A nun in Quedlinburg and . • Wilhelmine Luise of Nassau-Weilburg, then of Nassau (The Hague, 28 September 1765 - Greiz, 10 October 1837), married in Kirchheim on 9 January 1786 Heinrich XIII, Prince Reuss of Greiz (Greiz, 16 February 1747 - Greiz, 29 January 1817), and had issue •• Stillborn Daughter (21 October 1767-21 October 1767) • Frederick William, Duke of Nassau (25 October 1768, The Hague - 9 January 1816). • Karoline Luise Friederike of Nassau-Weilburg, then of Nassau (Kirchheim, 14 February 1770 - Wiesbaden, 8 July 1828), married in Kirchheim on 4 September 1787 Karl Ludwig Fürst zu Wied (Dierdorf, 9 September 1763 - Dierdorf, 9 March 1824), without issue • Karl Ludwig of Nassau-Weilburg (Kirchheim, 19 July 1772 - Kirchheim, 27 July 1772) • Karl Wilhelm Friedrich of Nassau-Weilburg, then of Nassau (Kirchheim, 1 May 1775 - Weilburg, 11 May 1807), unmarried and without issue • Amalie Charlotte Wilhelmine Louise of Nassau-Weilburg, then of Nassau (Kirchheim, 7 August 1776 - Schaumburg, 19 February 1841), married firstly in Weilburg on 29 October 1793 Victor II, Prince of Anhalt-Bernburg-Schaumburg-Hoym, and had issue, and married secondly in Schaumburg on 15 February 1813 Friedrich Freiherr von Stein-Liebenstein zu Barchfeld (14 February 1777 - 4 December 1849), and had issue • Henriette of Nassau-Weilburg, then of Nassau (22 April 1780 - 2 January 1857). Married Duke Louis of Württemberg, second son of Friedrich II Eugen, Duke of Württemberg. •• Karl of Nassau-Weilburg (1784 - shortly thereafter) •• Three nameless, stillborn, children (1778, 1779, 1785)

References Charles Christian, Prince of Nassau-Weilburg 186 Charles Christian, Prince of Nassau-Weilburg

Charles Christian, Prince of Nassau-Weilburg

Charles, Prince of Nassau

Spouse(s) Princess Carolina of Orange-Nassau Barbara von Kirchheim

Noble family House of Nassau

Father Charles August, Prince of Nassau-Weilburg

Mother Augusta Frederika Wilhelmina of Nassau-Idstein

Born 16 January 1735 Weilburg

Died 28 November 1788 (aged 53) Münster-Dreissen, near Kirchheim

Charles Christian, Prince of Nassau-Weilburg (Weilburg, 16 January 1735 – Münster-Dreissen, near Kirchheim, 28 November 1788), till 1753 Count of Nassau-Weilburg, was the first ruler of the Principality of Nassau-Weilburg between 1753 and 1788. He was the son of Charles August of Nassau-Weilburg and Augusta Frederika Wilhelmina of Nassau-Idstein. He succeeded his father in 1753 and united his territories in 1783 with Nassau-Saarbrücken, Nassau-Usingen and Nassau-Dietz. He married on 5 March 1760 in The Hague Princess Carolina of Orange-Nassau (1743–1787), daughter of William IV, Prince of Orange and Anne, Princess Royal. He became a general in the Dutch infantry, governor of Bergen op Zoom and governor of Maastricht (1773–1784). He negotiated in Prince Charles Christian portrayed on a medal with his wife Princess Carolina of Orange-Nassau vain with the Patriots in 1787. Charles Christian, Prince of Nassau-Weilburg 187

After the death of his wife, he concluded a Morganatic marriage with Barbara Giessen von Kirchheim. He died in 1788 and was succeeded by his eldest surviving son Frederick William.

Children He and Carolina had 15 children, some of whom became ancestors of 19th century royalty: • Georg Wilhelm Belgicus of Nassau-Weilburg (The Hague, 18 December 1760 - Huis Honselaarsdijk, 27 May 1762) • Wilhelm Ludwig Karl Flamand of Nassau-Weilburg (The Hague, 12 December 1761 - Kirchheim, 16 April/26 April 1770) • Augusta Carolina Maria of Nassau-Weilburg (The Hague, 5 February 1764 - Weilburg, 25 January 1802). A nun in Quedlinburg and Herford. • Wilhelmine Luise of Nassau-Weilburg, then of Nassau (The Hague, 28 September 1765 - Greiz, 10 October 1837), married in Kirchheim on 9 January 1786 Heinrich XIII Fürst Reuss zu Greiz (Greiz, 16 February 1747 - Greiz, 29 January 1817),[1] and had issue •• Stillborn daughter (21 October 1767-21 October 1767) • Frederick William, Duke of Nassau (25 October 1768, The Hague - 9 January 1816). • Karoline Luise Friederike of Nassau-Weilburg, then of Nassau (Kirchheim, 14 February 1770 - Wiesbaden, 8 July 1828), married in Kirchheim on 4 September 1787 Karl Ludwig Fürst zu Wied (Dierdorf, 9 September 1763 - Dierdorf, 9 March 1824),[2] without issue • Karl Ludwig of Nassau-Weilburg (Kirchheim, 19 July 1772 - Kirchheim, 27 July 1772) • Karl Wilhelm Friedrich of Nassau-Weilburg, then of Nassau (Kirchheim, 1 May 1775 - Weilburg, 11 May 1807), unmarried and without issue • Amalie Charlotte Wilhelmine Louise of Nassau-Weilburg, then of Nassau (Kirchheim, 7 August 1776 - Schaumburg, 19 February 1841), married firstly in Weilburg on 29 October 1793 Victor II, Prince of Anhalt-Bernburg-Schaumburg-Hoym, and had issue, and married secondly in Schaumburg on 15 February 1813 Friedrich Freiherr von Stein-Liebenstein zu Barchfeld (14 February 1777 - 4 December 1849), and had issue • Henriette of Nassau-Weilburg, then of Nassau (22 April 1780 - 2 January 1857). Married Duke Louis of Württemberg, second son of Friedrich II Eugen, Duke of Württemberg. •• Karl of Nassau-Weilburg (1784 - shortly thereafter) •• Three nameless stillborn children (1778, 1779, 1785)

References

[1] http:/ / www. angelfire. com/ realm/ gotha/ gotha/ reuss. html Princely House of Reuss-Greiz

[2] http:/ / www. angelfire. com/ realm/ gotha/ gotha/ wied. html Princely House of Wied

Charles Christian, Prince of Nassau-Weilburg House of Nassau-Weilburg Cadet branch of the House of Nassau Born: 16 January 1735 Died: 28 November 1788 Regnal titles Preceded by Prince of Succeeded by Charles August Nassau-Weilburg Frederick William 1753 - 1788 William V, Prince of Orange 188 William V, Prince of Orange

William V

Prince of Orange

Reign 22 October 1751 – 9 April 1806

Predecessor William IV

Successor William VI

Spouse Wilhelmina of Prussia

Issue

Louise, Hereditary Princess of Brunswick William I of the Netherlands Prince Frederick

Full name

Willem Batavus

Father William IV, Prince of Orange

Mother Anne of Great Britain

Born 8 March 1748 The Hague

Died 9 April 1806 (aged 58) Brunswick

Religion

William V, Prince of Orange-Nassau (Willem Batavus; 8 March 1748 – 9 April 1806) was the last Stadtholder of the Dutch Republic, and between 1795 and 1806 he led the Government of the Dutch Republic in London. He was succeeded by his son William I.

Earliest years He was born in 1748, the only son of William IV, who had the year before been restored as stadtholder of the United Provinces. He was only 3 years old when his father died in 1751, and a long regency began. His regents were: • Dowager Princess Anne, his mother, from 1751 to her death in 1759; • Dowager Princess Marie Louise, his grandmother, from 1759 to her death in 1765; • Duke Louis Ernest of Brunswick-Lüneburg, from 1759 to 1766, and kept on as a privy counsellor until October 1784; • Princess Carolina, his sister (who at the time was an adult aged 22, while he was still a minor at 17), from 1765 to William's majority in 1766. William was made the 568th Knight of the Order of the Garter in 1752. William V, Prince of Orange 189

Stadtholder William V assumed the position of stadtholder (chief executive) and Captain-General of the Dutch States Army in 1766. On 4 October 1767 in , Prince William married Princess Wilhelmina of Prussia, the daughter of Augustus William of Prussia, niece of and a cousin of George III. The position of the Dutch during the American War of Independence was one of neutrality. William V, leading the pro-British faction within the government, blocked attempts by pro-independence, and later pro-French, elements to drag the government to war in support of the Franco-American alliance. However, things came to a head with the Dutch attempt to join the Russian-led League of Armed Neutrality, leading to the outbreak of the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War in 1780. In spite of the fact that Britain was engaged in fighting on several fronts, the war went badly for the Dutch and the Republic was eventually forced to cede some territory to the British. The United Provinces recognized the United States in February 1782, after much political debate and pressure from American and French diplomats. Joan van der Capellen tot den Pol and Court Lambertus van Beyma took the initiative. After the signing of the (1783), the impoverished nation grew restless under William's rule. In the meantime, a band of young revolutionaries, called Patriots, was challenging his authority more and more. In 1785 William left the Hague and removed his court to Guelders, a province remote from the political centre. In September 1786 he had to send an army to stop Herman Willem Daendels, organizing an overthrow at the cities' vroedschap. In June 1787 his energetic wife Wilhelmina tried to travel to the Hague. Outside Schoonhoven, she was stopped by militia, taken to a farm near In The Orangerie (1796), James Gillray caricatured William's dalliances during his exile, Goejanverwellesluis and within two days made to return to . depicting him as an indolent Cupid sleeping on bags of money, surrounded by pregnant amours. To Wilhelmina and her brother, Frederick William II of Prussia, this was an insult. Frederick sent in an army to attack the dissidents. Many Patriots fled to the North of France, around Saint-Omer, in an area where Dutch was spoken. Until his overthrow they were supported by King Louis XVI of France.

Flight to Britain and Exile With the coming of the William V joined the First Coalition against Republican France in 1793. His troops fought in the , but in 1794 the military situation deteriorated and the Dutch Republic was threatened by invading armies. The year 1795 was a disastrous one for the ancien régime of the Netherlands. Supported by the French Army, the revolutionaries returned from Paris to fight in the Netherlands, and in 1795 William V fled to the safety of England. A few days later the in Amsterdam occurred, and the Dutch Republic was replaced with the .:1121 :190–192 Directly after his arrival in England the Prince wrote a number of letters (known as the Kew Letters) from his new residence in Kew to the governors of the Dutch colonies, instructing them to hand over their colonies to the British "for safe-keeping." Though only a few complied this contributed to their confusion and demoralisation. Almost all Dutch colonies were in the course of time conquered by the British, who returned some, but not all, first at the and later with the Convention of London 1814.:1127 In 1799 the Hereditary Prince took an active part in the Anglo-Russian invasion of Holland, engineering the capture of a Batavian naval squadron in the Vlieter Incident. The surrender of the ships (that had been paid for by the taxpayers of the Batavian Republic) was formally accepted in the name of William V as stadtholder, who was later allowed to "sell" them to the for an appreciable amount. But that was his only success as the troops and civilians of the Batavian Republic proved quite unwilling to welcome the old regime back. The arrogance of the tone in his proclamation, demanding the restoration of the stadtholderate, may not have been helpful, according to Simon William V, Prince of Orange 190

Schama.:393–394 After the Peace of Amiens in 1802, in which Great Britain recognised the Batavian Republic, an additional Franco-Prussian Convention of 23 May 1802 declared that the House of Orange would be ceded in perpetuity the abbatial domains of Fulda and Corvey in lieu of its Dutch estates and revenues (this became the Principality of Nassau-Orange-Fulda). As far as was concerned this cession was conditional on the liquidation of the stadtholderate and other hereditary offices of the Prince. William V, however, wanted more: his arrears in salary and other financial perquisites since 1795, or a lumpsum of 4 million guilders. The foreign minister of the Batavian Republic Maarten van der Goes was willing to secretly try and persuade the Staatsbewind of the Batavian Republic to grant this additional indemnity, but Napoleon put a stop to it, when he got wind of the affair.:452–454 The last of the Dutch stadtholders, William V died in exile at Brunswick, now in Germany. His body was moved to the Dutch Royal Family crypt in the Nieuwe Kerk in Delft on 29 April 1958. In 1813, his son, King William I returned to the Netherlands and became the first Dutch monarch from the House of Orange.

Children

William V and Wilhelmina of Prussia were parents to five children: • An unnamed son (23–24 March 1769). • Frederika Luise Wilhelmina (The Hague, 28 November 1770 – The Hague, 15 October 1819), married in The Hague on 14 October 1790 Karl, Hereditary Prince of Braunschweig (London, 8 February 1766 – Antoinettenruh, 20 September 1806), a son of Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick-Luneburg and Princess Augusta of Great Britain, without issue. •• An unnamed son (born and deceased on 6 August 1771). • William I, King of the Netherlands (25 August 1772 – 12 December 1843). • Willem Georg Frederik, Prince of Orange-Nassau (The Hague, 15 February 1774 – Padua, 6 January 1799), unmarried and without legitimate issue.

Willem V of Orange and Wilhelmina of Prussia with their children from left to right: the future King William I of the Netherlands, Frederick, and Frederica Louise Wilhelmina, later Princess of Brunswick-Luneburg. William V, Prince of Orange 191

Ancestors

William's ancestors in three generations

William V, Prince of Father: Paternal Grandfather: Paternal Great-grandfather: Orange William IV, Prince of Orange John William Friso, Prince of Orange Henry Casimir II, Count of Nassau-Dietz

Paternal Great-grandmother: Henriëtte Amalia van Anhalt-Dessau

Paternal Grandmother: Paternal Great-grandfather: Marie Louise of Hesse-Kassel (or Charles I, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel (or Hesse-Cassel) Hesse-Cassel)

Paternal Great-grandmother: Maria Amalia of Courland

Mother: Maternal Grandfather: Maternal Great-grandfather: Anne, Princess Royal and George II of Great Britain George I of Great Britain Princess of Orange Maternal Great-grandmother: Sophia Dorothea of Celle

Maternal Grandmother: Maternal Great-grandfather: Caroline of Ansbach Johann Friedrich, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach

Maternal Great-grandmother: Eleonore Erdmuthe of Saxe-Eisenach

References

William V, Prince of Orange House of Orange-Nassau Cadet branch of the House of Nassau Born: 8 March 1748 Died: April 9 1806 Dutch nobility Preceded by Prince of Orange Succeeded by William IV 1751–1806 William VI Regnal titles Preceded by Prince of Orange-Nassau Succeeded by William IV of Orange 1751–1806 William VI of Orange Baron of Breda Lordship dissolved 1751–1795 incorporated in Batavian Republic General Stadtholder of the United Function abolished Provinces followed by Batavian Republic 1751–1795 Wilhelmina of Prussia, Princess of Orange 192 Wilhelmina of Prussia, Princess of Orange

Princess Wilhelmina

Painting by Johann Friedrich August Tischbein (1789)

Princess of Orange

Tenure 4 October 1767 – 9 April 1806

Spouse William V, Prince of Orange

Issue

Frederika, Hereditary Princess of Brunswick William I of the Netherlands Prince Frederik

Father Augustus William of Prussia

Mother Luise of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel

Born 7 August 1751

Died 9 June 1820 (aged 68)

Wilhelmina of Prussia, born Frederika Sophia Wilhelmina, (7 August 1751 in Berlin – 9 June 1820 in Het Loo), was the consort of William V of Orange and also the de facto leader of the dynastic party and contra revolution in the Netherlands. She was the daughter of Prince Augustus William of Prussia and Luise of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. She was the longest serving Princess consort of Orange.

Background

She was brought up with her grandmother. On 4 October 1767 in Berlin, Wilhelmina was married to William V of Orange, the last Dutch Stadtholder. She received her uncle, Frederick the Great, at Het Loo in 1768. She was a proud person and very politically ambitious. Wilhelmina dominated her spouse and exerted influence on the politics of state.

Princess Wilhelmina of Prussia Wilhelmina of Prussia, Princess of Orange 193

The revolution

She was deeply involved in the revolutionary political conflicts in the Netherlands from 1781 and not only a supporter and partner, but the power behind the party of her spouse. She was recognized openly as the true leader of the dynastic stadtholder party, and their followers encouraged her to take the leading role. She held a large correspondence with foreign powers and used foreign supporters to influence Dutch policy. In 1785, her spouse was forced to leave Den Haag and put under a demand to abdicate. She persuaded him not to give in. She went to Friesland, officially to visit a jubilee but in reality to gain supporters in the ongoing political conflict. In 1786, the family moved to Nijmegen. When revolution broke out in the Netherlands and William moved his court to Guelders, she attempted to travel back to the capital at the Hague in 1787; on 28 June she was stopped, waiting at Goejanverwellesluis for a decision and at the end of the day sent back to William in Nijmegen. Equestrian portrait of Wilhelmina by Tethart Philipp Christian Haag hangs in the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam Leader of the counter revolution

After having returned to Nijmegen, she asked her brother for a military intervention. She and her royal brother, King Frederick William II of Prussia, only for a year in power, perceived this as an insult, and Frederick attacked the Dutch Republic on 13 September 1787. Many rebels had to flee to France, and William was restored to power. She returned to The Hague with the support of foreign troops, and was celebrated by her followers as the true ruler of the Netherlands.

Exile and later life However, the Dutch patriots returned in 1795 with support from the French, and William fled to his ally, his cousin George III of England. The couple lived alternately in Kew, Nassau and Braunschweig, where William died. In 1802–1805 they lived in Germany. When Wilhelmina and her daughter were both widowed in 1806, they lived together at various places in the Confederation of the Rhine. Their son went with his father into exile, but returned in 1813 to eventually become King William I of the Netherlands, the founder of the present Dutch monarchy. Wilhelmina and her daughter returned to the Netherlands in 1814. She received Tsar Alexander in Haarlem in 1815.

Children Wilhelmina and William V of Orange were parents to five children: • An unnamed son (23–24 March 1769) • Frederika Luise Wilhelmina (28 November 1770 in The Hague – 15 October 1819 in The Hague), married in The Hague on 14 October 1790 to Karl, Hereditary Prince of Brunswick (1766–1806), a son of Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick-Luneburg and Princess Augusta of Great Britain, without issue. •• An unnamed son (born and deceased on 6 August 1771) • William I, King of the Netherlands (25 August 1772 – 12 December 1843) • Willem Georg Frederik, Prince of Orange-Nassau (15 February 1774 The Hague – 6 January 1799 in Padua), unmarried and without issue. Wilhelmina of Prussia, Princess of Orange 194

Sources This article incorporates information from the equivalent article on the Dutch Wikipedia.

Wilhelmina of Prussia, Princess of Orange Born: 7 August 1751 Died: 9 June 1820 Dutch royalty Vacant Princess Consort of Succeeded by Title last held by Orange Wilhelmine of Prussia 1767–1806 Anne, Princess Royal Princess Louise of Orange-Nassau 195 Princess Louise of Orange-Nassau

Princess Louise of Orange-Nassau

Portrait in 1790 probably by Johann Friedrich August Tischbein

Hereditary Princess of Brunswick

Tenure 14 October 1790 – 20 September 1806

Spouse Karl Georg August of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel

Full name

Frederika Luise Wilhelmine

Father William V, Prince of Orange

Mother Wilhelmina of Prussia

Born 28 November 1770 The Hague

Died 15 October 1819 (aged 48) Amsterdam

Princess Frederica Louise Wilhelmina of Orange-Nassau (28 November 1770 – 15 October 1819) was a hereditary princess of Brunswick; married 14 October 1790 to Hereditary Prince Charles George August of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel (1766 – 20 September 1806). She was known in the family as "Loulou". Frederica Louise Wilhelmina was the daughter of William V, Prince of Orange and Wilhelmina of Prussia, Princess of Orange. Her marriage was arranged in 1790 as a gesture of grattitude to her father-in-law after he had assisted her parents against the Dutch rebellion in 1787. She had no issue and acted as a nurse to her consort, who was mentally restricted as well as blind. The Swedish Princess Hedwig Elizabeth Charlotte described her, as well as her family, at the time of her visit in August, 1799: Our cousin the Duke arrived immediately the next morning. He has won many victorys as a notable military man, are witty, litteral and a pleasant aquaitance but ceremonial beyond description. He is said to be quite strict, but a good father of the nation who attends to the needs of his people. After he left us, I visited the Dowager Duchess, the aunt of my consort. She is an agreable, highly educated and well respected lady, but now so old that she has almost lost her memory. From her I continued to the Duchess, sister to the King of England and a typical English woman. She looked very simple, like a vicar's wife, has I am sure many admirable qualities and are very respectable, but completely lacks manners. She makes the stranges questions without considering how difficult and unpleasant they can be. Both the hereditary princess as well as princess Augusta - sister of the sovereign Duke - came to her while I was there. The former are delightful, mild, loveable, witty and clever, not a beauty but still very pretty. In addition, she is said to be admirably kind to her boring consort. The princess Augusta are full of wit and energy and very funny. (....) The Duchess and the Princesses followed me to Richmond, the country villa of the Duchess a bit outside of the town. It was small and pretty with a beautiful little park, all after an English pattern. As she had the residence constructed herself, it amuses her to show it to others. (....)The sons of the Ducal couple are somewhat peculiar. The hereditary prince, chubby and fat, almost blind, strange and odd - if not to say an imbecill - attempts to imitate his father but only makes himself artificial and unpleasant. He talks contiunously, does not know what he says and is in all aspects unbearable. He is accommodating but a poor thing, loves his consort to the point of worship and is Princess Louise of Orange-Nassau 196

completely governed by her. The other son, Prince Georg, is the most ridiculous person imaginable, and so silly that he can never be left alone but is always accompanied by a courtier. The third son is also described as an original. I never saw him, as he served with his regiment. The fourth is the only normal one, but also torments his parents by his immoral behaviour. In 1806, her spouse died shortly before her father-in-law. The same year, the Duchy was invaded by France, and she left Brunswick for Switzerland with her mother. She eventually joined her former husbands family in England. From 1814, she lived in the Netherlands, in the country estate Zorgvliet outside Haarlem nearby her estate.

Titles and styles • 28 November 1770 – 14 October 1790 Her Serene Highness Princess Frederika Louise Wilhelmina of Orange • 14 October 1790 – 15 October 1806 Her Serene Highness The Hereditary Princess of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel • 15 October 1806 – 20 September 1819 Her Serene Highness The Dowager Hereditary Princess of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel

Sources This article incorporates information from the equivalent article on the Dutch Wikipedia.

Notes William I of the Netherlands 197 William I of the Netherlands

William I

King William I of the Netherlands in Coronation Robes by Joseph Paelinck, ca. 1818–1819

Prince of Nassau-Orange-Fulda

Reign 1803–1806

Predecessor none (Principality created)

Successor none (Principality abolished)

Prince of Orange-Nassau

Reign 1806, 1813–1815

Predecessor William V

Successor none (Incorporated into Nassau)

King of the Netherlands Grand Duke of Luxembourg

Reign 1813–1815 (as Sovereign Prince) 1815–1840 (as King and Grand Duke)

Inauguration 30 March 1814

Predecessor none (Kingdom and Grand Duchy created)

Successor William II

Duke of Limburg

Reign 1839–1840

Predecessor none (Duchy created)

Successor William II

Spouse Wilhelmina of Prussia Henrietta d'Oultremont (morganatic)

Issue

William II of the Netherlands Prince Frederick Princess Pauline Princess Marianne

Father William V, Prince of Orange

Mother Princess Wilhelmina of Prussia

Born 24 August 1772 Huis ten Bosch, The Hague, Dutch Republic

Died 12 December 1843 (aged 71) Berlin,

Burial Nieuwe Kerk, Delft

Religion Dutch Reformed Church

William I, born Willem Frederik Prins van Oranje-Nassau (The Hague, 24 August 1772 – Berlin, 12 December 1843), was a Prince of Orange and the first King of the Netherlands and Grand Duke of Luxembourg. William I of the Netherlands 198

In Germany, he was ruler (as Fürst) of the Principality of Nassau-Orange-Fulda from 1803 until 1806 and of the Principality of Orange-Nassau in the year 1806 and from 1813 until 1815. In 1813 he proclaimed himself 'Sovereign Prince' of the "United Netherlands." He proclaimed himself King of the Netherlands and Duke of Luxembourg on 16 March 1815. In the same year on 9 June William I became also the Grand Duke of Luxembourg and after 1839 he was furthermore the Duke of Limburg. After his abdication in 1840 he styled himself King William Frederick, Count of Nassau.

Biography

King William I's parents were the last stadtholder William V, Prince of Orange of the Dutch Republic, and his wife Wilhelmina of Prussia. Until 1806, William was formally known as William VI, Prince of Orange-Nassau,[1] and between 1806 and 1813 also as Prince of Orange. In Berlin on 1 October 1791, William married his first cousin (Frederica Louisa) Wilhelmina, born in . She was the daughter of King Frederick William II of Prussia. After Wilhelmina died in 1837, William married Countess Henriette d'Oultremont de Wégimont (Maastricht, 28 February 1792 – Schloss Rahe, 26 October 1864), created Countess of Nassau, on 17 February 1841 in Berlin.

Youth and early military career

As eldest son of the Prince of Orange (of whom there could only be one at a time) William was informally referred to as Erfprins[2] (Hereditary Prince) by contemporaries (and later historians) in the period between his majority in 1790 and the death of his father in 1806 to distinguish him from William V. Like his younger brother Prince Frederick of Orange-Nassau he was tutored by the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler and the Young William and his brother Frederick in 1790 Dutch historian Herman Tollius. They were both tutored in the military arts by general Prince Frederick Stamford. After the Patriot revolt had been suppressed in 1787, he in 1788-89 attended the military academy in Brunswick which was considered an excellent military school, together with his brother. In 1790 he visited a number of foreign courts like the one in Nassau and the Prussian capital Berlin, where he first met his future wife.:100

William subsequently studied briefly at the University of Leiden. In 1790 he was appointed a general of infantry in the States Army of which his father was Captain general, and he was made a member of the Council of State of the Netherlands.In November 1791 he took his new bride to The Hague.:101 After the National Convention of the First French Republic had

Helmed coat-of-arms of King William I declared war on the Dutch Republic in February 1793, William was appointed commander-in-chief of the veldleger (mobile army) William I of the Netherlands 199

of the States Army (his father remained the nominal head of the armed forces).:157 As such he commanded the troops that took part in the Flanders Campaign of 1793-1795. He took part in the battles of Veurne, Menin, and Wervik (where his brother was wounded) in 1793, the siege of Landrecies (1794), which fortress surrendered to him, and the (1794), to name the most important. In May 1794 he had replaced general Kaunitz as commander of the combined Austro-Dutch forces on the instigation of Emperor Francis II who apparently had a high opinion of him.:270. But the French armies proved too strong, and the allied leadership too inept, and the allies were defeated. The French first entered Dutch Brabant which they dominated after the Battle of Boxtel. When in the winter of 1794-95 the rivers in the Rhine delta froze over, the French breached the southern Dutch Water Line and the situation became militarily untenable. In many places Dutch revolutionaries took over the local government. After the Batavian Revolution in Amsterdam on 18 January 1795 the stadtholder decided to flee to Britain, and his sons accompanied him. (On this last day in Holland his father relieved William honorably of his commands). The next day the Batavian Republic was proclaimed.:341–365, 374–404, 412

Exile Soon after his departure to Britain the Hereditary Prince went back to the Continent, where his brother was assembling former members of the States Army in Osnabrück for a planned foray into the Batavian Republic in the Summer of 1795. However, the neutral Prussian government forbade this.:231–235 In 1799, William landed in the current North Holland as part of an Anglo-Russian invasion of Holland. The Hereditary Prince was instrumental in fomenting a on the Batavian naval squadron in the Vlieter, resulting in the surrender of the ships without a fight to the Royal Navy, which accepted the surrender in the name of the stadtholder. The local Dutch population, however, was not pleased with the arrival of the prince. One local Orangist was even executed.[3] The hoped-for popular uprising failed to materialise. After several minor battles the Hereditary Prince was forced to leave the country again after the Convention of Alkmaar. The mutineers of the Batavian fleet and a number of deserters from the Batavian army accompanied the retreating British troops to Britain. There William formed the King's Dutch Brigade with these troops, a military unit in British service, that swore oaths of allegiance to the British King, but also to the States-General, defunct since 1795, "whenever those would be reconstituted."[4] This brigade trained on the Isle of Wight in 1800 and was eventually used by the British in Ireland.:241–265 When peace was concluded between Great Britain and the French Republic under First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte the Orange exiles were at their nadir. The Dutch Brigade was dissolved on 12 July 1802. Many members of the brigade went home to the Batavian Republic, thanks to an amnesty. The surrendered ships of the Batavian navy were not returned, due to an agreement between the stadtholder and the British government of 11 March 1800.:329–330 Instead the stadtholder was allowed to sell them to the Royal Navy for an appreciable sum. The stadtholder, feeling betrayed by the British, left for Germany. The Hereditary Prince, having a more flexible mind, went to visit Napoleon at St. Cloud in 1802. He apparently charmed the First Consul, and was charmed by him. Napoleon raised hopes for William that he might have an important role in a reformed Batavian Republic. Meanwhile William's brother-in-law Frederick William III of Prussia, neutral at the time, promoted a Franco-Prussian convention of 23 May 1802, in addition to the Treaty of Amiens, that gave the House of Orange a few abbatial domains in Germany, that were combined to the Principality of Nassau-Orange-Fulda by way of indemnification for its losses in the Batavian Republic. The stadtholder gave this principality immediately to his son.:452 When Napoleon invaded Germany in 1806 and war broke out between the French Empire and Prussia, William supported his Prussian relatives, though he was nominally a French . He received command of a Prussian division which took part in the Battle of Jena–Auerstedt. The Prussians lost that battle and William was forced to surrender his troops rather ignominiously at Erfurt the day after the battle. He was made a prisoner of war, but was paroled soon. Napoleon punished him for his betrayal, however, by taking away his principality. As a parolee, William I of the Netherlands 200

William was not allowed to take part in the hostilities anymore. After the Peace of Tilsit William received a pension from France in compensation.:454–469, 471, 501 In the same year, 1806, his father, the Prince of Orange died, and William not only inherited the title, but also his father's claims on the inheritance embodied in the Nassau lands. This would become important a few years later, when developments in Germany coincided to make William the Fürst (Prince) of a divers assembly of Nassau lands that had belonged to other branches of the House of Nassau. But before this came about, in 1809 tensions between Austria and France became intense. William did not hesitate to join the Austrian army as a Feldmarschalleutnant (major-general) in May 1809:516 As a member of the staff of the Austrian supreme commander, Archduke Charles he took part in the , where he was wounded in the leg.:520–523 Czar played a central role in the restoration of the Netherlands. Prince William VI (as he was now known), who had been living in exile in Prussia, met with Alexander I in March 1813. Alexander promised to support William and help restore an independent Netherlands with William as king. Russian troops in the Netherlands participated with their Prussian allies in liberating the country; dynastic considerations of marriage between the royal houses of Great Britain and the Netherlands, assured British approval.

Return After Napoleon's defeat at Leipzig (October 1813), the French troops retreated to France from all over Europe. The Netherlands had been annexed to the French Empire by Napoleon in 1810. But now city after city was evacuated by the French occupation troops. In the power vacuum that this created a number of former Orangist politicians and former Patriots formed a provisional government in November 1813. Although a large number of the members of the provisional government had helped drive out William V 18 years earlier, it was taken for granted that his son would have to head any new regime. They also agreed it would be better in the long term for the Dutch to restore him themselves, rather than have the Great Powers impose him on the country. The Dutch population was pleased with the departure of the French, who had ruined the Dutch economy, and this time welcomed the prince.:634–642 After having been invited by the Driemanschap (Triumvirate) of 1813, on 30 November 1813 William disembarked HMS Warrior and landed at Scheveningen beach, only a few yards from the place where he had left the country with his father 18 years previously, and on 6 December the provisional government offered him the title of King. William refused, instead proclaiming himself "sovereign prince". He also wanted the rights of the people to be guaranteed by "a wise constitution".:643 The constitution offered William extensive (almost absolute) powers. Ministers were only responsible to him, while a unicameral parliament (the States-General) exercised only limited power. He was inaugurated as sovereign prince in the New Church in Amsterdam. In August 1814, he was appointed Governor-General of the former by the Allied Powers who occupied that country. He was also made Grand Duke of Luxembourg, having received that territory in return for trading his hereditary German lands to Prussia and the Duke of Nassau. William thus fulfilled his family's three-century dream of uniting the Low Countries. William I of the Netherlands 201

King of the Netherlands

Feeling threatened by Napoleon, who had escaped from Elba, William proclaimed the Netherlands a kingdom on 16 March 1815 at the urging of the powers gathered at the Congress of . His son, the future king William II, fought as a commander at the . After Napoleon had been sent into exile, William adopted a new constitution which included much of the old constitution, such as extensive royal powers. He was confirmed as hereditary ruler of what was known as the of the Netherlands at the .

He was the 876th Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece in Spain and the 648th

Knight of the Order of the Garter in 1814. Royal Monogram

Principal changes The States-General was divided into two chambers. The Eerste Kamer (First Chamber or Senate or House of Lords) was appointed by the King. The Tweede Kamer (Second Chamber or House of Representatives or House of Commons) was elected by the Provincial States, which were in turn chosen by census suffrage. The 110 seats were divided equally between the North and the South (modern-day Belgium), although the population of the North (2 million) was significantly less than that of the South (3.5 million). The States-General's primary function was to approve the King's laws and decrees. The constitution contained many present-day Dutch political institutions; however, their functions and composition have changed greatly over the years. The constitution was accepted in the North, but not in the South. The under-representation of the South was one of the causes of the Belgian Revolution. Referendum turnout was low, in the Southern provinces, but William interpreted all abstentions to be yes votes. He prepared a lavish inauguration for himself in Brussels, where he gave the people copper coins (leading to his first nickname, the Copper King). The spearhead of King William's policies was economic progress. As he founded many trade institutions, his second nickname was the King-Merchant. In 1822, he founded the Algemeene Nederlandsche Maatschappij ter Begunstiging van de Volksvlijt, which would become one of the most important institutions of Belgium after its independence. Industry flourished, especially in the South. In 1817, he also founded three universities in the Southern provinces, such as a new University of Leuven, the University of Ghent and the University of Liège. The Northern provinces, meanwhile, were the centre of trade. This, in combination with the colonies (, , Curaçao and Dependencies, and the Dutch Gold Coast) created great wealth for the Kingdom. However, the money flowed into the hands of Dutch directors. Only a few Belgians managed to profit from the economic growth. Feelings of economic inequity were another cause of the Belgian uprising. William was also determined to create a unified people, even though the north and the south had drifted far apart culturally and economically since the south was reconquered by Spain after the Act of Abjuration of 1581. The North was commercial, Protestant and entirely Dutch-speaking; the south was industrial, Roman Catholic and divided between Dutch and French-speakers. Officially, a separation of church and state existed in the kingdom. However, William himself was a strong supporter of the Reformed Church. This led to resentment among the people in the mostly Catholic south. William had also devised controversial language and school policies. Dutch was imposed as the official language in (the Dutch-speaking of) Flanders; this angered French-speaking aristocrats and industrial workers. Schools throughout the Kingdom were required to instruct students in the Reformed faith and the . Many in the South feared that the King sought to extinguish Catholicism and the . William I of the Netherlands 202

Belgian uprising In August 1830 Daniel Auber's opera La Muette de Portici, about the repression of Neapolitans, was staged in Brussels. Performances of this show seemed to crystallize a sense of nationalism and "Hollandophobia" in Brussels, and spread to the rest of the South. Rioting ensued, chiefly aimed at the kingdom's unpopular justice minister, Cornelis Felix van Maanen, who lived in Brussels. An infuriated William responded by sending troops to repress the riots. However, the riots had spread to other Southern cities. The riots quickly became popular uprisings. Soon an independent state of Belgium was proclaimed. The next year, William sent his sons William, the Prince of Orange,[5] and Prince Frederick to invade the new state. Although initially victorious in this Ten Days' Campaign, the Dutch army was forced to retreat after the threat of French intervention. Some support for the Orange dynasty (chiefly among Flemings) persisted for years but the Dutch never regained control over Belgium. William nevertheless continued the war for eight years. His economic successes became overshadowed by a perceived mismanagement of the war effort. High costs of the war came to burden the Dutch economy, fueling public resentment. In 1839, William was forced to end the war. The United Kingdom of the Netherlands was dissolved by the Treaty of London (1839) and the northern part continued as the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It was not renamed, however, as the "United"-prefix had never been part of its official name, but rather was retrospectively added by historians for descriptive purposes (cf. ).

Constitutional changes and abdication in later life

Constitutional changes were initiated in 1840 because the terms which involved the United Kingdom of the Netherlands had to be removed. These constitutional changes also included the introduction of judicial ministerial responsibility. Although the policies remained uncontrolled by parliament, the prerogative was controllable now. The very conservative William could not live with these constitutional changes. This, the disappointment about the loss of Belgium, and William's intention to marry Henrietta d'Oultremont (scandalously both "Belgian" and Roman Catholic) made him wish to abdicate. He fulfilled this intent on 7 October 1840 and his eldest son acceded to the throne as king William II. William I died in 1843 in Berlin at the age of 71.

Children

With his wife Wilhelmina, King William I had six children: Statue of Willem I of the Netherlands by Pieter Puype (1913) in • Willem Frederik George Lodewijk (b. The Hague, 6 December 1792 – d. Tilburg, 17 March 1849) later King William II of the Netherlands from 1840. Married Russian Grand Duchess Anna Pavlovna. •• Stillborn son (Hampton Court, Palace, Middlesex, 18 August 1795). • Willem Frederik Karel (b. Berlin, 28 February 1797 – d. , 8 September 1881). • Wilhelmina Frederika Louise Pauline Charlotte (b. Berlin, 1 March 1800 – d. Freienwalde, 22 December 1806). •• Stillborn son (Berlin, 30 August 1806). • Wilhelmina Frederika Louise Charlotte Marianne (b. Berlin, 9 May 1810 – d. Schloss Reinhartshausen bei Erbach, 29 May 1883), married on 14 September 1830 with Prince Albert of Prussia. They divorced in 1849. William I of the Netherlands 203

Notes and references

[1] The family name changed from "Nassau-Dietz" to "Orange-Nassau" when John William Friso, Prince of Orange claimed the inheritance of Prince William III of Orange in 1702. [2] German: Erbprinz [3] The freule (baroness) Judith Van Dorth tot Holthuizen; see Schama, p. 397 [4][4]The States-General were the sovereign power in the defunct Dutch Republic; the troops of the States Army had also sworn loyalty to the States-General and not the Stadttholder. [5][5]This had become a courtesy title for the Dutch crown prince under the new kingdom.

Further reading • Caraway, David Todd. "Retreat from Liberalism: William I, , Political Asylum, and the Foreign Relations of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, 1814-1818" PhD dissertation, U. of Delaware, 2003, 341pp. Abstract: Dissertation Abstracts International 2003, Vol. 64 Issue 3, p1030-1030 • Kossmann, E. H. The Low Countries 1780–1940 (1978) ch 3-4

Ancestry

16. Henry Casimir II, Count of Nassau-Dietz

8. John William Friso, Prince of Orange

17. Henriëtte Amalia of Anhalt-Dessau

4. William IV, Prince of Orange

18. Charles I, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel (or Hesse-Cassel)

9. Marie Louise of Hesse-Kassel

19. Maria Amalia of Courland

2. William V, Prince of Orange

20. George I of Great Britain

10. George II of Great Britain

21. Sophia Dorothea of Celle

5. Anne, Princess Royal

22. John Frederick, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach

11. Caroline of Brandenburg-Ansbach William I of the Netherlands 204

23. Princess Eleonore Erdmuthe of Saxe-Eisenach

1. William I of the Netherlands

24. Frederick I of Prussia

12. Frederick William I of Prussia

25. Sophia Charlotte of Hanover

6. Prince Augustus William of Prussia

26. George I of Great Britain (= 20)

13. Sophia Dorothea of Hanover

27. Sophia Dorothea of Celle (= 21)

3. Wilhelmina of Prussia

28. Ferdinand Albert I, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg

14. Ferdinand Albert II, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg

29. Christina Wilhelmina of Hesse-Eschwege

7. Louise Amalie of Brunswick-Lüneburg

30. Louis Rudolph, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg

15. Antoinette Amalie of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel

31. Princess Christine Louise of Oettingen-Oettingen

External links

• King Willem I (1772–1843) (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ globale-paginas/ taalrubrieken/ english/ history/

kings-(19th-century)/ #il-king-willem-i-1772-1843) at the Dutch Royal House website William I of the Netherlands 205

William I of the Netherlands House of Orange-Nassau Born: 24 August 1772 Died: 12 December 1843 Dutch royalty Preceded by Prince of Orange Succeeded by William V 1806–1815 William II New creation Count of Nassau Abolished 1840–1843 Regnal titles New creation Prince of Nassau-Orange-Fulda Confiscated due to German Mediatisation 1803–1806 due to creation Confederation of the Rhine Preceded by Prince of Orange-Nassau Abolished William V 1806, 1813–1815 Incorporated into Nassau Preceded by Sovereign Prince of the Succeeded by Louis II Netherlands Himself as King as King of Holland 1813–1815 Preceded by King of the Netherlands Succeeded by Himself 1815–1840 William II as Sovereign Prince Vacant Grand Duke of Luxembourg Title last held by 1815–1840 Francis I as Duke of Luxembourg Vacant Duke of Limburg Title last held by 1839–1840 Francis I as Duke of Limburg Wilhelmine of Prussia, Queen of the Netherlands 206 Wilhelmine of Prussia, Queen of the Netherlands

Wilhelmine of Prussia

Portrait of Queen Wilhelmine of the Netherlands at a young age

Queen consort of the Netherlands Grand Duchess of Luxembourg

Tenure 15 March 1815 – 12 October 1837

Spouse William I of the Netherlands

Issue

William II of the Netherlands Prince Frederick Princess Pauline Princess Marianne

Full name

(German: Friederike Luise Wilhelmine) (Dutch: Frederica Louisa Wilhelmina) (English: Frederica Louise Wilhelmine)

House House of Hohenzollern

Father Frederick William II of Prussia

Mother Frederika Louisa of Hesse-Darmstadt

Born 18 November 1774 Potsdam

Died 12 October 1837 (aged 62) Noordeinde Palace, The Hague

Burial Nieuwe Kerk, Delft

Religion Calvinism

Wilhelmine of Prussia (full name in Dutch: Frederica Louisa Wilhelmina; full name in German: Friederike Luise Wilhelmine) (18 November 1774 – 12 October 1837) was the first wife of King William I of the Netherlands and so the first Queen of the Netherlands.

Biography Princess Wilhelmine was born in Potsdam. She was the fourth child of eight born to King Frederick William II of Prussia and Queen Frederica Louisa. Her upbringing was dominated by the strict regime of her great-uncle, Frederick the Great, but in general very little is known about her youth. On 1 October 1791, she married her cousin William of the Netherlands, son of Stadtholder William V, Prince of Orange, in Berlin. The marriage was arranged as a part of an alliance between the House of Orange and Prussia, but it was also, in fact, a love match and became very happy. The young couple went to live at Noordeinde Palace in The Hague. In 1795, the French invaded the Dutch Republic, and the princely family went into exile. They first stayed in England, and from 1796 in Berlin. In 1806, Wilhelmine was again forced to flee from the French army, and settled under difficult economic circumstances in Poland. The princess returned to The Hague in the beginning of 1814. Princess Wilhelmine became Queen of the Netherlands in 1815. At the time, the Netherlands included the present-day country of Belgium. Queen Wilhelmine was modest and stayed in the background, and she did not play Wilhelmine of Prussia, Queen of the Netherlands 207

any dominant role as queen. She was not a popular queen, and was criticised for isolating the royal family; in the area of modern Belgium, she was criticised for her German style of dressing. She was interested in painting, attended exhibitions, and helped to protect museums and support artists. She was herself a student of art and regarded as a talented dilettante, ultimately being inducted as an honorary member to the Royal Academy of Fine Arts. Beginning in 1820, her health worsened, and after 1829, she was rarely seen in public. She died at Noordeinde Palace in The Hague in 1837, aged 62, and is entombed in the New Church in Delft.

Issue

Name Birth Death Notes

King William II of the Netherlands 6 December 1792 17 March 1849 married, 1816, Grand Duchess Anna Pavlovna of Russia; had issue

Stillborn son 18 August 1795 18 August 1795

Prince Frederick of the Netherlands 28 February 1797 8 September 1881 married, 1825, Princess Louise of Prussia; had issue

Princess Pauline of the Netherlands 1 March 1800 22 December 1806

Stillborn son 30 August 1806 30 August 1806

Princess Marianne of the Netherlands 9 May 1810 29 May 1883 married, 1830, Prince Albert of Prussia; had issue

References • Wilhelmina van Pruisen [1] (in Dutch)

External links • Royal House of Prussia [2] • Royal House of the Netherlands and Grand-Ducal House of Luxembourg [3]

Wilhelmine of Prussia, Queen of the Netherlands House of Hohenzollern Born: 18 November 1774 Died: 12 October 1837 Royal titles New title of the Netherlands Vacant Grand Duchess consort of Title next held by Luxembourg Anna Pavlovna of Russia 1815–1837

References

[1] http:/ / www. inghist. nl/ Onderzoek/ Projecten/ DVN/ lemmata/ data/ WilhelminaVanPruisen

[2] http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20061118124453/ http:/ / www. btinternet. com/ ~allan_raymond/ Prussian_Royal_Family. htm

[3] http:/ / www. chivalricorders. org/ royalty/ bourbon/ luxembourg/ luxbghis. htm John IV of Chalon-Arlay 208 John IV of Chalon-Arlay

John IV of Chalon-Arlay

Blason of the Chalon Orange family

Spouse(s) Jeanne de Bourbon Philiberte de Luxembourg

Noble family House of Chalon-Arlay

Father William VII of Chalon

Mother Catherine of Brittany

Born c. 1443

Died 15 April 1502

Buried Convent of Cordeliers Lons-le-Saunier, County of Burgundy

John IV of Chalon-Arlay or John of Chalon (c. 1443-15 April 1502) was a prince of Orange and lord of Chalon-Arlay. He played an important role in the Mad War, a series of conflicts in which aristocrats sought to resist the expansion and centralisation of power under the French monarch.

Family He was the son of William VII of Chalon and the father of Philibert of Châlon and Claudia of Châlon. He was also the nephew of Francis II, Duke of Brittany and thereby a first cousin to Anne, Duchess of Brittany who would marry two French kings to become their Queen Consort.

Support for Burgundy John incurred the enmity of King Louis XI of France when he supported the interests of , duke of Burgundy. After the defeat and death of Charles, Louis confiscated much of John's property. John's subsequent attempt to marry Charles's widow to Maximilian of Austria led to his exile from France. John IV of Chalon-Arlay 209

Support for Brittany Nephew of Duke Francis II of Brittany, John IV now took an active role in the affairs of the duchy, prompted by Maximilian. An enemy of Pierre Landais, the duke's chief minister, John IV attempted to organise a coup against him, which failed. The duke confiscated his Breton properties. With king Louis now dead, John created an alliance with the new regent of France, Anne of Beaujeu. With her support, he was later able to force Francis to dismiss Landais, who was then convicted of various crimes in a show trial, tortured, and executed. John now became one of the main decision makers in the duchy. He advised Francis to marry his heir Anne to Maximilian of Austria, as a counterbalance to French influence, but the French invaded the duchy. This act of marriage contravened the rights of the King of France to approve Anne's marriage under the treaties which had ended the wars between the and the Duchy of Brittany. John was one of the leaders of the Breton army that resisted the invasion. However, he was defeated at the decisive Battle of Saint-Aubin-du-Cormier (1488). He attempted to play dead, but was identified and captured. He was placed under house arrest, but was released by King Charles VIII, in order to return to Brittany and prevent the marriage of Anne to Alain d'Albret. After the death of duke Francis, John became heir presumptive to the new duchess, Anne. He was a member of the high council, and was appointed commander of Rennes and lieutenant general. John once again attempted to secure Anne's marriage to Maximilian, but the French intervened. John negotiated the eventual marriage between Anne and king Charles, of which he was one of the witnesses. He surrendered his own claim to the duchy for the large sum of 100,000 livres, and was reappointed as lieutenant general of Brittany, a position he held until his death.

Marriages and children John's first wife was Jeanne de Bourbon. His second wife was Philiberte de Luxembourg. John had three children: •• Philibert of Châlon •• unnamed son •• Claudia Arguelles

Succession John IV of Chalon-Arlay died April 8, 1502 at the age of 59. His son Philibert of Châlon succeeded him. His wife Philiberte de Luxembourg ordered an alabaster tomb from the sculptors Conrad Meyts and Giovanni Battista Mariotto. The tomb is in the convent of Cordeliers Lons-le-Saunier, County of Burgundy. It contains John, his first wife Jeanne de Bourbon, his first daughter Claudia Arguelles, his second son Philibert of Châlon and Philiberte herself.

Ancestors

John IV of Chalon-Arlay House of Chalon-Arlay Born: 1443 Died: 15 April 1502 Preceded by Prince of Succeeded by William VII Orange Philibert 1475-1502 Louis of Nassau 210 Louis of Nassau

Louis of Nassau (January 10, 1538 – April 14, 1574) was the third son of William, Count of Nassau and Juliana of Stolberg, and the younger brother of Prince William of Orange Nassau. Louis was a key figure in the revolt of the Netherlands against Spain and a strongly convinced Calvinist, unlike his brother William, whom he helped in various ways, including by arranging the marriage between him and his second wife Anna of Saxony. In 1569 William appointed him governor of the principality of Orange, giving him an indisputable position in French politics.

Louis of Nassau

The Compromise

In 1566 he was one of the leaders of the league of lesser nobles who signed the “Compromis des Nobles”. The Compromise was an open letter, in the form of a petition, to King Philip II of Spain stating that he should withdraw the Inquisition in the Netherlands. On April 5, 1566, with the following of two hundred horsemen, the Compromise was presented to the regent Margaret of Austria. During this audience one of her councilors, count Charles of Berlaymont, tried to calm her nerves with the words “Quoi, Madame. Peur de ces gueux?”[1] “What Madame, afraid of these beggars?”. It was from this moment on that the opponents of King Philip's policy proudly took the name Beggars (Les Gueux, ) as their own.

Louis (left) with his brothers John (sitting), Adolf, and Henry Louis of Nassau 211

Battle of Heiligerlee

With the coming of Alva, Louis and his brother William withdrew from the Netherlands. From outside they gathered an army and in 1568, with the help of French Huguenots, they were able to invade from three sides. Louis and his younger brother Adolf would enter the northern Netherlands through Friesland, Jean de Villers enterd the southern provinces between the Rhine and the Meuse and the Huguenots would invade .

The Army under Louis’s command would eventually be the only one to gain a victory. Jean de Villers and his troops were captured two days after they crossed the Meuse, while the Huguenots were attacked and defeated by French royal troops at St. Valery. Jean de Villers eventually betrayed the entire campaign and the sources of the war-treasury to his interrogators.

Louis entered Friesland on April 24, to which Alva responded by sending an army under the command of Jean de Ligne, Duke of Portrait of Louis of Nassau by Adriaen Thomasz Aremberg. The two armies met at Heiligerlee on May 23, where Louis Key, from 1570 to 1574 ambushed the Spanish troops. Louis won the army the Battle of Heiligerlee but lost his brother Adolf in the battle.

Battle of Jemmingen Although William wanted Louis to retreat to , Louis remained in Groningen, where he met the larger, stronger and better equipped army led by Alva himself. Louis fell back towards Jemmingen where, on July 21, 1568, the battle raged for three hours until Alva's army drove them over the bridges of the Ems and eventually into the Ems itself. Many drowned trying to cross the river; Louis stripped himself of his heavy armor and was able to swim across to safety. In the end the Dutch rebellion lost 7,000 men at the battle of Jemmingen.

Mons After Jemmingen Louis rejoined his brother William and went back to France where they joined up with Huguenot leader Admiral Coligny. He fought in the battles at Jarnac and Moncontour and was able to improve their French connections as governor of the principality of Orange. In 1572 Watergeuzen had captured the city of Brielle and claimed it for William. Soon most cities in Holland and Zeeland were in the hands of the rebels and William once again became stadtholder of Holland and Zeeland. Louis quickly raised a small force in France, and entered Hainaut on May 23, capturing Mons. Suddenly Alva found himself held between two enemies with his own army rebellious and unpaid. William tried to relieve his brother at Mons but after an attempt on his life from which he barely managed to escape, he was unable to come to Louis’s aid. Alva was now able to bring the surrender of Mons on good terms and on September 19 Louis and his army left Mons with the honors of war. Diverting Alva’s attention to Mons had made it possible for the North to strengthen itself and although he may have regained Mons he had lost Holland, which was now strong enough to resist. Louis of Nassau 212

Battle of Mookerheyde In 1574 funds were running low and the Spanish were closing in on Middelburg and Leiden. Hoping for a diversion in the south, William wrote to Louis asking for help. That spring, Louis, along with his youngest Nassau brother Henry and the Elector Palatine’s son , crossed the Meuse with their army. They hoped to be a decent diversion but found themselves outmaneuvered by the Spanish troops under an experienced leader, Sancho d'Avila. Leading the charge on the Spanish Louis was shot in the arm. He carried on, pretending he was fine, but was losing blood so fast that his friends took him away from the battle. He was brought to a nearby hut, where he ordered his friends to save themselves. Louis was never seen again, neither alive nor dead. Henry and Christopher were also lost in the Battle of Mookerheyde.[2]

References

[1] Wedgwood, C.V., “William the Silent, William of Nassau, Prince of Orange 1533-1584”, ISBN I 842124013. p. 80 [2] Dupuy, Trevor N., Curt Johnson and David Bongard, The Harper Encyclopedia of Military Biography, (Castle Books, 1995), 539.

Adolf of Nassau (1540–1568)

Adolf of Nassau (Dillenburg, 11 July 1540 – Heiligerlee, 23 May 1568) was a count of Nassau. He was the fourth son and sixth child of William I, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg and Juliana of Stolberg. He was the second youngest brother of William the Silent.

Life

He studied at Wittenberg and in 1566 fought against the Turks, then pushing into Europe. In 1568 his brother William the Silent took up arms against Philip II of Spain and Adolf fought beside him in Brabant. Adolf then joined the force under his brother Louis of Nassau in the north, where he died at the battle of Heiligerlee. The Spanish troops at Heiligerlee were commanded by . Heiligerlee was a Dutch victory, but this was nullified when Alva beheaded counts Egmont and Horne in Brussels on 5 Adolf van Nassau June 1568. Adolf of Nassau (15401568) 213

Memorials

Monument to the battle of Heiligerlee

Henry of Nassau-Dillenburg

Henry of Nassau, count of Nassau-Dillenburg, (Dillenburg 15 October 1550 — Mook 14 April 1574) was the youngest brother of William I of Orange-Nassau. He was the twelfth and last child of William the Rich and Juliana of Stolberg-Werningerode, and was raised a Lutheran. He studied in Leuven and . He and his brothers William and Louis joined the Huguenot army of Louis I de Bourbon, prince de Condé and took part in the Battle of Moncontour (30 October 1569). Henry fell in the battle of Mookerheyde at the age of 23. His elder brother Louis was also killed in this battle. Their bodies have never been recovered.

Henry of Nassau-Dillenburg

References Article in Grote Winkler Prins, Encyclopedie in twintig delen, 7th edition, Elsevier, Amsterdam (1972). Countess Louise Juliana of Nassau 214 Countess Louise Juliana of Nassau

Louise Juliana of Orange-Nassau

Louise Juliana of Orange-Nassau

Spouse(s) Frederick IV, Elector Palatine

Noble family House of Nassau

Father William the Silent

Mother Charlotte of Bourbon

Born 31 March 1576 Delft

Died 15 March 1644 (aged 67) Königsberg

Louise Juliana of Orange-Nassau (Delft, 31 March 1576 – Königsberg, 15 March 1644) was the eldest daughter of William of Nassau, Prince of Orange and his third spouse Charlotte de Bourbon-Montpensier. Countess Louise Juliana of Nassau 215

Biography

Louise Juliana is the first Dutch born member of the House of Orange-Nassau. After her father was murdered in 1584, she and some of her five sisters were raised by their Louise de Coligny. On 23 June 1593, Louise Juliana married Frederick IV, Elector Palatine of the Rhine, by whom she had eight children. After the death of her husband in 1610, she ruled in the name of her son Frederick V, known as "the Winter King."

Louise Juliana as a girl

Ancestry

Countess Louise Juliana of Nassau House of Nassau Born: 31 March 1576 Died: 15 March 1644 Preceded by Electress Succeeded by Anne of East Palatine Elizabeth Stuart 1593–1610

References

• "Louise Juliana, keurvorstin van de Palts" last accessed , 2007 (http:/ / www. koningkeizerrijken. info/

prinses-louise-juliana. htm) Countess Elisabeth of Nassau 216 Countess Elisabeth of Nassau

Countess Elisabeth of Nassau (Elisabeth Flandrika) (Middelburg, 26 April 1577 – Sedan, 3 September 1642) was the second daughter of prince William of Orange and his third spouse Charlotte of Bourbon. She was Duchess of Bouillon by marriage.

Biography

After her father was murdered in 1584, there was a shortage of money for Elisabeth, her siblings and her stepmother Louise de Coligny. In 1594 Louise took Elisabeth with her to France, where they met with several Protestant nobles. One of them, Henri de La Tour d'Auvergne, of the and the Principality of Sedan, sent her a proposal of marriage that she accepted. The couple had nine children.

Henri tried to keep his Duchy Sedan Protestant, but had to deal with hostility emanating from his catholic French neighbors. Countess Elisabeth of Nassau During his absences Louise acted as regent, and after his death in 1623 she became regent for their son Frédéric Maurice de la Marck. She kept in close contact with her stepmother and five sisters, two of whom also acted as regents at some point.

Signature Issue

• Louise de La Tour d'Auvergne (August 1596 – November 1607) died in infancy; • Marie de La Tour d'Auvergne (1599 – 24 May 1665) married Henri de La Trémoille, Duke of Thouars, Prince of Talmont and had issue; •• Unnamed son (April 1603) • Juliane Catherine de La Tour d'Auvergne (8 October 1604 – 6 October 1637) married François de La Rochefoucauld, Count of Roucy, Baron of Pierrepont and had issue; • Frédéric Maurice de La Tour d'Auvergne (22 October 1605 – 9 August 1652) married Eleonora Catharina of the Bergh and had issue; • Élisabeth de La Tour d'Auvergne (1606 – 1 December 1685) married Guy Aldonce de Durfort, mother of Guy Aldonce de Durfort de Lorges; • Henriette Catherine de La Tour d'Auvergne (d. 1677) married Amaury Gouyon, Marquis of La Moussaye, Count of Quintin and had issue; • Henri de La Tour d'Auvergne, known as the vicomte de Turenne (11 September 1611 – 27 July 1675) married Charlotte de Caumont daughter of Armand Nompar de Caumont; Armand Nompar was the uncle of the scheming Duke of Lauzun. Justinus van Nassau 218 Justinus van Nassau

Justinus van Nassau

Justinus van Nassau

Born 1559

Died 1631 (aged 71–72) Leiden, Holland, Dutch Republic

Resting place Hooglandse Kerk, Leiden, Netherlands

Spouse(s) Anna van Mérode

Children Willem Maurits van Nassau Louise Henriëtte van Nassau Philips van Nassau

Parents William the Silent Eva Elincx

Justinus van Nassau (1559 – 1631) was the only extramarital child of William of Orange. He was a Dutch army commander known for unsuccessfully defending Breda against the Spanish, and the depiction of his surrender on the famous picture by Diego Velázquez, The Surrender of Breda.

His mother was Eva Elincx, William's mistress between his first and second marriage. William of Orange recognized Justinus and raised him with his other children. Justinus studied in Leiden and became lieutenant-Colonel on May 17, 1583. On February 28, 1585 he became lieutenant-admiral of Zealand, and fought in 1588 against the , The Surrender of Breda by Diego Velázquez. Justinus of Nassau hands over the keys of the city to Ambrogio Spinola capturing two galleons. From 1601 until 1625 he was governor of Breda. In 1625 he had to surrender Breda to the Spanish general Ambrogio Spinola after a siege of 11 months. Justinus was allowed to leave for Leiden. Justinus van Nassau 219

Issue On December 4, 1597, he married Anne, Baronesse de Mérode (January 9, 1567 - Leiden, October 8, 1634) and had three children. •• Willem Maurits van Nassau (June 1603 - Leiden, 1638), married Maria van Aerssen van Sommelsdijk and had issue: •• Justinus, no issue. • Justina van Nassau (March 1635 - c. 1676), married George van Cats ter Coulster (1632 – 1676) and had issue: •• Willem Maurits van Cats [1], (c. 1670 - December 1743). •• Anna van Nassau (c. 1638 - Den Haag, 1721), married Willem Adriaan Count van Horn Batenburg and had issue. •• Louise Henriëtte van Nassau (1604 - between 1637 and 1645), no issue. •• Philips van Nassau (1605 - somewhere between 1672 and 1676), married and had issue. He and his wife were buried in the Hooglandse Kerk in Leiden. The following arms are recorded for Justinus, based on those of his father William the Silent. They show the bend-dexter of a legitimate child in white, rather than the bend-sinster of an illegitimate child.:

Arms of Justinus van Nassau. UNIQ-ref-0-f50aae89a7b7a85a-QINU

References William Louis, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg 220 William Louis, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg

William Louis, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg

William Louis of Nassau-Dillenburg

Spouse(s) Anna of Nassau

Noble family House of Nassau

Father John VI, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg

Mother Countess Elisabeth of Leuchtenberg

Born 13 March 1560 Dillenburg

Died 13 July 1620 (aged 60) Stadhouderlijk Hof in Leeuwarden

Buried Jacobijner church in Leeuwarden

William Louis of Nassau-Dillenburg (Dutch: Willem Lodewijk; West Frisian: Willem Loadewyk) (13 March 1560, Dillenburg, Hesse – 13 July 1620, Leeuwarden, Netherlands) was Count of Nassau-Dillenburg from 1606 to 1620, and stadtholder of Friesland, Groningen, and Drenthe.

Life William Louis was the eldest son of John VI, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg and his first wife, Elisabeth of Leuchtenberg. He served as a cavalry officer under William the Silent. Together with his cousin (and brother-in-law) Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange, he commanded the Dutch States Army and helped plan the military strategy of the Dutch Republic against Spain from 1588 to 1609. William Louis played a significant part in the Military Revolution of the 16th - 17th centuries. In a letter to his cousin Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange of December 8, 1594 he set out (from reading Aelianus Tacticus) an argument around the use of ranks by soldiers of Imperial Rome as discussed in Aelian's Tactica. Aelian was discussing the use of the counter march in the context of the Roman sword gladius and spear pilium. William Louis in a 'crucial leap' realized that the same technique could work for men with firearms.[1] William Louis, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg 221

" I have discovered evolutionibus [a term that would eventually be translated as "drill"] a method of getting the musketeers and others with guns not only to practice firing but to keep on doing so in a very effective battle order (that is to say, they do not fire at will or from behind a barrier....). Just as soon as the first rank has fired, then by the drill [they have learned] they will march to the back. The second rank either marching forward or standing still, will then fire just like the first. After that the third and following ranks will do the same. When the last rank has fired, the first will have reloaded, as the following diagram shows:.[2] On 25 November 1587, he married his cousin, Anna of Nassau, daughter of William the Silent and Anna of Saxony, and older sister of Maurice of Nassau. Anna died less than six months later on 13 June 1588, and William Louis never remarried. He was nicknamed "Us Heit" (West Frisian for "our father"). He died in his home, the Stadhouderlijk hof in Leeuwarden, the city which honored him with a statue on the government square. His body was laid to rest in the Jacobijnerkerk.

References

[1][1]Military Revolutions, Past and Present by Geoffrey Parker in Recent Themes in Military History. Ed Donald A Yerxa. University of South Carolina Press 2008 at p13 [2][2]Geoffrey Parker (2008) footnote 4 p 21

External links

• Biography Channel profile (http:/ / www. biography. com/ search/ article. do?id=9532196)

• Worldroots.com entry for William Louis (http:/ / worldroots. com/ brigitte/ royal/ bio/ wilhelmnassaubio. html)

• Encyclopædia Britannica entry (subscription required) (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ eb/ article-9077067/ William-Louis)

William Louis, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg House of Nassau Born: 21 January 1560 Died: 13 July 1620

Political offices

Preceded by Republican Stadtholder of Succeeded by William the Silent Friesland Ernst Casimir 1584–1620 Regnal titles Preceded by Count of Nassau-Dillenburg Succeeded by John VI 1606–1620 George John VII, Count of Nassau-Siegen 222 John VII, Count of Nassau-Siegen

John VII, Count of Nassau-Siegen

John VII of Nassau

Spouse(s) Countess Magdalena of Waldeck Margaretha of Holstein-Sonderburg

Noble family House of Nassau

Father John VI of Nassau-Dillenburg

Mother Elisabeth of Leuchtenberg

Born 7 June 1561 Dillenburg

Died 27 September 1623 (aged 62) Siegen

Count John VII of Nassau (7 June 1561 – 27 September 1623) was Count of Nassau in Siegen and Freudenberg as John I. He was the second son of Count John VI of Nassau-Dillenburg and his wife Elisabeth of Leuchtenberg.

Family and children He was married twice. Firstly, he married on 9 December 1581 with Countess Magdalena of Waldeck, daughter of Count Philip IV of Waldeck-Wildungen and Jutta of Isenburg. They had the following children: 1. Johann Ernst (21 October 1582 – 27 September 1617), a general in the Venetian army, involved in the Uskok War; 2. Count John VIII of Nassau in Siegen (29 September 1583 – 27 July 1638) 3. Elisabeth (8 November 1584 – 26 July 1661), married on 26 July 1604 to Count Christian of Waldeck 4. Adolf (8 August 1586 – 7 November 1608) 5. Juliane (3 September 1587 – 15 February 1643), married on 22 May 1603 to Landgrave Maurice of Hesse-Kassel (or Hesse-Cassel) 6. Anna Maria (3 March 1589 – 27 February 1620), married on 3 February 1611 to Count John Adolf of Daun 7.7.Johann Albrecht, born and died in 1590 8. Count William of Nassau in (13 August 1592 – 18 July 1642) 9. Anna (2 March 1594 – 7 December 1636), married on 14 June 1619 Johann Wolfart von Brederode John VII, Count of Nassau-Siegen 223

10. Frederick Louis (2 February 1595 – 22 April 1600) 11. Magdalena (23 February 1596 – 6 December 1662), married: 1.1.in August 1631 to Bernhard Moritz von Oeynhausen; 2.2.on 25 August 1642 Philipp Wilhelm zu Inn und Knyphausen 12.12.John Frederick, born and died in 1597 Secondly, he married on 27 August 1603 with Duchess Margaretha of Holstein-Sonderburg, a daughter of John II, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg. They had the following children: 1. Prince John Maurice of Nassau (18 June 1604 – December 1679) 2. Prince George Frederick Louis (23 February 1606 – 2 October 1674) married Mauritia Eleonora of Portugal, daughter of Emilia of Nassau, daughter of William the Silent and daughter-in-law of António, Prior of Crato. 3. William Otto (22 June 1607 – 14 August 1641) 4. Luise Christiane (8 October 1608 – 19 December 1678), married on 4 July 1627 Marquis Philippe de Conflans 5. Sophie Margarete (16 April 1610 – May 1665), married on 13 January 1656 to Count Georg Ernst of Limburg Stirum 6. Henry (9 August 1611 – 17 November 1652) 7. Marie Juliane (14 August 1612 – 21 January 1665), married on 13 December 1637 to Duke Francis Henry of Saxe- 8. Amalie (2 September 1613 – 24 August 1669), married: 1. on 23 April 1636 to Herman Wrangel 2. on 27 March 1649 to Christian Augustus, Count Palatine of Sulzbach 9. Bernhard (18 November 1614 – 6 January 1617) 10. Christian (16 July 1616 – April 1644) 11. Katharine (1 August 1617 – 21 August 1645) 12. Johann Ernst (8 November 1618 – 23 November 1639) 13. Elisabeth Juliane (1 May 1620 – 13 May 1665), married in 1647 to Count Bernhard of Sayn-Wittgenstein

External links • The Association of Counts (Wittgenstein, Nassau-Dillenburg-Siegen, Wied) [1]

References

[1] http:/ / www. reformiert-online. net/ t/ eng/ bildung/ grundkurs/ gesch/ lek4/ lek4_8. jsp William of Nassau (16011627) 224 William of Nassau (1601–1627)

Willem van Nassau, Lord of De Lek (also Willem van Nassau-LaLecq, or in French Willem LaLecq; 1601–1627) was a Dutch soldier from 1620 until 1627. He was the illegitimate son of stadholder Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange and his mistress Margaretha van Mechelen. Like their other illegitimate children, he was recognized with the Nassau-LaLecq. He went by the title Rijksgraaf (Count of the Holy Roman Empire) van Nassau-LaLecq" and was also popularly known in French as the "Chevalier de Nassau". After 1625 he was granted lands and the title Lord

of De Lek. He received his heerlijkheid of De Lek as a Willem of Nassau, killed before Grol. Jacob van Dijck bequest from his father to him and his descendants. His brother Lodewijk van Nassau had the title "Lord of Beverweerd and Odijk".

From his 19th year on, Willem served in the Dutch army fighting Spain in the Dutch Revolt (1568–1648). Aged only 24 he received the rank of lieutenant-admiral of Holland and West Friesland, replacing stadholder Frederik Hendrik. He led the Dutch ships that participated in the Cádiz expedition of 1625. In the summer of 1627 he was present at the Siege of Grol. On the 18 August, not long before the end of the siege, fighting with the French troops at the front, Willem received a bullet wound which later proved fatal.[1] Thus he died on his 26th birthday, with Lodewijk inheriting Willem's fiefdom. On 4 April 1627, 4 months before his death, Willem married Anna van der Noot, lady of Hoogwoud and Aartswoud, in Sluis. Though he had no children with Anna, he had one illegitimate son by Barbara Augustinus Cocx, Willem Jonker van Nassau (1620-1679) .

References

[1] Hugo de Groot(1629): Beleegeringh der stadt Grol, Translation from the Latin Grollae Obsidio by J. Goris, Amsterdam, 1681 1. A.W.E. Dek, Genealogie van het Vorstenhuis Nassau, 1970, 148-149 2. Reinildis van Ditzhuyzen, Oranje-Nassau: Een biografisch woordenboek, Haarlem 2004, 28, 50, 156-157, 191, 269, 271

Willem of Nassau, lord of den Lek about 1620. Louis of Nassau, Lord of De Lek and Beverweerd 225 Louis of Nassau, Lord of De Lek and Beverweerd

Louis of Nassau, Lord of De Lek and Beverweerd (1602 – 28 February 1665) was a Dutch soldier. He was the illegitimate son of Margaretha van Mechelen and Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange, and so a collateral member of the House of Orange-Nassau. He was a Lord of the heerlijkheid De Lek and Beverweerd. From his father he inherited the estate of Beverweerd; and when his older brother Willem died in 1627 he inherited his estate as well.

Career

He joined the army which had claimed his brother William's life and served with distinction in 1629 in the battle near Den Bosch. In 1632 he was advanced to Colonel and after 1635 was in charge of a regiment. In 1640 during the battle for Hulst he prevented the cannons from falling into enemy hands. In the same year he was sent to Paris to advise the French king of the forthcoming marriage of the 14-year-old Louis at 18 months of age in 1604, by Daniël van William II of Orange to the 9-year-old English Princess Mary Stuart. den Queborn, 1604/5 Also, when the young Prince proceeded to England to fetch his bride, he was accompanied by Louis of Nassau. In 1643 he became General-Major and Governor of the city of Bergen-op-Zoom.

Despite his mother's objections he married Isabella van Hornes in the spring of 1630 and from this marriage ten children were born. Lodewijk was highly regarded by his uncle, Prince Frederick Henry, and took part in the Prince's family life. Louis was originally a supporter of his next of kin, the Princes of Orange. After the death of William II he made his peace with the anti-Orangist regents of the cities of Holland and worked with the administration of Johan de Witt, becoming First Noble of Holland. In 1658 Louis of Nassau became Governor of Den Bosch and in 1660 was sent as a special ambassador to England. In addition to his representing the Dutch republic, two of his daughters were married to British noblemen. Emilia married the heir of the Duke of Ormonde and Elisabeth the Earl of Arlington, one of King Charles II's ministers. By Louis of Nassau, Lord of Beverweert about 1650. 1662 he had forged an apparently strong relationship between England and the Dutch republic and returned to Holland where he died on 28 February 1665.

Marriage and children

He married Countess Isabella of Hornes in the spring of 1630, and had ten children. He and Countess Isabella had three surviving sons: •• Maurits Lodewijk I, Lord of De Lek (or LaLecq) and Beverweerd Louis of Nassau, Lord of De Lek and Beverweerd 226

• Willem Adriaan I, Lord of Odijk, Kortgene, Zeist and Driebergen • Hendrik, Lord of Ouwerkerk and Woudenberg He also had seven daughters of whom the two eldest were: • Elisabeth van Nassau-Beverweert (28 December 1633-18 January 1718), a notable Dutch beauty, who married March 1665 Henry Bennet, 1st Earl of Arlington and had an only daughter

Arms of Louis of Lecke, Lord of Beverweerd.

• Lady Isabella Bennet (c. 1668–7 February 1723) who married 1 August 1672 as a four-year-old child Henry Fitzroy, 1st (28 September 1663 – 9 October 1690 d. at the storming of Cork), the illegitimate son of King Charles II of England and his mistress the Duchess of Cleveland. They have many descendants. • Emilia Butler, Countess of Ossory, a notable beauty like her sister. She was wife of Thomas Butler, Earl of Ossory, and mother of the 2nd Duke of Ormonde and many other children. • Wilhelmina Butler, married a Dutch nobleman, and had a daughter Anna Elisabeth van Ruytenbergh [1] who married George Cholmondeley, 3rd Earl of Cholmondeley in 1701. His descendants are buried in the family crypt at Ouderkerk aan den IJssel

References

[1] http:/ / www. genealogics. org/ getperson. php?personID=I00016632& tree=LEO

External links

• Leo van der Pas. Lodewijk van Nassau Heer van Beverweerd (http:/ / www. genealogics. org/ getperson.

php?personID=I00002272& tree=LEO). Retrieved 7 October 2009. References: See: Reinildis van Ditzhuyzen, Oranje-Nassau: Een biografisch woordenboek, Haarlem 2004, 171-173 (with a portrait, ca. 1650) Frederick V, Elector Palatine 227 Frederick V, Elector Palatine

Frederick V

Frederick wearing the Crown of Saint Wenceslas, other Bohemian regalia and the collar of the Order of the Garter and holding an orb. On the table is the Cap representing his separate office as Elector Palatine. Painted by Gerrit von Honthorst in 1634.

Elector Palatine

Reign 19 September 1610 – 23 February 1623

Predecessor Frederick IV

Successor Charles I Louis

King of Bohemia

Reign 26 August 1619 – 8 November 1620

Coronation 4 November 1619

Spouse Elizabeth of Bohemia

more...

Issue

Prince Frederick Henry Charles I Louis, Elector Palatine Elisabeth III, Princess-Abbess of Herford Prince Rupert, Duke of Cumberland Prince Maurice Princess Louise Marie Prince Louis Prince Edward Sophia, Electress of Brunswick-Lüneburg

Father Frederick IV, Elector Palatine

Mother Louise Juliana of Nassau

Born 26 August 1596 Deinschwang, near ,

Died 29 November 1632 (aged 36) Mainz Frederick V, Elector Palatine 228

Frederick V (German: Friedrich V.) (26 August 1596 – 29 November 1632)[1] was Elector Palatine (1610–23), and, as Frederick I (Czech: Fridrich Falcký), King of Bohemia (1619–20); for his short reign he is often nicknamed the Winter King (Czech: Zimní král; German: Winterkönig). Frederick was born at the Jagdschloss Deinschwang (a hunting lodge) near Amberg in the Upper Palatinate. He was the son of Frederick IV and of Louise Juliana of Nassau, the daughter of William the Silent and Charlotte de Bourbon-Monpensier. An intellectual, a mystic, and a Calvinist, he succeeded his father as Prince-Elector of the Rhenish Palatinate in 1610. He was responsible for the construction of the famous gardens in Heidelberg. Frederick's coat of arms.

In 1618 the largely Protestant estates of Bohemia rebelled against their Catholic King Ferdinand, triggering the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War. Frederick was asked to assume the crown of Bohemia. He accepted the offer and was crowned on 4 November 1619. The estates chose Frederick since he was the leader of the Protestant Union, a military alliance founded by his father, and hoped for the support of Frederick's father-in-law, James VI of Scotland and I of England. However, James opposed the takeover of Bohemia from the Habsburgs and Frederick's allies in the Protestant Union failed to support him militarily by signing the Treaty of Ulm (1620). His brief reign as King of Bohemia ended with his defeat at the Battle of White Mountain on 8 November 1620 – a year and four days after his coronation.

After this battle, the Imperial forces invaded Frederick's Palatinate lands and he had to flee to the Dutch Republic in 1622. An Imperial edict formally deprived him of the Palatinate in 1623. He lived the rest of his life in exile with his wife and family, mostly at The Hague, and died in Mainz in 1632. His eldest surviving son Charles I Louis, Elector Palatine returned to power in 1648 with the end of the war. His daughter Princess Sophia was eventually named heiress presumptive to the British throne, and was the founder of the Hanoverian line of kings. Frederick V, Elector Palatine 229

Youth, 1596–1610

Frederick was born on 26 August 1596 at the Jagdschloss Deinschwang (a hunting lodge) near Amberg in the Upper Palatinate. His father, Frederick IV was the ruler of Electoral Palatinate; his mother was Louise Juliana of Nassau, the daughter of William I of Orange and Charlotte de Bourbon-Monpensier. A member of the House of Palatinate-Simmern, Frederick was related to almost all of the leading families of the Holy Roman Empire and a number of diplomats and dignitaries attended his baptism at Amberg on 6 October 1596. The House of Palatinate-Simmern, a cadet branch of the , was noted for its attachment to Calvinism; this was in marked contrast to the wider House of Wittelsbach, headed by Duke

Maximilian, which was deeply devoted to the Roman Catholic Map showing the location of Electoral Palatinate in the Church. Holy Roman Empire. As son and heir of Frederick IV, Elector Palatine (1574–1610), Frederick was the The capital of the Electoral Palatinate, Heidelberg, was suffering hereditary ruler of Electoral Palatinate. (The Electoral from an outbreak of Bubonic plague at this time, so Frederick Rhenish Circle, of which Electoral Palatinate was a spent his first two years in the Upper Palatinate before being part, is shaded on the map.) brought to Heidelberg in 1598. In 1604, at his mother's urging, he was sent to Sedan to live in the court of his uncle Henri de La Tour d'Auvergne, Duke of Bouillon. During his time at Sedan, Frederick was a frequent visitor to the court of Henry IV of France. His tutor was Calvinist theologian Daniel Tilenus, a professor of theology at the Academy of Sedan. During the Eighty Years' War and the French Wars of Religion, Tilenus called for the unity of Protestant princes, and taught that it was their Christian duty to intervene if their brethren were being harassed. These views are likely to have shaped Frederick's future policies.

Controversy over guardianship, 1610–1614

On 19 September 1610, Frederick's father, Frederick IV, died from "extravagant living"; Frederick V was only 14 years old at the time of his father's death. Under the terms of the Golden Bull of 1356, Frederick's closest male relative would serve as his guardian and as regent of Electoral Palatinate until Frederick reached the age of majority. However, his nearest male relative, Wolfgang William, Count Palatine of Neuburg, was a Catholic, so, shortly before his death, Frederick IV had named John II, Count Palatine of Zweibrücken as his son's guardian. Frederick V welcomed John to Heidelberg as his new guardian, whereas Wolfgang William was denied entry. This led to a heated dispute among the princes of the Holy Roman Empire. In 1613, Matthias, Holy Roman Emperor intervened in the dispute, with the result being that Frederick V was able to begin his personal rule in the Electoral Palatinate even though he was still underage. The dispute was ended in 1614, when Frederick reached the age of majority upon his eighteenth Portrait of Frederick by Michiel Jansz. van Mierevelt, birthday. However, much bad blood among the houses was caused 1613. by this dispute. Frederick V, Elector Palatine 230

Marriage to Elizabeth Stuart Frederick IV's marriage policy had been designed to solidify Electoral Palatinate's position within the Reformed camp in Europe. Two of Frederick V's sisters were married to leading Protestant princes: his sister Luise Juliane to his one-time guardian John II, Count Palatine of Zweibrücken, and his sister Elizabeth Charlotte to George William, Elector of Brandenburg. Frederick IV had hoped that his daughter Katharina Sofie would marry the future of Sweden, although this never came to pass. In keeping with his father's policy, Frederick V sought a marriage to Elizabeth Stuart, daughter of James I of England. However, Frederick was only an Elector, and it was likely that James would seek to marry his daughter to a king. James had initially considered marrying Elizabeth to Louis XIII of France, but these plans were rejected by his advisers. Frederick's advisers in the Electoral Palatinate were worried that if Elizabeth Stuart were married to a Catholic prince, this would upset the confessional balance of Europe, and they were thus determined that she would marry Frederick V. Hans Meinhard von Schönberg, who had served as Frederick V's Hofmeister since his return to Heidelberg, was sent to London to court the princess in spring 1612. After intense negotiations, a marriage contract was signed on 26 May 1612, over the objection of the queen, Anne of Denmark.

Frederick travelled to London to retrieve his bride, landing on English soil on 6 October 1612. Frederick and Elizabeth, who had previously corresponded in French, now met each other for the Elizabeth Stuart (1596–1662), 1613. first time, and got on well together. They were formally engaged in January 1613. They were subsequently married on 14 February 1613 at the royal chapel at the Palace of Whitehall. The event was celebrated in John Donne's poetic masterpiece Epithalamion, or Mariage Song on the Lady Elizabeth, and Count Palatine being married on St. Valentines Day. Shortly before the ceremony, Frederick was inducted into the Order of the Garter and he wore the Order's chain during the wedding ceremony. Elaborate celebrations, organised by Francis Bacon, followed the ceremony; these included a performance of The Masque of the and Gray's Inn by Francis Beaumont and The Memorable Masque of the Middle Temple and Lincoln's Inn by George Chapman.

On their return trip to Heidelberg, Frederick and Elizabeth travelled to The Hague to visit Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange before leaving for Germany on 5 May 1613. The couple entered Heidelberg on 12 June 1613, amidst widespread celebration. Elizabeth was popular with her new subjects, and this popularity grew when, on 1 January 1614, she gave birth to a son, Frederick Henry. As part of the marriage negotiations, Frederick had agreed to expand . These renovations were completed in 1615 and the "Elizabeth Entrance" to Heidelberg Castle was dedicated. Frederick V, Elector Palatine 231

Electoral reign before the Thirty Years' War, 1614–1618

Upon his eighteenth birthday on 26 August 1614, Frederick assumed personal control of Electoral Palatinate. One of his first acts was to attend a meeting of the Protestant Union. During this meeting, Frederick was struck by a fever and nearly died. This illness changed his personality profoundly: in the wake of the illness, contemporaries described him as melancholy and possibly depressed. As such, Frederick placed large amounts of responsibility in his chancellor, Christian I, Prince of [2] Heidelberg Castle and the Hortus Palatinus Anhalt-Bernburg. commissioned by Frederick, and designed by English Frederick undertook a large building campaign, designed to glorify architect Inigo Jones (1573–1652) and French engineer Salomon de Caus (1576–1626). his regime. In addition to the renovations to Heidelberg Castle mentioned above, Frederick commissioned a new courtyard garden, the Hortus Palatinus, designed by English gardener Inigo Jones and French engineer Salomon de Caus. Frederick was depicted as Apollo and as Hercules. Politically, Frederick positioned himself as a leader of the Protestant princes in the Holy Roman Empire, and as a defender of the liberty of the German nobles against the Catholic emperor, Matthias, Holy Roman Emperor. Since the Peace of Augsburg, the Holy Roman Empire had been delicately balanced between Catholic, Lutheran, and Calvinist (although Calvinism was not recognised in the Peace of Augsburg). The conflicts between princes of these three faiths developed into a deep struggle over the constitution of the Holy Roman Empire. Furthermore, the Twelve Years' Truce, a hiatus in the Eighty Years' War, was set to expire in 1621, and would probably lead to renewed fighting between the Dutch Republic and the .

With its central location in Germany, the Electoral Palatinate was vulnerable to incursions of imperial troops from the Habsburg hereditary lands. Unlike many other principalities of the Holy Roman Empire, Electoral Palatinate was not a closed dominion, but instead consisted of two unconnected provinces surrounded by foreign lands. Lower Palatinate centred on Heidelberg, while Upper Palatinate centred on Amberg. Lower Palatinate's economy was dominated by agriculture, while Upper Palatinate was a region with one of the most successful economies in Europe.

King of Bohemia, 1619-1620

Background and plans

The was an elective monarchy, and, in spite of the high title of a kingdom, was a part of the Holy Roman Frederick in Roman garb. Empire. Since 1526, the Kings of Bohemia had all been members of the ; since 1555, these Kings had also been Holy Roman Emperors. In the early seventeenth century, however, Bohemia faced a political crisis. The Estates of the realm of Bohemia became worried that the Habsburgs were planning to transform Bohemia into an . A large number of Bohemian nobles

were Protestant and they feared that a Catholic emperor would attempt to impose Catholicism on Bohemia. Thus, a substantial opposition movement developed in opposition to Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor. Rudolf had waged a Frederick V, Elector Palatine 232

war against the Ottoman Empire – known as the Long War – from 1593 to 1606. Dissatisfied with the outcome of the Long War, Rudolf sought to launch a new war against the Ottomans. To gain Bohemian support for this war, Rudolf agreed to guarantee Bohemian religious liberty, issuing his so-called Letter of Majesty in 1609. Still, the Bohemian nobles remained suspicious of Rudolf and were in contact with the Protestant Union. The Bohemian Estates elected Matthias as Rudolf's heir and when Rudolf died in 1611, Matthias became King of Bohemia. As early as 1612, there was discussion within the Protestant Union about fielding a Protestant candidate to become King of Bohemia, and Frederick's name was discussed in this regard. Strategists at the Palatinate believed that if Frederick became King of Bohemia, this would lead John George I, Elector of Saxony, to break his alliance with the Habsburgs and come fully to the Protestant cause. This assumption would later prove to be unfounded. Meanwhile, the sectarian conflicts in Bohemia continued. In 1617, Matthias prevailed on the Bohemian Estates to elect Ferdinand, Duke of Styria, as heir to the throne of Bohemia. Ferdinand was an intensely loyal Catholic, and many Protestant noblemen believed that Ferdinand intended to withdraw the protections of Rudolf II's Letter of Majesty. These suspicions were further aroused when imperial officials ordered Protestants to stop erecting Protestant churches on the land of the prince of the church or Stifts, which the Protestants claimed to be comprised under the term "royal land" (the Stifts did not belong to the Bohemian Estates) which was open to them due to the Letter of Majesty – a very disputed legal interpretation of which the government disapproved. On 23 May 1618, an assembly of Protestant noblemen, led by Count Jindrich Matyas Thurn, stormed Prague Castle, and tried two Imperial governors, Vilem Slavata of Chlum and Jaroslav Borzita of Martinice with violating the Letter of Majesty, found them guilty, and threw them, together with their scribe Philip Fabricius, out of the windows of the Bohemian Chancellery. This event – known as the Frederick's chancellor Christian I, Prince of Second Defenestration of Prague – marked the beginning of the Anhalt-Bernburg (1568–1630). , and with it, the beginning of the Thirty Years' War.

In these circumstances, Christian I, Prince of Anhalt-Bernburg, Frederick V's governor of the Upper Palatinate, moved to intervene in Bohemia. He did not initially propose nominating Frederick as King of Bohemia because the young elector was still seen as politically inexperienced and he was a Calvinist, while there were virtually no Calvinists in Bohemia. At any rate, Frederick was not initially eager to defy the emperor, who had praised Frederick's loyalty. Frederick did not publicly break with the emperor, but in a letter to his father-in-law, James I of England, he placed the blame for the Bohemian vote on the Jesuits and the Spanish party at the Habsburg court. This is a questionable evasion of Frederick's own agents.

The first mention in Prague of Frederick's name as a possible candidate as King of Bohemia came in November 1618. It is not known if Frederick's agents played a role in talking up his possible candidacy. Palatine diplomat Christoph von Dohna approached James I of England with the possibility of Frederick becoming King of Bohemia, but James reacted negatively to this idea. The princes of the Protestant Union similarly rejected the idea, fearing it might lead to religious war. The Elector of Saxony was staunchly opposed to the idea. Behind the scenes, Frederick authorised sending a force under Ernst von Mansfeld to support the Bohemian rebels. In August 1618, forces under Mansfeld entered Bohemia and led the Siege of Pilsen, which saw Pilsen fall to rebel forces on 21 November 1618, leaving the entire kingdom in Protestant hands. Frederick V, Elector Palatine 233

Matthias, Holy Roman Emperor died on 20 March 1619. Although his successor, Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor, had previously been crowned King of Bohemia, the Estates of Bohemia now refused to recognise Ferdinand as their king. Fearing an invasion by Imperial forces the Estates of Bohemia sought an alliance with the other members of the Lands of the Bohemian Crown (, Lusatia, ) and on 31 July 1619 at Prague, these states formed the Bohemian Confederacy, dedicated to opposing the Habsburgs; under the terms of this agreement, Protestantism became virtually the state religion of the Bohemian lands. In August 1619, the general parliament of all the Bohemian lands declared that Ferdinand had forfeited the Bohemian throne. This formally severed all ties between Bohemia and the Habsburgs and made war inevitable. Ferdinand of Bavaria, predicted this decision would lead to twenty, Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor (1578–1637), who was elected King of Bohemia forty, or sixty years of war.[3] in 1617 and who would later claim that Frederick The preferred candidate of Bohemians as their new king was the had usurped his rightful claim to the throne of Bohemia. Elector of Saxony, but he let it be known he would not accept the throne. This left Frederick as the most senior Protestant prince since no one else was willing to risk conflict with the emperor. In August 1619, the chances of Frederick becoming King of Bohemia became greater when Gabriel Bethlen launched an anti-Habsburg revolt in Royal Hungary. This was also precisely the period when Ferdinand was travelling to for his coronation.

Frederick in Prague On 26 August 1619, the states of the Bohemian Confederacy elected Frederick as new King of Bohemia; Frederick first learned of his election on 29 August in Amberg.[4] Two days later, Ferdinand II was elected as Holy Roman Emperor. Frederick was the only elector who voted against Ferdinand; even the Protestant electors, John George I, Elector of Saxony, and John Sigismund, Elector of Brandenburg, voted for Ferdinand. The electoral college also condemned the Bohemian Confederation's attempt to remove Ferdinand from the throne of Bohemia and declared that the 1617 vote of the Estates of Bohemia making Ferdinand King of Bohemia was binding. Frederick V, Elector Palatine 234

Frederick's decision to accept the Bohemian crown has been the subject of much historical speculation. Later Catholic propaganda, in a view later accepted by Friedrich Schiller, portrayed the decision as based mainly on Elizabeth Stuart's desire to be a queen.[5] More recently, historians have concluded that Frederick's decision was based primarily on a sense of his duty to fellow Protestants, although Frederick wavered between his duty of loyalty to the emperor and his sense of duty to his religious brethren. There also seem to have been economic considerations: the Upper Palatinate was at that time the European iron center, while Bohemia was a focal point for the tin and glass trade: Christian I, Prince of Anhalt-Bernburg, told Frederick that a union of the two areas could be financially advantageous.

On 12 September 1619, the Protestant Union met at Rothenburg ob der Tauber and called on Frederick not to intervene in Frederick Bohemian affairs. Other possible allies – the Dutch Republic, Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy, and the Republic of – sent letters saying they would not be able to offer Frederick assistance if he accepted the Bohemian offer; only Gabriel Bethlen offered words of encouragement.

Between 24 September and 28, Frederick reached his decision "not to resist the will of the Almighty" and thus decided to accept the Bohemian crown.[6] The Dutch Republic, the Republic of Venice, Denmark, and Sweden recognised Frederick as King of Bohemia. On 29 September 1619, Frederick left Heidelberg for Prague. He travelled through Ansbach, Amberg, , and , where he was met by representatives from the Bohemian Estates. Together, they then travelled through Cheb, Sokolov, Žatec, Louny, and Slaný. Finally on 31 October 1619, Frederick entered Prague, along with 568 people and 100 cars, and was greeted enthusiastically. Frederick V, Elector Palatine 235

Coronation

Frederick was crowned with the Crown of Saint Wenceslas in St. Vitus Cathedral on 4 November 1619. The coronation was conducted not by the Archbishop of Prague but by the Utraquist administrator of the diocese, Georg Dicastus, and a Protestant elder, Johannes Cyrill von Třebič. The liturgy was modelled on that used at the coronation of Charles IV, with only a few parts altered. The litany was sung – per the Catholic tradition – rather than spoken as was normally done by the Calvinists. Frederick was anointed with little objection. At the end of the coronation, the Estates paid homage to Frederick.

Although a large part of the country was already devastated by war, and many refugees were encamped in the town, the coronation was celebrated with lavish parties.[7]

Reign

Frederick assumed a weak crown and a state torn with internal Coronation of Frederick V in St. Vitus Cathedral, 4 divisions. The state's finances had been disrupted for years, and, at November 1619. any rate, Bohemian kings had only very limited ability to raise funds, being primarily dependent on the goodwill of the nobility and the tax allocations of the diets. The Protestant nobles felt that higher taxes were necessary to pay for war against the German , but the country already felt overburdened in the wake of the Long War. Further limiting Frederick's ability to manoeuvre was the need to distribute royal bounty to supporters in order to ensure their loyalty to his regime.

In Prague, Frederick soon came to be alienated from a portion of the nobility and the clergy. Neither Frederick nor his wife spoke Czech, so court offices were staffed primarily with foreigners, while the administration of the localities was left to the local nobles. This made an alliance of the royal family with the corporate bodies of the realm difficult. Further alienation was caused by Frederick V's court preacher, Abraham Scultetus, who was determined to use his new post to advance the cause of Calvinism in Bohemia. The Utraquist churches had retained the use of relics and images in church, but Scultetus now launched an iconoclastic crusade against images: beginning on 21 December 1619, images were removed from St. Vitus Cathedral, and on 27–28 December, a famous altarpiece by Lucas Cranach the Younger depicting the Virgin Mary was destroyed. There was even a rumour that the grave of St. Wenceslaus was to be desecrated. Scultetus' iconoclasm was deeply unpopular, and Frederick attempted to distance himself from it, claiming that his orders were not being carried out by his followers. Frederick V, Elector Palatine 236

The nickname "The Winter King" appeared shortly after the beginning of Frederick's reign and our first printed reference using the term came in a 1619 Imperial pamphlet that presented the phrase in the context of a royal chronogram. Frederick's propagandists attempted to respond to the phrase by arguing that Frederick was in fact a "Winter Lion" who defended the crown of Bohemia against troublemakers and liars, and that he would also be a "Summer Lion."

Meanwhile, Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor rallied his forces against Frederick. On 21 October 1619, he signed a treaty with This 1619 Imperial pamphlet, containing a Maximilian, Duke of Bavaria, leader of the Catholic League. This chronogram, was the first to dub Frederick "The Winter King". treaty provided that Maximilian would be commander of the forces against Frederick and promised that Maximilian would be able to retain all of the occupied Bohemian lands for himself and would be granted Frederick's electoral title as well. The emperor was also able to obtain the support of John George I, Elector of Saxony; John George's court preacher, Matthias Hoe von Hoenegg, encouraged the emperor to smash Frederick and the Bohemians.[8]

Frederick's chancellor, Christian I, Prince of Anhalt-Bernburg, urged Frederick to call a meeting of Protestant princes at Nuremberg in December 1619. This conference was a fiasco, as few princes bothered to send representatives. John George of Saxony declined to send a representative. Those who did attend halfheartedly promised to secure Frederick's Rhineland territories during Frederick's absence in Bohemia. In March 1620, during a meeting of the Imperial party at , Frederick despatched a legal defense of his actions. He argued that he had not broken the imperial peace because Bohemia was located outside of the Holy Roman Empire and there was not, therefore, a conflict between an imperial prince and the emperor. Frederick argued that it would therefore be illegal for Ferdinand to use imperial power against him. This meeting, which included John George of Saxony and Maximilian of Bavaria, rejected Frederick's argument, finding that Bohemia was an indivisible part of the empire. On 1 April 1620, the Imperial party issued an ultimatum calling on Frederick to leave Bohemia by 1 June. If Frederick did not comply by this date, Ferdinand threatened to use force to enforce his right as Holy Roman Emperor and rightful King of Bohemia to overthrow the usurper. A little later, John George of Saxony signed a treaty with Ferdinand in which Ferdinand guaranteed the practice of Lutheranism in Bohemia and recognized the secular areas in the Netherlands. Ferdinand also agreed to give John George Lusatia, thus cementing John George's dominance of the Upper Saxon Circle.

This was the context when the parliament of the Bohemian Confederacy met on 25 March 1620. Frederick called for massive tax increases and conscription to fight the impending Imperial threat. To raise money for the Bohemian forces, Frederick used his private funds, pawned his jewels and, in May 1620, drove the Electoral Palatinate into insolvency when he decided to move two Frederick V on horseback with Prague in the tons of gold to Bohemia. background. Frederick V, Elector Palatine 237

Bad news continued to arrive for Frederick. James I of England refused to support his son-in-law militarily. The Netherlands sent only a small force and promised only 50,000 florins a month for Frederick. Worst of all for Frederick, on 3 July 1620, the Protestant Union signed the Treaty of Ulm (1620), thereby withdrawing their support for Frederick and declaring neutrality in the conflict between Frederick and the Catholic League.

Battle of White Mountain, 8 November 1620 With the signing of the Treaty of Ulm, Ambrogio Spinola, 1st Marquis of the Balbases began raising Imperial troops in the Spanish Netherlands and in the region. In early August 1620, 25,000 troops, under the command of Spinola marched into Bohemia. In the third week of August, they shifted their focus and marched into the nearly unarmed Electoral Palatinate, occupying Mainz. The Electoral Palatinate was defended by only 2,000 English volunteers and the country was easily taken. Imperial troops set up camp in Frankenthal and . Spinola crossed the Rhine on 5 September 1620 and proceeded to capture on 10 September and on 14 September. From Bohemia, Frederick was powerless to stop the occupation of his ancestral homeland. After capturing Linz, Upper Austria, Maximilian, Duke of Bavaria crossed the Bohemian border on 26 September 1620. At Rokycany, Maximilian's forces first met with the 15,000 ragtag, poorly paid, poorly equipped troops that Frederick had managed to raise. Frederick visited his army on 28 September 1620, but, lacking a military background, left the conduct of the war to his generals. Frederick focused his attention on organizing supplies and preparing fortifications.

Depiction of the Battle of White Mountain by Pieter After a series of skirmishes, on 5 November 1620, Frederick drew Snayers (1592–1667), 1620. his forces back towards Prague and Imperial troops followed them. On 7 November, Bohemian forces determined to make a stand at White Mountain, just outside of Prague. The day before King Frederick had ridden down the lines, and exhorted the soldiers. He then rushed to Prague to implore the Bohemian Estates to raise money for his troops and to receive the envoys of the English king. However, it was too late. When, on 8 November 1620, Frederick wanted to ride back to the troops, he was met at the gate of Prague by fleeing soldiers of his army and his chancellor, Christian I, Prince of Anhalt-Bernburg, who informed him of the disaster: the Bohemian army had received a crushing defeat that morning in the Battle of White Mountain.

Escape Christian could recommend only one option to Frederick: immediate flight. As such, on 9 November, Frederick fled to the Silesian capital of Breslau, along with his wife and child, some advisers, and not much more baggage than the Czech . Maximilian took Prague shortly after Frederick's departure. From Silesia, Frederick wanted to plan revenge for the Battle of White Mountain, but the Silesian Estates refused to support this project, and he was forced to leave Silesia in early 1621. Frederick V, Elector Palatine 238

Contemporary pamphleteers – both Catholic and Protestant – were merciless in their portrayal of Frederick's flight from Prague. After Frederick's Garter was found in Prague, pamphleteers routinely portrayed him with his stockings falling down. On 21 January 1621, Ferdinand issued a decree against Frederick and Christian, accusing them of breach of peace, supporting rebels, and treason. Ferdinand decreed that Frederick's lands and titles within the Holy Roman Empire were now forfeited. On 6 February 1621, representatives of the Protestant Union met with Ferdinand at to protest, but they soon agreed to support the settlement in the Palatinate, and the Palatinate remained occupied by Spanish troops. At this point, the Protestant Union

had essentially ceased to exist. 1620 pamphlet mocking Frederick's flight from Prague. The Twelve Years' Truce ended on 9 April 1621. On 14 April, Frederick joined his wife at The Hague. The Dutch Republic and Frederick signed a contract in which he accepted the support of the Netherlands for the reconquest of his dominions. In Bohemia, the crushing of the Bohemian Revolt had terrible consequences. Twenty-eight Bohemian nobles were executed at Old Town Hall (Prague) on 21 June 1621, and the heads of twelve of them, along with the hand of Joachim Andreas von Schlick were nailed to the Old Town Tower of Charles Bridge, where they remained for ten years. The elective monarchy was now abolished; the role of the Estates greatly curtailed; and the Letter of Majesty was torn by Ferdinand himself. Only Lutheranism remained tolerated in Bohemia, and in the coming years, the rest of the population would be actively re-Catholicized. Bohemia would remain part of the Habsburg Monarchy until 1918.

Fall of Frederick's ancestral lands, 1621–22

In summer 1621, John II, Count Palatine of Zweibrücken, Frederick's former guardian who had served as regent of the Electoral Palatinate when Frederick left for Prague, resigned. However, Ernst von Mansfeld continued to occupy a portion of the Upper Palatinate and had successfully resisted efforts by Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly to dislodge him. Mansfeld crossed into Rhenish Palatinate in early 1622, and on 21 April 1622, Frederick joined Mansfeld there. Frederick attempted to convince other Protestant princes to reconstitute the Protestant Union, but met with limited success. Frederick's cause was boosted by an 27 April 1622 victory over Tilly's forces at the Battle of Wiesloch near Wiesloch, but this boost was short lived. Frederick's forces under the command of Georg Friedrich, Margrave of Baden-Durlach were defeated at the Battle of Ernst von Mansfeld (1580–1626), soldier who held on to Frederick's Palatinate Wimpfen on 6 May 1622; and then forces under Christian the Younger of inheritance until 1622. Brunswick were soundly defeated at the Battle of Höchst on 20 June 1622.

Frederick was increasingly under Mansfeld's influence at this time, and was growing disillusioned with the Protestant cause. With Frederick's knowledge, Mansfeld raided Darmstadt and captured Louis V, Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt and his son Johann as hostages. This was clearly a violation of Imperial law, and cost Frederick whatever remaining sympathy he still had in Europe. During his retreat into Alsace, Mansfeld burned a city and thirty . Frederick V, Elector Palatine 239

Frederick dismissed Mansfeld after he became convinced he would be unable to reconquer his hereditary lands. Frederick then spent the summer with his uncle, Henri de La Tour d'Auvergne, Duke of Bouillon, in Sedan. Shortly thereafter, troops under Tilly and Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba completed the Spanish conquest of the Electoral Palatinate. After an eleven-week siege, Heidelberg fell on 19 September 1622; Mannheim similarly fell on 5 November 1622. Only the British garrison in Frankenthal now held out. After the conquest of Heidelberg, the Protestant churches were closed, the Heidelberg is taken by the forces of Johann Tserclaes, university was closed, and at the request of Maximilian, the great Count of Tilly (1559–1632) on 19 September 1622. library, the famous (3500 manuscripts), was presented as a Thank you gift to Pope Gregory XV for the 620,000 guilders he had provided for financing of the campaigns of the Catholic League.

On 23 February 1623, Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor awarded Frederick's electoral title to Maximilian of Bavaria, who now became Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria. Maximilian was also awarded the conquered territory of Upper Palatinate as a . Other territories of the Electoral Palatinate (Parkstein, Weiden in der Oberpfalz, and Peilstein im Mühlviertel) were awarded to Wolfgang William, Count Palatine of Neuburg.

Exile, 1622–1632

In late 1622 and early 1623, Frederick organised a Palatinate government-in-exile at The Hague. This Palatinate Council was headed by Ludwig Camerarius. During the negotiations for the Spanish Match, Frederick urged his father-in-law not to go through with the Match. 1623 edict by Ferdinand II, Holy Roman There were attempts at reconciling Frederick with the emperor in 1624–25 Emperor (1578–1637) awarding and in 1627, but these came to naught. Frederick was willing to compromise Frederick's lands and titles to Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria (1573–1651). with the emperor, but he wanted the restoration of his lands and electoral title, and the emperor was not inclined to restore these to Frederick. Frederick held out some hope that his lands might be retaken militarily, but these hopes were crushed on 27 August 1626, when the forces of Christian IV of Denmark were crushed by Tilly at the Battle of Lutter.

Frederick left most of the day-to-day business of his government-in-exile to his counselors, although he did take some interest in his finances. Frederick was very stingy in funding his administration, and yet, in order to maintain the dignity of a royal court, he spent vast sums on building and entertainment, quickly blowing through donations from the English and Dutch governments. For example, in 1629, Frederick commissioned Bartholoeus van Bassen to build him a large in . When completed in 1631, this palace had a large central residence, a courtyard, a two-storey main building with two wings projecting to the south, and was surrounded by large gardens. Frederick spent much of his time there in hunting and long walks. Frederick V, Elector Palatine 240

Frederick suffered a personal tragedy on 17 January 1629. He was traveling to Amsterdam to view the Spanish treasure fleet captured by the when his boat capsized while crossing the , a body of water near Haarlem. Frederick survived the accident, but his eldest son, the fifteen year old Frederick Henry of the Palatinate did not. James I of England had been attempting to broker a marriage between Frederick Henry and a Spanish princess that could see the Palatinate returned to the family, but these hopes were dashed by his untimely death. What's more, Frederick was physically damaged from the The winter palace constructed for Frederick V at accident, and would not fully recover for 15 months. Rhenen between 1629 and 1631. At the Diet of Regensburg (1630), Frederick formally petitioned to be forgiven for having accepted the crown of Bohemia and admitted his wrongdoing. But nothing came of this. In March 1631, Frederick despatched diplomat Sir Robert Anstruther to hold discussions with Ernst Egon VIII, Count of Fürstenberg, president of the Imperial Privy Council, about restoring Frederick's lands, but Frederick died before these could bear any fruit.

Death, 1632 On 4 July 1630, Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden intervened in the Thirty Years' War. On 16 September 1631, Gustavus Adolphus' forces defeated Tilly's forces at the Battle of Breitenfeld (1631). Tilly was defeated the following year, and Gustavus Adolphus' forces swept into southern Germany. When Oppenheim was captured in December 1631, Frederick believed the time was ripe for him to reestablish himself in the Palatinate, and he left for Heidelberg. In February 1632, Frederick met Gustavus Adolphus at Frankfurt, with Gustavus Adolphus paying Frederick full royal honours. However, Gustavus Adolphus was not prepared to offer Frederick support for restoring him in the Palatinate because England and the Netherlands had not signed off on such a proposal. Frederick subsequently took part in Gustavus Adolphus' march into the Duchy of Bavaria, and was present for the march into Munich on 17 May 1632. Upon Frederick's pressing his case with Gustavus Adolphus, Gustavus Adolphus told Frederick that he would accept Frederick's restoration without Dutch / British support only if Frederick would agree to hold the Palatinate as a fief of the King of Sweden. The lands of the Palatinate were simply too important strategically for Gustavus Adolphus to hand them over to Frederick. Gustavus Adolphus also insisted that Frederick would have to agree to establish equal rights for Lutherans in his territories. Frederick refused Gustavus Adolphus' Frederick V, ca. 1630. conditions and they parted, with Frederick travelling to Swedish-occupied Mainz, intending to return to The Hague.

Gustavus Adolphus was killed at the Battle of Lützen (1632) on 16 November 1632. About this time, the English finally determined to send an expeditionary force to participate in the Thirty Years' War. Unfortunately for Frederick, it was too late. Beginning in October 1632, he had suffered from an infection that got worse in the following weeks. The famed physician Peter Spina was summoned from Darmstadt to Mainz, but nothing could be Frederick V, Elector Palatine 241

done for Frederick. Frederick died on the morning of 29 November 1632, of a "pestilential fever". Frederick's son and heir, Charles Louis. was only 15 years old. Therefore Frederick's brother (Charles Louis' uncle), Ludwig Philipp, Louis Philip, Count Palatine of Simmern-Kaiserslautern, served as regent. Frederick's internal organs were buried at St. Catherine's in Oppenheim and his embalmed body was taken to Frankenthal. On 9 June 1635, with Spanish troops approaching, Ludwig Philipp of Pfalz-Simmern-Kaiserslautern fled to Kaiserslautern with Frederick's body. It is believed that Ludwig Philipp of Pfalz-Simmern-Kaiserslautern transferred Frederick's body to the Sedan in September 1637, but Frederick's final resting place is unknown.

Family and children He married Elizabeth Stuart, the daughter of James VI of Scotland and of Anne of Denmark in the Chapel Royal, Whitehall on 14 February 1613 and had the following children: 1. Frederick Henry (1614–1629)—(drowned) 2. Charles Louis (1617–1680), became Elector Palatine in 1648 3. Elisabeth (1618–1680) 4. Rupert (1619–1682) of English Civil War fame. 5. Maurice (1620–1652) who also served in the English Civil War. 6. Louise (1622–1709) 7. Louis (1624–1625) 8. Edward (1625–1663) 9. Henriette Marie (1626–1651) 10. John Philip Frederick (1627–1650) 11. Charlotte (1628–1631) 12. Sophia (1630–1714), married Elector Ernest Augustus of Hanover; heiress of England by the Act of Settlement, 1701 13. Gustavus Adolphus (1632–1641)

References • Purcell, Brennan C. (2003), The Winter King: Frederick V of the Palatinate and the Coming of the Thirty Years' War, London: Ashgate, ISBN 0-7546-3401-9 • Yates, Frances (1972), The Rosicrucian Enlightenment, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, ISBN 0-7100-7380-1

[1] http:/ / www. astro. com/ astro-databank/ Frederick_V,_King_of_Bohemia [2] Concerning Anhalt's political aims and his secret diplomacy against the House of Habsburg see: Walter Krüssmann, Ernst von Mansfeld

(http:/ / www. walter-kruessmann. de/ ) (1580-1626); Grafensohn, Söldnerführer, Kriegsunternehmer gegen Habsburg im Dreißigjährigen Krieg; Berlin 2010 (Duncker & Humblot, Historische Forschungen, 94; ISBN 978-3-428-13321-5), especially pp. 81-86, 98-100, 134-139, 170-176. [3] Zitiert nach Golo Mann: Wallenstein, S. 146M [4][4]s. hierzu s. unter Literaturangabe: Berning ... S. 134 [5] Friedrich Schiller: Geschichte des 30jährigen Kriegs, Teil 1 [6] Zitiert nach Peter Bilhöfer in Der Winterkönig. Friedrich von der Pfalz. Bayern und Europa im Zeitalter des Dreißigjährigen Krieges, S. 24 24 [7][7]Für eine zeitgenössische Darstellung des Einzugs und die Krönung siehe Krönung Friedrichs von der Pfalz zum böhmischen König [8][8]Quoted by Wedgwood, p. 94 Frederick V, Elector Palatine 242

External links • A declaration of the cavses, for the which, wee Frederick, by the grace of God King Bohemia, Covnt Palatine of the Rhine, Elector of the Sacred Empire, & c. haue accepted of the crowne of Bohemia, and of the covntryes

thereunto annexed. (http:/ / www. aquinas. edu/ history/ research. html)

Frederick V, Elector Palatine House of Palatinate-Simmern Cadet branch of the House of Wittelsbach Born: 16 August 1596 Died: 29 November 1632 Regnal titles Preceded by Elector Palatine Succeeded by Frederick IV 1610–1623 Charles I Louis Preceded by King of Succeeded by Ferdinand II Bohemia Ferdinand II 1619–1620 restored

Henri de la Tour d'Auvergne, Vicomte de Turenne

Henri de la Tour d'Auvergne, Vicomte de Turenne, often called simply Turenne (11 September 1611, Sedan, – 27 July 1675) was the most illustrious member of the La Tour d'Auvergne family. He achieved military fame and became a Marshal of France. He was one of six marshals who have been made Marshal General of France.

Turenne. Henri de la Tour d'Auvergne, Vicomte de Turenne 243

Background and early career

The second son of Henri de La Tour d'Auvergne, vicomte de Turenne, duc de Bouillon, sovereign Prince of Sedan, by his second wife Elizabeth, daughter of William the Silent, Prince of Orange, he was born at Sedan. He received a Huguenot education and the usual training of a young noble of the time, but physical infirmity, and particularly an impediment of speech (which he never lost), hampered his progress, though he showed a marked partiality for history and geography, and especial admiration of the exploits of Alexander the Turenne's coat of arms in the Château de Great and Caesar. After his father's death in 1623, he devoted himself Chantilly. to bodily exercises and in a great measure overcame his natural weakness. At the age of fourteen he went to learn war in the camp of his uncle, Maurice of Nassau the Stadtholder of Holland and Prince of Orange, and began his military career (as a private soldier in that prince's bodyguard) in the Eighty Years' War.[1]

Frederick Henry of Nassau, who succeeded his brother Maurice as Stadtholder and Prince of Orange in 1625, gave Turenne a captaincy in 1626. The young officer took his part in the siege warfare of the period, and won special commendation from his uncle (one of the foremost commanders of the time) for his skill and courage at the celebrated siege of 's-Hertogenbosch (Bois-le-Duc) in 1629. In 1630 Turenne left the Netherlands and entered the service of France, motivated not only by the prospect of military advancement but also by his mother's desire to show the loyalty of the Bouillon dominions to the French crown.[1] Cardinal Richelieu at once made him colonel of an infantry regiment. He still continued to serve at short intervals with the prince of Orange, who at the time had an alliance with France, and his first serious service under the French flag occurred at the siege of La Mothe in Lorraine by Marshal de la Force (1634), where his brilliant courage at the assault won him immediate promotion to the rank of maréchal de camp (equivalent to the modern grade of major-general). In 1635 Turenne served under Louis de Nogaret, Cardinal de la Valette in Lorraine and on the Rhine. The French and their allies raised the Imperial siege of Mainz (8 August 1635), but the French army had to fall back on for want of provisions. In the retreat Turenne measured swords with the famous imperial General Gallas, and distinguished himself greatly by his courage and skill. The reorganised army took the field again in 1636 and captured Saverne (Zabern), at the storming of which Turenne was seriously wounded. In 1637 he took part in the campaign of Flanders, including the capture of Landrecies (26 July). In the latter part of 1638, serving under Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar (1608–1639), he directed the assault on Breisach (reputedly the strongest fortress on the ), which surrendered on December 17.[1] Turenne had now gained a reputation as one of the foremost of the younger generals of France, and Richelieu next employed him in the Italian campaign of 1639–1640 under "Cadet la Perle", Henri de Lorraine, count of Harcourt (1601–1666). On 19 November 1639 Turenne fought in the famous rearguard action called the battle of the "Route de Quiers", and during the winter re-victualled the citadel of Turin, held by the French against the forces of Prince Thomas of Savoy. In 1640 Harcourt saved Casale Monferrato and besieged Prince Thomas' forces in Turin, which meanwhile besieged in their turn another French force in the citadel. The latter held out, while Prince Thomas had to surrender on 17 September 1640, a fourth army which had invested Harcourt's lines being at the same time forced to retire. Turenne, who had by now become a lieutenant-general, played a major role in achieving the favourable result of these complicated operations. He himself commanded during the campaign of 1641 and took Coni (Cuneo), Ceva and Mondovì.[1] In 1642 he served as second-in-command of the French troops which conquered Roussillon. At this time Richelieu discovered the conspiracy of Cinq Mars in which Turenne's elder brother, the duc de Bouillon, had become implicated.[1] Henri de la Tour d'Auvergne, Vicomte de Turenne 244

Marshal of France

The relations of the principality of Sedan to the French crown markedly influenced the earlier career of Turenne; sometimes it proved necessary to advance the soldier to conciliate the ducal family, at other times the machinations of the ducal family against Richelieu or Mazarin prevented the king's advisers from giving their full confidence to their general in the field. Moreover his steady adherence to the Protestant religion provided a further element of difficulty in Turenne's relations with the ministers. Cardinal Richelieu nevertheless entrusted him with the command in Italy in 1643 under Prince Thomas (who had changed sides in the quarrel). Turenne took Trino in a few weeks before his recall to France towards the end of the year. He gained the rank of Marshal of France (19 December 1643) and soon departed to Alsace to re-organize the "Army of Weimar" (the remnant of the late Duke Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar's troops) which had just suffered a severe defeat at Tuttlingen (November 24/25, 1643). At this time, having reached thirty-two years of age, Turenne had served under four Turenne as Marshal of France. famous commanders. The methodical prince of Orange, the fiery Bernhard, the soldierly Cardinal de la Valette and the stubborn and astute Harcourt had each contributed much to the completeness of Turenne's training, and he took the field in 1644 prepared by genius and education for the responsibilities of high command.[1]

The work of re-organization over, Marshal Turenne began the campaign in June 1644 by crossing the Rhine at Breisach, but almost instantly an army under the Duke of Enghien (afterwards the great Condé) joined him. The Duke, as a prince of the royal house, took the chief command of the united armies of "France" and "Weimar". The four famous campaigns which followed brought to an end the Thirty Years' War. The desperately fought against Franz von Mercy's (3, 5 and 9 August 1644) proved the chief event of the first campaign, after which the French successfully besieged Philippsburg. Before the capitulation Enghien withdrew and left Turenne in command. The marshal opened the campaign of 1645 with a strong forward movement, but Mercy surprised and defeated him at Mergentheim (Marienthal) on 2 May. Enghien again came to the front with the army of France, and Turenne's army received substantial reinforcement with the arrival of a Swedish force and of a contingent from Hesse-Kassel (or Hesse-Cassel). The Swedes soon departed, but Enghien commanded 20,000 men when he met the Bavarians in a battle even more stubbornly contested than Freiburg. The French forces killed Mercy and decisively defeated his army at Allerheim near Nördlingen (3 August 1645). Ill-health forced Enghien to retire soon afterwards, leaving Turenne for the third time left in command of the French army. Again he did not fare well against the larger forces of the imperialists, but the campaign ended with a gleam of success in his capture of Trier (Trèves).[2] In the following year (1646) Turenne obtained more decided successes, and, by separating the Austrians from the Bavarians, compelled Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria to make peace (signed on 14 March 1647). In 1647 he proposed to attack the thus weakened army of the emperor, but the strategists ordered him into Flanders instead. Not only did France thus lose an opportunity, but a serious mutiny broke out amongst the Weimar troops, who had not received their pay for many months. The marshal showed great tact and firmness in his treatment of the disaffected regiments, amongst whom in the end he succeeded in restoring order with little bloodshed. He then marched into Luxembourg, but soon received orders to switch to the Rhine, for in 1648 Bavaria had returned to her Austrian alliance and had taken up arms again. Turenne and his Swedish allies made a brilliant campaign, crowned by the decisive action of Zusmarshausen (17 May). Troops subsequently wasted Bavaria with fire and sword until a second and more secure pacification was obtained. This devastation, for which many modern writers have blamed Turenne, Henri de la Tour d'Auvergne, Vicomte de Turenne 245

appeared no more harsh a measure than the spirit of the times and the circumstances of the case permitted.[3]

The Fronde and the early reign of Louis XIV

The Peace of Westphalia (1648) brought little peace to France, which soon became involved in the civil war of the Fronde (1648–1653). Few of Turenne's actions caused sharper criticism than his adhesion to the party of revolt. The army of Weimar refused to follow its leader and he had to flee into the Spanish Netherlands, where he remained until the treaty of Rueil (March 1649) put an end to the first war of the Fronde. The second war began with the arrest of Condé and others (January 1650). Turenne, intended for arrest with them, escaped in time, and with the duchesse de Longueville held Stenay for the cause of the "Princes" — Condé, his brother Conti, and his brother-in-law the duc de Longueville. Love for the duchess seems to have ruled Turenne's action, both in the first war, and, now, in seeking Spanish aid for the Princes. In this war Turenne sustained one of his few reverses at Rethel (15 December 1650); but the second conflict ended in the early months of the following year with the collapse of the court party and the release of the Princes.[3]

Turenne became reconciled and returned to Paris in May 1651, but the Statue of Turenne in Versailles. trouble soon revived and before long Condé again raised the standard of revolt in the south of France. In this, the third war of the Fronde, Turenne and Condé stood opposed to each other, the marshal commanding the royal armies, the prince that of the Frondeurs and their Spanish allies. Turenne displayed the personal bravery of a young soldier at Jargeau (28 March 1652), the skill and wariness of a veteran general at Gien (7 April), and he practically crushed the civil war in the Battle of the Faubourg St Antoine (2 July) and in the re-occupation of Paris (21 October).[3]

Turenne still needed to deal with Condé and the Spaniards, however, and the long drawn-out campaigns of the "Spanish Fronde" gave ample scope for the display of scientific generalship on the part of both the La Bataille des Dunes by Charles-Philippe famous captains. In 1653 Turenne had the advantage: he captured Larivière. Galerie des Batailles, . Rethel, Sainte-Menehould and Mouzon, while Condé succeeded only In the foreground is Turenne on a Skewbald [4] at Rocroi. The short campaign of 1654 again favoured the French; on horse. 25 July 1654 they defeated the Spanish at Arras. In 1655 French armies gained more ground, but in 1656 Turenne suffered a serious defeat at Valenciennes, and though the causes of the defeat had been largely outside his control, he again showed his ability to recover from an outcome that would have overwhelmed lesser generals.[3]

The war eventually concluded soon after Turenne's victory at the Battle of the Dunes near in 1658, in which a corps of English veterans sent by France's ally Oliver Cromwell played a notable part (3–14 June); a victory which, followed by another successful campaign in 1658, led to the peace of the Pyrenees in 1659.[3] On the death of Cardinal Mazarin in 1661 Louis XIV took the reins of government into his own hands, and as one of his first acts appointed Turenne "marshal-general of the camps and armies of the king". He had offered to revive the office of connétable of France (suppressed in 1627) in Turenne's favour if the marshal would become a Roman Henri de la Tour d'Auvergne, Vicomte de Turenne 246

Catholic. Turenne declined. Born of Calvinist parents and educated a Protestant, he had refused to marry one of Richelieu's nieces in 1639 and subsequently rejected a similar proposal from Mazarin.[3] Turenne married in 1652 Charlotte de Caumont, a daughter of the Protestant Marshal de la Force, to whom he remained deeply attached. But he sincerely deplored the division of Christianity into two hostile camps. He had always distrusted the influence of many dissident and uncontrolled sects; the history of independence in the English army and people made a deep impression on his mind, and the same fear of indiscipline which drove the English Presbyterians into royalism drew Turenne more and more towards the Roman . The letters between him and his wife show how closely both studied available evidence on the matter, and in the end, two years after her death, the eloquence of Bossuet and the persuasions of his nephew, the Cardinal de Bouillon prevailed upon him to give his adhesion to the Roman Catholic faith (October 1668). In 1667 he had returned to the more congenial air of the "Camps and Armies of the King", directing (nominally under Louis XIV) the famous Promenade militaire in which the French overran the Spanish Netherlands. Soon afterwards Condé, now reconciled with the king, rivaled Turenne's success by the rapid conquest of the Franche-Comté, shortly before the end the War of Devolution in February 1668.[3]

The Dutch War

In Louis XIV's Dutch War of 1672 Turenne accompanied the army commanded by the king which overran the Dutch United Provinces up to the gates of Amsterdam. The terms offered by Louis to the Prince of Orange only aroused a more bitter resistance.[3] The Dutch opened the dikes and flooded the countryside around Amsterdam. This measure completely checked Turenne, whom the king had left in command. News of this event roused Europe to action, and the conflict spread to Germany. Turenne fought a successful war of manoeuvre on the while Condé covered Alsace.[3] In January 1673 Turenne assumed the offensive, penetrated far into Germany, and forced the Great Elector of Brandenburg to make peace; later in the year, however, the famous imperial general Montecuccoli completely outmanoeuvred Turenne: Montecuccoli evaded his opponent, joined the Dutch and took the important place of .[3]

Turenne at the battle of . In June 1674, Turenne won the battle of Sinzheim, which made him master of the Electorate of the Palatinate. Under orders from Paris the French wasted the country far and wide, and this devastation with the sack of Türckheim usually counts as the gravest blot on Turenne's fame. In the autumn the anti-French allies again advanced, and though they again outmanoeuvered Turenne, the action of the neutral city of Strasbourg occasioned his failure by permitting the enemy to cross the Rhine by the bridge at that place. The battle of Enzheim followed; this proved a tactical victory, but hardly affected the situation, and, at the beginning of December, the allies remained in Alsace. The old marshal now made the most daring campaign of his career. A swift and secret march in mid-winter from one end of the Vosges to the other took the allies by surprise. Sharply following up his first successes, Turenne drove the enemy to Turkheim, and there inflicted upon them a heavy defeat (5 January 1675). As revenge for the active resistance the inhabitants of the city had shown, Turenne let his troops loot it and massacre the remaining population during two weeks. In a few weeks he had completely recovered Alsace.[3]

In the summer campaign he once more faced Montecuccoli, and after the highest display of "strategic chess-moves" by both commanders, Turenne finally compelled his opponent to offer battle at a disadvantage at Salzbach. There, on 27 July 1675, one of the first shots fired killed him. The news of his death produced universal sorrow.[3] Henri de la Tour d'Auvergne, Vicomte de Turenne 247

Legacy

Turenne's most eloquent countrymen wrote his éloges, and Montecucculi himself exclaimed, "II est mort aujourd'hui un homme qui faisait honneur à l'homme" (A man is dead today who did honour to Man). His body, taken to St Denis, was buried with the Kings of France. Even the extreme revolutionists of 1793 respected it, and, while they ignominiously reburied the bodies of the monarchs in a mass grave, they preserved the remains of Turenne at the Jardin des Plantes until 22 September 1800, when Napoleon had them removed to the church of the Invalides at Paris, where they still rest.[3]

Napoleon recommended all soldiers to "read and re-read" the campaigns of Turenne as one of the great captains. His fame as a general rivalled that of any other in Europe at a period when the populace studied war more critically than ever before, for his military character epitomized the art of war of his time (Prince de Ligne). Strategic caution and logistic accuracy, combined with brilliant dash in small combats and constancy under all circumstances — of success or

failure — perhaps emerge as the salient points of Turenne's genius for Turennes's tomb in Les Invalides. war. Great battles he avoided. "Few sieges and many combats" he used as his own maxim. And, unlike his great rival Condé, who appeared as brilliant in his first battle as in his last, Turenne improved day by day. Napoleon said of him that, his genius grew bolder as it grew older, and a later author, the Duke of Aumale (Histoire des princes de la maison de Condé), took the same view when he wrote: "Pour le connaître il faut le suivre jusqu'à Sulzbach. Chez lui chaque jour marque un progrès".[5]

In his personal character Turenne showed little more than the nature of a simple and honourable soldier, endowed with much tact; but in the world of politics and intellect he seemed almost helpless in the hands of a skilful intriguer or casuist. His morals, if not beyond reproach, were at least more austere than those prevalent in the age in which he lived. He operated essentially as a commander of regular armies. He spent his life with the troops; he knew how to win their affection; he tempered a severe discipline with rare generosity, and his men loved him as a comrade no less than they admired him as a commander. Thus, though Condé's genius appeared far more versatile, Turenne's genius best represents the art of war in the 17th century. For the small, costly, and highly trained regular armies, and for the dynastic warfare of the age of Louis XIV, Turenne functioned as the ideal army leader.[5]

In fiction Marshal of France Turenne is depicted in several alternative history novels written by Eric Flint and David Weber. These include 1633 and 1634: The Baltic War. Vicomte de Turenne is also written about in a historical fiction novel by G.A. Henty called "Won by the Sword".[6]

Notes

[1][1]Chisholm 1911, p. 412. [2][2]Chisholm 1911, pp. 412, 413. [3][3]Chisholm 1911, p. 413. [4][4]Encyclopaedia Britannica staff 2012. [5][5]Chisholm 1911, p. 414. [6][6]Jagt 2011. Henri de la Tour d'Auvergne, Vicomte de Turenne 248

References • Encyclopaedia Britannica staff (19 November 2012), French marshal Henri de La Tour d’Auvergne, vicomte de

Turenne, at the Battle of the Dunes, June 14, 1658 (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ media/ 126997/ French-marshal-Henri-de-La-Tour-dAuvergne-vicomte-de-Turenne), Encyclopaedia Britannica

• Jagt, Arnold (2011), Book Reviews from Original Ads: A list of books for young people by G. A. Henty (http:/ /

www. henty. com/ s86p1023. htm), retrieved November 2012 Attribution • This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911).

"Turenne, Henri de la Tour d'Auvergne" (http:/ / archive. org/ stream/ encyclopaediabri27chisrich#page/ 412/

mode/ 1up). Encyclopædia Britannica 27 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 412–114

External links

• Henri de la Tour d'Auvergne, Vicomte de Turenne (http:/ / www. findagrave. com/ cgi-bin/ fg. cgi?page=gr& GRid=1354) at Find a Grave James II of England 249 James II of England

James II & VII

Portrait by Peter Lely

King of England, Scotland and Ireland (more...)

Reign 6 February 1685 – 11 December 1688

Coronation 23 April 1685

Predecessor Charles II

Successors William III & II and Mary II

Spouse Anne Hyde (1660-1671; her death) Mary of Modena (1673-1701; his death)

more...

Issue

Mary II of England Anne, Queen of Great Britain James Francis Edward Stuart Louisa Maria Teresa Stuart Henrietta FitzJames James FitzJames, 1st Duke of Berwick Henry FitzJames

House House of Stuart

Father Charles I

Mother Henrietta Maria of France

Born 14 October 1633 (N.S.: 24 October 1633) St. James's Palace, London

Died 16 September 1701 (aged 67) (N.S.) Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, France

Burial Church of the English Benedictines, Paris

Signature

Religion Roman Catholicism

James II and VII (14 October 1633O.S. – 16 September 1701)[1] was King of England and Ireland as James II and King of Scotland as James VII, from 6 February 1685 until he was deposed in the Glorious Revolution of 1688. He was the last Roman Catholic monarch to reign over the Kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland. The second son of Charles I, he ascended the throne upon the death of his brother, Charles II. Members of Britain's political and religious elite increasingly suspected him of being pro-French and pro-Catholic and of having designs on becoming an absolute monarch. When he produced a Catholic heir, the tension exploded, and leading nobles called on his Protestant son-in-law and nephew, William III of Orange, to land an invasion army from the James II of England 250

Netherlands, which he did. James fled England (and thus was held to have abdicated) in the Glorious Revolution of 1688.[2] He was replaced by his Protestant elder daughter, Mary II, and her husband, William III. James made one serious attempt to recover his crowns from William and Mary, when he landed in Ireland in 1689 but, after the defeat of the Jacobite forces by the Williamite forces at the Battle of the Boyne in July 1690, James returned to France. He lived out the rest of his life as a pretender at a court sponsored by his cousin and ally, King Louis XIV. James is best known for struggles with the English Parliament and his attempts to create religious liberty for English Roman Catholics and Protestant nonconformists against the wishes of the Anglican establishment. However, he also continued the persecution of the Presbyterian Covenanters in Scotland. Parliament, opposed to the growth of absolutism that was occurring in other European countries, as well as to the loss of legal supremacy for the Church of England, saw their opposition as a way to preserve what they regarded as traditional English liberties. This tension made James's four-year reign a struggle for supremacy between the English Parliament and the Crown, resulting in his deposition, the passage of the English Bill of Rights, and the Hanoverian succession.

Early life

Birth

James, the second surviving son of Charles I and Henrietta Maria of France, was born at St. James's Palace in London on 14 October 1633.[3] Later that same year, James was baptized by William Laud, the Anglican Archbishop of Canterbury.[4] James was educated by tutors, along with his brother, the future King Charles II, and the two sons of the Duke of Buckingham, George and Francis Villiers.[5] At the age of three, James was appointed Lord High Admiral; the position was initially honorary, but would become a substantive office after the Restoration, when James was an adult.[6]

James with his father, Charles I Civil War

James was invested with the Order of the Garter in 1642,[7] and created Duke of York on 22 January 1644. As the King's disputes with the English Parliament grew into the English Civil War, James stayed in Oxford, a Royalist stronghold.[8] When the city surrendered after the siege of Oxford in 1646, Parliamentary leaders ordered the Duke of York to be confined in St. James's Palace.[9] In 1648, he escaped from the Palace, aided by Joseph Bampfield, and from there he went to The Hague in disguise.[10] When Charles I was executed by the rebels in 1649, monarchists proclaimed James's older brother as Charles II of England.[11] Charles II was recognized by the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of Ireland, and was crowned King of Scotland at Scone in Scotland in 1651. Although he was proclaimed King in Jersey, Charles was unable to secure the crown of England and consequently fled to France and exile. James II of England 251

Exile in France

Like his brother, James sought refuge in France, serving in the French army under Turenne against the Fronde, and later against their Spanish allies.[12] In the French army James had his first true experience of battle where, according to one observer, he "ventures himself and chargeth gallantly where anything is to be done". In 1656, when his brother Charles entered into an alliance with Spain—an enemy of France—James was expelled from France and forced to leave Turenne's army.[13] James quarrelled with his brother over the diplomatic choice of Spain over France. Exiled and poor, there was little that either Charles or James could do about the wider political situation, and James ultimately travelled to and (along with his younger brother, Henry) joined the Spanish army under Louis, Prince of Condé, fighting against his former French comrades at the [14] Battle of the Dunes. During his service in the Spanish army, James became Turenne, James's commander in friendly with two Irish Catholic brothers in the Royalist entourage, Peter and France Richard Talbot, and became somewhat estranged from his brother's Anglican advisers.[15] In 1659, the French and Spanish made peace. James, doubtful of his brother's chances of regaining the throne, considered taking a Spanish offer to be an admiral in their navy.[16] Ultimately, he declined the position; by the next year the situation in England had changed, and Charles II was proclaimed King.[17]

Restoration

First marriage

After 's resignation as Lord Protector in 1659 and the subsequent collapse of the Commonwealth in 1660, Charles II was restored to the English throne. Although James was the heir presumptive, it seemed unlikely that he would inherit the Crown, as Charles was still a young man capable of fathering children.[18] On 31 December 1660, following his brother's restoration, James was created Duke of Albany in Scotland, to go along with his English title, Duke of York.[19] Upon his return to England, James prompted an immediate controversy by announcing his engagement to Anne Hyde, the James and Anne Hyde in the , by Sir Peter [20] Lely daughter of Charles' chief minister, Edward Hyde. In 1659, while trying to seduce her, James promised he would marry Anne.[21] Anne became pregnant in 1660, but following the Restoration and James's return to power, no one at the royal court expected a prince to marry a commoner, no matter what he had pledged beforehand.[22] Although nearly everyone, including Anne's father, urged the two not to marry, the couple married secretly, then went through an official marriage ceremony on 3 September 1660 in London. Their first child, Charles, was born less than two months later, but died in infancy, as did five further sons and daughters. Only two daughters survived: Mary (born 30 April 1662) and Anne (born 6 February 1665).[23] wrote that James was fond of his children and his role as a father, and played with them "like an ordinary private father of a child", a contrast to the distant parenting common to royals at the time.[24] James's wife was devoted to him and influenced many of his decisions.[25] Even so, he kept a variety of mistresses, including Arabella Churchill and Catherine Sedley, and was reputed to be "the most unguarded ogler of his time."[26] With Catherine Sedley, James II had a daughter, Catherine Darnley (so named because James II was a descendant of Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley). Anne Hyde died in 1671. James II of England 252

Military and political offices After the Restoration, James was confirmed as Lord High Admiral, an office that carried with it the subsidiary appointments of Governor of Portsmouth and Lord Warden of the .[27] James commanded the Royal Navy during the Second (1665–1667) and Third Anglo-Dutch Wars (1672–1674). Following the in 1667, James oversaw the survey and re-fortification of the southern coast.[28] The office of Lord High Admiral, combined with his revenue from post office and wine tariffs (granted him by Charles upon his restoration) gave James enough money to keep a sizeable court household.[29] In 1664, Charles granted American territory between the Delaware and Connecticut Rivers to James. Following its capture by the English the former Dutch territory of and its principal port, , were named the Province and City of New York in James's honour. After the founding, the duke gave part of the colony to proprietors and John Berkeley. Fort Orange, 240 kilometres (150 mi) north on the Hudson River, was renamed Albany after James's Scottish title. In 1683, he became the governor of the Hudson's Bay Company, but did not take an active role in its governance. James also headed the , a slave trading company.[30] In September 1666, his brother Charles put him in charge of firefighting operations in the Great Fire of London, in the absence of action by Lord Mayor Thomas Bloodworth. This was not a political office, but his actions and leadership were noteworthy. "The Duke of York hath won the hearts of the people with his continual and indefatigable pains day and night in helping to quench the Fire", wrote a witness in a letter on 8 September.[31]

Conversion to Roman Catholicism and second marriage

James's time in France had exposed him to the beliefs and ceremonies of Catholicism; he and his wife, Anne, became drawn to that faith.[32] James took Eucharist in the Roman Catholic Church in 1668 or 1669, although his conversion was kept secret for some time and he continued to attend Anglican services until 1676.[33] In spite of his conversion, James continued to associate primarily with Anglicans, including John Churchill and George Legge, as well as French Protestants, such as Louis de Duras, the Earl of Feversham.[34]

Growing fears of Catholic influence at court led the English Parliament to introduce a new Test Act in 1673.[35] Under this Act, all civil and military officials were required to take an oath (in which they were required to disavow Mary of Modena, James's second the doctrine of transubstantiation and denounce certain practices of the Catholic wife Church as superstitious and idolatrous) and to receive the Eucharist under the auspices of the Church of England.[36] James refused to perform either action, instead choosing to relinquish the post of Lord High Admiral. His conversion to Catholicism was thereby made public.

Charles II opposed the conversion, ordering that James's daughters, Mary and Anne, be raised as Protestants.[37] Nevertheless, he allowed James to marry the Catholic Mary of Modena, a fifteen-year-old Italian princess.[38] James and Mary were married by proxy in a Catholic ceremony on 20 September 1673.[39] On 21 November, Mary arrived in England and Nathaniel Crew, Bishop of Oxford, performed a brief Anglican service that did little more than recognize the Catholic marriage.[40] Many British people, distrustful of Catholicism, regarded the new Duchess of York as an agent of the Pope.[41] James II of England 253

Exclusion Crisis In 1677, James reluctantly consented to his daughter Mary's marriage to the Protestant William of Orange (who was also James's nephew, the son of his sister Mary, Princess Royal), acquiescing after his brother Charles and William had agreed upon the marriage.[42] Despite the Protestant marriage, fears of a potential Catholic monarch persisted, intensified by the failure of Charles II and his wife, Catherine of Braganza, to produce any children. A defrocked Anglican clergyman, Titus Oates, spoke of a "Popish Plot" to kill Charles and to put the Duke of York on the throne.[43] The fabricated plot caused a wave of anti-Catholic hysteria to sweep across the nation. In England, the Earl of Shaftesbury, a former government minister and now a leading opponent of Catholicism, attempted to have James excluded from the line of succession.[44] Some members of Parliament even proposed that the crown go to Charles's illegitimate son, James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth.[45] In 1679, with the Exclusion Bill in danger of passing, Charles II dissolved Parliament.[46] Two further Parliaments were elected in 1680 and 1681, but were dissolved for the same reason.[47] The contributed to the development of the English two-party system: the Whigs were those who supported the Bill, while the Tories were those who opposed it. Ultimately, the succession was not altered, but James was convinced to withdraw from all policy-making bodies and to accept a lesser role in his brother's government.[48] The Duke of Monmouth was On the orders of the King, James left England for Brussels.[49] In 1680, he was involved in plots against James appointed Lord High Commissioner of Scotland and took up residence at the Palace of Holyroodhouse in Edinburgh in order to suppress an uprising and oversee royal government.[50] James returned to England for a time when Charles was stricken ill and appeared to be near death.[51] The hysteria of the accusations eventually faded, but James's relations with many in the English Parliament, including the Earl of Danby, a former ally, were forever strained and a solid segment turned against him.[52]

Return to favour In 1683, a plot was uncovered to assassinate Charles and James and spark a republican revolution to re-establish a government of the Cromwellian style.[53] The conspiracy, known as the Rye House Plot, backfired upon its conspirators and provoked a wave of sympathy for the King and James.[54] Several notable Whigs, including the Earl of Essex and the King's illegitimate son, the Duke of Monmouth, were implicated. Monmouth initially confessed to complicity in the plot, implicating fellow-plotters, but later recanted. Essex committed suicide and Monmouth, along with several others, was obliged to flee into Continental exile.[55] Charles reacted to the plot by increasing repression of Whigs and dissenters. Taking advantage of James's rebounding popularity, Charles invited him back onto the privy council in 1684.[56] While some in the English Parliament remained wary of the possibility of a Catholic king, the threat of excluding James from the throne had passed. James II of England 254

Reign

Accession to the throne

Charles died in 1685 after converting to Catholicism on his deathbed.[57] Having no legitimate children, Charles was succeeded by his brother James, who reigned in England and Ireland as James II, and in Scotland as James VII. There was little initial opposition to his succession, and there were widespread reports of public rejoicing at the orderly succession.[58] James wanted to proceed quickly to the Coronation procession of King James II and coronation, and was crowned with his wife at Westminster Abbey on Queen Mary of Modena, 1685 23 April 1685.[59] The new Parliament that assembled in May 1685, which gained the name of "Loyal Parliament", was initially favourable to James, and the new King sent word that even most of the former exclusionists would be forgiven if they acquiesced to his rule. Most of Charles's officers continued in office, the exceptions being the promotion of James's brothers-in-law, the Earls of Clarendon and Rochester, and the demotion of Halifax.[60] Parliament granted James a generous life income, including all of the proceeds of tonnage and poundage and the customs duties.[61] James worked harder as king than his brother had, but was less willing to compromise when his advisers disagreed.[62]

Two rebellions Soon after becoming king, James faced a rebellion in southern England led by his nephew, the Duke of Monmouth, and another rebellion in Scotland led by Archibald Campbell, the Earl of Argyll.[63] Argyll and Monmouth both began their expeditions from Holland, where James's nephew and son-in-law, William of Orange, had neglected to detain them or put a stop to their recruitment efforts.[64] Argyll sailed to Scotland and, on arriving there, raised recruits mainly from amongst his own , the Campbells.[65] The rebellion was quickly crushed, and Argyll himself was captured at Inchinnan on 18 June 1685. Having arrived with fewer than 300 men and unable to convince many more to flock to his standard, Argyll never posed a credible threat to James.[66] Argyll was taken as a prisoner to Edinburgh. A new trial was not commenced because Argyll had previously been tried and sentenced to death. The King confirmed the earlier death sentence and ordered that it be carried out within three days of receiving the confirmation. Monmouth's rebellion was coordinated with Argyll's, but the former was more dangerous to James. Monmouth had proclaimed himself King at Lyme Regis on 11 June.[67] He attempted to raise recruits but was unable to gather enough rebels to defeat even James's small standing army.[68] Monmouth's rebellion attacked the King's forces at night, in an attempt at surprise, but was defeated at the Battle of Sedgemoor. The King's forces, led by Feversham and Churchill, quickly dispersed the ill-prepared rebels. Monmouth himself was captured and executed at the Tower of London on 15 July.[69] The King's judges—most notably, George Jeffreys—condemned many of the rebels to transportation and indentured servitude in the West Indies in a series of trials that came to be known as the Bloody Assizes.[70] Some 250 of the rebels were executed. Jeffreys browbeat witnesses and juries, cursing his victims, gloating over them and giving guilt the benefit of every doubt except where a substantial bribe had been paid.[71] James made some effort to check the brutality, but later raised Jeffreys to the peerage and made him Lord Chancellor (6 September 1686).[72] While both rebellions were defeated easily enough, they hardened James's resolve against his enemies and increased his suspicion of the Dutch.[73] James II of England 255

Religious liberty and the dispensing power To protect himself from further rebellions, James sought safety in an enlarged standing army.[74] This alarmed his subjects, not only because of the trouble soldiers caused in the towns, but because it was against the English tradition to keep a professional army in peacetime.[75] Even more alarming to Parliament was James's use of his dispensing power to allow Roman Catholics to command several regiments without having to take the oath mandated by the Test Act. When even the previously supportive Parliament objected to these measures, James ordered Parliament prorogued in November 1685, never to meet again in his reign.[76] In the beginning of 1686 two papers were found in Charles II's strong box and his closet, in his own hand, stating the arguments for Catholicism over Protestantism. James published these papers with a declaration signed by his sign manual and challenged the Archbishop of Canterbury and the whole Anglican episcopal bench to refute Charles's arguments: "Let me have a solid answer, and in a gentlemanlike style; and it may have the effect which you so much desire of bringing me over to your church". The Archbishop refused on the grounds of respect for the late king.[77] James advocated repeal of the penal laws in all three of his kingdoms, but in the early years of his reign he refused to allow those dissenters who did not petition for relief to receive it.[78] James sent a letter to the Scottish Parliament at its opening in 1685, declaring his wish for new penal laws against refractory Presbyterians and lamented that he was not there in person to promote such a law. In response, the Parliament passed an Act that stated, "whoever should preach in a conventicle under a roof, or should attend, either as preacher or as a hearer, a conventicle in the open air, should be punished with death and confiscation of property".[79] In March 1686, James sent a letter to the Scottish Privy Council advocating toleration for Catholics but that the persecution of the Presbyterian Covenanters should continue, calling them to London when they refused to acquiesce his wishes.[80] The Privy Councillors explained that they Rochester, once amongst James's supporters, turned against him by would grant relief to Catholics only if a similar relief was provided for the 1688, as did most Anglicans Covenanters and if James promised not to attempt anything that would harm the Protestant religion. James agreed to a degree of relief to Presbyterians, but not to the full toleration he wanted for Catholics, declaring that the Protestant religion was false and he would not promise not to prejudice a false religion.

James allowed Catholics to occupy the highest offices of the Kingdoms, and received at his court the papal nuncio, Ferdinando d'Adda, the first representative from Rome to London since the reign of Mary I.[81] James's Jesuit confessor, Edward Petre, was a particular object of Protestant ire.[82] When the King's Secretary of State, the Earl of Sunderland, began replacing office-holders at court with Catholic favourites, James began to lose the confidence of many of his Anglican supporters.[83] Sunderland's purge of office-holders even extended to the King's Anglican brothers-in-law and their supporters. Catholics made up no more than one fiftieth of the English population.[84] In May 1686, James sought to obtain a ruling from the English common-law courts that showed his power to dispense with Acts of Parliament was legal. He dismissed judges who disagreed with him on this matter, as well as the Solicitor General Heneage Finch.[85] The case, Godden v. Hales, affirmed his dispensing power,[86] with eleven out of the twelve judges in Godden ruling in favour of the dispensing power.[87] In 1687, James issued the Declaration of Indulgence, also known as the Declaration for Liberty of Conscience, in which he used his dispensing power to negate the effect of laws punishing Catholics and Protestant Dissenters.[88] He attempted to garner support for his tolerationist policy by giving a speaking tour in the West of England in the summer of 1687. As part of this tour, he gave a speech at Chester where he said, "suppose... there should be a law made that all black men should be imprisoned, it would be unreasonable and we had as little reason to quarrel with other men for being of different [religious] opinions as for being of different complexions."[89] At the same time, James provided partial toleration in Scotland, using his dispensing power to grant relief to Catholics and partial relief to Presbyterians.[90] James II of England 256

In 1688, James ordered the Declaration read from the pulpits of every Anglican church, further alienating the Anglican bishops against the Catholic governor of their church.[91] While the Declaration elicited some thanks from Catholics and dissenters, it left the Established Church, the traditional ally of the monarchy, in the difficult position of being forced to erode its own privileges. James provoked further opposition by attempting to reduce the Anglican monopoly on education.[92] At the University of Oxford, James offended Anglicans by allowing Catholics to hold important positions in Christ Church and University College, two of Oxford's largest colleges. He also attempted to force the Protestant Fellows of Magdalen College to elect Anthony Farmer, a man of generally ill repute who was believed to be secretly Catholic,[93] as their president when the Protestant incumbent died, a violation of the Fellows' right to elect a candidate of their own choosing.

Statue of James II in Trafalgar In 1687 James prepared to pack Parliament with his supporters so that it would Square, London repeal the Test Act and the penal laws. James was convinced by addresses from Dissenters that he had their support and so could dispense with relying on Tories and Anglicans. James instituted a wholesale purge of those in offices under the crown opposed to James's plan, appointing new lords-lieutenant and remodelling the corporations governing towns and livery companies.[94] In October James gave orders for the lords-lieutenant in the provinces to provide three standard questions to all members of the Commission of the Peace: would they consent to the repeal of the Test Act and the penal laws; would they assist candidates who would do so; and would they accept the Declaration of Indulgence. During the first three months of 1688, hundreds of those asked the three questions who gave hostile replies were dismissed.[95] Corporations were purged by agents, known as the regulators, who were given wide discretionary powers in an attempt to create a permanent royal electoral machine.[96] Most of the regulators were Baptists and the new town officials that they recommended included Quakers, Baptists, Congregationalists, Presbyterians and Catholics, as well as Anglicans.[97] Finally, on 24 August 1688, James ordered the issue of writs for a general election.[98] However, upon realising in September that William of Orange was going to land in England, James withdrew the writs and subsequently wrote to the lords-lieutenant to inquire over allegations of abuses committed during the regulations and election preparations as part of the concessions James made to win support.[99]

Glorious Revolution

In April 1688, James re-issued the Declaration of Indulgence, subsequently ordering Anglican clergymen to read it in their churches.[100] When seven Bishops, including the Archbishop of Canterbury, submitted a petition requesting the reconsideration of the King's religious policies, they were arrested and tried for seditious libel.[101] Public alarm increased when Queen Mary gave birth to a Roman Catholic son and heir, James Francis Edward on 10 June of that year.[102] When James's only possible successors were his two Protestant daughters, Anglicans could see his pro-Catholic policies as a temporary phenomenon, but when the Prince's birth opened the possibility of a permanent Catholic dynasty, such men had to reconsider their position.[103] Threatened by a Catholic dynasty, several influential Protestants claimed the child was "supposititious" and had James's nephew and son-in-law, been smuggled into the Queen's bedchamber in a warming pan.[104] They had William, was invited to "save the Protestant religion". James II of England 257

already entered into negotiations with William, Prince of Orange, when it became known the Queen was pregnant, and the birth of James's son reinforced their convictions.[105] On 30 June 1688, a group of seven Protestant nobles invited the Prince of Orange to come to England with an army.[106] By September, it had become clear that William sought to invade.[107] Believing that his own army would be adequate, James refused the assistance of Louis XIV, fearing that the English would oppose French intervention. When William arrived on 5 November 1688, many Protestant officers, including Churchill, defected and joined William, as did James's own daughter, Princess Anne.[108] James lost his nerve and declined to attack the invading army, despite his army's numerical superiority.[109] On 11 December, James tried to flee to France, allegedly first throwing the Great Seal of the Realm into the River Thames.[110][111] He was captured in Kent; later, he was released and placed under Dutch protective guard. Having no desire to make John Churchill had been a member of James a martyr, the Prince of Orange let him escape on 23 December. James was James's household for many years, received by his cousin and ally, Louis XIV, who offered him a palace and a but defected to William of Orange in pension. 1688.

William convened a Convention Parliament to decide how to handle James's flight. While the Parliament refused to depose him, they declared that James, having fled to France and dropped the Great Seal into the Thames, had effectively abdicated the throne, and that the throne had thereby become vacant.[112] To fill this vacancy, James's daughter Mary was declared Queen; she was to rule jointly with her husband William, who would be king. The Parliament of Scotland on 11 April 1689, declared James to have forfeited the throne.[113] The English Parliament passed a Bill of Rights that denounced James for abusing his power. The abuses charged to James included the suspension of the Test Acts, the prosecution of the Seven Bishops for merely petitioning the crown, the establishment of a standing army, and the imposition of cruel punishments.[114] The Bill also declared that henceforth, no Roman Catholic was permitted to ascend the English throne, nor could any English monarch marry a Roman Catholic.[115]

Later years

War in Ireland With the assistance of French troops, James landed in Ireland in March 1689.[116] The Irish Parliament did not follow the example of the English Parliament; it declared that James remained King and passed a massive bill of attainder against those who had rebelled against him.[117] At James's urging, the Irish Parliament passed an Act for Liberty of Conscience that granted religious freedom to all Roman Catholics and Protestants in Ireland.[118] James worked to build an army in Ireland, but was ultimately defeated at the Battle of the Boyne on 1 July 1690 when William arrived, personally leading an army to defeat James and reassert English control.[119] James fled to France once more, departing from Kinsale, never to return to any of his former kingdoms. Because he deserted his Irish supporters, James became known in Ireland as Séamus an Chaca or 'James the Shit'.[120] James II of England 258

Return to exile and death

In France, James was allowed to live in the royal château of Saint-Germain-en-Laye.[121] James's wife and some of his supporters fled with him, including the Earl of Melfort; most, but not all, were Roman Catholic.[122] In 1692, James's last child, Louisa Maria Teresa, was born.[123] Some supporters in England attempted to assassinate William III in order to restore James to the throne in 1696, but the plot failed and the backlash made James's cause less popular.[124] Louis

XIV's offer to have James elected King of Poland in the same year was The Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, James's rejected, for James feared that acceptance of the Polish crown might home during his final exile (in the minds of the English people) render him incapable of being King of England. After Louis concluded peace with William in 1697, he ceased to offer much in the way of assistance to James.[125]

During his last years, James lived as an austere penitent.[126] He wrote a memorandum for his son advising him on how to govern England, specifying that Catholics should possess one Secretary of State, one Commissioner of the Treasury, the Secretary at War, with the majority of the officers in the army.[127] He died of a brain hemorrhage on 16 September 1701 at Saint-Germain-en-Laye.[128][129] His body was laid to rest in a coffin at the Chapel of Saint Edmund in the Church of the English Benedictines in the Rue St. Jacques in Paris, with a funeral oration by Henri-Emmanuel de Roquette. James was not buried, but put in one of the side chapels. Lights were kept burning round his coffin until the French Revolution. In 1734, the Archbishop of Paris heard evidence to support James's canonization, but nothing came of it. During the French Revolution, James's tomb was raided.[130] At the time of his death, he was the last surviving child of Charles I and Queen Henrietta Maria.

Succession James's younger daughter Anne succeeded to the throne when William III died in 1702. The Act of Settlement provided that, if the line of succession established in the Bill of Rights were extinguished, the crown would go to a German cousin, Sophia, Electress of Hanover, and to her Protestant heirs.[131] Sophia was a granddaughter of James VI and I through his eldest daughter, Elizabeth Stuart, the sister of King Charles I. Thus, when Anne died in 1714 (less than two months after the death of Sophia), the crown was inherited by George I, Sophia's son, the Elector of Hanover and Anne's second cousin. James's son James Francis Edward was recognized as King at his father's death by Louis XIV of France and James's remaining supporters (later known as Jacobites) as "James III and VIII."[132] He led a rising in Scotland in 1715 shortly after George I's accession, but was defeated.[133] Jacobites rose again in 1745 led by Charles Edward Stuart, James II's grandson, and were again defeated.[134] Since then, no serious attempt to restore the Stuart heir has been made. Charles's claims passed to his younger brother Henry Benedict Stuart, the Dean of the of the Catholic Church.[135] Henry was the last of James II's legitimate descendants, and no relative has publicly acknowledged the Jacobite claim since his death in 1807.[136] James II of England 259

Historiography

Historical analysis of James II has been somewhat revised since Whig historians, led by Lord Macaulay, cast James as a cruel absolutist and his reign as "tyranny which approached to insanity".[137] Subsequent scholars, such as G. M. Trevelyan (Macaulay's great-nephew) and David Ogg, while more balanced than Macaulay, still characterized James as a tyrant, his attempts at religious tolerance as a fraud, and his reign as an aberration in the course of British history.[138] In 1892, A. W. Ward wrote for the Dictionary of National Biography that James was "obviously a political and religious bigot", although never devoid of "a vein of patriotic sentiment"; "his conversion to the church of Rome made the emancipation of his fellow-catholics in the first instance, and the recovery of Macaulay wrote in the Whig England for catholicism in the second, the governing objects of his policy." tradition. Hilaire Belloc (a Roman Catholic) broke with this tradition in 1928, casting James as an honourable man and a true advocate for freedom of conscience, and his enemies "men in the small clique of great fortunes ... which destroyed the ancient monarchy of the English."[139] However, he observed that James "concluded the Catholic church to be the sole authoritative voice on earth, and thenceforward ... he not only stood firm against surrender but on no single occasion contemplated the least compromise or by a word would modify the impression made." By the 1960s and 1970s, Maurice Ashley and Stuart Prall began to reconsider James's motives in granting religious toleration, while still taking note of James's autocratic rule.[140] Modern historians have moved away from the school of thought that preached the continuous march of progress and democracy, Ashley contending that "history is, after all, the story of human beings and individuals, as well as of the classes and the masses."[141] He cast James II and William III as "men of ideals as well as human weaknesses." John Miller, writing in 2000, accepted the claims of James's absolutism, but argued that "his main concern was to secure religious liberty and civil equality for Catholics. Any 'absolutist' methods ... were essentially means to that end."[142] In 2004, W. A. Speck wrote in the new Oxford Dictionary of National Biography that "James was genuinely committed to religious toleration, but also sought to increase the power of the crown."[143] He added that, unlike the government of the Netherlands, "James was too autocratic to combine freedom of conscience with popular government. He resisted any check on the monarch's power. That is why his heart was not in the concessions he had to make in 1688. He would rather live in exile with his principles intact than continue to reign as a limited monarch."

Tim Harris's conclusions from his 2006 book summarized the ambivalence of modern scholarship towards James II: The jury will doubtless remain out on James for a long time ... Was he an egotistical bigot ... a tyrant who rode roughshod over the will of the vast majority of his subjects (at least in England and Scotland) ... simply naïve, or even perhaps plain stupid, unable to appreciate the realities of political power ... Or was he a well-intentioned and even enlightened ruler—an enlightened despot well ahead of his time, perhaps—who was merely trying to do what he thought was best for his subjects?[144]

In 2009, Steven Pincus confronted that scholarly ambivalence in 1688: The First Modern Revolution. Pincus claims that James's reign must be understood within Belloc was a notable apologist for a context of economic change and European politics, and makes two major James II. assertions about James II. The first of these is that James purposefully "followed James II of England 260

the French Sun King, Louis XIV, in trying to create a modern Catholic polity. This involved not only trying to Catholicize England ... but also creating a modern, centralizing, and extremely bureaucratic state apparatus."[145] The second is that James was undone in 1688 far less by Protestant reaction against Catholicization than by nationwide hostile reaction against his intrusive bureaucratic state and taxation apparatus, expressed in massive popular support for William of Orange's armed invasion of England. Pincus presents James as neither naïve nor stupid nor egotistical. Instead, readers are shown an intelligent, clear-thinking strategically motivated monarch whose vision for a French authoritarian political model and alliance clashed with, and lost out to, alternative views that favoured an entrepreneurial Dutch economic model, feared French power, and were outraged by James's authoritarianism. Scott Sowerby countered Pincus's thesis in 2013 in Making Toleration: The Repealers and the Glorious Revolution. He noted that English taxes remained low during James II's reign, at about 4% of the English national income, and thus it was unlikely that James could have built a bureaucratic state on the model of Louis XIV's France, where taxes were at least twice as high as a proportion of GDP.[146] Sowerby also contends that James's policies of religious toleration attracted substantial support from religious nonconformists, including Quakers, Baptists, Congregationalists and Presbyterians, who were attracted by the king's push for a new "Magna Carta for liberty of conscience".[147] The king was overthrown, in Sowerby's view, largely because of fears among the Dutch and English elites that James might be aligning himself with Louis XIV in a supposed "holy league" to destroy Protestantism across northern Europe.[148] Sowerby presents James's reign as a struggle between those who believed that the king was sincerely devoted to liberty of conscience and those who were skeptical of the king's espousals of toleration and believed that he had a hidden to overthrow English Protestantism.

Titles, styles, honours, and arms

Titles and styles

• 14 October 1633 – 27 January 1644: styled The Duke of York[149] • 27 January 1644 – 6 February 1685: The Duke of York • 10 May 1659 – 6 February 1685: The Earl of Ulster • 31 December 1660 – 6 February 1685: The Duke of Albany • before 6 February 1685: His Royal Highness[150] • 6 February 1685 – 16 September 1701: His Majesty The King The official style of James in England was "James the Second, by the Grace of God, King of England, Scotland, France and Ireland, Defender of the Faith, etc." The claim to France was only nominal, and was asserted by every English King Half-Crown coin of James II, 1686 from Edward III to George III, regardless of the amount of French territory actually controlled. In Scotland, he was "James the Seventh, by the Grace of God, King of Scotland, England, France and Ireland, Defender of the Faith, etc."

James was created "Duke of Normandy" by King Louis XIV of France on 31 December 1660.

Honours • KG: Knight of the Garter, 20 April 1642

Arms Prior to his accession, James's coat of arms was the royal arms (which he later inherited), differenced by a label of three points Ermine.[151] His arms as king were: Quarterly, I and IV Grandquarterly, Azure three fleurs-de-lis Or (for France) and Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England); II Or a lion rampant within a double tressure flory-counter-flory Gules (for Scotland); III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent (for Ireland). James II of England 261

widths

Coat of arms of James II of England Coat of arms of James VII in Scotland

In popular culture James is a character in the novel The Man Who Laughs by Victor Hugo. He was portrayed by Josef Moser in the 1921 Austrian silent film The Grinning Face and by Sam De Grasse in the 1928 silent film The Man Who Laughs. He has also been portrayed by Gibb McLaughlin in the 1926 silent film Nell Gwynne, based on a novel by Joseph Shearing, Lawrence Anderson in the 1934 film Nell Gwyn, Vernon Steele in the 1935 film , based on the novel by Rafael Sabatini, Douglas Matthews in the 1938 BBC TV drama Thank You, Mr. Pepys, Henry Oscar in the 1948 film Bonnie Prince Charlie, John Westbrook in the 1969 BBC TV series The First Churchills, Guy Henry in the 1995 film England, My England, the story of the composer Henry Purcell, and Charlie Creed-Miles in the 2003 BBC TV miniseries Charles II: The Power & the Passion. The squabbling surrounding James's kingship, the Monmouth Rebellion, the Glorious Revolution, James's abdication, and William of Orange's subsequent accession to the throne are themes in Neal Stephenson's 2003 novel .

Issue

Notes

[1] An assertion found in many sources that James II died 6 September 1701 (17 September 1701 New Style) may result from a miscalculation done by an author of anonymous "An Exact Account of the Sickness and Death of the Late King James II, as also of the Proceedings at St. Germains thereupon, 1701, in a letter from an English gentleman in France to his friend in London" (Somers Tracts, ed. 1809–1815, XI, pp. 339–342). The account reads: "And on Friday the 17th instant, about three in the afternoon, the king died, the day he always fasted in memory of our blessed Saviour's passion, the day he ever desired to die on, and the ninth hour, according to the Jewish account, when our Saviour was crucified." As 17 September 1701 New Style falls on a Saturday and the author insists that James died on Friday, "the day he ever desired to die on", an inevitable conclusion is that the author miscalculated the date, which later made it to various reference works. See "English Historical Documents 1660–1714", ed. by Andrew Browning (London and New York: Routledge, 2001), 136–138. [2] The Convention Parliament of England deemed James to have abdicated on 11 December 1688, and the Parliament of Scotland declared him to have forfeited the throne on 11 April 1689. [3][3]Miller, 1 [4][4]Callow, 31 [5][5]Callow, 34 James II of England 262

[6][6]Miller, 10; Callow, 101 [7][7]Callow, 36 [8][8]Callow, 42; Miller, 3 [9][9]Callow, 45 [10] Callow, 48–50 [11][11]Royle, 517 [12] Miller, 16–17 [13] Miller, 19–20 [14] Miller, 19–25 [15] Miller, 22–23 [16][16]Miller, 24 [17][17]Miller, 25 [18][18]Callow, 89

[19] George Edward Cokayne, ed. Vicary Gibbs, The Complete Peerage, volume I (1910) p. 83 (http:/ / archive. org/ stream/

completepeerageo01coka#page/ 83/ mode/ 1up). [20][20]Callow, 90 [21][21]Miller, 44 [22] Miller, 44–45 [23] Waller, 49–50

[24] The Diary of Samuel Pepys, Monday 12 September 1664 (http:/ / www. pepysdiary. com/ archive/ 1664/ 09/ 12/ index. php); Miller, 46. [25] Miller, 45–46. [26] Miller, 46. Samuel Pepys recorded in his diary that James "did eye my wife mightily". Ibid. James's taste in women was often maligned, with Gilbert Burnet famously remarking that James's mistresses must have been "given him by his priests as a penance." Miller, 59. [27][27]Callow, 101. [28][28]Callow, 104. [29][29]Miller, 42. [30] Miller, 43–4. [31] Spelling modernized for clarity; quoted by Adrian Tinniswood (2003). 80. By Permission of Heaven: The Story of the Great Fire of London. London: Jonathan Cape. [32] Miller, 58–59; Callow, 144–145. Callow writes that Anne "made the greatest single impact upon his thinking" and that she converted shortly after the Restoration, "almost certainly before her husband". Ibid., 144. [33] Callow, 143–144; Waller, 135 [34][34]Callow, 149 [35] Miller, 69–71 [36][36]Kenyon, 385 [37][37]Waller, 92 [38] Waller, 16–17 [39][39]Miller, 73 [40] Turner, 110–111 [41] Waller, 30–31 [42] Miller, 84; Waller, 94–97. According to Turner, James's reaction to the agreement was "The King shall be obeyed, and I would be glad if all his subjects would learn of me to obey him". Turner, 132. [43][43]Miller, 87 [44] Miller, 99–105 [45][45]Harris, 74 [46] Miller, 93–95 [47] Miller, 103–104 [48][48]Miller, 90 [49] Miller, 87–91 [50][50]Miller, 95 [51] Miller, 98–99 [52] Miller, 89; Callow, 180–183 [53] Miller, 115–116 [54] Miller, 116; Waller, 142–143 [55] Miller, 116–117 [56][56]Miller, 117 [57] Miller, 118–119 [58] Miller, 120–121 James II of England 263

[59] Harris, 45. The English coronation only crowned James King of England and Ireland; James was never crowned in Scotland, but was proclaimed King of Scotland around the same time. [60][60]Miller, 121 [61] Harris, 44–45 [62][62]Miller, 123 [63] Miller, 140–143; Harris, 73–86 [64] Miller, 139–140 [65] Harris, 75–76 [66][66]Harris, 76 [67] Harris, 82–85 [68][68]Miller, 141 [69][69]Harris, 88 [70] Miller, 141–142 [71][71]Will Durant, 290 [72][72]Durant, 290 [73][73]Miller, 142 [74] Miller, 142–143 [75] Harris, 95–100 [76] Miller, 146–147 [77][77]Macaulay, 349-50. [78] Macaulay, 242; Harris, 480–481. Covenanters, as they did not recognize James (or any uncovenanted king) as a legitimate ruler, would not petition James for relief from the penal laws. [79][79]Macaulay, 242; Harris, 70 [80][80]Macaulay, 385-86; Turner, 373 [81][81]Miller 142; Macaulay, 445 [82] Harris, 195–196 [83] Miller, 150–152 [84][84]Macaulay, 444. [85][85]Macaulay, 368. [86] Miller, 156–157; Harris, 192–195 [87][87]Macaulay, 368-69; Harris, 192 [88] Kenyon, 389–391 [89][89]Sowerby, 42 [90][90]Macaulay, 429; Harris, 480-82 [91] Harris, 216–224 [92] Harris, 224–229 [93] Farmer's exact religious affiliation is unclear. Macaulay says Farmer "pretended to turn Papist". Prall, at 148, calls him a "Catholic sympathizer". Miller, at 170, says "although he had not declared himself a Catholic, it was believed he was no longer an Anglican." Ashley, at 89, does not refer to Farmer by name, but only as the King's Catholic nominee. All sources agree that Farmer's bad reputation as a "person of scandalous character" was as much a deterrent to his nomination as his uncertain religious loyalties. See, e.g., Prall, 148. [94][94]Jones, 132. [95][95]Jones, 132-33. [96][96]Jones, 146. [97][97]Sowerby, 136-143 [98][98]Jones, 150. [99][99]Jones, 159. [100] Harris, 258–259 [101] Harris, 260–262; Prall, 312 [102] Miller 186–187; Harris, 269–272 [103] Harris, 271–272; Ashley, 110–111

[104] Gregg, Edward. Queen Anne. Yale University Press (2001), 58. (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ckU9AAAAIAAJ&

pg=PA58#v=onepage& q=& f=false) [105] Waller, 43–46; Miller, 186–187 [106] Ashley, 201–202 [107] Miller, 190–196 [108] Waller, 236–239. [109] Miller, 201–203 [110] Miller, 205–209 James II of England 264

[111] The story is of questionable authority: see Hilary Jenkinson, "What happened to the Great Seal of James II?", Antiquaries Journal, vol. 23 (1943), pp. 1–13. [112] Miller, 209. Harris, 320–328, analyses the legal nature of the abdication; James did not agree that he had abdicated. [113] Devine, 3; Harris, 402–407 [114] Ashley, 206–209; Harris, 329–348 [115] Harris, 349–350 [116] Miller, 222–224 [117] Miller, 226–227 [118][118]Harris, 440 [119] Harris, 446–449 [120] Fitzpatrick, Brendan, New Gill History of Ireland 3: Seventeenth-Century Ireland - The War of Religions(Dublin, 1988), page 253 | isbn=0-7171-1626-3 [121][121]Miller, 235 [122] Miller, 235–236

[123] Scottish Royal Lineage – The House of Stuart Part 4 of 6 (http:/ / www. burkes-peerage. net/ articles/ scotland/ page31g. aspx) online at burkes-peerage.net. Retrieved 9 February 2008 [124][124]Miller, 238; Waller, 350 [125][125]Miller, 239 [126] Miller, 234–236 [127][127]Macaulay, 445 [128][128]Miller, 240

[129] Parish register of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, with transcription, at Association Frontenac-Amériques (http:/ / www. frontenac-ameriques. org/

louis-de-frontenac/ article/ la-ville-de-saint-germain-en-laye) (in French)

[130] Miller, 240; Waller, 401; MacLeod, 349. MacLeod and Waller say all of James's remains were lost. McFerran (http:/ / jacobite. ca/

gazetteer/ France/ SaintGermain. htm) says parts of his bowel sent to the parish church of St. Germain-en-Laye were rediscovered in 1824 and

are the only known remains left. The English Illustrated Magazines article (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=I4oX7koMPh8C&

pg=PA592& lpg=PA592& dq=parish+ church+ "saint+ germain+ en+ laye"& source=web& ots=40cIBlBhmE& sig=h8QKaqjxgMhi2sp2UtW5qEYpwxE) on St. Germain from September 1901 concurs. Hilliam, 205. Hilliam disputes that his remains were either scattered or lost, stating that when revolutionaries broke into the church, they were amazed at the body's preservation and it was put on public exhibition where miracles were said to have happened. Hilliam states that the body was then kept "above ground" until George IV heard about it and ordered the body buried in the parish church of St Germain-en-Laye in 1824. [131][131]Harris, 493 [132][132]MacLeod, 349 [133] MacLeod 361–363 [134] MacLeod, 365–371 [135] MacLeod, 371–372 [136] MacLeod, 373–374 [137][137]Macaulay, 239 [138] See Prall, vii–xv, for a more detailed historiography. [139][139]Belloc, vii [140] See Ashley, 196–198; Prall, 291–293 [141][141]Ashley, 9 [142][142]Miller, ix

[143] W. A. Speck, " James II and VII (1633–1701) (http:/ / www. oxforddnb. com/ view/ article/ 14593)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, Sept. 2004; online edn, May 2006. Retrieved 15 October 2007. He "wished that all his subjects could be as convinced as he was that the Catholic church was the one true church. He was also convinced that the established church was maintained artificially by penal laws that proscribed nonconformity. If these were removed, and conversions to Catholicism were encouraged, then many would take place. In the event his optimism was misplaced, for few converted. James underestimated the appeal of protestantism in general and the Church of England in particular. His was the zeal and even bigotry of a narrow-minded convert..." [144] Harris, 478–479 [145][145]Pincus, 475. [146][146]Sowerby, 51-53. [147][147]Sowerby, 43-44 [148][148]Sowerby, 227-239 [149] Weir, Alison (1996). 258. Britain's Royal Families: The Complete Genealogy. Revised Edition. Random House, London. ISBN 0-7126-7448-9. [150] ; ;

[151] Marks of Cadency in the British Royal Family (http:/ / www. heraldica. org/ topics/ britain/ cadency. htm) James II of England 265

[152][152]Weir, 260. [153][153]Weir, 263.

References • Ashley, Maurice, The Glorious Revolution of 1688, Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1966. ISBN 0-340-00896-2. • Belloc, Hilaire, James the Second, J.B. Lippincott Co, Philadelphia 1928, popular; Catholic perspective • Callow, John, The Making of King James II: The Formative Years of a King, Sutton Publishing, Ltd, Stroud, Gloucestershire, 2000. ISBN 0-7509-2398-9. • Devine, T. M., The Scottish Nation 1700–2007, Penguin Books, London, 2006. ISBN 0-14-102769-X • Harris, Tim, Revolution: The Great Crisis of the British Monarchy, 1685–1720, Penguin Books, Ltd., 2006. ISBN 0-7139-9759-1. • Hilliam, David, Kings, Queens, Bones & Bastards, Sutton Publishing, Gloucestershire, 1998. ISBN 0-7509-3553-7. • Jones, J. R. The Revolution of 1688 in England, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1988. ISBN 0-297-99467-0. • Kenyon, J.P., The Stuart Constitution 1603–1688, Documents and Commentary, 2d ed., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1986. ISBN 0-521-31327-9. • MacLeod, John, Dynasty, the Stuarts, 1560–1807, Hodder and Stoughton, London 1999. ISBN 0-340-70767-4. • Macaulay, Thomas Babington, The from the Accession of James the Second. Popular Edition

in Two Volumes (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=1oIYAAAAYAAJ). Longmans, London 1889. • Miller, John. James II (3rd ed. 2000) ISBN 0-300-08728-4

• McFerran, Noel S. (2003). "James II and VII." (http:/ / jacobite. ca/ kings/ james2. htm) • Pincus, Steven. 1688: The First Modern Revolution (2009) New Haven & London, Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-11547-4 • Prall, Stuart, The Bloodless Revolution: England, 1688, Anchor Books, Garden City, New York 1972. • Royle, Trevor, The British Civil Wars: The Wars of the Three Kingdoms, 1638–1660, Little, Brown, 2004. ISBN 0-312-29293-7. • Sowerby, Scott, Making Toleration: The Repealers and the Glorious Revolution (2013) Cambridge, Mass., & London, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-07309-8. • Speck, W.A. James II (2002) • Turner, Francis C., James II, Eyre and Spottiswoode, London, 1948 • Waller, Maureen, Ungrateful Daughters: The Stuart Princesses who Stole Their Father's Crown, Hodder & Stoughton, London, 2002. ISBN 0-312-30711-X.

Further reading • DeKrey, Gary S. "Between Revolutions: Re-appraising the Restoration in Britain," History Compass 2008 6(3): 738–773 • Earle, Peter. The Life and Times of James II (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1972) • Glassey, Lionel, ed. The Reigns of Charles II and James VII and II (1997) • Goodlad, Graham. " Before the Glorious Revolution: The Making of Absolute Monarchy?," History Review. Issue: 58; 2007. pp 10+. Examines the Controversies Surrounding the Development of Royal Power under

Charles II and James II. in Questia (http:/ / www. questia. com/ read/ 5022714365) • Miller, John. The Stuarts (2004), 320pp; standard scholarly survey • Miller, John. The Glorious Revolution, (2nd ed. 1997) ISBN 0-582-29222-0 • Mullett, M. James II and English Politics 1678–1688 (1993) ISBN 0-415-09042-3 James II of England 266

External links

• King James II (http:/ / www. npg. org. uk/ collections/ search/ person. php?LinkID=mp02391) at the National Portrait Gallery, London

James II of England House of Stuart Born: 14 October 1633 Died: 16 September 1701 Regnal titles Preceded by King of England, Scotland and Ireland Vacant Charles II 1685–1688 Title next held by William III/II and Mary II

Honorary titles

Preceded by Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports Succeeded by The Earl of Winchilsea 1660–1673 John Beaumont

Political offices

Vacant Lord High Admiral Succeeded by 1660–1673 Charles II Preceded by Lord High Admiral of Scotland Succeeded by The Duke of Lennox 1673–1701 The Duke of Richmond Preceded by Lord High Commissioner to the Parliament of Succeeded by The Duke of Lauderdale Scotland The Duke of Queensberry 1680–1685 Preceded by Lord High Admiral Succeeded by Charles II 1685–1688 William III

Titles in pretence

Loss of title — TITULAR — Succeeded by Deposed in the Glorious Revolution King of England, Scotland and Ireland James III 1688–1701 Charles II of England 267 Charles II of England

Charles II Seated man of thin build with chest-length curly black hair

Charles II in the robes of the Order of the Garter, by John Michael Wright or studio, c. 1660–1665

King of England, Scotland, and Ireland (more...)

[1] Reign 29 May 1660 – 6 February 1685

Coronation 23 April 1661 (as King of England and Ireland)

Predecessor Charles I (deposed 1649)

Successor James II & VII

King of Scotland

[2] Reign 30 January 1649 – 3 September 1651

Coronation 1 January 1651

Predecessor Charles I

Spouse Catherine of Braganza

more...

Issue

Illegitimate: James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth Charles FitzCharles, 1st Earl of Plymouth Charles FitzRoy, 2nd Duke of Cleveland Charlotte Lee, Countess of Lichfield Henry FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Grafton George FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Northumberland Charles Beauclerk, 1st Charles Lennox, 1st Duke of Richmond

House House of Stuart

Father Charles I

Mother Henrietta Maria of France

Born 29 May 1630 (N.S.: 8 June 1630) St. James's Palace, London England

Died 6 February 1685 (aged 54) (N.S.: 16 February 1685) Whitehall Palace, London

Burial Westminster Abbey

Signature

Religion Anglican, converted to Catholicism on his deathbed Charles II of England 268

Charles II (29 May 1630 – 6 February 1685)[3] was monarch of the three kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland. Charles II's father, King Charles I, was executed at Whitehall on 30 January 1649, at the climax of the English Civil War. Although the Parliament of Scotland proclaimed Charles II King of Great Britain and Ireland in Edinburgh on 6 February 1649, the English Parliament instead passed a statute that made any such proclamation unlawful. England entered the period known as the English Interregnum or the English Commonwealth, and the country was a de facto republic, led by Oliver Cromwell. Cromwell defeated Charles II at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651, and Charles fled to mainland Europe. Cromwell became virtual dictator of England, Scotland and Ireland, and Charles spent the next nine years in exile in France, the United Provinces and the Spanish Netherlands. A political crisis that followed the death of Cromwell in 1658 resulted in the restoration of the monarchy, and Charles was invited to return to Britain. On 29 May 1660, his 30th birthday, he was received in London to public acclaim. After 1660, all legal documents were dated as if he had succeeded his father as king in 1649. Charles's English parliament enacted laws known as the Clarendon Code, designed to shore up the position of the re-established Church of England. He acquiesced to the Clarendon Code even though he favoured a policy of religious tolerance. The major foreign policy issue of his early reign was the Second Anglo-Dutch War. In 1670, he entered into the secret treaty of Dover, an alliance with his first cousin King Louis XIV of France. Louis agreed to aid Charles in the Third Anglo-Dutch War and pay Charles a pension, and Charles secretly promised to convert to Catholicism at an unspecified future date. Charles attempted to introduce religious freedom for Catholics and Protestant dissenters with his 1672 Royal Declaration of Indulgence, but the English Parliament forced him to withdraw it. In 1679, Titus Oates's revelations of a supposed "Popish Plot" sparked the Exclusion Crisis when it was revealed that Charles's brother and heir (James, Duke of York) was a Catholic. The crisis saw the birth of the pro-exclusion Whig and anti-exclusion Tory parties. Charles sided with the Tories, and, following the discovery of the Rye House Plot to murder Charles and James in 1683, some Whig leaders were killed or forced into exile. Charles dissolved the English Parliament in 1681, and ruled alone until his death on 6 February 1685. He was received into the Catholic Church on his deathbed. Charles II was popularly known as the Merry Monarch, in reference to both the liveliness and hedonism of his court and the general relief at the return to normality after over a decade of rule by Oliver Cromwell and the Puritans. Charles's wife, Catherine of Braganza, bore no live children, but Charles acknowledged at least twelve illegitimate children by various mistresses. As illegitimate children were excluded from the succession, he was succeeded by his brother James. Charles II of England 269

Early life, civil war and exile

Charles was born in St. James's Palace on 29 May 1630. His parents were Charles I, who ruled the three kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland, and Henrietta Maria, the sister of the French king Louis XIII. Charles was their second son and child. Their first son, who was born about a year before Charles, had died aged less than a day.[4] England, Scotland and Ireland were Christian countries, but worship was divided between different denominations such as Catholicism, Anglicanism, Presbyterianism, and Puritanism. Charles was baptised in the Chapel Royal on 27 June by the Anglican Bishop of London William Laud and brought up in the care of the Protestant Countess of Dorset, though his godparents included his maternal uncle and grandmother, Marie de' Medici, both of whom were Catholics.[5] At birth, Charles automatically became Charles II as an infant in 1630, Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay, along with several other associated painting attributed to Justus van titles. At or around his eighth birthday, he was designated Prince of Wales, Egmont though he was never formally invested with the Honours of the Principality of Wales.[4]

During the 1640s, when Charles was still young, his father fought Parliamentary and Puritan forces in the English Civil War. Charles accompanied his father during the Battle of Edgehill and, at the age of fourteen, participated in the campaigns of 1645, when he was made titular commander of the English forces in the West Country.[6] By Spring 1646, his father was losing the war, and Charles left England due to fears for his safety,setting off from Falmouth after staying at Pendennis Castle, going first to the Isles of Scilly, then to Jersey, and finally to France, where his mother was already living in exile and his first cousin, eight-year-old Louis XIV, was king.[7]

In 1648, during the Second English Civil War, Charles moved to The Hague,

Charles II when Prince of Wales. where his sister Mary and his brother-in-law William II, Prince of Orange, Painted by William Dobson, c. 1642 seemed more likely to provide substantial aid to the royalist cause than the or 1643 Queen's French relations.[8] However, the royalist fleet that came under Charles's control was not used to any advantage, and did not reach Scotland in time to join up with the royalist Engagers army of the Duke of Hamilton, before it was defeated at the Battle of Preston by the Parliamentarians.[9]

At The Hague, Charles had a brief affair with Lucy Walter, who later falsely claimed that they had secretly married.[10] Her son, James Crofts (afterwards Duke of Monmouth and ), was one of Charles's many acknowledged illegitimate children who became prominent in British political life and society. Charles I surrendered in 1646. He escaped and was recaptured in 1648. Despite his son's diplomatic efforts to save him, Charles I was beheaded in 1649, and England became a republic. On 6 February, the Covenanter Parliament of Scotland proclaimed Charles II as King of Great Britain in succession to his father, but refused to allow him to enter Scotland unless he accepted Presbyterianism throughout the British Isles. Charles II of England 270

When negotiations stalled, Charles authorised General Montrose to land in the Orkney Islands with a small army to threaten the Scots with invasion, in the hope of forcing an agreement more to his liking. Montrose feared that Charles would accept a compromise, and so chose to invade mainland Scotland anyway. He was captured and executed. Charles reluctantly promised that he would abide by the terms of a treaty agreed between him and the Scots Parliament at Breda, and support the Solemn League and Covenant, which authorised Presbyterian church governance across Britain. Upon his arrival in Scotland on 23 June 1650, Charles formally agreed to the Covenant; his abandonment of Episcopal church governance, although "The Scots Holding Their Young King's Nose To the Grindstone", from a satirical English winning him support in Scotland, left him unpopular in England. pamphlet Charles himself soon came to despise the "villainy" and "hypocrisy" of the Covenanters.[11]

On 3 September 1650, the Covenanters were defeated at the Battle of Dunbar by a much smaller force led by Oliver Cromwell. The Scots forces were divided into royalist Engagers and Presbyterian Covenanters, who even fought each other. Disillusioned by the Covenanters, in October Charles attempted to escape from them and rode north to join with an Engager force, an event which became known as "the Start", but within two days the Presbyterians had caught up with and recovered him.[12] Nevertheless, the Scots remained Charles's best hope of restoration, and he was crowned King of Scotland at Scone on 1 January 1651. With Cromwell's forces threatening Charles's position in Scotland, it was decided to mount an attack on England. With many of the Scots (including Lord Argyll and other leading Covenanters) refusing to participate, and with few English royalists joining the force as it moved south into England, the invasion ended in defeat at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651, after which Charles eluded capture by hiding in the Royal Oak at A king in exile: Charles II painted by Philippe de Boscobel House. Through six weeks of narrow escapes Charles Champaigne, c. 1653 managed to flee England in disguise, landing in Normandy on 16 October, despite a reward of £1,000 on his head, risk of death for anyone caught helping him and the difficulty in disguising Charles, who was unusually tall at over 6 feet (185 cm) high.[13][14]

Cromwell was appointed Lord Protector of England, Scotland and Ireland, effectively placing the British Isles under military rule. Impoverished, Charles could not obtain sufficient support to mount a serious challenge to Cromwell's government. Despite the Stuart family connections through Henrietta Maria and the Princess of Orange, France and the Dutch Republic allied themselves with Cromwell's government from 1654, forcing Charles to turn for aid to Spain, which at that time ruled the Southern Netherlands.[15] With Spanish money Charles raised a small army from his exiled subjects; it consisted of five infantry regiments plus a few troops of cavalry. This force with some Parliamentary regiments formed the nucleus of the post-Restoration English and Scottish armies.[16] Charles II of England 271

Restoration After the death of Cromwell in 1658, Charles's chances of regaining the Crown at first seemed slim as Cromwell was succeeded as Lord Protector by his son, Richard. However, the new Lord Protector, with no power base in either Parliament or the New Model Army, was forced to abdicate in 1659 and the Protectorate was abolished. During the civil and military unrest which followed, George Monck, the Governor of Scotland, was concerned that the nation would descend into anarchy.[17] Monck and his army marched into the City of London and forced the Rump Parliament to re-admit members of the Long Parliament excluded in December 1648 during Pride's Purge. The Long Parliament dissolved itself and for the first time in almost 20 years, there was a general election.[18] The outgoing Parliament designed the electoral qualifications so as to ensure, as they thought, the return of a Presbyterian majority.[19] The restrictions against royalist candidates and voters were widely ignored, and the elections resulted in a House of Commons which was fairly evenly divided on political grounds between Royalists and Parliamentarians and on religious grounds between Anglicans and Presbyterians.[19] The new so-called Convention Parliament assembled on 25 April 1660, and soon afterwards received news of the Declaration of Breda, in which Charles agreed, amongst other things, to pardon many of his father's enemies. The English Parliament resolved to proclaim Charles king and invite him to return, a message that reached Charles at Breda on 8 May 1660.[20] In Ireland, a convention had been called earlier in the year, and on 14 May it declared for Charles as King.[21] He set out for England from Scheveningen, arrived in Dover on 25 May 1660 and reached London on 29 May, his 30th birthday. Although Charles and Parliament granted amnesty to Cromwell's supporters in the Act of Indemnity and Oblivion, 50 people were specifically excluded.[22] In the end nine of the regicides were executed:[23] they were hanged, drawn and quartered; others were given life imprisonment or simply excluded from office for life. The bodies of Charles sailed from his exile in the Netherlands to his restoration in England in May 1660. Painting Oliver Cromwell, Henry Ireton and John Bradshaw were subjected to by Lieve Verschuier. the indignity of posthumous decapitations.[24]

Charles agreed to give up feudal dues that had been revived by his father; in return, the English Parliament granted him an annual income to run the government of £1.2 million, generated largely from customs and excise duties. The grant, however, proved to be insufficient for most of Charles's reign. The sum was only an indication of the maximum the King was allowed to withdraw from the Treasury each year; for the most part, the actual revenue was much lower, which led to mounting debts, and further attempts to raise money through poll taxes, land taxes and hearth taxes. Charles II of England 272

In the later half of 1660, Charles's joy at the Restoration was tempered by the deaths of his youngest brother, Henry, and sister, Mary, of smallpox. At around the same time, Anne Hyde, the daughter of the Lord Chancellor Edward Hyde, revealed that she was pregnant by Charles's brother, James, whom she had secretly married. Edward Hyde, who had not known of either the marriage or the pregnancy, was created Earl of Clarendon and his position as Charles's favourite minister was strengthened.[25]

Charles was crowned at Westminster Abbey on 23 April 1661. He was the last sovereign to make the traditional procession from the Tower of London to Westminster Abbey the day before the coronation.

He had already been crowned King of Scots in 1651, the last coronation in Scotland to date.

Clarendon Code The Convention Parliament was dissolved in December 1660, and, shortly after the coronation, the second English Parliament of the reign assembled. Dubbed the Parliament, it was overwhelmingly Royalist and Anglican. It sought to discourage non-conformity to the Church of England, and passed several acts to secure Anglican dominance. The Corporation Act 1661 required municipal officeholders to swear allegiance;[26] the Act of Uniformity 1662 made the use of the Anglican Book of Common Prayer compulsory; the Conventicle Act 1664 prohibited religious assemblies of more than five people, except under the auspices of the Church of England; and the Five Mile Act 1665 prohibited clergymen from coming within five miles (8 km) of a parish from which they had been banished. The Conventicle and Five Mile Acts remained in effect for the remainder of Charles's reign. The Acts became known as the "Clarendon Code", after Lord Clarendon, even though he was not directly responsible for them and even spoke against the Five Mile Act.[27] The Restoration was accompanied by social change. Puritanism lost its momentum. Theatres reopened after having been closed during the protectorship of Oliver Cromwell, and bawdy "Restoration comedy" became a recognisable genre. Theatre licenses granted by Charles were the first in England to permit women to play female roles on stage (they were previously played by boys),[28] and Restoration literature celebrated or reacted to the restored court, which included libertines like John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester. Of Charles II, Wilmot supposedly said: We have a pretty witty king, And whose word no man relies on, He never said a foolish thing, And never did a wise one"[29] to which Charles supposedly said "that's true, for my words are my own, but my actions are those of my ministers". Charles II of England 273

Great Plague and Great Fire In 1665, Charles was faced with a great health crisis: the Great Plague of London. The death toll reached a peak of 7,000 in the week of 17 September.[30] Charles, with his family and court, fled London in July to Salisbury; Parliament met in Oxford. [31] All attempts by London public health officials to contain the disease failed, and the plague spread rapidly.

Adding to London's woes, but marking the end of the plague, was what later became known as the Great Fire of London, which started on 2 September 1666. The fire consumed about 13,200 houses and 87 churches, including St. Paul's Cathedral.[32] Charles and his brother James joined and directed the fire-fighting effort. The public blamed Catholic conspirators for the fire,[33] although it had actually started in a bakehouse in Pudding Lane.[32]

Foreign and colonial policy Since 1640, Portugal had been fighting a war against Spain to restore its independence after a dynastic union of sixty years between the crowns of Spain and Portugal. Portugal had been helped by France, but in the Treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659 Portugal was abandoned by its French ally. Negotiations with Portugal for Charles's marriage to Catherine of Braganza began during his father's reign and upon the restoration, Queen Luísa of Portugal, acting as regent, reopened negotiations with England that resulted in an alliance. On 23 June 1661, a marriage treaty was signed, Catherine's dowry securing to England Tangier (in North Africa) and the Seven islands of Bombay (the latter having a major influence on the development of the British Empire in India), together with trading privileges in Brazil and the East Indies, religious and commercial freedom in Portugal and two million Portuguese crowns (about £300,000); while Portugal obtained military and naval support against Spain and liberty of worship for Catherine.[34] Catherine journeyed from Portugal to Portsmouth on 13–14 May 1662,[34] but was not visited by Charles there until 20 May. The next day the couple were married at Portsmouth in two ceremonies – a Catholic one conducted in secret, followed by a public Anglican service.[34] In an unpopular move, also in 1662, Charles sold Dunkirk to his first cousin King Louis XIV of France for about £375,000.[35] The channel port, although a valuable strategic outpost, was a drain on Charles's limited finances.[36] Before Charles's restoration, the Navigation Acts of 1650 had hurt Dutch trade by giving English vessels a monopoly, and had started the First Dutch War (1652–1654). To lay foundations for a new beginning, envoys of the States-General appeared in November 1660 with the .[37] The Second Dutch War (1665–1667) was started by English attempts to muscle in on Dutch possessions in Africa and North America. The conflict began well for the English, with the capture of New Amsterdam (renamed New York in honour of Charles's brother James, Duke of York) and a victory at the , but in 1667 the Dutch launched a surprise attack on the English (the

Charles II in profile on a medal struck in 1667 by Raid on the Medway) when they sailed up the River Thames to where John Roettier to commemorate the Second Dutch a major part of the English fleet was docked. Almost all of the ships War Charles II of England 274

were sunk except for the flagship, the Royal Charles, which was taken back to the Netherlands as a trophy.[38] The Second Dutch War ended with the signing of the (1667). As a result of the Second Dutch War, Charles dismissed Lord Clarendon, whom he used as a scapegoat for the war.[39] Clarendon fled to France when impeached for high treason (which carried the penalty of death). Power passed to five politicians known collectively by a whimsical acronym as the Cabal—Clifford, Arlington, Buckingham, Ashley (afterwards Earl of Shaftesbury) and Lauderdale. In fact, the Cabal rarely acted in concert, and the court was often divided between two factions led by Arlington and Buckingham, with Arlington the more successful.[40] In 1668, England allied itself with Sweden, and with its former enemy the Netherlands, in order to oppose Louis XIV in the War of Devolution. Louis made peace with the , but he continued to maintain his aggressive intentions towards the Netherlands. In 1670, Charles, seeking to solve his financial troubles, agreed to the Treaty of Dover, under which Louis XIV would pay him £160,000 each year. In exchange, Charles agreed to supply Louis with troops and to announce his conversion to Catholicism "as soon as the welfare of his kingdom will permit".[41] Louis was to provide him with 6,000 troops to suppress those who opposed the conversion. Charles endeavoured to ensure that the Treaty—especially the conversion clause—remained secret.[42] It remains unclear if Charles ever seriously intended to convert.[43] Meanwhile, by a series of five charters, Charles granted the British East India Company the rights to autonomous territorial acquisitions, to mint money, to command fortresses and troops, to form alliances, to make war and peace, and to exercise both civil and criminal jurisdiction over the acquired areas in India.[44] Earlier in 1668 he leased the islands of Bombay for a nominal sum of £10 paid in gold.[45] The Portuguese territories that Catherine brought with her as dowry had proved too expensive to maintain; Tangier was abandoned.[46] In 1670, Charles granted control of the entire Hudson Bay drainage basin to the Hudson's Bay Company by royal charter, and named the territory Rupert's Land, after his cousin Prince Rupert of the Rhine, the company's first Governor.

Conflict with Parliament Although previously favourable to the Crown, the was alienated by the king's wars and religious policies during the . In 1672, Charles issued the Royal Declaration of Indulgence, in which he purported to suspend all penal laws against Catholics and other religious dissenters. In the same year, he openly supported Catholic France and started the Third Anglo-Dutch War.[47] The Cavalier Parliament opposed the Declaration of Indulgence on constitutional grounds by claiming that the King had no right to arbitrarily suspend laws passed by Parliament. Charles withdrew the Declaration, and also agreed to the Test Act, which not only required public officials to receive the sacrament under the forms prescribed by the Church of England,[48] but also later forced them to denounce certain teachings of the Catholic Church as "superstitious and idolatrous".[49] Clifford, who had converted to Catholicism, resigned rather than take the oath, and died shortly after. By 1674 England had gained nothing from the Anglo-Dutch War, and the Cavalier Parliament refused to provide further funds, forcing Charles to make peace. The power of the Cabal waned and that of Clifford's replacement, Lord Danby, grew. Charles II of England 275

Charles's wife Queen Catherine was unable to produce an heir; her four pregnancies had ended in miscarriages and stillbirths in 1662, February 1666, May 1668 and June 1669.[4] Charles's heir presumptive was therefore his unpopular Catholic brother, James, Duke of York. Partly in order to assuage public fears that the royal family was too Catholic, Charles agreed that James's daughter, Mary, should marry the Protestant William of Orange.[50] In 1678, Titus Oates, who had been alternately an Anglican and Jesuit priest, falsely warned of a "Popish Plot" to assassinate the King, even accusing the Queen of complicity.

Charles did not believe the allegations, but ordered his chief minister Charles was presented with the first pineapple Lord Danby to investigate. While Lord Danby seems to have been grown in England in 1675, painting by Hendrick rightly sceptical about Oates's claims, the Cavalier Parliament took Danckerts. them seriously.[51] The people were seized with an anti-Catholic hysteria;[52] judges and juries across the land condemned the supposed conspirators; numerous innocent individuals were executed.[53]

Later in 1678, Lord Danby was impeached by the House of Commons on the charge of high treason. Although much of the nation had sought war with Catholic France, Charles had secretly negotiated with Louis XIV, trying to reach an agreement under which England would remain neutral in return for money. Lord Danby had publicly professed that he was hostile to France, but had reservedly agreed to abide by Charles's wishes. Unfortunately for him, the House of Commons failed to view him as a reluctant participant in the scandal, instead believing that he was the author of the policy. To save Lord Danby from the impeachment trial, Charles dissolved the Cavalier Parliament in January 1679.[54]

The new English Parliament, which met in March of the same year, was quite hostile to Charles. Many members feared that he had intended to use the standing army to suppress dissent or impose Catholicism. However, with insufficient funds voted by Parliament, Charles was forced to gradually disband his troops. Having lost the support of Parliament, Lord Danby resigned his post of Lord High Treasurer, but received a pardon from the King. In defiance of the royal will, the House of Commons declared that the dissolution of Parliament did not interrupt impeachment proceedings, and that the pardon was therefore invalid. When the House of Lords attempted to impose the punishment of exile—which the Commons thought too mild—the impeachment became stalled between the two Houses. As he had been required to do so many times during his reign, Charles bowed to the wishes of his opponents, committing Lord Danby to the Tower of London. Lord Danby would be held there for another five years.[55]

Later years Charles faced a political storm over the succession to the Throne. The prospect of a Catholic monarch was vehemently opposed by Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury (previously Baron Ashley and a member of the Cabal, which had fallen apart in 1673). Shaftesbury's power base was strengthened when the House of Commons of 1679 introduced the Exclusion Bill, which sought to exclude the Duke of York from the line of succession. Some even sought to confer the Crown to the Protestant Duke of Monmouth, the eldest of Charles's illegitimate children. The Abhorrers—those who thought the Exclusion Bill was abhorrent—were named Tories (after a term for dispossessed Irish Catholic bandits), while the Petitioners—those who supported a petitioning campaign in favour of the Exclusion Bill—were called Whigs (after a term for rebellious Scottish Presbyterians).[56] Charles II of England 276

Fearing that the Exclusion Bill would be passed, and bolstered by some acquittals in the continuing Plot trials, which seemed to him to indicate a more favourable public mood towards Catholicism, Charles dissolved the English Parliament, for a second time that year, in the summer of 1679. Charles's hopes for a more moderate Parliament were not fulfilled, within a few months he had dissolved Parliament yet again, after it sought to pass the Exclusion Bill. When a new Parliament assembled at Oxford in March 1681, Charles dissolved it for a fourth time after just a few days.[57] During the , however, popular support for the Exclusion Bill ebbed, and Charles experienced a nationwide surge of loyalty. Lord Shaftesbury was charged with treason and fled to Holland, where he died. For the remainder of his reign, Charles ruled without Parliament.[58]

Charles's opposition to the Exclusion Bill angered some Protestants. Portrait by John Riley, c. 1680–1685 Protestant conspirators formulated the Rye House Plot, a plan to murder the King and the Duke of York as they returned to London after horse races in Newmarket. A great fire, however, destroyed Charles's lodgings at Newmarket, which forced him to leave the races early, thus, inadvertently, avoiding the planned attack. News of the failed plot was leaked.[59] Protestant politicians such as Arthur Capell, 1st Earl of Essex, Algernon Sydney, Lord William Russell and the Duke of Monmouth were implicated in the plot. Lord Essex slit his own throat while imprisoned in the Tower of London; Sydney and Russell were executed for high treason on very flimsy evidence; and the Duke of Monmouth went into exile at the court of William of Orange. Lord Danby and the surviving Catholic lords held in the Tower were released and the King's Catholic brother, James, acquired greater influence at court.[60] Titus Oates was convicted and imprisoned for defamation.[61]

Death Charles suffered a sudden apoplectic fit on the morning of 2 February 1685, and died aged 54 at 11:45 am four days later at Whitehall Palace.[62] The suddenness of his illness and death led to suspicion of poison in the minds of many, including one of the royal doctors; however, more modern medical analysis has held that the symptoms of his final illness are similar to those of uraemia (a clinical syndrome due to kidney dysfunction). On his deathbed Charles asked his brother, James, to look after his mistresses: "be well to Portsmouth, and let not poor Nelly starve",[63] and told his courtiers: "I am sorry, gentlemen, for being such a time a-dying".[64] On the last evening of his life he was received into the Catholic Church, though the extent to which he was fully conscious or committed, and with whom the idea originated, is unclear.[65] He was buried in Westminster Abbey "without any manner of pomp"[64] on 14 February.[66] Charles was succeeded by his brother, who became James II of England and Ireland and James VII of Scotland. Charles II of England 277

Posterity and legacy

Charles had no legitimate children, but acknowledged a dozen by seven mistresses,[67] including five by the notorious Barbara Villiers, Lady Castlemaine, for whom the Dukedom of Cleveland was created. His other mistresses included Moll Davis, Nell Gwyn, Elizabeth Killigrew, Catherine Pegge, Lucy Walter, and Louise de Kérouaille, Duchess of Portsmouth. The public resented paying taxes that were spent on them and their children,[68] many of whom received dukedoms or earldoms. The present Dukes of Buccleuch, Richmond, Grafton and St Albans descend from Charles in unbroken male line.[69] Diana, Princess of Wales, was descended from two of Charles's illegitimate sons: the Dukes of Grafton and Richmond. Diana's son, Prince William, Duke of Cambridge, second in line to the British Throne, is likely to be Statue of Charles II as a Roman the first British monarch descended from Charles II. Caesar, erected in Parliament Square Edinburgh in 1685 Charles's eldest son, the Duke of Monmouth, led a rebellion against James II, but was defeated at the Battle of Sedgemoor on 6 July 1685, captured and executed. James was eventually dethroned in 1688, in the course of the Glorious Revolution. He was the last Catholic monarch to rule Britain. Looking back on Charles's reign, Tories tended to view it as a time of benevolent monarchy whereas Whigs perceived it as a terrible despotism. Today it is possible to assess Charles without the taint of partisanship, and he is seen as more of a lovable rogue—in the words of his contemporary John Evelyn: "a prince of many virtues and many great imperfections, debonair, easy of access, not bloody or cruel".[70] John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester, wrote more lewdly of Charles:

Restless he rolls from whore to whore A merry monarch, scandalous and poor.[71] Charles, a patron of the arts and sciences, founded the Royal and supported the Royal Society, a scientific group whose early members included Robert Hooke, Robert Boyle and Sir Isaac Newton. Charles was the personal patron of Sir Christopher Wren, the architect who helped rebuild London after the Great Fire and who constructed the Royal Hospital Chelsea, which Charles A 1676 statue of Charles II in ancient founded as a home for retired soldiers in 1682. Roman dress by Grinling Gibbons has stood in the Figure Court of the The anniversary of the Restoration (which was also Charles's birthday)—29 Royal Hospital Chelsea since 1692. May—was recognised in England until the mid-nineteenth century as Oak Apple Day, after the Royal Oak in which Charles hid during his escape from the forces of Oliver Cromwell. Traditional celebrations involved the wearing of oak leaves but these have now died out.[72] Charles II is commemorated by statues in London's Soho Square,[73] in Edinburgh's Parliament Square, in Three Cocks Lane in Gloucester,[74] and near the south portal of Lichfield Cathedral, and is depicted extensively in literature and other media. Charleston, South Carolina, is named after him. Charles II of England 278

Titles, styles, honours and arms

Titles and styles • 29 May 1630 – May 1638: The Duke of Cornwall • May 1638 – 30 January 1649: The Prince of Wales • 30 January 1649 – 6 February 1685: His Majesty The King The official style of Charles II was "Charles the Second, by the Grace of God, King of England, Scotland, France and Ireland, Defender of the Faith, etc."[75] The claim to France was only nominal, and had been asserted by every English King since Edward III, regardless of the amount of French territory actually controlled.

Honours • KG: Knight of the Garter, 21 May 1638[4]

Arms As Prince of Wales, Charles's coat of arms was the royal arms (which he later inherited), differenced by a label of three points Argent. His arms as monarch were: Quarterly, I and IV Grandquarterly, Azure three fleurs-de-lis Or (for France) and Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England); II Or a lion rampant within a double tressure flory-counter-flory Gules (for Scotland); III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent (for Ireland).

widths

Coat of arms as Prince of Wales Coat of arms of Charles II Coat of arms of Charles II in Scotland

Issue By Marguerite or Margaret de Carteret 1. Letters claiming that she bore Charles a son named James de la Cloche in 1646 are dismissed by historians as forgeries.[76] By Lucy Walter (c.1630–1658) 1. James Crofts, later Scott (1649–1685), created Duke of Monmouth (1663) in England and Duke of Buccleuch (1663) in Scotland. Ancestor of Sarah, Duchess of York. Monmouth was born nine months after Walter and Charles II first met, and was acknowledged as his son by Charles II, but James II suggested that he was the son of another of her lovers, Colonel Robert Sidney, rather than Charles. Lucy Walter had a daughter, Mary Crofts, born after James in 1651, but Charles II was not the father, since he and Walter parted in September 1649.[4] By Elizabeth Killigrew (1622–1680), daughter of Sir Robert Killigrew, married Francis Boyle, 1st Viscount Shannon, in 1660 Charles II of England 279

1. Charlotte Jemima Henrietta Maria FitzRoy (1650–1684), married firstly James Howard and secondly William Paston, 2nd Earl of Yarmouth By Catherine Pegge 1. Charles FitzCharles (1657–1680), known as "Don Carlo", created Earl of Plymouth (1675) 2. Catherine FitzCharles (born 1658; she either died young or became a nun at Dunkirk)[77] By Barbara née Villiers (1641–1709), wife of Roger Palmer, 1st Earl of Castlemaine; created Duchess of Cleveland in her own right 1. Lady Anne Palmer (Fitzroy) (1661–1722), married Thomas Lennard, 1st Earl of Sussex. She may have been the daughter of Roger Palmer, but Charles accepted her.[78] Sarah, Duchess of York, descends from Anne by both parents. 2. Charles Fitzroy (1662–1730), created Duke of Southampton (1675), became 2nd Duke of Cleveland (1709) 3. Henry Fitzroy (1663–1690), created Earl of Euston (1672), Duke of Grafton (1675), also 7-greats-grandfather of Diana, Princess of Wales 4. Charlotte Fitzroy (1664–1717), married Edward Lee, 1st Earl of Lichfield 5. George Fitzroy (1665–1716), created Earl of Northumberland (1674), Duke of Northumberland (1678) 6. Barbara (Benedicta) Fitzroy (1672–1737) – She was probably the child of John Churchill, later Duke of Marlborough, who was another of Cleveland's many lovers,[79] and was never acknowledged by Charles as his own daughter.[80] By Nell Gwyn (1650–1687) 1. Charles Beauclerk (1670–1726), created Duke of St Albans (1684) 2. James, Lord Beauclerk (1671–1680) By Louise Renée de Penancoet de Kérouaille (1649–1734), created Duchess of Portsmouth in her own right (1673) 1. Charles Lennox (1672–1723), created Duke of Richmond (1675) in England and Duke of Lennox (1675) in Scotland. Ancestor of Diana, Princess of Wales; Camilla, Duchess of Cornwall; and Sarah, Duchess of York. By Mary 'Moll' Davis, courtesan and actress of repute[81] 1. Lady Mary Tudor (1673–1726), married Edward Radclyffe, 2nd Earl of Derwentwater; after Edward's death, she married Henry Graham, and upon his death she married James Rooke. Other probable mistresses: 1. Christabella Wyndham[82] 2. Hortense Mancini, Duchess of Mazarin[83] 3. Winifred Wells – one of the Queen's Maids of Honour[84] 4. Jane Roberts – the daughter of a clergyman 5. Elizabeth Berkeley, née Bagot, Dowager Countess of Falmouth – the widow of Charles Berkeley, 1st Earl of Falmouth[85] 6. Elizabeth Fitzgerald, Countess of Kildare Charles II of England 280

Notes

[1][1]The traditional date of the Restoration marking the first assembly of King and Parliament together since the abolition of the English monarchy in 1649. The English Parliament recognised Charles as King of England by unanimous vote on 2 May 1660, and he was proclaimed King in London on 8 May, although royalists had recognised him as such since the execution of his father on 30 January 1649. During Charles's reign all legal documents were dated as if his reign began at his father's death. [2] From the death of his father to his defeat at the Battle of Worcester [3] All dates in this article unless otherwise noted are given in the Julian calendar with the start of year adjusted to 1 January (see Old Style and New Style dates). [4] Weir 1996, pp. 255–257. [5][5]; . [6][6]; . [7][7]; . [8] Fraser 1979, pp. 55–56. [9] Fraser 1979, pp. 57–60. [10][10]; ; . [11][11]; . [12][12]; . [13][13]; . [14] One thousand pounds was a vast sum at the time, greater than an average workman's lifetime earnings.Fraser 1979, p. 117. [15] Hutton 1989, pp. 74–112. [16][16]Fraser 1979, p. 21. [17] Fraser 1979, pp. 160–165. [18] Diary of Samuel Pepys, 16 March 1660. [19] Miller 1991, pp. 24–25. [20][20]Hutton 1989, p. 131. [21][21]Seaward 2004. [22][22]Fraser 1979, p. 190. [23][23]The Royal Household 2009. [24][24]Fraser 1979, p. 185. [25][25]; ; . [26][26]Hutton 1989, p. 169. [27][27]Hutton 1989, p. 229. [28][28]Hutton 1989, p. 185. [29] Papers of Thomas Hearne (17 November 1706) quoted in . [30][30]Fraser 1979, p. 238. [31][31]Miller 1991, p. 120. [32][32]Porter 2007. [33][33]; . [34][34]Wynne 2004. [35][35]Miller 1991, pp. 93, 99. [36] It cost the Treasury £321,000 per year.Hutton 1989, p. 184. [37] Israel 1998, pp. 749–750. [38] The ship's transom is on display at the Rijksmuseum Amsterdam. [39] Hutton 1989, pp. 250–251. [40][40]; . [41][41]Fraser 1979, p. 275. [42][42]; . [43][43]For doubts over his intention to convert before 1685 see, for example, ; for doubts over his intention to convert on his deathbed see, for example, . [44][44]Chisholm 1911, p. 835. [45][45]British Library Learning. [46][46]Hutton 1989, p. 426. [47][47]; . [48] Raithby 1819, pp. 782–785. [49] Raithby 1819a, pp. 894–896. [50][50]; . [51] Hutton 1989, pp. 359–362. Charles II of England 281

[52][52]Fraser 1979, p. 360. [53][53]Fraser 1979, p. 375. [54] Miller 1991, pp. 278, 301–304. [55][55]; . [56][56]; . [57][57]; . [58] Hutton 1989, pp. 430–441. [59][59]Fraser 1979, p. 426. [60][60]; . [61][61]Fraser 1979, p. 437. [62][62]; . [63][63]Fraser 1979, p. 456. [64][64]Bryant 2001, p. 73. [65][65]Hutton 1989, pp. 443, 456. [66][66]Fraser 1979, p. 459. [67][67]Fraser 1979, p. 411. [68][68]Hutton 1989, p. 338. [69][69]Fraser 1979, p. 413. [70] Miller 1991, pp. 382–383. [71][71]Miller 1991, p. 95. [72][72]Fraser 1979, p. 118. [73] Sheppard 1966, pp. 51–53. [74][74]Gloucester City Council 2012. [75] Guinness Book of Answers (1991), p. 708 [76][76]; . [77][77]Hutton 1989, p. 125. [78] Cokayne 1926, pp. 706–708. [79][79]Miller 1991, pp. 97, 123. [80][80]Fraser 1979, pp. 65, 286. [81][81]Fraser 1979, p. 287. [82][82]; . [83][83]; ; . [84][84]; . [85][85]Melville 2005, p. 91.

References

• Bombay: History of a City (http:/ / www. bl. uk/ learning/ histcitizen/ trading/ bombay/ history. html), The British Library Board, retrieved 19 April 2010 • Bryant, Mark (2001), Private Lives, London: Cassell, ISBN 0-304-35758-8 • Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911), "East India Company", Encyclopædia Britannica 8 (11th ed.), Cambridge University Press, pp. 834–835 • Cokayne, George E.; Revised and enlarged by Gibbs, Vicary; Edited by Doubleday, H. A., Warrand, D., and de Walden, Lord Howard (1926), "Appendix F. Bastards of Charles II", The Complete Peerage VI, London: St. Catherine Press

• Defoe, Daniel (1894), History of the Plague in England (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ etext/ 17221), New York: American Book Company • Doble, C. E., ed. (1885), Remarks and Collections of Thomas Hearne 1, Oxford: Clarendon Press for the Oxford Historical Society • Fraser, Antonia (1979), King Charles II, London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, ISBN 0-297-77571-5

• Gloucester City Council (3 May 2012), List of Monuments in Gloucester (http:/ / www. gloucester. gov. uk/

LGNL/ Environmentandplanning/ Archaeology/ Landandproperty-historicsites-maintenance/

ListofMonumentsinGloucesterCity. aspx), retrieved December 2012 • Hutton, Ronald (1989), Charles II: King of England, Scotland, and Ireland, Oxford: Clarendon Press, ISBN 0-19-822911-9 Charles II of England 282

• Israel, J.I. (1998), The Dutch Republic; Its rise, greatness, and fall 1477–1806, Oxford • Keay, A. (2002), The Crown Jewels, Historic Royal Palaces, ISBN 1-873993-20-X • Melville, Lewis (2005) [1928], The Windsor Beauties: Ladies of the Court of Charles II, Loving Healing Press,

p. 91 (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=FCxRqOrMVQUC& pg=PA91& lpg=PA91& dq=charles+ ii+ bagot), ISBN 1-932690-13-1 • Miller, John (1991), Charles II, London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, ISBN 0-297-81214-9 • Porter, Stephen (January 2007), "The great fire of London", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online

ed.), Oxford University Press, doi: 10.1093/ref:odnb/95647 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1093/ ref:odnb/ 95647)

(subscription or UK public library membership (http:/ / www. oup. com/ oxforddnb/ info/ freeodnb/ libraries/ ) required) • Raithby, John, ed. (1819), "Charles II, 1672: An Act for preventing Dangers which may happen from Popish

Recusants" (http:/ / www. british-history. ac. uk/ report. asp?compid=47451), Statutes of the Realm: volume 5: 1628–80, retrieved 19 April 2010 • Raithby, John, ed. (1819a), "Charles II, 1678: (Stat. 2.) An Act for the more effectuall preserving the Kings

Person and Government by disableing Papists from sitting in either House of Parlyament" (http:/ / www.

british-history. ac. uk/ report. asp?compid=47482), Statutes of the Realm: volume 5: 1628–80, retrieved 19 April 2010 • Seaward, Paul (2004), "Charles II (1630–1685)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.), Oxford

University Press, doi: 10.1093/ref:odnb/5144 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1093/ ref:odnb/ 5144) (subscription or UK

public library membership (http:/ / www. oup. com/ oxforddnb/ info/ freeodnb/ libraries/ ) required)

• Sheppard, F. H. W., ed. (1966), "Soho Square Area: Portland Estate: Soho Square Garden" (http:/ / www.

british-history. ac. uk/ report. aspx?compid=41027), Survey of London: volumes 33 and 34: St Anne Soho, retrieved 19 April 2010

• The Royal Household (2009), Charles II (r. 1660–1685) (http:/ / www. royal. gov. uk/ HistoryoftheMonarchy/

KingsandQueensoftheUnitedKingdom/ TheStuarts/ CharlesII. aspx), Official website of the British Monarchy, retrieved 19 April 2010

• Velde, François (5 August 2013) [19 April 2008], Marks of Cadency in the British Royal Family (http:/ / www.

heraldica. org/ topics/ britain/ cadency. htm), Heraldica (http:/ / www. heraldica. org/ presentation. htm), retrieved September 2013WP:V#SELF WP:NOTRS • Weir, Alison (1996), Britain's Royal Families: The Complete Genealogy (Revised ed.), Random House, ISBN 0-7126-7448-9 • Wynne, S. M. (2004), "Catherine (1638–1705)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.), Oxford

University Press, doi: 10.1093/ref:odnb/4894 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1093/ ref:odnb/ 4894) (subscription or UK

public library membership (http:/ / www. oup. com/ oxforddnb/ info/ freeodnb/ libraries/ ) required)

Further reading • Hanrahan, David C. (2006), Charles II and the Duke of Buckingham: The Merry Monarch and the Aristocratic Rogue, Stroud: Sutton, ISBN 0-7509-3916-8 • Harris, Tim (2005), Restoration: Charles II and his kingdoms, 1660–1685, London: Allen Lane, ISBN 0-7139-9191-7 • Keay, Anna (2008), The Magnificent Monarch: Charles II and the Ceremonies of Power, London: Hambledon Continuum, ISBN 978-1-84725-225-8 • Kenyon, J. P. (1957), "Review Article: The Reign of Charles II", Cambridge Historical Journal XIII: 82–86 • Miller, John (1985), Restoration England: the reign of Charles II, London: Longman, ISBN 0-582-35396-3 Charles II of England 283

External links • Quotations related to Charles II of England at Wikiquote • Media related to Charles II of England at Wikimedia Commons

• Archival material relating to Charles II of England (http:/ / www. nationalarchives. gov. uk/ nra/ searches/

subjectView. asp?ID=P5402) listed at the UK National Archives

Charles II of England House of Stuart Born: 29 May 1630 Died: 6 February 1685 Regnal titles Preceded by King of Scotland Vacant Charles I 1649–1651 Military government led by George Monck Vacant King of England and Succeeded by Succession interrupted Ireland James VII & II by the English Interregnum 1660–1685 Title last held by Charles I Vacant King of Scotland Military government 1660–1685 led by George Monck British royalty Vacant Duke of Cornwall Vacant Title last held by Duke of Rothesay Title next held by 1630–1649 Charles James Francis Edward Prince of Wales 1638–1649

Political offices

Preceded by Lord High Admiral Succeeded by The Duke of York 1673 Prince Rupert of the Rhine later became King James II Preceded by Lord High Admiral Succeeded by The Earl of Nottingham 1684–1685 King James II as First Lord of the Admiralty Countess Louise Henriette of Nassau 284 Countess Louise Henriette of Nassau

Luise Henriette of Nassau

Luise Henriette of Nassau

Spouse(s) Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg

Noble family House of Nassau

Father Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange

Mother Amalia of Solms-Braunfels

Born 27 November 1627 the Hague

Died 18 June 1667 (aged 39) Cölln

Louise Henrietta of Nassau (Dutch: Louise Henriëtte van Nassau, German: Luise Henriette von Nassau; December 7, 1627 – June 18, 1667) was a Countess of Nassau, granddaughter of William I, Prince of Orange, "William the Silent", and an Electress of Brandenburg.

Biography

Louise Henriëtte was born in The Hague, the eldest daughter of Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange, and Amalia of Solms-Braunfels. She grew up at the court of her father, the Stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Guelders and Overijssel.

Marriage Luise and her sisters

Louise Henriëtte had to abandon her love for Henri Charles de La Trémoille, Prince of Talmant, son of Henry de La Trémoille, as her mother had royal ambitions for her. However, attempts to conclude an Countess Louise Henriette of Nassau 285

engagement with King Charles II of England came to nothing. Finally she was forced to marry Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg (1620-1688), "the Great Elector," at The Hague on 7 December 1646, her nineteenth birthday. The Electorate of Brandenburg regarded this marriage as beneficial by reason of the connections with the Orange family it created in the hope of obtaining assistance for Brandenburg's struggle for influence in Pomerania.

Electress

The couple lived in Cleves for the first years of their marriage, but they moved to Brandenburg, Frederick William's seat, in 1648. During her marriage, Luise Henriette followed her spouse and traveled between The Hague, Königsberg, Berlin and Cleves on campaigns, inspections, war and battle fields in Poland and Denmark. She acted as her husband's political adviser and was described as a pragmatist. She managed, through correspondence with the Queen of Poland, Marie Luise Henriette of Nassau, 1643 Louise Gonzaga, to make an alliance with Poland in exchange for the Polish recognition of Prussia as a province of Brandenburg. It was said of her : "Few Electresses had been allowed so much influence". Luise Henriette had a new castle in Dutch style built in Bötzow in 1650-52 and called it Oranienburg, which became the name for the entire town in 1653. She was also involved in the design and development of the Lustgarten in Berlin. In 1663, she installed the first porcelain cabinet in Europe. In 1665, she founded an orphanage with places for 24 children. She was described as truly kind and gentle with a sharp intellect: her advice was vital for her spouse, and their marriage was considered a role model. During time of war, she made great efforts to soften the damages upon society.

A Protestant religious community known as the Luise-Henrietten-Stift in nearby Lehnin Abbey was named after her.

Luise Henriette of Nassau as a statue. Countess Louise Henriette of Nassau 286

Children

With Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg, she had six children. •• William Henry (1648-1649) •• Charles (1655-1674) • Frederick (1657-1713), the first King in Prussia •• Amalie (1656-1664) •• Henry (1664-1664) • Louis (1666-1687), married Ludwika Karolina Radziwiłł

On a stamp from the series Luise Henriette died in Berlin and was buried in the Berliner Dom. Women in German History

Ancestry

Luise Henriette of Nassau's ancestors in three generations

Luise Henriette, Electress of Father: Paternal Grandfather: Paternal Great-grandfather: Brandenburg Frederick Henry, Prince of William I of Orange William, Count of Nassau Orange Paternal Great-grandmother: Juliana of Stolberg

Paternal Grandmother: Paternal Great-grandfather: Louise de Coligny Gaspard de Coligny

Paternal Great-grandmother: Charlotte de Laval (1530-1568)

Mother: Maternal Grandfather: Maternal Great-grandfather: Amalia of Solms-Braunfels John Albert I of Solms-Braunfels Conrad, Count of (1592-1623) Solms-Braunfels

Maternal Great-grandmother: Elisabeth of Nassau-Dillenburg

Maternal Grandmother: Maternal Great-grandfather: Agnes of Sayn-Wittgenstein Louis I, Count of Sayn-Wittgenstein

Maternal Great-grandmother: Elisabeth of Solms-Laubach

Sources This article incorporates information from the equivalent article on the German Wikipedia.

External links

• http:/ / www. spsg. de/ index. php?id=129 •• coloured painting of Prinzessin Luise Henriette von Oranien-Nassau, later Kurfürstin von Brandenburg Countess Louise Henriette of Nassau 287

Countess Louise Henriette of Nassau House of Orange-Nassau Born: 7 December 1627 Died: 18 June 1667 Vacant Electress consort of Vacant Title last held by Brandenburg Title next held by 7 December 1646 – 18 June 1667 Elizabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate Sophia Dorothea of Holstein Duchess consort of Prussia 7 December 1646 - 18 June 1667 Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg 288 Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg

Frederick William

The Elector by Frans Luycx

Elector of Brandenburg

Reign 1 December 1640 – 29 April 1688

Predecessor George William

Successor Frederick III

Spouse Luise Henriette of Nassau Sophia Dorothea of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg

Issue

William Henry, Electoral Prince of Brandenburg Charles, Electoral Prince of Brandenburg Frederick I of Prussia Philip William, Margrave of Brandenburg-Schwedt Marie Amelie, Hereditary Princess of Mecklenburg-Güstrow Prince Margrave Albert Frederick Prince Charles Elisabeth Sophie, Duchess of Saxe-Meiningen Prince Christian Ludwig

House House of Hohenzollern

Father George William

Mother Elisabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate

Born 16 February 1620 Stadtschloss, Berlin, Brandenburg-Prussia

Died 29 April 1688 (aged 68) Stadtschloss, Potsdam, Brandenburg-Prussia

Religion Calvinism

Frederick William (German: Friedrich Wilhelm) (16 February 1620 – 29 April 1688) was Elector of Brandenburg and Duke of Prussia – and thus ruler of Brandenburg-Prussia – from 1640 until his death. A member of the House of Hohenzollern, he is popularly known as "The Great Elector" (German: Der Große Kurfürst) because of his military and political prowess. Frederick William was a staunch pillar of the Calvinist faith, associated with the rising commercial class. He saw the importance of trade and promoted it vigorously. His shrewd domestic reforms gave Prussia a strong position in the post-Westphalia political order of north-, setting Prussia up for elevation from duchy to kingdom, achieved under his son and successor. Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg 289

Biography Elector Frederick William was born in Berlin to George William, Elector of Brandenburg, and Elisabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate. His inheritance consisted of the Margraviate of Brandenburg, the , the , and the .

Foreign diplomacy During the Thirty Years' War, George William strove to maintain, with a minimal army, a delicate balance between the Protestant and Catholic forces fighting throughout the Holy Roman Empire. Out of these unpromising beginnings Frederick William managed to rebuild his war-ravaged territories. In contrast to the religious disputes that distrupted the internal affairs of other European states, Brandenburg-Prussia benefited from the policy of religious tolerance adopted by Frederick William. With the help of French subsidies, he built up an army to defend the country. In the Second Northern War, he was forced to accept Swedish vassalage for the Duchy of Prussia according to the terms of the Treaty of Königsberg (1656), but as the war progressed he succeeded in gaining full sovereignty for the Prussian duchy in the treaties of Labiau, Wehlau, Bromberg and Oliva, leaving the Holy Roman Emperor as his only liege for his imperial holdings. In the conflict for Pomerania inheritance, Frederick William had to accept two setbacks, one in the Northern War and one in the . Though militarily successful in , he had to bow to France's demands and return his gains to Sweden in the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1679).

Military career

Frederick William was a military commander of wide renown, and his standing army would later become the model for the . He is notable for his joint victory with Swedish forces at the (1656), which, according to Hajo Holborn, marked "the beginning of Prussian military history", but the Swedes turned on him at the behest of King Louis XIV of France and invaded Brandenburg. After marching 250 kilometres in 15 days back to Brandenburg, he caught the Swedes by surprise and managed to defeat them on the field at the , destroying the myth of Swedish military invincibility. He later destroyed another that invaded the Duchy of Prussia during the Great Sleigh Drive in 1678. He is noted for his use of broad directives and delegation of decision-making to his Statue of Frederick William at Charlottenburg commanders, which would later become the basis for the German Palace, Berlin doctrine of Auftragstaktik, and he is noted for using rapid mobility to defeat his foes.[1]

Domestic policies Frederick William is notable for raising an army of 40,000 soldiers by 1678, through the General War Commissariat presided over by Joachim Friedrich von Blumenthal. He was an advocate of mercantilism, monopolies, subsidies, tariffs, and internal improvements. Following Louis XIV's revocation of the Edict of Nantes, Frederick William encouraged skilled French and Walloon Huguenots to emigrate to Brandenburg-Prussia with the Edict of Potsdam, bolstering the country's technical and industrial base. On Blumenthal's advice he agreed to exempt the nobility from taxes and in return they agreed to dissolve the Estates-General. He also simplified travel in Brandenburg and the Duchy of Prussia by connecting riverways with canals, a system that was expanded by later Prussian architects, such Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg 290

as Georg Steenke; the system is still in use today.

Marriages

On 7 December 1646 in The Hague, Frederick William entered into a marriage, proposed by Blumenthal as a partial solution to the Jülich-Berg question, with Luise Henriette of Nassau (1627–1667), daughter of Frederick Henry of Orange-Nassau and Amalia of Solms-Braunfels and his 1st cousin once removed through William the Silent. Their children were as follows:

1. William Henry, Electoral Prince of Brandenburg (1648–1649), 2. Charles, Electoral Prince of Brandenburg (1655–1674),

3. Frederick I of Prussia (1657–1713), his successor, Painting of his 1646 wedding ceremony by 4. Amalie (1656–1664), Johannes Mytens. 5. Henry (1664–1664), 6. Louis (1666–1687), who married Ludwika Karolina Radziwiłł. On 13 June 1668 in Gröningen, Frederick William married Sophie Dorothea of Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg, daughter of Philip, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg and Sophie Hedwig of Saxe-Lauenburg. Their children were the following: 1. Philip William (1669–1711), 2. Marie Amalie (1670–1739) married: 1. Charles of Mecklenburg-Güstrow, son of Gustav Adolph, Duke of Mecklenburg-Güstrow 2. Maurice William of Saxe-Zeitz, son of Maurice, Duke of Saxe-Zeitz 3. Albert Frederick (1672–1731), 4. Charles Philip (1673–1695), 5. Elisabeth Sofie (1674–1748), who married Christian Ernst of Brandenburg-Bayreuth (6 August 1644 – 20 May 1712) on 30 March 1703. 6. Dorothea (1675–1676), 7. Christian Ludwig (1677–1734), recipient of Bach's Brandenburg Concertos. Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg 291

Ancestry

8. Joachim Frederick, Elector of Brandenburg

4. John Sigismund, Elector of Brandenburg

9. Margravine Catherine of Brandenburg-Küstrin

2. George William, Elector of Brandenburg

10. Albert Frederick, Duke of Prussia

5. Duchess Anna of Prussia

11. Marie Eleonore of Cleves

1. Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg

12. Louis VI, Elector Palatine

6. Frederick IV, Elector Palatine

13. Landgravine Elisabeth of Hesse

3. Elizabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate

14. William the Silent Prince of Orange and Count of Nassau

7. Countess Louise Juliana of Nassau

15. Princess Charlotte of Bourbon Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg 292

References

[1] Citino, Robert. The German Way of War. From the Thirty Years War to the Third Reich. pp 1–35. University Press of Kansas, 2005.

External links • Media related to Friedrich Wilhelm I of Brandenburg at Wikimedia Commons

Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg House of Hohenzollern Born: 16 February 1620 Died: 29 April 1688 Regnal titles Preceded by Elector of Brandenburg Succeeded by George William 1640–1688 Frederick III Margrave of Brandenburg 1640–1688 Duke of Prussia vassal of Poland-Lithuania (to 1660) 1640–1688

Frederick Nassau de Zuylestein

Frederick Nassau de Zuylestein (1608–1672) was an illegitimate son of Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange.

Life

In 1640 his father gave him the castle and title Heer van Zuylestein and made him captain of infantry for the state. In 1659, he was made governor of the household of his nephew, William III of Orange. Through lobbying by Johan de Wit, William III became the state's ward in 1666, and Frederick was dismissed. His dismissal was because Castle Zuylestein in 1650, destroyed by bomb attack during WWII. he was married to an Englishwoman, Mary Killegrew, and was under suspicion of pro-English leanings. In April 1672 (the rampjaar) he became general of the infantry and in August he became involved in the murders of Johan and Cornelis de Wit. In October he died near in a battle with the French known as the Battle of Kruipin.[1]

His son, William, later became a close confidant of William III of England (who rewarded him with the title "Earl of Rochford"). Frederick Nassau de Zuylestein 293

Arms Frederick used the arms below.

Arms of Nassau-Zuylestein. The 3-towers are known as "Zuylen" in [2] Dutch.

Literature • Herbert H. Rowen, The princes of Orange: the stadholders in the Dutch Republic. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988. • Herbert H. Rowen, The princes of Orange: the stadholders in the Dutch Republic. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003. • Petrus Johannes Blok, "History of the people of the Netherlands". New York: G. P. Putnam's sons, 1898. • Jonathan I. Israel, "The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall, 1477–1806" Oxford University Press, 1995. ISBN 0-19-820734-4

References

[1] Battle of Kruipin (http:/ / www. regiocanons. nl/ utrecht/ zuidwest/ het-rampjaar/ beeld-en-geluid/ het-beleg-van-woerden) in the Canon of Utrecht

[2] Battle of Kruipin (http:/ / www. regiocanons. nl/ utrecht/ zuidwest/ het-rampjaar/ beeld-en-geluid/ het-beleg-van-woerden) in the Canon of Utrecht Earl of Rochford 294 Earl of Rochford

Earl of Rochford was a title in the Peerage of England. It was created in 1695 for William Nassau de Zuylestein, one of the most trusted companions of his kinsman, William of Orange. He was made Viscount Tunbridge at the same time, also in the Peerage of England. He was the son of Frederick Nassau de Zuylestein, natural son of Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange. Zuylestein was sent to England in 1687 and again in 1688 to report on the condition of affairs. In 1688 he sailed with the prince on his famous expedition. After the Revolution he was naturalized and served the king in the field, being raised to the English peerage in 1695. He was succeeded by his son William, the second Earl, who was killed at the Battle of Almenar, and then by another son, Frederick, the third Earl. Frederick's son, William Henry, the 4th Earl, was a diplomat and a statesman. Having gained experience as envoy at Turin from 1749 to 1753, he was Ambassador to Madrid from 1763 to 1766 and to Paris from 1766 to 1768. From 1768 to 1775 he was one of the secretaries of state. He left no children when he died on 28 September 1781, and was succeeded by his nephew, William Henry, the 5th Earl. The titles became extinct on The 4th Earl of Rochford. the latter's death in September 1830. The estates of the Earls of Rochford were in Suffolk and Essex, their principal residence being St Osyth Priory in the latter county.

Earls of Rochford (1695) • William Nassau de Zuylestein, 1st Earl of Rochford (1649–1709) • William Nassau de Zuylestein, 2nd Earl of Rochford (1682–1710) • Frederick Nassau de Zuylestein, 3rd Earl of Rochford (1683–1738) • William Henry Nassau de Zuylestein, 4th Earl of Rochford (1717–1781) • William Henry Nassau de Zuylestein, 5th Earl of Rochford (1754–1830) Earl of Rochford 295

Arms The earls of Rochford used the arms below, inherited via the founder of their Family Fredrick of Nassau, lord of Zuylestein, illegitimate son of Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange.

Arms of Nassau-Zuylestein. The 3 pillars are known as "Zuylen" in Dutch. UNIQ-ref-0-f50aae89a7b7a85a-QINU

External links • "Zuylestein, William Henry (1645-1709)". Dictionary of National Biography. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1885–1900.

References

• Leigh Rayment's Peerage Pages (http:/ / www. leighrayment. com/ )WP:V#SELF WP:NOTRS • This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press Henry Casimir I of Nassau-Dietz 296 Henry Casimir I of Nassau-Dietz

Henry Casimir I, Count of Nassau-Dietz Count of Nassau-Dietz

Henry Casimir I of Nassau-Dietz

Predecessor Ernst Casimir

Successor Willem Frederik

Father Ernst Casimir of Nassau-Dietz

Mother Sophia Hedwig of Brunswick-Lüneburg

Born 21 January 1612 Arnhem

Died 13 July 1640 (aged 28) Hulst

Henry Casimir I of Nassau-Dietz (Arnhem, 21 January 1612 – Hulst, 13 July 1640) was count of Nassau-Dietz and Stadtholder of Friesland, Groningen and Drenthe.

Life He was the eldest son of Ernst Casimir of Nassau-Dietz and Sophia Hedwig of Brunswick-Lüneburg, and like his father, died in battle. On July 12, 1640, he was wounded in Sint Jansteen at the battle of Hulst. He died the next day. Hendrik Casimir is buried in Leeuwarden, and was succeeded in his titles by William Frederick, Prince of Nassau-Dietz. His death at age 28 caused a series of memorials to his name and the battle in which he died. The Rijksmuseum keeps a blood-stained shirt in the collection supposedly worn by him when he was wounded. Similarly, the bullet hole in his father's hat is also kept there for posterity.[1] Henry Casimir I of Nassau-Dietz 297

References

[1] bullet-hole hat (http:/ / www. rijksmuseum. nl/ aria/ aria_assets/ NG-NM-7445?lang=nl& context_space=aria_themes& context_id=5550) in Rijksmuseum

External links

• Blood-stained shirt (http:/ / www. rijksmuseum. nl/ collectie/ zoeken/ asset. jsp?id=NG-NM-1104& lang=en) in collection Rijksmuseum of Amsterdam

• http:/ / www. iec. nhl. nl/ socvak/ grotekerk/ prinsenstallen/ hencas. htm

• http:/ / www. dodenakkers. nl/ artikelen/ oranje-nassau/ grafkelderleeuwarden. html

Henry Casimir I of Nassau-Dietz House of Nassau Born: 21 January 1612 Died: 13 July 1640

Political offices

Preceded by Stadtholder of Friesland, Groningen and Succeeded by Ernst Casimir I Drenthe Willem Frederik 1632-1640 Regnal titles Preceded by Count of Nassau-Dietz Succeeded by Ernst Casimir I 1632-1640 Willem Frederik

John Maurice, Prince of Nassau-Siegen

John Maurice of Nassau (Dutch: Johan Maurits, German: Johann Moritz, 17 June 1604 – 20 December 1679) was count and (from 1674) prince of Nassau-Siegen, and Grand Master of the Order of Saint John ( of Brandenburg).

Early years in Europe

He was born in Dillenburg. His father was John VII of Nassau; his grandfather John VI of Nassau, the younger brother of Dutch stadtholder William the Silent of Orange. John Maurice joined the Dutch army in 1621, at a very early age. He distinguished himself in the campaigns of his cousin, the stadtholder Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange. In 1626 he became captain. He was involved in 1629 in the capture of Den Bosch. In 1636, he conquered a fortress at Schenkenschans.

John Maurice of Nassau John Maurice, Prince of Nassau-Siegen 298

Dutch governor in Brazil

He was appointed as the governor of the Dutch possessions in Brazil in 1636 by the Dutch West India Company on recommendation of Frederick Henry. He landed at Recife, the port of and the chief stronghold of the Dutch, in January 1637. By a series of successful expeditions, he gradually extended the Dutch possessions from Sergipe on the south to São Luís de Maranhão in the north. With the assistance of the famous architect, Pieter Post of Haarlem, he transformed Recife by building a new town adorned with splendid public edifices and gardens, which was called after his name, Mauritsstad.

Arms of John Maurice of Nassau, imposed upon the cross of the Johanniterorden and encircled by the Danish Order of the Elephant.

By his statesmanlike policy he brought the colony into a most flourishing condition. His leadership in Brazil inspired two Latin epics from 1647: ' Rerum per octennium in Brasilia et alibi nuper gestarum sub praefectura[1] and Franciscus Plante's Mauritias. The painters Albert Eckhout, Frans Post, and Abraham Willaerts served as members of John Maurice's entourage.

He also established representative councils in the colony for local government, and developed Recife's transportation infrastructure. His large schemes and lavish expenditure alarmed the parsimonious directors of the West India Company, and John Maurice, refusing to retain his post unless he were given a free hand, returned to Europe in July 1644. Brazilian depiction of arms of Johan Maurits John Maurice, Prince of Nassau-Siegen 299

Return to Europe

He was shortly afterwards appointed by Frederick Henry to the command of the cavalry in the Dutch army, and he took part in the campaigns of 1645 and 1646. When the war was ended by the Peace of Münster in January 1648, he accepted from the elector of Brandenburg the post of governor of Cleves, Mark and Ravensberg, and later also of Minden. His success in the Rhineland was as great as it had been in Brazil, and he proved himself a most able and wise ruler.

At the end of 1652, John Maurice was appointed head of the Order of Saint John (Bailiwick of Brandenburg) and made a prince of the Empire. In 1664 he came back to Holland; when war broke out with an England supported by the invading bishop of Münster, he was appointed commander-in-chief of the Dutch States Army. Though hampered in his command by the restrictions of the states-general, he repelled the invasion, and the bishop, Christoph Bernhard von Galen, nicknamed "Bommen Berend", was forced to John Maurice of Nassau conclude peace. His campaigning was not yet at an end, for in 1668 he was appointed first Field-Marshal of the States Army and in 1673 he was charged by stadtholder William III to command the forces in Friesland and Groningen, and to defend the eastern frontier of the Provinces, again against Van Galen.

In 1675 his health compelled him to give up active military service, and he spent his last years in his beloved Cleves, where he died in December 1679.

Legacy The residence he built in The Hague is now called the Mauritshuis, and houses the Royal Cabinet of Paintings. It is now a major museum of old Dutch paintings. Brazilian author Paulo Setúbal wrote a historic novel about John Maurice and the Dutch settlement in Brazil, O Príncipe de Nassau ("The Prince of Nassau", translated into Dutch by R. Schreuder and J. Slauerhoff in 1933 as Johan Maurits van Nassau).

Notes

[1] Facsimile of 1647 first edition (http:/ / www. s4ulanguages. com/ 71. html)

References • This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "John Maurice of Nassau". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press

• The Dutch in Brazil (http:/ / www. colonialvoyage. com/ eng/ america/ brazil/ dutch. html)

External links • "Nassau-Siegen, John Maurice, Prince of". Appletons' Cyclopædia of American Biography. 1900 John Maurice, Prince of Nassau-Siegen 300

John Maurice, Prince of Nassau-Siegen Born: 17 June 1604 Died: 20 December 1679 Preceded by Herrenmeister (Grand Master) of Succeeded by Georg von Winterfeld, Landvogt der the Order of Saint John Georg Friedrich, Fürst zu Neumark, Komtur zu Schivelbein 1652–1679 Waldeck, zu Pyrmont

Government offices

Preceded by Governor of Brazilian Captaincy of Succeeded by Sigismund van Schoppe Pernambuco Hendrik Hamel 1637–1644

Georg Friedrich, Prince of Prussia

Prince Georg Friedrich Prince of Prussia

The Prince of Prussia at Komische Oper Berlin in 2007.

Head of the House of Hohenzollern

Period 26 September 1994 – present

Predecessor Prince Louis Ferdinand (I)

Heir apparent Prince Carl Friedrich of Prussia

Spouse Princess Sophie of Isenburg (m. 2011)

Issue

Prince Carl Friedrich Prince Louis Ferdinand

Full name

Georg Friedrich Ferdinand Prinz von Preußen

Father Prince Louis Ferdinand (II)

Mother Countess Donata of Castell-Rüdenhausen

Born 10 June 1976 , West Germany Georg Friedrich, Prince of Prussia 301

Prussian Royal Family

• HI&RH The Prince HI&RH The Princess • HI&RH Prince Carl Friedrich •• HRH Prince Louis Ferdinand •• HRH Princess Cornelie-Cecile

•• HRH Princess Marie Cécile • HRH Prince Christian-Sigismund HRH Princess Christian-Sigismund •• HRH Prince Christian Ludwig •• HRH Princess Irina Maria

Georg Friedrich, Prince of Prussia (Legal name: Georg Friedrich Ferdinand Prinz von Preußen;[1] born 10 June 1976), is the current head of the House of Hohenzollern, the former ruling dynasty of the and of the Kingdom of Prussia. He is the great-great-grandson and historic heir of Wilhelm II, the last and King of Prussia, who was deposed, and initially went into exile upon Germany's defeat in World War I in 1918.

Education and career Georg Friedrich is the only son of Prince Louis Ferdinand of Prussia (1944–1977) and Countess Donata of Castell-Rüdenhausen (born a member of a mediatized princely family, she is now Duchess Donata of Oldenburg by her second marriage to her former sister-in-law's ex-husband, Duke Friedrich August of Oldenburg). Georg Friedrich attended grammar schools in Bremen and Oldenburg and completed his education at Glenalmond College near Perth, Scotland, where he passed his A-levels. Following a two-year stint in the German army, Georg Friedrich studied business economics at the Freiberg University of Mining and Technology. Georg Friedrich currently works for a company specialising in helping universities bring their innovations to market.[2] He also administers the Princess Kira of Prussia-Foundation, founded by his grandmother in 1952. He lives near Bremen and at Hohenzollern Castle.

House of Hohenzollern Georg Friedrich succeeded his grandfather, Prince Louis Ferdinand I of Prussia as Head of the House of Hohenzollern on 26 September 1994. He learned to appreciate the history and responsibility of his heritage during time spent with his paternal grandfather, who often recounted to him anecdotes from the life in exile of his own grandfather, the last Kaiser.[3] When asked about the burden of the Prussian dynasty's house laws, which made Georg Friedrich the ex-Kaiser's heir despite the seniority of two of his late father's living brothers, he commented "Our family has very strict rules about marriage. Only God knows who I shall marry, but I want to be with someone Georg Friedrich, Prince of Prussia 302

who at least understands my responsibilities...So it is likely that this might be a person from the same background as mine." His position as sole heir to the estate of his grandfather was challenged by his uncles, Friedrich Wilhelm and Michael who filed a lawsuit claiming that, despite their renunciations as dynasts at the time of their marriages, the loss of their inheritance rights based on their selection of spouse was discriminatory and unconstitutional.[4] His uncles were initially successful, the Regional Court of Hechingen and the higher Regional Court of ruling in their favour in 1997 on the grounds that the requirement to marry equally was "immoral".[5] However, the Federal Court of Justice of Germany overturned the original rulings in favour of Georg Friedrich's uncles, the case being remanded to the courts at Hechingen and Stuttgart. This time both courts ruled in favour of Georg Friedrich. His uncles then took their case to the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany which overruled the previous court rulings in Georg Friedrich's favour. On 19 October 2005, a German regional court ruled that Georg Friedrich was indeed the principal heir of his grandfather, Louis Ferdinand (who was the primary beneficiary of the trust set up for the estate of Wilhelm II), but also concluded that each of the children of Louis Ferdinand was entitled to a portion of the Prussian inheritance.[6]

Marriage On 21 January 2011, Georg Friedrich announced his engagement to Princess Sophie Johanna Maria of Isenburg (born 7 March 1978), who studied business administration in Freiburg and Berlin and works at a firm that offers consulting services for nonprofit business. The civil wedding took place in Potsdam on 25 August 2011, and the religious wedding took place at the Church of Peace in Potsdam on 27 August 2011, in commemoration of the 950th anniversary of the founding of the House of Hohenzollern.[7][8] The religious wedding was also broadcast live by local public television. The dinner which many members of German and European royal families attended, was held in the Orangery Palace at Sanssouci Park. Princess Sophie's parents are Franz-Alexander, Prince of Isenburg and his wife, née Countess Christine von Saurma-Jeltsch. The couple share descent (being 6th cousins once-removed) from Charles II, the first reigning Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz and a brother of Charlotte of Mecklenburg, queen consort of George III of the United Kingdom. Princess Sophie's father is head of the senior branch of the mediatised princely House of Isenburg, known under the Holy Roman Empire and subsequent German Empire as the Büdingen-Birstein line. In 1913 Franz Alexander's grandfather, Franz Joseph, dropped the und Büdingen zu Birstein suffix from his title as Fürst von Isenburg. The Princess has two brothers, Hereditary Prince Alexander and Prince Viktor, and two older sisters, respectively, Archduchess Katharina (born 1971), wife since 2004 of Archduke Martin of Austria-Este, and Princess Isabelle (born 1973), wife since 1998 of Carl, Prince of Wied.

Issue On 20 January 2013, Georg Friedrich's wife Sophie gave birth to twin sons, Carl Friedrich Franz Alexander and Louis Ferdinand Christian Albrecht, in Bremen. Carl Friedrich, the elder of the two, is the heir apparent.

Titles, styles and honours Georg Friedrich, Prince of Prussia 303

Styles of The Prince of Prussia

Reference style His Imperial and Royal Highness

Spoken style Your Imperial and Royal Highness

Alternative style Sir

Titles and Styles • 10 June 1976 - 26 September 1994: His Royal Highness Prince Georg Friedrich of Prussia • 26 September 1994 – present: His Imperial and Royal Highness The Prince of Prussia[9][10][11][12] • official in Germany: 10 June 1976 – present: Mister Georg Friedrich Prinz von Preußen[13]

Orders • Grand Master of the Order of the Black Eagle • Grand Master of the Royal House Order of Hohenzollern • Grand Master of the Order of Louise

Quotes • "I do not see any reason for the political system in Germany to be changed. And I am very happy — probably happier than many of my forebears."[14] • "I have as head of the House of Hohenzollern no political role — and neither do I aim at such."

References

[1] In 1919 royalty and nobility were mandated to lose their privileges in Germany, hereditary titles were to be legally borne thereafter only as

part of the surname, according to Article 109 (http:/ / www. zum. de/ psm/ weimar/ weimar_vve. php#First_Chapter_:_The_Individual) of the

Weimar Constitution. Styles such as majesty and highness were not retained. (http:/ / www. bmi. bund. de/ cae/ servlet/ contentblob/ 150142/

publicationFile/ 35310/ Anschriften. pdf)

[2] Heir to Prussian throne to get televised wedding (http:/ / www. expatica. com/ de/ news/ german-news/

heir-to-prussian-throne-to-get-televised-wedding_171572. html) [3] Majesty. Interview, March 2009.

[4] The Hohenzollern Succession Dispute (http:/ / www. heraldica. org/ topics/ royalty/ hohenzollern_case. htm)

[5] Andrew Gimson, "Kaiser's rule on marriage still applies to heirs" (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ htmlContent. jhtml?html=/ archive/ 1998/

12/ 18/ wkai18. html), The Telegraph (18 December 1998).

[6] Royal news: October 2005 (http:/ / www. nettyroyal. nl/ newsoct05. html)

[7] Verlobung im Haus Hohenzollern (http:/ / www. preussen. de/ de/ heute/ aktuell/ verlobung_im_haus_hohenzollern. html)

[8] Prinz von Preußen heiratet in Potsdam (http:/ / www. charivari. de/ nachrichten/ prinz-von-preussen-heiratet-in-potsdam,4d6b86c0978ca. php) [9] de Badts de Cugnac, Chantal. Coutant de Saisseval, Guy. Le Petit Gotha. Nouvelle Imprimerie Laballery, Paris 2002, pp. 109–110 (French) ISBN 2-9507974-3-1 [10] Willis, Daniel A., The Descendants of King George I of Great Britain, Clearfield Company, 2002, p. 689 [11][11]Eilers, Marlene. Queen Victoria's Descendants. Rosvall Royal Books, Falkoping, Sweden, 1997. pp. 123, 172. ISBN 91-630-5964-9 [12] Genealogisches Handbuch des Adels, Fürstliche Häuser XIV. "Haus Preussen". C.A. Starke Verlag, 1997, p. 146.

[13] Official guidebook of the Federal Ministry of the Interior, chapter 3 (http:/ / www. bmi. bund. de/ cae/ servlet/ contentblob/ 150142/

publicationFile/ 35310/ Anschriften. pdf)

[14] Hannah Cleaver, "I don't envy Royal Family, says heir to German throne" (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ news/ worldnews/ europe/

germany/ 1366336/ I-dont-envy-Royal-Family-says-heir-to-German-throne. html), The Telegraph (30 January 2013). Georg Friedrich, Prince of Prussia 304

External links Media related to Georg Friedrich, Prince of Prussia at Wikimedia Commons

• Official (English-language) website of the House of Hohenzollern (http:/ / www. preussen. de/ en/ heute. html)

• Biography at preussen.de (http:/ / www. preussen. de/ en/ family/ george_frederick_the_prince_of_prussia. html)

• " No Titles, No Subjects, No Problem: Germans Join Royal Wedding Craze (http:/ / online. wsj. com/ article/

SB10001424053111904787404576530392758604496. html?mod=googlenews_wsj)", Wall Street Journal, 26 Aug 2011

• Wedding video (http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=Y_QE1ZRQzoo)

Prince Georg Friedrich of Prussia House of Hohenzollern Born: 10 June 1976

Titles in pretence

Preceded by — TITULAR — Incumbent Prince Louis Ferdinand Sr. German Emperor Heir: King of Prussia Prince Carl Friedrich 26 September 1994 – present Reason for succession failure: Empire and Kingdom abolished in 1918 Princess Augusta of Great Britain 305 Princess Augusta of Great Britain

Augusta of Great Britain

Duchess consort of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel

[1] Tenure 26 March 1780 – 10 November 1806

Spouse Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick

More

Issue

Augusta, Hereditary Princess of Württemberg Caroline, Queen of the United Kingdom Frederick William, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel

Full name

Augusta Frederica

House House of Hanover House of Brunswick-Bevern

Father Frederick, Prince of Wales

Mother Princess Augusta of Saxe-Gotha

Born 31 July 1737 St James's Palace, London

Died 23 March 1813 (aged 75) Hanover Square, London

Burial 31 March 1813 St George's Chapel, Windsor Princess Augusta of Great Britain 306

Princess Augusta Frederica of Great Britain (31 July 1737 – 23 March 1813) was a granddaughter of George II and only elder of George III. She later married into the ducal house of Brunswick, of which she was already a member. Her daughter Caroline was the wife of George IV.

Early life

Princess Augusta Frederica was born at St. James's Palace, London. Her father was Frederick, Prince of Wales, the eldest son of King George II and Queen Caroline of Ansbach and her mother was the Princess of Wales, Augusta of Saxe-Gotha. Fifty days later, she was christened at St. James's Palace by the Archbishop of Canterbury. Her godparents were her paternal grandfather, the King (represented by his Lord Chamberlain, the Duke of Grafton), and her grandmothers, Queen Caroline and the Dowager Duchess of Saxe-Gotha (both represented by proxies).[2] Her third birthday was celebrated by the first public performance of Rule, Britannia! at in Buckinghamshire.

She was born second in the line of succession. Augusta was given Augusta by Angelica Kauffman, 1767; Royal a careful education and the negotiations about her marriage began Collection, London in 1761.

Life in Brunswick

On 16 January 1764, Augusta married Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick, at the Chapel Royal of St James's Palace. Augusta regarded the residence in Brunswick as too simple. She returned to Great Britain in 1764 to give birth to her first child and took a long time to return to Brunswick after the birth. A new palace was built for her in Zuckerberg south of Brunswick to answer more to her taste, constructed by Carl Christoph Wilhelm Fleischer, and called Richmond, to remind her of England. When the palace was finished in 1768, Augusta moved there permanently. The marriage was purely an arranged political marriage and Augusta and Charles regarded each other with mutual indifference. Augusta was indifferent to Charles's affairs with Maria Antonia Branconi and Louise Hertefeld. Her indifference was sometimes seen as arrogance, and it gave rise to rumours and slander. Augusta's popularity was severely damaged by the fact that her eldest sons were born with handicaps. Augusta rarely appeared at the court of Braunschweig because of the dominance of her mother-in-law. When Charles became regent in 1773, her mother-in-law left the court and Augusta filled the position of first lady in the court ceremonies of Brunswick, although she often took short holidays to her personal palace Richmond. In 1780, Charles, already regent for his father, became sovereign duke, and Augusta became duchess consort. The Swedish Princess Hedwig Elizabeth Charlotte described her, as well as her family, at the time of her visit in August, 1799: Our cousin the Duke arrived immediately the next morning. He has won many victorys as a notable military man, are witty, litteral and a pleasant aquaitance but ceremonial beyond description. He is said to be quite strict, but a good father of the nation who attends to the needs of his people. After he left us, I visited the Dowager Duchess, the aunt of my consort. She is an agreable, highly educated and well Princess Augusta of Great Britain 307

respected lady, but now so old that she has almost lost her memory. From her I continued to the Duchess, sister to the King of England and a typical English woman. She looked very simple, like a vicar's wife, has I am sure many admirable qualities and are very respectable, but completely lacks manners. She makes the stranges questions without considering how difficult and unpleasant they can be. Both the hereditary princess as well as princess Augusta - sister of the sovereign Duke - came to her while I was there. The former are delightful, mild, loveable, witty and clever, not a beauty but still very pretty. In addition, she is said to be admirably kind to her boring consort. The princess Augusta are full of wit and energy and very amusing. (....) The Duchess and the Princesses followed me to Richmond, the country villa of the Duchess a bit outside of the town. It was small and pretty with a beautiful little park, all after an English pattern. As she had the residence constructed herself, it amuses her to show it to others. (....)The sons of the Ducal couple are somewhat peculiar. The hereditary prince, chubby and fat, almost blind, strange and odd - if not to say an imbecill - attempts to imitate his father but only makes himself artificial and unpleasant. He talks contiunously, does not know what he says and is in all aspects unbearable. He is accommodating but a poor thing, loves his consort to the point of worship and is completely governed by her. The other son, Prince Georg, is the most ridiculous person imaginable, and so silly that he can never be left alone but is always accompanied by a courtier. The third son is also described as an original. I never saw him, as he served with his regiment. The fourth is the only normal one, but also torments his parents by his imoral behaviour.

Later life In 1806, when Prussia declared war on France, the Duke of Brunswick, 71 at the time, was appointed commander-in-chief of the Prussian army. On 14 October of that year, at the Battle of Jena, Napoleon defeated the Prussian army, and, on the same day, at the battle of Auerstadt, the Duke of Brunswick was seriously wounded, dying a few days later. The Duchess of Brunswick, with two of her sons, and a widowed daughter-in-law, fled her ruined palace for Altona, were she was present with her daughter-in-law Marie of Baden at her dying husband's side. Her other daughter-in-law, Louise of Orange-Nassau, left for Switzerland with her mother. Due to the advancing French army, Augusta and Marie were advised by the British ambassador to flee, and they left shortly before her husband's death. They were invited to Sweden by Marie's brother-in-law King Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden. Marie accepted to offer and left for Sweden, but Augusta left for Augustenborg, a small town east of . The Duchess of Brunswick remained here, with her niece, Princess Louise Augusta, daughter of her sister Queen Caroline Mathilde of Denmark, until her brother, George III finally relented, in September 1807, and allowed her to move to London. She moved to Montague House, Blackheath, in Greenwich, with her daughter, the Princess of Wales, but soon fell out with her daughter, and purchased the house next door, Brunswick House, as she renamed it. The Duchess of Brunswick lived out her days in Blackheath and died, in 1813, aged 75. Princess Augusta of Great Britain 308

Titles, styles, honour and arms

Titles and styles • 31 August 1737 – 16 January 1764: Her Royal Highness Princess Augusta[3] • 16 January 1764 – 26 March 1780: Her Royal Highness The Hereditary Duchess of Brunswick-Lüneburg • 26 March 1780 – 10 November 1806: Her Royal Highness The Duchess of Brunswick-Lüneburg • 10 November 1806 – 23 March 1813: Her Royal Highness The Dowager Duchess of Brunswick-Lüneburg

Arms Augusta was granted use of the arms of the kingdom, differenced by a label argent of five points, the centre bearing a cross gules, the other points each bearing a rose gules.[4]

Issue Together the couple had 7 children:

Name Birth Death Notes

Auguste Caroline Friederike 3 December 1764 27 September married 1780, Friedrich III, Duke of Württemberg; had issue Luise 1788

Karl Georg August 8 February 1766 20 September married 1790, Frederika Luise Wilhelmine, Princess of Orange-Nassau; 1806 no issue

Caroline Amalie Elisabeth 17 May 1768 7 August 1821 married 1795, George IV of the United Kingdom; had issue

Georg Wilhelm Christian 27 June 1769 16 September Declared an invalid; Excluded from line of succession 1811

August 18 August 1770 18 December Declared an invalid; Excluded from line of succession 1822

Friedrich Wilhelm 9 October 1771 16 June 1815 married 1802, Marie Elisabeth Wilhelmine, Princess of Baden; had issue

Amelie Karoline Dorothea 22 November 2 April 1773 Luise 1772

Sources • Beckett, William A.: Universal Biography. London: Isaac, 1836. • Kwan, Elisabeth E.; Röhrig, Anna E.: Frauen vom Hof der Welfen. Göttingen: MatrixMedia 2006, ISBN 3-932313-17-8, p. 115−126. This article incorporates information from the equivalent article on the German Wikipedia.

References

[1] The Peerage – Charles I, Duke of Brunswick (http:/ / www. thepeerage. com/ p10846. htm#i108452)

[2] Yvonne's Royalty Home Page: Royal Christenings (http:/ / users. uniserve. com/ ~canyon/ christenings. htm#Christenings)

[3] The London Gazette (http:/ / www. londongazette. co. uk/ ViewPDF. aspx?pdf=10384), 17 January 1764

[4] Marks of Cadency in the British Royal Family (http:/ / www. heraldica. org/ topics/ britain/ cadency. htm)

German nobility Preceded by Duchess consort of Vacant Philippine Charlotte of Prussia Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel Title next held by 1780–1806 Marie of Baden Prince Frederick of Orange-Nassau 309 Prince Frederick of Orange-Nassau

Frederick Prince of Orange-Nassau

Anonymous portrait of Prince Frderick, ca. 1790.

Full name

Willem George Frederik van Oranje-Nassau

House House of Orange-Nassau

Father William V, Prince of Orange

Mother Princess Wilhelmina of Prussia

Born 15 February 1774 The Hague, Dutch Republic

Died 6 January 1799 (aged 24) Padua, Veneto, Italy

Burial Nieuwe Kerk, Delft (originally Padua, Italy)

Frederick, Prince of Orange-Nassau (English: William George Frederick, Dutch: Willem George Frederik; 15 February 1774 – 6 January 1799) was the youngest son of William V, Prince of Orange and Stadtholder of the Dutch Republic and Princess Wilhelmina of Prussia, sister of King Frederick William II. Commonly called Fritz inside the family, he chose a military career with the Holy Roman Empire, he died of a fever while serving in Padua, Italy.

Early life

Family

Prince Frederick, or "Fritz", as members of his family called him, was born in The Hague during the Dutch Republic period. His parents, William V and Princess Wilhelmina, already had two children: Frederica Louise Wilhelmina (1770–1819) and Willem Frederik (1772–1843); Louise would later marry the Hereditary Prince of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel and Willem would become the first Dutch King. Frederick was related to the British royal family through both his father, who was the grandson of George II of Great Britain, and through his mother, who was the grandniece of George II.

Education and military beginnings

Even as a young boy, he was bright and showed much promise in the military field; General Prince Frederick Stamford, mathematician Leonhard Euler and historian Herman Tollius were among his tutors. A portrait of Dutch princely family painted by After military training in Brunswick, where his cousin once removed Pieter le Sage in 1779. Frederick is on the left, embracing his mother. was reigning duke, Prince Frederick began active military service in Prince Frederick of Orange-Nassau 310

1792 when the States-General granted him the rank of lieutenant-general of the cavalry and grand master of artillery. In 1793, he was called to war when the Republic had to be defended against the French. He was an inspiring leader and was usually in the forefront. Prince Frederick took upon himself the defense of the northwestern part of Brabant. Later, he served under his older brother at Veurne (Furnes) and Menin (Menen). While fighting in the latter battle at Flemish Wervik, on 12/13 September 1793, Frederick suffered an injury when he was shot in the shoulder; this was an injury he never fully recovered from. In 1794, he was appointed general of the cavalry.

Life in exile

In 1795 the prince wanted to withdraw troops from Friesland, where they were fighting the French and Dutch patriots; his father did not give permission. In January 1795, the Batavian Republic, where the stadtholder and his family were no longer welcome, was established. Thus, William V took his entire family and fled to Great Britain, where George III, William's first cousin, was king. On July 22, 1795 Prince Frederik and his aide de camp, Perponcher, went to Osnabrück, where An anonymous portrait of Frederick (standing) and his elder brother Willem (sitting), painted the so-called rassemblement occurred. He gathered Dutch officers and about 1790. troops for a raid in the Batavian Republic. Back in England, Frederick fell in love with Princess Mary (1776–1857), the fourth daughter of King George III, and she with him. George, however not opposing the marriage, felt that the marriages of his three elder daughters, Charlotte (1766–1828), Augusta Sophia (1768–1840) and Elizabeth (1770–1840), had to be tended to first. Eventually, after Frederick's death, Mary married her first cousin, the Duke of Gloucester and Edinburgh. Prince Frederick of Orange-Nassau 311

Austrian military service

Prince Frederick went via England to Vienna, where he was given, in May 1796, the rank of Major General. He commanded a brigade in the corps of Von Wartensleben, in the army of Archduke Charles. Later, commanded by Kray, he defended southern Germany and Nassau. Prince Frederick participated in several battles in Germany and played a role in the conquest of Kehl in January 1797. As Archduke Charles was growing more and more pleased with Frederick, the latter was asked to go to Italy. There he became the commander of four German battalions. He managed on 2 April 1797 to stop the vanguard of Napoleon at Einöd, which resulted in the . Due to his performance in Einöd he received the Military Order of Maria Theresa. Because he still suffered from his wounded shoulder, he underwent surgery at Görz in the summer of 1797 and recovered in Baden. On 29 October 1797, he was appointed lieutenant field marshal. After spending the winter of 1797-1798 at Hampton Court, he returned to Vienna at the end of April 1798. Then followed a five-week tour of inspection along the Italian border. Prince Frederick was still not fully Frederick's tomb in Nieuwe Kerk. recovered and collapsed at Gorizia. On 14 November 1798 he was appointed commander of the Austrian army in Italy, with the title of "kaiserliche und königliche Feldzeugmeister", as he prepared the army for battle against the French army under Scherer.

He visited many sick soldiers while in Padua. It is possible that, as a result of these visits, he contracted a malignant fever. On the night of 5-6 January 1799, Prince Frederick died in the arms of his aide, Perponcher. Originally, he was buried in the cloister of the Hermits of Padua. In 1807, his family ordered a marble monument by . In 1896, Queen Emma ordered Frederick to be moved to Nieuwe Kerk, the family burial site in Delft. She boarded a vessel to Padua, but was unable to find the prince's remains. The body was finally found on 3 July 1896 and was buried in Nieuwe Kerk on 7 August 1896. The monument was rebuilt in the church behind the tomb of Frederick's brother Willem.

References This article incorporates information from the Dutch Wikipedia. Frederick William, Prince of Nassau-Weilburg 312 Frederick William, Prince of Nassau-Weilburg

Frederick William, Prince of Nassau-Weilburg

Frederick William, Prince of Nassau-Weilburg

Spouse(s) Burgravine Louise Isabelle of Kirchberg

Noble family House of Nassau

Father Karl Christian of Nassau-Weilburg

Mother Princess Wilhelmine Carolina of Orange-Nassau

Born 25 October 1768 The Hague

Died 9 January 1816 (aged 47) Weilburg

Frederick William, Prince of Nassau-Weilburg (Friedrich Wilhelm; 25 October 1768, The Hague – 9 January 1816, Weilburg) was a ruler of Nassau-Weilburg. In 1806 he was given the title of Prince of Nassau, while his cousin, Prince Frederick Augustus of Nassau-Usingen, became the Duke of Nassau. Frederick William died in January 1816, only two months before his cousin. Both men were succeeded by Frederick William's son, William.

Family Frederick William was the eldest surviving son of Karl Christian of Nassau-Weilburg and Princess Wilhelmine Carolina of Orange-Nassau. Wilhelmine Carolina was a daughter of William IV, Prince of Orange and Anne, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange. Anne was in turn the eldest daughter of George II of Great Britain and Caroline of Ansbach.

Marriage and children On 31 July 1788 in , Frederick William married Burgravine Louise Isabelle of Kirchberg (Hachenburg, 19 April 1772 - Vienna, 6 January 1827). The groom was almost twenty years old and the bride only sixteen. At the time he was still the heir to the principality. His father died on 28 November of the same year and Frederick William succeeded him. Frederick William and Louise Isabelle had four children: • William, Duke of Nassau (14 June 1792 - 20 August/30 August 1839). Frederick William, Prince of Nassau-Weilburg 313

• Auguste Luise Wilhelmine of Nassau-Weilburg (Weilburg, 5 January 1794 - Weilburg, 11 April 1796). • Henrietta of Nassau (30 October 1797 - 29 December 1829). Married Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen • Friedrich Wilhelm of Nassau-Weilburg, then of Nassau (Bayreuth, 15 December 1799 - Vienna, 6 January 1845). He married on 7 June 1840 Anna Ritter, Edle von Vallyemare (Vienna, 21 June 1802 - Paris, 19 July 1864), created Gräfin von Tiefenbach in 1840, widow of Johann Baptist Brunold. Their only daughter was: • Wilhelmine Brunold (Altzgersdorf, 5 July 1834 - Geneva, 12 December 1892), created in 1844 Gräfin von Tiefenbach, married in Paris on 30 October 1856 and divorced in 1872 Émile de Girardin (Émile Delamothe) (- Paris, 27 April 1881).

Ancestry

John Ernst, Prince Nassau-Weilburg

Charles August, Prince of Nassau-Weilburg

Maria Polyxena of Leiningen-Hartenburg

Karl Christian, Prince of Nassau-Weilburg

George August, Count of Nassau-Idstein

Princess Auguste Friederike of Nassau-Idstein

Henriette Dorothea of Öttingen-Öttingen

Frederick William, Prince of Nassau-Weilburg

John William Friso, Prince of Orange

William IV, Prince of Orange

Marie Louise of Hesse-Kassel

Carolina of Orange-Nassau

George II of Great Britain

Anne, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange

Caroline of Brandenburg-Ansbach Frederick William, Prince of Nassau-Weilburg 314

Frederick William, Prince of Nassau-Weilburg House of Nassau-Weilburg Cadet branch of the House of Nassau Born: 25 October 1768 Died: 9 January 1816 Regnal titles Preceded by Prince of Succeeded by Karl Christian Nassau-Weilburg Wilhelm 1788 - 1816

External links • Marek, Miroslav. "A listing of descendants of the House of Nassau-Weilburg" [1]. Genealogy.EU [2].

References

[1] http:/ / genealogy. euweb. cz/ nassau/ nassau6. html#HAF

[2] http:/ / genealogy. euweb. cz William, Duke of Nassau 315 William, Duke of Nassau

William

William, Duke of Nassau

Duke of Nassau

Reign 24 March 1816 – 20 August 1839

Predecessor Frederick Augustus

Successor Adolphe

Prince of Nassau-Weilburg

Reign 9 January 1816 – 24 March 1816

Predecessor Frederick William

Successor None. Incorporated into the Duchy of Nassau

Spouse Princess Louise of Saxe-Hildburghausen Princess Pauline of Württemberg

Issue

Princess Auguste Therese, Duchess Peter of Oldenburg Adolphe, Grand Duke of Luxembourg Prince Wilhelm Karl Heinrich Prince Moritz Princess Marie Wilhelmine Luise Prince Wilhelm Karl August Marie, Princess of Wied Helena, Princess of Waldeck and Pyrmont Prince Nikolaus Wilhelm Sophia, Queen of Sweden and Norway

Full name

Georg Wilhelm August Heinrich Belgicus

House House of Nassau-Weilburg

Father Frederick William, Prince of Nassau-Weilburg

Mother Burgravine Louise Isabelle of Kirchberg

Born June 14, 1792 Kirchheimbolanden, Principality of Nassau-Weilburg

Died August 20, 1839 (aged 47) Kissingen,

[1] Burial Schlosskirche, Weilburg

Religion Calvinism

Wilhelm, Duke of Nassau, Prince of Nassau-Weilburg (Given names: Georg Wilhelm August Heinrich Belgicus zu Nassau-Weilburg/zu Nassau) (14 June 1792, Kirchheimbolanden – 20 August/30 August 1839, Bad Kissingen) was the father of Adolphe, Grand Duke of Luxembourg and Queen Sophia (consort of King of Oscar II of Sweden). William, Duke of Nassau 316

Biography Wilhelm was the eldest son of Frederick William, Duke of Nassau and his wife Burgravine Louise Isabelle of Kirchberg.

Duke of Nassau On 9 January 1816, he succeeded his father, Duke Frederick William, as the Prince of Nassau-Weilburg and joint Duke of Nassau with his cousin, Frederick Augustus, of the Nassau-Usingen branch of his family. When his cousin and co-Duke died on 24 March 1816, Wilhelm inherited the Usingen territories and became sole ruler of the Duchy of Nassau. He kept the title of Duke of Nassau for the rest of his reign.

Marriages and children On 24 June 1813 in Weilburg, Wilhelm married his first wife, Princess Louise of Saxe-Hildburghausen (28 January 1794 Hildburghausen, Thüringen - 6 April 1825, Biebrich or Weilburg). She was a daughter of Frederick, Duke of Saxe-Altenburg (who, until 1826, had been the last Duke of Saxe-Hildburghausen) and his wife, Duchess Charlotte Georgine of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. They had eight children: •• Princess Auguste Luise Friederike Maximiliane Wilhelmine of Nassau-Weilburg (Weilburg, 12 April 1814 - Weilburg, 3 October 1814). • Princess Therese Wilhelmine Friederike Isabelle Charlotte of Nassau-Weilburg (Weilburg, 17 April 1815 - Prague, 8 December 1871); married in Biebrich on 23 April 1837 Duke Peter of Oldenburg. Their grandson was the Tsarist General Grand Duke Nicholas Nikolaevich of Russia the Younger. • Adolphe, Grand Duke of Luxembourg (24 July 1817 - 17 November 1905); the present Grand Ducal Family of Luxembourg, which became extinct in the male line in 1912, descends from him. •• Prince Wilhelm Karl Heinrich Friedrich of Nassau-Weilburg (Biebrich, 8 September 1819 - Biebrich, 22 April 1823). • Prince Moritz Wilhelm August Karl Heinrich of Nassau-Weilburg (Biebrich, 21 November 1820 - Vienna, 23 March 1850), unmarried and without issue. •• Princess Marie Wilhelmine Luise Friederike Henriette of Nassau-Weilburg (Biebrich, 5 April 1822 - Biebrich, 3 April 1824). •• Prince Wilhelm Karl August Friedrich of Nassau-Weilburg (Biebrich, 12 August 1823 - Biebrich, 28 December 1828). • Princess Marie Wilhelmine Friederike Elisabeth of Nassau-Weilburg (Biebrich, 29 January 1825 - Neuwied, 24 March 1902), married in Biebrich on 20 June 1842 Hermann, Prince of Wied (Neuwied, 22 May 1814 - Neuwied, 5 March 1864).[2] Their daughter Elisabeth married King Carol I of Romania. Wilhelm married, as his second wife, his first wife's niece, Princess Pauline of Württemberg (Stuttgart, 25 February 1810 - Wiesbaden, 7 July 1856) on 23 April 1829 in Stuttgart. Pauline was a daughter of Prince Paul of Württemberg and his wife Charlotte of Saxe-Hildburghausen. Wilhelm and Pauline had four children: •• An unnamed daughter (Biebrich, 27 April 1830 - Biebrich, 28 April 1830). • Helene Wilhelmine Henriette Pauline Marianne of Nassau (Wiesbaden, 12 April 1831 - Bad Pyrmont, 27 October 1888), married in Wiesbaden on 26 September 1853 George Victor, Prince of Waldeck and Pyrmont and had issue • Nikolaus Wilhelm of Nassau (20 September 1832 - 17 September 1905). Married, morganatically, Natalia Alexandrovna Pushkina, Countess of Merenberg. She was a daughter of and his wife Natalya Goncharova. They had issue, now extinct in male line. William, Duke of Nassau 317

• Sophia Wilhelmine Marianne Henriette of Nassau (9 July 1836 - 30 December 1913). Married King Oscar II of Sweden. The present Belgian, Danish, Norwegian and Swedish royal families and the Luxembourg grand ducal family descend from this marriage.

Titles and styles • 14 June 1792 – 9 January 1816: His Serene Highness The Hereditary Prince of Nassau-Weilburg • 9 January 1816 – 24 March 1816: His Serene Highness The Prince of Nassau-Weilburg (German: Fürst von Nassau-Weilburg) • 24 March 1816 – 20 August 1839: His Highness The Duke of Nassau

References

[1] Find a Grave (http:/ / www. findagrave. com/ cgi-bin/ fg. cgi?page=gr& GRid=35532636)

[2] http:/ / www. angelfire. com/ realm/ gotha/ gotha/ wied. html Princely House of Wied

External links

• Marek, Miroslav. "A listing of descendants of the House of Nassau-Weilburg" (http:/ / genealogy. euweb. cz/

nassau/ nassau6. html#HAF). Genealogy.EU (http:/ / genealogy. euweb. cz).

• Marek, Miroslav. "A listing of descendants of the House of Nassau-Weilburg" (http:/ / genealogy. euweb. cz/

nassau/ nassau6. html#HAF). Genealogy.EU (http:/ / genealogy. euweb. cz).WP:V#SELFWP:NOTRS

William, Duke of Nassau House of Nassau-Weilburg Cadet branch of the House of Nassau Born: June 14 1792 Died: August 20 1839 Regnal titles Preceded by Prince of Succeeded by Frederick William Nassau-Weilburg None 1816 Incorporated into the Duchy of Nassau Preceded by Duke of Nassau Succeeded by Frederick Augustus 1816–1839 Adolf Adolphe, Grand Duke of Luxembourg 318 Adolphe, Grand Duke of Luxembourg

Adolphe

photograph by Ludwig Angerer

Duke of Nassau

Reign 1839–1866

Predecessor William

Successor none (Duchy annexed by Prussia)

Grand Duke of Luxembourg

Reign 1890–1905

Predecessor William III

Successor William IV

Spouse Grand Duchess Elizabeth Mikhailovna of Russia Princess Adelheid-Marie of Anhalt-Dessau

Issue

William IV, Grand Duke of Luxembourg Hilda, Grand Duchess of Baden

Father Wilhelm, Duke of Nassau

Mother Princess Louise of Saxe-Hildburghausen

Born 24 July 1817 Biebrich Palace

Died 17 November 1905 (aged 88) Hohenburg Castle

Burial Schlosskirche (“Castle Church”) in Weilburg since 1953

Religion Calvinism

Adolphe, Grand Duke of Luxembourg (Adolf Wilhelm August Karl Friedrich) (24 July 1817 – 17 November 1905) was the first monarch of Luxembourg from the House of Nassau-Weilburg.

Biography He was a son of William, Duke of Nassau (1792–1839) and his first wife Princess Louise of Saxe-Hildburghausen. Adolphe's half-sister, Sophia of Nassau, was the wife of Oscar II of Sweden.

Duke of Nassau Adolph became Duke of Nassau in August 1839, after the death of his father. Wiesbaden had by this time become the capital of the Duchy and Adolph took up residence in the newly constructed Stadtschloss in 1841. On 4 March 1848 he consented to the population of Nassau's 9 "Demands of the Nassauers". A few years later, however, he revoked his liberal views and took a strongly conservative and reactionary course. In general, though, he was seen as a popular ruler. He supported the in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866. After Austria's defeat, Nassau was annexed to the Kingdom of Prussia and he lost his throne on 20 September 1866. Adolphe, Grand Duke of Luxembourg 319

Grand Duke of Luxembourg In 1879, Adolphe's niece Emma of Waldeck and Pyrmont, the daughter of another of his half-sisters, married William III, King of the Netherlands and Grand Duke of Luxembourg. In 1890, their only daughter Wilhelmina succeeded on his death without surviving male issue to the Dutch throne, but was excluded from the succession to Luxembourg by the Salic Law. The Grand Duchy, which had been linked to the Netherlands in since 1815, passed to Adolphe in accordance with the Nassau Family Pact. Adolphe was King-Grand Duke William III's 17th cousin once removed (through male line), which is the greatest distance among two consecutive rulers in history. He had, in fact, taken over the Regency of Luxembourg for a short time during William III's illness. In any case, as he was already 73 years old and knew little of Luxembourgish politics, he left his hands off the day-to-day governing. The prime minister Paul Eyschen, in office since 1888, took care of the affairs of state, and this created a tradition that the ruler would remain absent from the politics of the day. In Adolphe appointed his son William as Lieutenant-Representative. In 1905 he died at Hohenburg and in 1953 was buried in the crypt of the Weilburg castle chapel.

Marriage and family On 31 January 1844, Adolphe married firstly in St. Petersburg Grand Duchess Elizabeth Mikhailovna of Russia, niece of Emperor . She died less than a year afterwards giving birth to a stillborn daughter. Adolphe built the of Saint Elizabeth 1847 to 1855 as her funeral church. On 23 April 1851, he remarried in Dessau Princess Adelheid-Marie of Anhalt-Dessau. They had five children, of whom only two lived to the age of eighteen and became prince and princess of Luxembourg: • William IV, Grand Duke of Luxembourg (1852–1912) • Prince Friedrich Paul Wilhelm of Nassau (Biebrich, 23 September 1854 – Biebrich, 23 October 1855) • Princess Marie Bathildis of Nassau (Biebrich, 14 November 1857 – Biebrich, 28 December 1857) • Prince Franz Joseph Wilhelm of Nassau (Biebrich, 30 January 1859 – Vienna, 2 April 1875) • Princess Hilda Charlotte Wilhelmine (1864–1952), married Friedrich II, Grand Duke of Baden. In 1892, Grand Duke Adolphe conferred the hereditary title Count of Wisborg on his Swedish nephew, Oscar, who had lost his Swedish titles after marrying without his father's approval. Wisborg (also spelled ) was the old castle in the city of Visby within Prince Oscar's lost Dukedom of , but the title itself was created in the nobility of Luxembourg.

Adelsverein On April 20, 1842, the Adelsverein, Society for the Protection of German Immigrants in Texas, was organized in the Grand Duke's castle at Biebrich on the Rhine. He was named the Protector of the organization. The Verein was responsible for the large emigration of Germans to Texas in the 19th Century, and on January 9, 1843, established the 4,428 acre Nassau Plantation in Fayette County, Texas and named it after the Grand Duke.

Titles and styles • 24 July 1817 – 20 August 1839: His Highness The Hereditary Duke of Nassau[1] • 20 August 1839 – 20 September 1866: His Highness The Duke of Nassau • 20 September 1866 – 23 November 1890: His Highness Adolphe, Duke of Nassau • 23 November 1890 – 17 November 1905: His Royal Highness The Grand Duke of Luxembourg, Duke of Nassau[2] Adolphe, Grand Duke of Luxembourg 320

References

[1] It was customary for a reigning Duke, his heir apparent, and their to use the style of Highness. [2] It was customary for a reigning Grand Duke, his heir apparent, and their spouses to use the style of Royal Highness

External links

• Grand-Ducal House of Luxembourg (http:/ / www. monarchie. lu/ fr/ histoire/ souverains/ adolphe/ index. html)

Adolphe, Grand Duke of Luxembourg House of Nassau-Weilburg Cadet branch of the House of Nassau Born: 24 July 1817 Died: 17 November 1905 Regnal titles Preceded by Duke of Nassau Annexation by Prussia William 1839–1866 Preceded by Grand Duke of Succeeded by William III Luxembourg William IV 1890–1905

Grand Ducal Family of Luxembourg

Luxembourg

This article is part of a series on the politics and government of Luxembourg

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The Grand Ducal Family of Luxembourg constitutes the House of Luxembourg-Nassau, headed by the sovereign Grand Duke, and in which the throne of the grand duchy is hereditary. It consists of heirs and descendants of the House of Nassau-Weilburg, whose sovereign territorities passed cognatically from the Nassau dynasty to a cadet branch of the -Parma, itself a branch of the Spanish Royal House which is agnatically a cadet branch of the that originated in France. Grand Ducal Family of Luxembourg 321

History In 1443 the Duchy of Luxembourg was sold by the last member of the senior branch of its dynasty, Duchess Elisabeth, to Duke Philip the Good of Burgundy, a prince of the French . In 1477 the duchy passed by marriage of Philip's granddaughter, , to Archduke Maximilian I of Austria of the House of Habsburg. Luxembourg was one of the fiefdoms in the former which were combined into an integral union, the Seventeen Provinces, by Maximilian and Mary's grandson, Emperor Charles V by issuance of the Pragmatic Sanction of 1549. They remained part of the Habsburg Empire, first held by the Spanish branch and then by the Austrian line, until 1794 when French revolutionaries replaced Habsburg rule with French hegemony until the defeat of Napoleon. Luxembourg's territories, centering on the ancestral castle, were taken from occupying French forces in the first stages of the fall of Napoleon. Some were eventually ceded to William VI of Nassau, Prince of Orange, who had been declared Sovereign Prince of the Netherlands in 1813, by his cousin King Frederick William III of Prussia who annexed other territories which had been held by princes of the various branches of the House of Nassau. The Great Powers agreed at the Congress of Vienna in 1815 to re-constitute and elevate Luxembourg into a grand duchy, to be hereditary in the male line of the entire House of Nassau, beginning with the Prince of Orange, who was simultaneously but separately recognised as King of the Netherlands. Thus William I of the Netherlands ascended the grand ducal throne as its first ruler. When the male line of the House of Orange-Nassau became extinct in 1890, the crown of the Netherlands went to his descendant, Wilhelmina of Orange-Nassau, but the crown of Luxembourg continued in the male-line, devolving upon the head of the only surviving branch of the Nassaus, ex-Duke Adolf of Nassau-Weilburg. His son, Guillaume IV, left no sons and was succeeded by his daughters, Marie-Adélaïde and then Charlotte, whose descendants are the current members of the Grand Ducal House.

Titulature The monarch bears the style of Royal Highness (subsumed in the higher style of Majesty that was borne by its sovereigns during the personal union of the grandduchy with the Kingdom of the Netherlands until 1890), to which the heir apparent is also entitled.[1] The other male-line descendants of Grand Duke Adolphe held the titles "Prince/Princess of Luxembourg" and "Prince/Princess of Nassau", with the style of Grand Ducal Highness. Until 1995, the daughters and male-line issue of Grand Duchess Charlotte also bore the title of "Prince/Princess of Bourbon-Parma" and were addressed as Royal Highness, in right of their descent from her consort, Prince Felix of Bourbon-Parma. On 28 July 1987, by grand ducal decree, members of the dynasty assumed the surname "de Nassau" and discontinued use of the princely title and inescutcheon of the House of Bourbon-Parma (the Dukes of which had not consented to the marriages to commoners of the dynasts of their Luxembourg cadet branch, Prince Charles in 1967 and Hereditary Grand Duke Henri in 1981), while retaining the treatment of Royal Highness. Since the grand ducal decree of 21 September 1995, dynasts who are the children of a Grand Duke or Hereditary Grand Duke hold the titles "Prince/Princess of Luxembourg" and "Prince/Princess of Nassau" with the style of Royal Highness. Shortly after his accession to the throne in October 2000, Grand Duke Henri issued a grand ducal decree conferring upon his eldest son and heir, Prince Guillaume, the title of "Hereditary Grand Duke" and restoring to him the title "Prince of Bourbon-Parma". Male line descendants of Grand Duchess Charlotte who are not the children of a Grand Duke or Hereditary Grand Duke are "Prince/Princess of Nassau" with the style of His/Her Royal Highness. The , children and male-line descendants of a prince of the dynasty whose marriage has not received grandducal consent are "Count/Countess de Nassau". Grand Ducal Family of Luxembourg 322

Religion Grand Dukes Adolphe (1817-1905) and William IV (1852-1912) were Protestants. William married the Catholic Marie Anne of Portugal, believing that a country where the vast majority of people were Catholic should also have a Catholic monarch. In 1907. Willliam declared the Protestant Counts of Merenberg to be non-dynastic and named his own (Catholic) daughter, Marie-Adélaïde (1894-1924) as heir to the grand ducal throne. In 1919, Marie-Adélaïde abdicated in favour of her sister, Charlotte (1896-1985), who was also a Catholic. Charlotte's descendants have reigned in Luxembourg ever since.

Members Grand Duke Henri Albert Gabriel Félix Marie Guillaume of Luxembourg is the current Grand Duke of Luxembourg. He was born on April 16, 1955. He was married on February 14, 1981 to Maria Teresa Mestre and became grand duke when his father, Jean, abdicated on October 7, 2000. Their children are:

Luxembourgish Grand Ducal Family

HRH The Grand Duke HRH The Grand Duchess • HRH The Hereditary Grand Duke HRH The Hereditary Grand Duchess • HRH Prince Félix HRH Princess Claire • HRH Prince Louis HRH Princess Tessy •• HRH Prince Gabriel* •• HRH Prince Noah* •• HRH Princess Alexandra •• HRH Prince Sébastien

HRH Grand Duke Jean • HI&RH Archduchess Marie-Astrid • HRH Prince Jean HRH Princess Diane • HRH Princess Marie-Gabrielle* •• HRH Prince Constantin* •• HRH Prince Wenceslas* •• HRH Prince Carl-Johan* •• HRH Princess Margaretha • HRH Prince Guillaume HRH Princess Sibilla •• HRH Prince Paul Louis* •• HRH Prince Léopold* •• HRH Princess Charlotte* •• HRH Prince Jean*

* Only a Prince/ss of Nassau Grand Ducal Family of Luxembourg 323

• Guillaume, Hereditary Grand Duke of Luxembourg, the Grand Duke's eldest son, born on November 11, 1981. He is the Hereditary Grand Duke of Luxembourg, Hereditary Prince of Nassau and holds the title Prince of Bourbon-Parma. He was married on October 20, 2012 to Countess Stephanie de Lannoy (b. February 18, 1984) • Prince Félix of Luxembourg, Prince of Nassau, born on June 3, 1984. He is Prince of Luxembourg and Prince of Nassau. He was married on September 21, 2013 to Claire Margareta Lademacher (b. February 18, 1984). • Prince Louis of Luxembourg, born on August 3, 1986. He is Prince of Luxembourg and Prince of Nassau. He was married on September 29, 2006 to Tessy Antony (b. October 28, 1985). Upon marrying, Prince Louis renounced his right of succession prior to his marriage. • Prince Gabriel Michael Louis Ronny of Nassau was born out of wedlock in Switzerland on , 2006. • Prince Noah Guillaume of Nassau was born on September 21, 2007 at the Grand Duchess Charlotte Maternity Hospital in Luxembourg City. • Princess Alexandra of Luxembourg, born on February 16, 1991. • Prince Sébastien of Luxembourg, born on April 16, 1992. Grand Duke Jean of Luxembourg is the current Grand Duke's father. He was Grand Duke of Luxembourg from 1964 to 2000, when he abdicated. Born on January 5, 1921, he became grand duke when his mother, the Grand Duchess Charlotte, abdicated in 1964. He is widower of Princess Joséphine Charlotte of Belgium (b. 11 October 1927 - m. 9 April 1953 - d. 10 January 2005).

Extended family • Archduchess Marie Astrid of Austria, the Grand Duke's eldest sister, was born on February 17, 1954. She was married on February 6, 1982 to Archduke Carl Christian of Austria, who was born in 1954. They have They have five children: Archduchess Marie Christine (1983) (m. Count Rodolphe de Limburg-Stirum, 2 sons Count Léopold and Count Constantin (2013)), Archduke Imre (1985) (m. Kathleen Elizabeth Walker), Archduke Christoph (1988) (m. Adélaïde Drapé-Frisch), Archduke Alexander (1990) and Archduchess Gabriella (1994). • Prince Jean of Luxembourg, the Grand Duke's brother, was born on May 15, 1957. He was married on 27 May 1987 to Hélène Vestur, who was born in 1958. On 26 September 1986, Prince Jean renounced his right of succession to the Luxembourg throne. His children were styled as Count(ess) of Nassau until given the title HRH Prince(ss) of Nassau on November 24, 2004. Prince Jean and Vestur divorced in 2004 and, in March 2009, he married Diane de Guerre in a civil ceremony in Roermond, the Netherlands.[2] •• Princess Marie Gabrielle Cécile Charlotte Sophie of Nassau, Prince Jean's eldest child and only daughter, was born out of wedlock on September 8, 1986. •• Prince Constantin Jean Philippe Marie Albert Marc d'Aviano of Nassau, Prince Jean's eldest son, was born on July 22, 1988. •• Prince Wenceslas François Baudouin Léopold Juraj Marie Marc d'Aviano of Nassau, Prince Jean's second son, was born on November 17, 1990. •• Prince Carl Johann Marie Félix Julian Marc d'Aviano of Nassau, Prince Jean's third son and youngest child, was born on August 15, 1992. • Princess Margaretha of Liechtenstein, the Grand Duke's youngest sister. She was born on May 15, 1957. She was married on 20 March 1982 to Prince Nikolaus of Liechtenstein, who was born in 1947. They have had four children: Prince Leopold (1984-1984), Princess Maria-Anunciata (1985), Princess Marie-Astrid (1987), Prince Josef-Emanuel (1989). • Prince Guillaume of Luxembourg, the Grand Duke's youngest brother, was born on 1 May 1963. He was married on September 8, 1994 to Sibilla Sandra Weiller (the daughter of Donna Olimpia Torlonia dei principi di Civitella-Cesi and Paul-Annick Weiller, and great-granddaughter of Alfonso XIII of Spain), now Princess Sibilla of Luxembourg. Grand Ducal Family of Luxembourg 324

•• Prince Paul-Louis Jean Marie Guillaume of Nassau, Prince Guillaume's eldest son, was born on March 4, 1998. •• Prince Léopold Guillaume Marie Joseph of Nassau, Prince Guillaume's second son, was born on May 2, 2000. He is the twin brother of Princess Charlotte. •• Princess Charlotte Wilhelmine Maria da Gloria of Nassau, Prince Guillaume's only daughter, was born on 2 May 2000. She is the twin sister of Prince Léopold. •• Prince Jean André Guillaume Marie Gabriel Marc d'Aviano of Nassau, Prince Guillaume's youngest son, was born on July 13, 2004. • Princess Marie Gabriele of Luxembourg, the Grand Duke's aunt, was born on 2 August 1925. She was married on 6 November 1951 to Knud, Count af Holstein- (1919-2001). They have issue. • Joan, Dowager Duchess of Mouchy (née Dillon), the Grand Duke's aunt, was born on 31 January 1935. She was widow of Prince Charles of Luxembourg they married on on 1 March 1967. They have issue: • Princess Charlotte Phyllis Joelle Marie of Luxembourg, the Grand Duke's first cousin, was born on 15 September 1967. She was married in 1993 to Marc Victor Cunningham, who was born on 24 September 1965. They have issue: Charles (1996), Louis (1998) and Donnall (2002). • Prince Robert Louis Francois Marie of Luxembourg, the Grand Duke's first cousin, was born on 14 August 1968 and married religiously on 19 September 1993 to Julie Elizabeth Huston Ongaro, now Princess Julie de Nassau, who was born on 9 June 1966.[3] • Princess Charlotte Justine de Nassau, eldest child and only daughter of Prince Robert, was born on March 20, 1995. •• Prince Alexander Théodore Charles Marie de Nassau, elder son of Prince Robert, was born on April 18, 1997. •• Prince Frederik Henry Douglas Marie de Nassau, younger son of Prince Robert, was born on March 18, 2002. • Princess Alix, Dowager Princess of Ligne, the Grand Duke's aunt, was born on 24 August 1929. She is a Princess of Luxembourg and Nassau. She was married on 17 August 1950 to Antoine de Ligne, 13th Prince de Ligne (1925-2005). They have issue.

Succession to the throne The preference for men over women in succession to Luxembourg's throne was abandoned in favour of absolute on 20 June 2011 by decree of Grand Duke Henri. Henceforth, any legitimate female descendant of the House of Luxembourg-Nassau born of authorized marriage shall inherit the throne by order of seniority of line of descent and of birth as stipulated in Article 3 of the Constitution and the Nassau Family Pact without regard to gender, applicable first to succession by the descendants of Grand Duke Henri. The Grand Duke's Marshal issued an addendum to the decree explaining the context of the change: pursuant to the United Nation's 1979 call for nations to eliminate all forms of discrimination against women, in 2008 the Grand Duchy dropped the exception to gender non-discrimination it had declared in the matter of the grand ducal succession.

Summary family tree Grand Ducal Family of Luxembourg 325

Adolphe Princess (1817 +1905) Adelheid-Marie of Duke of Nassau 1839-1866 Anhalt-Dessau Grand Duke of Luxembourg 1890-1905

William IV, Grand Infanta Marie Duke of Anne of Portugal Luxembourg, 1852–1912

Marie-Adélaïde, Grand Charlotte 1896–1985, Felix of Duchess of Luxembourg, Grand Duchess of Bourbon-Parma 1894–1924 Luxembourg 1919–1964

Princess Jean 1921-, Grand Duke Prince Charles of Joséphine-Charlotte of of Luxembourg Luxembourg Belgium 1964-2000

Archduchess Marie-Astrid Henri 1955-, Grand Maria Teresa Prince Jean of Princess Prince of Austria Duke of Luxembourg, Luxembourg Margaretha of Guillaume of 2000 Liechtenstein Luxembourg

small arms grand arms

Guillaume, Hereditary Prince Félix of Prince Louis of Princess Alexandra of Prince Sébastien Grand Duke of Luxembourg Luxembourg Luxembourg of Luxembourg Luxembourg Grand Ducal Family of Luxembourg 326

Arms A complete armorial is given at the Armorial de la Maison de Nassau, section Lignée Valramienne at the French Wikipedia, and another one at Wapen van Nassau, Tak van Walram at the Dutch Wikipedia.

References

[1] de Badts de Cugnac, Chantal. Coutant de Saisseval, Guy. Le Petit Gotha. Nouvelle Imprimerie Laballery, Paris 2002, pp. 572-573, 582, 665-668, 678, 684 (French) ISBN 2-9507974-3-1

[2] Special wedding in Roermond (http:/ / www. nieuwsbank. nl/ inp/ 2009/ 03/ 19/ R134. htm)

[3] http:/ / www. hoelseth. com/ royalty/ luxembourg/ luxdecree20041127. html William II of the Netherlands 327 William II of the Netherlands

William II

King William II by Jan Baptist van der Hulst.

King of the Netherlands, Grand Duke of Luxembourg, Duke of Limburg

Reign 7 October 1840 – 17 March 1849

Inauguration 28 November 1840

Predecessor William I

Successor William III

Spouse Anna Pavlovna of Russia

Issue

William III of the Netherlands Prince Alexander Prince Henry Prince Ernst Casimir Sophie, Grand Duchess of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach

House House of Orange-Nassau

Father William I of the Netherlands

Mother Wilhelmine of Prussia

Born 6 December 1792 Noordeinde Palace, The Hague, Dutch Republic

Died 17 March 1849 (aged 56) Tilburg, Netherlands

Religion Dutch Reformed Church

William II (Willem Frederik George Lodewijk van Oranje-Nassau) (6 December 1792 – 17 March 1849) was King of the Netherlands, Grand Duke of Luxembourg, and Duke of Limburg from 7 October 1840 until his death in 1849.

Early life and education Willem Frederik George Lodewijk was born on 11 December 1792 in The Hague. He was the eldest son of King William I of the Netherlands and Wilhelmine of Prussia. His maternal grandparents were King Frederick William II of Prussia and his second wife Frederika Louisa of Hesse-Darmstadt. When William was two, he and his family fled to England after allied British-Hanoverian troops left the Republic and entering French troops joined the anti-orangist Patriots. William spent his youth in Berlin at the Prussian court. There he followed a military education and served in the Prussian army. Afterwards, he studied at the University of Oxford. William II had a string of relationships with both men and women. The homosexual relationships that William II had as crown prince and as king were reported by journalist Eillert Meeter. The king surrounded himself with male servants whom he could not dismiss because of his 'abominable motive' for hiring them in the first place.[1] William II of the Netherlands 328

Military service He entered the British Army, and in 1811, as aide-de-camp to Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, took part in several campaigns of the . He was made Lieutenant-Colonel in the British Army on 11 June 1811 and Colonel on 21 October that year. On 8 September 1812 he was made an Aide-de-Camp to the Prince Regent and on 14 December 1813 promoted to Major-General. His courage and good nature made him very popular with the British, who nicknamed him "Slender Billy." He returned to the Netherlands in 1813 when his father became sovereign prince. In 1815, he took service in the army when Napoleon I of France escaped from Elba. He fought as commander of I Allied Corps at the Battle of Quatre Bras (16 June 1815) and the Battle of Waterloo (18 June 1815), where he was wounded.[2]

Marriage In 1814, William became briefly engaged with Princess Charlotte of Wales, only daughter of the Prince Regent, later George IV of the United Kingdom and his estranged wife Caroline of Brunswick. The engagement was arranged by the Prince Regent, but it was broken because Charlotte's mother was against the marriage and because Charlotte did not want to move to The Netherlands. On 21 February 1816 at the Chapel of the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg, William married Grand Duchess Anna Pavlovna of Russia, youngest sister to Czar Alexander I of Russia, who arranged the marriage to seal the good relations between Imperial Russia and the Netherlands. On 17 February 1817 in Brussels, his first son Willem Alexander was born, the future King William III. Because he lived in Brussels, he became affiliated with the Southern industrials. In 1819, he was blackmailed over what Minister of Justice Van Maanen termed in a letter his "shameful and unnatural lusts": presumably bisexuality. He may also have had a relationship with a dandy by the name of Pereira.[3]

Belgian revolution activities

William II enjoyed considerable popularity in what is now Belgium (then the Southern Netherlands), as well as in the Netherlands for his affability and moderation, and in 1830, on the outbreak of the Belgian revolution, he did his utmost in Brussels as a peace broker, to bring about a settlement based on administrative autonomy for the southern provinces, under the House of Orange-Nassau. His father then rejected the terms of accommodation that he had proposed; afterwards, relations with his father were tense. The Prince of Orange pressed by the crowd during the 1830 Revolution In April 1831, William II was military leader of the Ten days campaign in Belgium which was driven back to the North by French intervention. European intervention established Leopold of Saxe-Gotha on the new throne of Belgium. Peace was finally established between Belgium and the Netherlands in 1839.

King of the Netherlands William II of the Netherlands 329

Dutch Royalty House of Orange-Nassau

William I

Children William II Prince Frederick Princess Pauline Marianne, Princess Albert of Prussia Grandchildren Louise, Queen of Sweden and Norway Prince William Prince Frederick Marie, Princess of Wied

William II

Children William III Prince Alexander Prince Henry Prince Ernest Casimir Sophie, Grand Duchess of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach

William III

Children William, Prince of Orange Prince Maurice Alexander, Prince of Orange Wilhelmina

Wilhelmina

Children Juliana

Juliana William II of the Netherlands 330

Children Beatrix Princess Irene Princess Margriet Princess Christina

Beatrix

Children William-Alexander Prince Friso Prince Constantijn Grandchildren Catharina-Amalia, Princess of Orange Princess Alexia Princess Ariane Countess Luana Countess Zaria Countess Eloise Count Claus-Casimir Countess Leonore

Willem-Alexander

Children Catharina-Amalia, Princess of Orange Princess Alexia Princess Ariane

On 7 October 1840, on his father's abdication, he acceded to the throne as William II. Like his father he was conservative and less likely to initiate changes. He intervened less in policies than his father did. There was increased agitation for broad constitutional reform and a wider electoral franchise. And though he was personally conservative and no democrat, he acted with sense and moderation. The Revolutions of 1848 broke out all over Europe. In Paris the Bourbon-Orléans monarchy fell. William became afraid of revolution in Amsterdam. One morning he woke up and said: "I changed from conservative to liberal in one night". He gave orders to Johan Rudolf The inauguration of William II on 28 November 1840 by Nicolaas Pieneman Thorbecke to create a new constitution which included that the Eerste Kamer (Senate) would be elected indirectly by the Provincial States and that the Tweede Kamer (House of Representatives) would be elected directly. The electoral system changed into census suffrage in electoral (in 1917 census suffrage was replaced by common suffrage for all men, and districts were replaced by party lists of different political parties), whereby royal power decreased sharply. That constitution is still in effect today.

He swore in the first parliamentary cabinet a few months before his sudden death in Tilburg, (1849). He was the 869th Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece in Spain. William II of the Netherlands 331

Ancestry

16. John William Friso, Prince of Orange

8. William IV, Prince of Orange

17. Marie Louise of Hesse-Kassel

4. William V, Prince of Orange

18. George II of Great Britain

9. Anne, Princess Royal

19. Caroline of Brandenburg-Ansbach

2. William I of the Netherlands

20. Frederick William I of Prussia (= 24)

10. Prince Augustus William of Prussia (= 12)

21. Sophia Dorothea of Hanover (= 25)

5. Wilhelmina of Prussia

22. Ferdinand Albert II, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg (= 26)

11. Louise Amalie of Brunswick-Lüneburg (= 13)

23. Antoinette Amalie of Brunswick-Lüneburg (= 27)

1. William II of the Netherlands

24. Frederick William I of Prussia (= 20)

12. Prince Augustus William of Prussia (= 10)

25. Sophia Dorothea of Hanover (= 21)

6. Frederick William II of Prussia

26. Ferdinand Albert II, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg (= 22)

13. Louise Amalie of Brunswick-Lüneburg (= 11) William II of the Netherlands 332

27. Antoinette Amalie of Brunswick-Lüneburg (= 23)

3. Wilhelmine of Prussia

28. Louis VIII, Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt

14. Louis IX, Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt

29. Countess Charlotte of Hanau-Lichtenberg

7. Frederika Louisa of Hesse-Darmstadt

30. Christian III, Count Palatine of Zweibrücken

15. Caroline of Zweibrücken

31. Caroline of Nassau-Saarbrücken

Children William II and queen Anna Pavlovna had five children: • William Alexander Paul Frederick Louis (1817–1890) King of the Netherlands from 1849–1890. • William Alexander Frederick Constantine Nicolas Michael (1818–1848). Nicknamed Sascha. • William Frederick Henry "the Navigator" (1820–1879). Married firstly Princess Amalia of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach and secondly Princess Marie of Prussia, but had no issue. • Prince William Alexander Ernst Frederick Casimir (Dutch: Willem Alexander Ernst Frederik Casimir') (21 May – 22 October 1822). • Wilhelmina Marie Sophie Louise (1824–1897). Married Karl Alexander, Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach.

On Screen William II (as the Prince of Orange) was portrayed on television by Paul Bettany in Sharpe's Waterloo. In the episode (itself adapted from a novel by Bernard Cornwell), William suffers his wound after being shot by the fictitious hero, Richard Sharpe (played by Sean Bean). Whilst under William's command Sharpe becomes enraged after the Crown Prince's incompetence costs the lives of many Allied soldiers, including two of Sharpe's closest friends. Taken under the cover of battle, Sharpe's actions are not noticed by anyone who cares for the intransigent William and thus go unpunished. William II of the Netherlands 333

In Fiction He is a recurring character in the historical novels of Georgette Heyer, most notably in An Infamous Army. He is a character in the historical fiction novel Sharpe's Waterloo by Bernard Cornwell.

Titles and styles • His Serene Highness The Hereditary Prince of Orange (1792–1814) [4] • His Royal Highness The Hereditary Prince of Orange (1814–1815) [5] • His Royal Highness The Prince of Orange (1815–1840) • His Majesty The King of the Netherlands (1840–1849)

References

[1] Willem II en Anna Paulowna - 21 februari 1816 (http:/ / royalehuwelijken. blogspot. nl/ 2011/ 12/ willem-ii-en-anna-paulowna. html), Royalehuwelijken.blogspot.nl, December 4, 2011 [2] Hofschröer, Peter, 1815, The , The German Victory p137, p200. [3] Hermans, Dorine and Hooghiemstra, Daniela: Voor de troon wordt men niet ongestrafd geboren, ooggetuigen van de koningen van Nederland 1830–1890, ISBN 978-90-351-3114-9, 2007.

[4] Rotterdam receives 'King' Willem I in 1813 (http:/ / www. engelfriet. net/ Alie/ Aad/ willem1bezoek. htm) – website www.engelfriet.net (Dutch)

[5] Constitution of the Netherlands in 1814 (http:/ / www. republikanisme. nl/ grond1814. html) – Website www.republikanisme.nl (Dutch)

External links

• Official website of the Dutch monarchy (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ globale-paginas/ taalrubrieken/ english/

history/ kings-(19th-century)/ #il-king-willem-ii-1792-1849)

William II of the Netherlands House of Orange-Nassau Born: 6 December 1792 Died: 17 March 1849 Regnal titles Preceded by King of the Netherlands Succeeded by William I 1840–1849 William III Grand Duke of Luxembourg 1840–1849 Duke of Limburg 1840–1849 Dutch royalty Preceded by Prince of Orange Succeeded by William, Prince of Orange 1815–1840 William, Prince of Orange later became King William I later became King William III New title Heir to the Dutch throne as heir apparent 1815–1840 Anna Pavlovna of Russia 334 Anna Pavlovna of Russia

Anna Pavlovna of Russia

Portrait by Jan Baptist van der Hulst, 1837

Queen consort of the Netherlands Grand Duchess of Luxembourg Duchess of Limburg

Tenure 7 October 1840 – 7 March 1849

Spouse William II of the Netherlands

Issue

William III of the Netherlands Prince Alexander Prince Henry Prince Ernest Casimir Sophie, Grand Duchess of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach

Full name

Russian: Anna Pavlovna Dutch: Anna Paulowna

House House of Orange-Nassau (by marriage) House of Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov (by birth)

Father

Mother Sophie Dorothea of Württemberg

Born 18 January 1795 , Russia

Died 1 March 1865 (aged 70) The Hague, Netherlands

Burial Nieuwe Kerk, Delft

Religion Russian Orthodox

Anna Pavlovna of Russia (Russian: Анна Павловна; St. Petersburg, 18 January 1795 – The Hague, 1 March 1865) was a queen consort of the Netherlands. In the Netherlands, due to nineteenth century Dutch transliteration conventions, she is better known as Anna Paulowna.

Biography She was born in 1795 at , the eighth child and sixth daughter of Paul I of Russia and Empress Maria Feodorovna (born Sophie Dorothea of Württemberg),[1] and thus was Her Imperial Highness Grand Duchess Anna Pavlovna of Russia. Anna was raised by her mother at the summer residence of the Romanovs, . She spent her childhood there with her two younger brothers, Nicholas (1796-1855) and Michael (1798-1849). Anna received a broad education, including foreign languages and maths. She was good at handicrafts and painting. In 1809, after failing to secure her elder sister Ekaterina, Emperor Napoleon I of France asked for Anna’s hand in marriage. Her mother managed to delay her reply long enough for Napoleon to lose interest and marry Princess Marie Luise, the eighteen-year-old daughter of the Austrian emperor.[2] Anna Pavlovna of Russia 335

Marriage

On 21 February 1816 at the Chapel of the Winter Palace in St Petersburg, she married the Prince of Orange, who would later become King William II of the Netherlands. The marriage had been suggested by her brother the Tsar Alexander I in 1815, as a symbol of the alliance created after the Congress of Vienna. As it had been decided that no member of the Romanov family should be forced to marry against their will, William was invited to Russia before the wedding so that Anna could get to know him and consent to marry him, which she did. At the The royal family by Van der Hulst time of their marriage, it was agreed that Prince Willem’s children should be raised as Protestants, although Anna herself remained Russian Orthodox. Alexander Pushkin celebrated the marriage in a special poem entitled To the Prince of Orange. The couple remained in Russia for one year.

Anna Pavlovna was shocked over the differences between Russia and her new home country, especially when it came to the class system and the separation between the classes, which was much less strict in the Netherlands, where the distance between royalty and the public was not as great as in Russia, and she had difficulties adjusting herself to this. The couple lived in Brussels until the Belgian revolution forced them to leave in 1830. Anna liked Brussels much more than the North, as it reminded her more of her native country. She founded a school where poor women and girls were educated in sewing (1832), and a hospital for soldiers wounded in the Belgian revolution (1830). Her marriage was stormy. From the beginning, Anna considered herself superior in rank to William. In 1829, several pieces of her jewellery were stolen, and she suspected her spouse of stealing them, as he was at the time in debt and mixing with people she considered to be questionable. The adultery of her spouse created conflicts between them. They lived separated until 1843. Anna did, however, act as a mediator between her husband and her father-in-law and tried to ease the tension between them during political conflicts. Otherwise, she was not politically active, despite her strong political convictions. As a person, she was described as intelligent, sensitive, loyal to her family and with a violent temperament. During her time in Holland, she studied the Dutch language, history and culture, and founded more than fifty orphanages. On 7 October 1840, on the abdication of her father-in-law, William I of the Netherlands, she became Queen Consort of the Netherlands. She was the 343rd Dame of the Royal Order of Queen Maria Luisa on 1 February 1842. As a Queen, Anna is described as dignified, arrogant and distant towards the public. She did in fact learn to speak better Dutch than her often French-speaking spouse, but she upheld a strict etiquette and never became very popular as queen. She valued pomp, etiquette and formal ceremonies and rituals. Anna Pavlovna corresponded with her mother and brothers in Russia and treasured the memory of her birth country: she founded a Russian boy's choir, where the members were to be dressed in traditional Russian costume, and it has been said of her that she remained a Russian Grand Duchess more than she ever became Queen of the Netherlands. As a queen dowager, she left the royal palace, retired from court life and lived a discreet life. She did not get along with her daughter-in-law and had plans to return to Russia after a conflict with her son, King William III, in 1855, but in the end, she did not. Anna Pavlovna of Russia 336

Children Anna and William II of the Netherlands had five children: • William III of the Netherlands (1817–1890). Married firstly Sophie of Württemberg and secondly Emma of Waldeck and Pyrmont • William Alexander Frederick Constantine Nicholas Michael "Sasha" of the Netherlands (1818–1848). • William Frederick Henry "the Navigator" of the Netherlands (1820–1879). Married firstly Amalia of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach and secondly Marie of Prussia, but had no issue. • Prince William Alexander Ernst Frederick Casimir of the Netherlands Dutch: Willem Alexander Ernst Frederik Casimir (Brussels (per one source) or (per another), 21 May 1822 – Brussels, 22 October 1822). • Wilhelmina Marie Sophie Louise of the Netherlands (1824–1897). Married Karl Alexander, Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach.

Legacy The Anna Paulowna in the Dutch province of Noord Holland is named for her. The genus of trees Paulownia was coined by a Dutch botanist named Siebold to honour Anna Pavlovna. The common name of Paulownia tomentosa is Royal Paulownia,(also known as Empress Tree, Princess Tree, and Foxglove Tree.[3]

Titles

• Her Imperial Highness Grand Duchess Anna Pavlovna of Russia (1795–1816) • Her Imperial and Royal Highness Princess of Orange (1816–1840) • Her Majesty The Queen of the Netherlands, Grand Duchess of Luxembourg, Duchess of Limburg (1840–1849) • Her Majesty Queen Anna of the Netherlands (1849–1865)

References

[1] "Anna Pavlovna", Hermitage Amsterdam (http:/ / www. hermitage. nl/ en/ st-petersburg_en_rusland/

nederland_rusland_en_st-petersburg/ anna_pavlovna. htm)

[2] "Grand Duchess Anna Pavlovna", Rusartnet (http:/ / www. rusartnet. com/ biographies/ russian-rulers/ Royal Monogram

romanov/ family-of-paul-i/ children/ grand-duchess-anna-pavlovna)

[3] Needham, William. The Hiker's Notebook (http:/ / sierrapotomac. org/ W_Needham/ RoyalPaulownia_100430R. htm)

• http:/ / www. inghist. nl/ Onderzoek/ Projecten/ DVN/ lemmata/ data/ AnnaPaulowna

Anna Pavlovna of Russia House of Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov Born: 18 June 1795 Died: 1 March 1865 Royal titles Vacant Queen consort of the Netherlands Succeeded by Title last held by Grand Duchess consort of Sophie of Württemberg Luxembourg Wilhelmine of Prussia 1840–1849 Prince Frederick of the Netherlands 337 Prince Frederick of the Netherlands

Prince Frederick

Spouse Princess Louise of Prussia

Issue

Louise, Queen of Sweden and Norway Prince Frederik Prince Willem Marie, Princess of Wied

Father William I of the Netherlands

Mother Wilhelmine of Prussia

Born 28 February 1797 Berlin

Died 8 September 1881 (aged 84) Wassenaar

Religion Dutch Reformed Church

Prince Frederick of the Netherlands, Prince of Orange-Nassau (full names: Willem Frederik Karel; Berlin, 28 February 1797 – Wassenaar, 8 September 1881), was the second son of king William I of the Netherlands and his wife, Wilhelmine of Prussia.

Early life The prince grew up at the court of his grandfather Frederick William II of Prussia and uncle Frederick William III of Prussia. One of his tutors was Carl von Clausewitz. Aged 16, the prince fought in the . The prince first entered the Netherlands in December 1813. As he spoke no Dutch, the prince was sent to Leiden University to get a further education. He was also educated by Karl Ludwig von Phull in The Hague. When Napoleon returned from Elba, during the the prince was given command of a detachment of Wellington's army which was posted in a fall back position near Braine should the battle taking place at Waterloo be lost.

Prince of the Netherlands Based on a house treaty, Frederick was to inherit the family's German possessions upon his father's death. As these were no longer in the possession of the family, he instead was made heir to the Grand Duchy of Luxemburg. In 1816, Frederick relinquished this claim in exchange for land in the Netherlands and the title of Prince of the Netherlands. In 1826 Frederick was appointed Commissary-general of the Department of War. In this office, Frederick reorganized the army on a Prussian model. Frederick founded the military academy in Breda and reequipped the army with modern weapons. In 1829 Frederick was a candidate for the Greek throne, but he declined because he did not want to be king of a country whose language and traditions were foreign to him. When the Belgian Revolution broke out in 1830, Frederick commanded the troops sent to Brussels to suppress the rebellion there. Frederick led these troops in several days of fighting in Brussels, but could not retake the city. Frederick also took part in his brother's 1831 Ten Days' Campaign in Belgium. Prince Frederick of the Netherlands 338

When his father abdicated in 1840, Frederick withdrew from public life to his estates at Wassenaar. Upon the death of his elder brother in 1849, the new King William III of the Netherlands recalled him and made him Inspector-General of the army. Frederick held that office until 1868, when he resigned because of the lack of support for his plans to modernize the army.

Marriage Prince Frederick married in Berlin on 21 May 1825 his first cousin Louise, daughter of Frederick William III of Prussia. They had four children: • Wilhelmina Frederika Alexandrine Anna Louise (The Hague, 5 August 1828 – , 30 March 1871), married in Stockholm on 19 June 1850 to Charles XV of Sweden (Stockholm, 3 May 1826 - Malmö, 18 September 1872) • Willem Frederik Nicolaas Karel (The Hague, 6 July 1833 - The Hague, 1 November 1834) • Willem Frederik Nicolaas Albert (The Hague, 22 August 1836 - The Hague, 23 January 1846) • Wilhelmina Frederika Anna Elisabeth Maria Marie (Huize De Paauw, Wassenaar, 5 July 1841 - Neuwied, 22 June 1910), married in Wassenaar on 18 July 1871 to William, Prince of Wied (Neuwied, 22 August 1845 - Neuwied, 22 October 1907). They were parents of William, Prince of Albania.

Titles and Styles • 1797 – 1881: His Royal Highness Prince Frederik of the Netherlands, Prince of Orange-Nassau

Princess Pauline of Orange-Nassau

Princess Pauline of Orange-Nassau (Wilhelmina Frederika Louise Pauline Charlotte; 1 March 1800 - 20 December/22 December 1806) was a Princess of the House of Orange-Nassau.

Life

Pauline was born in Berlin while her parents were living in exile during the time the Low Countries were occupied by France. She was the third child and first-born daughter of the later King William I of the Netherlands by his wife Wilhelmine of Prussia. Her two older brothers were the future King William II and Prince Frederick of the Netherlands. Her parents also had a stillborn child in 1795. Her younger sister, Marianne, was born four years after her death.

In 1803 Pauline and her family moved to the Nassau family possessions in Germany. Here, she met her paternal grandparents for the first time. They quickly Princess Pauline of Orange-Nassau became fond with her, and Pauline's grandfather William V nicknamed her Polly. Particularly, her Princess Pauline of Orange-Nassau 339

grandfather was very happy to see her, because any of the recent Nassau-Orange rulers couldn't see a granddaughter in their lifetimes. In occasion of a ball made to celebrate the birthday of her father, the old obese ex-Prince danced with little Pauline in the grand ballroom of the castle. Since 1804 the family lived with William V in Berlin, where he had bought a palace on the Unter den Linden (No. 36). The palace is known as the Niederländische Palais. At the age of five, she and her older brothers began to spend more time with their grandparents in Oranienstein. Since her birth, Pauline had poor health, probably due to the difficult circumstances at the time of her mother's pregnancy. According to doctors, she suffered from some kind of nervous fever. In August 1806, her parents had another stillborn son. In October, Pauline with her mother and brothers, escape from the French troops from Berlin to Königsberg. Due to the bad weather, the health status of Paulina worsened very quickly. Her mother could then hardly separated from her deathbed and feared for her sanity. According to some sources she died in the home of a mayor who them temporarily housed, but according to anothers, she died in on the final Freienwalde, one of the royal Prussian possessions in west of Berlin, near the Oder. The estate was recently occupied by Princess Frederika Louisa of Hesse-Darmstadt, her maternal grandmother. Berlin was occupied by the French on 27 October and Küstrin on 1 November. The Prussian army under the command of Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher finally capitulated on 7 November. Her father, who became a war prisoner after the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt on 14 October, was released in this occasion. On 15 December 1806 Pauline's condition became alarming and she died a week later, on 22 December. She was buried in the Freienwalde estate. A monument was only realized in 1813 by sculptor Johann Gottfried Schadow. The neglected grave of Pauline was rediscovered by the new owner of Freienwalde, Walther Rathenau in 1909. He discovered on the estate a weathered gravestone. On the monument was Pauline's name. The news was immediately reported to Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands, who had exhume the remains. Without much pomp, in March 1911 Pauline's remains were brought to the Netherlands by the Dutch ambassador in Berlin, Baron Gevers and the Chamberlain van den Bosch. The bronze casket was during the trip in the luggage. Finally, on 7 April 1911 Pauline's remains were interred in the Royal Crypt in the Nieuwe Kerk in Delft. The text of her gravestone reads: "Grabmal of Friderike Louise Pauline Charlotte Wilhelmine Prinzessin von Nassau und Oranien - Born zu Berlin den 1 Maerz 1800 - dies zu Freienwalde 22d Dezember 1806".

Ancestry

16. John William Friso, Prince of Orange

8. William IV, Prince of Orange

17. Marie Louise of Hesse-Kassel

4. William V, Prince of Orange

18. George II of Great Britain

9. Anne, Princess Royal

19. Caroline of Brandenburg-Ansbach

2. William I of the Netherlands

20. Frederick William I of Prussia

10. Prince Augustus William of Prussia Princess Pauline of Orange-Nassau 340

21. Sophia Dorothea of Hanover

5. Wilhelmina of Prussia

22. Ferdinand Albert II, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg

11. Louise Amalie of Brunswick-Lüneburg

23. Antoinette Amalie of Brunswick-Lüneburg

1. Princess Pauline of the Netherlands

24. Frederick William I of Prussia (= 20)

12. Prince Augustus William of Prussia (= 10)

25. Sophia Dorothea of Hanover (= 21)

6. Frederick William II of Prussia

26. Ferdinand Albert II, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg (= 22)

13. Louise Amalie of Brunswick-Lüneburg (= 11)

27. Antoinette Amalie of Brunswick-Lüneburg (= 23)

3. Wilhelmine of Prussia

28. Louis VIII, Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt

14. Louis IX, Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt

29. Countess Charlotte of Hanau-Lichtenberg

7. Frederika Louisa of Hesse-Darmstadt

30. Christian III, Count Palatine of Zweibrücken

15. Caroline of Zweibrücken

31. Caroline of Nassau-Saarbrücken Prince Albert of Prussia (18091872) 341 Prince Albert of Prussia (1809–1872)

Prince Albert

Prince Albrecht of Prussia, steel engraving (around 1860)

Spouse Princess Marianne of the Netherlands Rosalie von Rauch (morganatic)

Issue

Charlotte, Hereditary Princess of Saxe-Meiningen Prince Albert Princess Elizabeth Princess Alexandrine William, Count of Hohenau (morganatic) Bernhard, Count of Hohenau (morganatic)

Full name

Frederick Henry Albert

House House of Hohenzollern

Father Frederick William III of Prussia

Mother Louise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz

Born 4 October 1809 Königsberg

Died 14 October 1872 (aged 63) Berlin

Burial Charlottenburg Palace Park Mausoleum, Berlin

Prussian Royalty House of Hohenzollern

Frederick William III Children Frederick William IV William I Alexandra Feodorovna, Empress of Russia Princess Frederica Prince Charles of Prussia Alexandrine, Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg Prince Albert of Prussia (18091872) 342

Prince Ferdinand Princess Louise Prince Albert of Prussia

Prince Albert of Prussia (Frederick Henry Albert;[1] German: Friedrich Heinrich Albrecht; 4 October 1809, Königsberg – 14 October 1872, Berlin) was a Prussian colonel general. Albert was the fifth son and youngest child of King Frederick William III of Prussia and Louise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. His parents had fled to after the occupation of Berlin by Napoleon. Two of Albert's elder brothers were Frederick William IV, King of Prussia from 1840 till 1861, and William I, King of Prussia from 1861 to 1888 and German Emperor from 1871 until 1888.

Career In 1819 he joined the Prussian Army as a lieutenant and held the rank of a general of cavalry in 1852. He took part in the 1866 Austro-Prussian War as a cavalry corps commander at the battles of Gitschin and Königgrätz. In the Franco-Prussian War of 1870/71 he led a cavalry division at the battles of , Wörth and Sedan. He later joined the forces of his nephew Prince Frederick Charles of Prussia and Frederick Francis II, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin in the campaign against the Armée de la Loire. After the war Albert was awarded the title of a Generaloberst. He is buried at the Charlottenburg Palace Park Mausoleum in Berlin. He was the 74th Grand Cross of the Order of the Tower and Sword.

Family On 14 September 1830 Albert married Princess Marianne, daughter of King William I of the Netherlands, in The Hague. The marriage was dissolved on 28 March 1849. They had the following children: • Charlotte (1831–1855), married Georg II, Duke of Saxe-Meiningen • Albert (1837–1906), married Princess Marie of Saxe-Altenburg • Elizabeth (1840–1840) • Alexandrine (1842–1906), married William, second son of Grand Duke Paul Frederick of Mecklenburg-Schwerin In 1853, Albert married Rosalie von Rauch, Countess of Hohenau, daughter of Gustav von Rauch, chief of the Prussian General Staff 1812-1813 and Prussian Minister of War 1837-1841. They had the following children: Albrechtsberg Castle, Dresden • William, Count of Hohenau (1854–1930) • Bernhard, Count of Hohenau (1857–1914) As this marital bond was considered a morganatic marriage, the couple temporarily had to avoid the Prussian court. Albert acquired a vineyard in Loschwitz near Dresden, Saxony, where he had a residence, Albrechtsberg Castle, erected in 1854. Prince Albert of Prussia (18091872) 343

Aftermath In 1830 Albert had acquired a city palace in Berlin on Wilhelmstraße, then called Prinz-Albrecht-Palais. An adjacent street off Wilhelmstraße laid out in 1891 was named Prinz-Albrecht-Straße. After the Nazi Machtergreifung it became notorious as the seat of the Gestapo and the Reichsführer-SS. The Prinz-Albrecht-Palais itself from 1934 served as the headquarters of the SS Sicherheitsdienst under Reinhard Heydrich, from 1939 the Reichssicherheitshauptamt. In 1944 the building was heavily damaged by air raids and finally demolished in 1955. Since 1951 the street is named Niederkirchnerstraße, the area is now part of the Topography of Terror project.

References

[1] The Peerage – Friedrich Heinrich Albrecht Prinz von Preußen (http:/ / www. thepeerage. com/ p10107. htm#i101065) Emma of Waldeck and Pyrmont 344 Emma of Waldeck and Pyrmont

Emma of Waldeck and Pyrmont

Emma as queen mother

Queen consort of the Netherlands Grand Duchess of Luxembourg

Tenure 1879–1890

Spouse William III of the Netherlands

Issue

Wilhelmina of the Netherlands

Full name

Adelheid Emma Wilhelmina Theresia

House House of Waldeck and Pyrmont (birth) House of Orange-Nassau (marriage)

Father George Victor, Prince of Waldeck and Pyrmont

Mother Princess Helena of Nassau

Born 2 August 1858 Arolsen Castle, Arolsen, Waldeck and Pyrmont,

Died 20 March 1934 (aged 75) Palace Lange Voorhout, The Hague, Netherlands

Burial Nieuwe Kerk, Delft, Netherlands

Emma of Waldeck and Pyrmont (2 August 1858 – 20 March 1934) was Queen of the Netherlands and Grand Duchess of Luxembourg as the wife of King-Grand Duke William III. An immensely popular member of the Dutch Royal Family, she also served as regent for her daughter, Queen Wilhelmina, during the latter's minority.

Family

Emma was born as Adelheid Emma Wilhelmina Theresia, Princess of Waldeck and Pyrmont on 2 August 1858 in Arolsen Castle in Arolsen, the capital of the small German principality of Waldeck and Pyrmont. She was the fourth daughter of Georg Viktor, Prince of Waldeck and Pyrmont and Princess Helena of Nassau. Her brother, Friedrich, was the last reigning Prince of Waldeck and Pyrmont. Her sister, Helena Frederica, would become the wife of Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany, a son of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert. Her maternal grandparents were William, Duke of Nassau and his second wife, Princess Pauline of Württemberg. Pauline was a daughter of Prince Paul of Württemberg and his wife Charlotte of Saxe-Hildburghausen. Emma at 12 years old (1870) Paul was a son of Frederick I of Württemberg and his wife, Duchess Augusta of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. Augusta was the eldest daughter of Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick-Luneburg and Princess Augusta of Great Britain, elder sister of George III of the United Kingdom. Emma of Waldeck and Pyrmont 345

Marriage

She married the elderly king William III in Arolsen on 7 January 1879, two years after the death of his first wife, Princess Sophie of Württemberg. The aging, licentious king, once described as "the greatest debauchee of the age", had previously been rejected by Emma's sister Pauline and by Princess Thyra of Denmark. With William, Emma had her only child, the future Queen Wilhelmina, on 31 August 1880. The king also had three sons from his first marriage, William, Maurice, and Alexander, all of whom died before him without any legitimate offspring.

William III and Queen Emma

Widowhood

When William died on 23 November 1890, Emma became regent for her underaged daughter, Wilhelmina, the late king's only surviving child. She would remain Queen regent until Wilhelmina's eighteenth birthday on 31 August 1898. The Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, which could not be inherited by a woman at that time, passed to their distant cousin Adolf, Duke of Nassau (who was also Queen Emma's maternal uncle). She was the 812th Dame of the Royal Order of Queen Maria Luisa. She died in The Hague on 20 March 1934, of complications from bronchitis at the age of 75, and was buried in Delft.

Titles

• 2 August 1858 - 7 January 1879: Her Serene Highness Princess Emma of Waldeck [1] and Pyrmont Royal monogram • 7 January 1879 – 23 November 1890: Her Majesty The Queen of the Netherlands, Princess of Waldeck and Pyrmont • 23 November 1890 - 31 August 1898: Her Majesty Queen Emma of the Netherlands, The Queen Regent[2] • 31 August 1898 - 20 March 1934: Her Majesty Queen Emma of the Netherlands, The Queen Mother[3] Emma of Waldeck and Pyrmont 346

References

[1] (http:/ / www. parlement. com/ 9353000/ 1f/ j9vvhy5i95k8zxl/ vg09llxrkztu) (Parlement.nl)

[2] Wet i.v.m. het overgaan van de Kroon op een Koningin ( BWBR0001858 (http:/ / wetten. overheid. nl/ BWBR0001858/ ))

[3] Koningin Emma (1858-1934) (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ Wie_is_wie/ Stamboom_Koninklijk_Huis/ Stamboom_gegevens_personen/

Koningin_Emma_1858_1934. html) (Dutch Royal House)

External links

• (Dutch) Koningin Emma (1858-1934) (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ Wie_is_wie/

Stamboom_Koninklijk_Huis/ Stamboom_gegevens_personen/ Koningin_Emma_1858_1934. html) at the Dutch Royal House website

Emma of Waldeck and Pyrmont House of Waldeck and Pyrmont Cadet branch of the House of Waldeck Born: 2 August 1858 Died: 20 March 1934 Royal titles Vacant Queen consort of the Netherlands Vacant Title last held by 1879–1890 Title next held by Sophie of Württemberg Henry of Mecklenburg-Schwerin as Prince consort Grand Duchess consort of Succeeded by Luxembourg Adelheid-Marie of Anhalt-Dessau 1879–1890 William III of the Netherlands 347 William III of the Netherlands

William III

Portrait of King William III of the Netherlands by Nicolaas Pieneman (1865)

King of the Netherlands Grand Duke of Luxembourg

Reign 1849–1890

Predecessor William II

Successor Wilhelmina (in the Netherlands) Adolphe (in Luxembourg)

Spouse Sophie of Württemberg Emma of Waldeck and Pyrmont

Issue

William, Prince of Orange Prince Maurice Alexander, Prince of Orange Wilhelmina of the Netherlands

Full name

Willem Alexander Paul Frederik Lodewijk

House House of Orange-Nassau

Father William II of the Netherlands

Mother Anna Pavlovna of Russia

Born 19 February 1817 Brussels, United Kingdom of the Netherlands

Died 23 November 1890 (aged 73) Het Loo Palace, Apeldoorn, Netherlands

Burial Nieuwe Kerk, Delft, Netherlands

Religion Dutch Reformed Church

Dutch Royalty House of Orange-Nassau William III of the Netherlands 348

William I

Children William II Prince Frederick Princess Pauline Marianne, Princess Albert of Prussia Grandchildren Louise, Queen of Sweden and Norway Prince William Prince Frederick Marie, Princess of Wied

William II

Children William III Prince Alexander Prince Henry Prince Ernest Casimir Sophie, Grand Duchess of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach

William III

Children William, Prince of Orange Prince Maurice Alexander, Prince of Orange Wilhelmina

Wilhelmina

Children Juliana

Juliana

Children Beatrix Princess Irene Princess Margriet Princess Christina

Beatrix William III of the Netherlands 349

Children William-Alexander Prince Friso Prince Constantijn Grandchildren Catharina-Amalia, Princess of Orange Princess Alexia Princess Ariane Countess Luana Countess Zaria Countess Eloise Count Claus-Casimir Countess Leonore

Willem-Alexander

Children Catharina-Amalia, Princess of Orange Princess Alexia Princess Ariane

William III (Willem Alexander Paul Frederik Lodewijk, anglicised: William Alexander Paul Frederick Louis; 19 February 1817 – 23 November 1890) was King of the Netherlands and Grand Duke of Luxembourg from 1849 until his death in 1890. He was also the Duke of Limburg from 1849 until the abolition of the duchy in 1866. William was the son of King William II and Anna Pavlovna of Russia. On the abdication of his grandfather William I in 1840, he became the Prince of Orange. On the death of his father in 1849, he succeeded as King of the Netherlands. William married his cousin Sophie of Württemberg in 1839 and they had three sons, William, Maurice, and Alexander, all of whom predeceased him. He married Emma of Waldeck and Pyrmont in 1879 and they had one daughter Wilhelmina, who succeeded William to the Dutch throne. William III was the last male monarch of the Netherlands until the accession of King Willem-Alexander in 2013.[1]

Early life William was born on 19 February 1817 in Brussels as son of King William II and Queen Anna Paulowna. In his early years, he served in the military. He married his first cousin, Sophie, daughter of King William I of Württemberg and Grand Duchess Catherine Pavlovna of Russia, in Stuttgart on 18 June 1839. This marriage was unhappy and was characterized by struggles about their children. Sophie was a liberal intellectual, hating everything leaning toward dictatorship, such as the army. William was simpler, more conservative, and loved the military. He prohibited intellectual exercise at home, for which action Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom, who corresponded with Princess Sophie, called him an uneducated farmer. (His extramarital enthusiasms, however, led the New York Times to call him "the greatest debauchee of the age".[2]) Another cause of marital tension (and later political tension) was his capriciousness; he could rage against someone one day, and be extremely polite the next. William loathed the 1848 constitutional changes initiated by his father (William II) and Johan Rudolf Thorbecke. His father saw them as key to the monarchy's survival in changing times. Sophie also shared this view. William himself saw them as useless limitations of royal power, and would have preferred to govern as an enlightened despot in the mold of his grandfather, William I. William III of the Netherlands 350

He considered relinquishing his right to the throne to his younger brother Henry and later to his older son. His mother convinced him to cancel this action. One year later (1849) William became king upon the death of his father.

Reign

King William III repeatedly contemplated abdicating as soon as his eldest son William, Prince of Orange, turned eighteen. This occurred in 1858, but as William was uncomfortable making a decision he remained king. His first act was the inauguration of the parliamentary cabinet of Thorbecke, the liberal designer of the 1848 constitution, whom William loathed. Silver 2½ Guilder Coin of William III, struck in When the Roman Catholic of bishops was restored in 1853 1857. The obverse Dutch inscription is WILLEM III KONING DER NED[ERLANDEN] G[ROOT] he found growing conservative support and a reason to dismiss his H[ERTOG] V[AN] L[UXEMBURG] or in rival. In the first two decades of his reign, he dismissed several English, "William III, King of the Netherlands cabinets and disbanded the States-General several times, installing and Grand Duke of Luxembourg." The reverse royal cabinets which ruled as long as there was support in the elected Dutch inscription is MUNT VAN HET KONINGRYK DER NEDERLANDEN, or in second chamber of parliament. English, "Currency of the Kingdom of the In 1856, William unilaterally instituted a new, reactionary constitution Netherlands." for Luxembourg in what has become known as the 'Coup of 1856'. He tried to sell his privately held grand duchy (Nassau) in 1867, leading to the Luxembourg Crisis, which almost precipitated war between Prussia and France. However, the subsequent Second Treaty of London reestablished Luxembourg as a fully independent country.

During his reign, the King became more and more unpopular with his bourgeois-liberal subjects – his whims provoking their resistance and mockery, but remained quite popular with the common man. He was the 963rd Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece in Spain in 1842, the 777th Knight of the Order of the Garter in 1882 and the 72nd Grand Cross of the Order of the Tower and Sword. In 1877, Queen Sophie died and years of war in the palace came to an Colonial soldiers standing guard next end. In the same year, King William announced his intention to marry to the statue of King Willem III of the Netherlands, representing Dutch Eleonore d'Ambre, a French opera singer, whom he ennobled as dominance of the Banda Islands in countess d'Ambroise – without government consent. Under pressure the Maluku Islands in the Dutch East from society and the government, he abandoned these marriage plans. Indies In 1879, King William firstly proposed to his niece, the princess Elisabeth of Saxe-Weimar, but finally decided to marry Princess Emma of Waldeck and Pyrmont, a small German principality. Some politicians were quite angry, as she was 41 years the king's junior. Emma showed herself, however, as a cordial woman; and when William asked permission from parliament, this was easily granted and the couple were quickly married in Arolsen on 7 January 1879. She was not his first choice. He had previously been considering her older sister, Princess Pauline of Waldeck and Pyrmont, as well as Princess Thyra of Denmark, who had her own private scandalous history. William III of the Netherlands 351

Emma had a relieving influence on William's capricious personality and the marriage was extremely happy. The last decade was without any doubt the best of his reign. In 1880, Wilhelmina was born. She became heiress presumptive in 1884 after the death of the last remaining son from William's first marriage. Many potential male heirs had died between 1878 and 1884.

King William became seriously ill in 1887. However in 1888, he managed to personally hand over a gold medal of honour to the lifeboat hero Dorus Rijkers, for saving the lives of 20 people. He died in Het Loo in 1890. Because Wilhelmina had not yet reached adulthood, Emma became regent for her daughter. She would remain regent until Wilhelmina's eighteenth birthday in 1898. King William III on a photograph (ca. 1887)

Because the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg could only be inherited through the male Nassau line under the terms of the house-treaty of the House of Nassau, it went to William's 17th cousin once removed (and incidentally Emma's uncle on her mother's side), Adolphe, the Duke of Nassau. His branch of the House of Nassau still governs the Grand Duchy.

Children Of William III's legitimate children, three reached adulthood, two sons from his marriage to Queen Sophie and one daughter from his marriage to Queen Emma: • Willem Nicolaas Alexander Frederik Karel Hendrik (1840–1879). Heir apparent to the Throne from 1849 till his death. • Willem Frederik Maurits Alexander Hendrik Karel (1843–1850). • Willem Alexander Karel Hendrik Frederik (1851–1884). Heir-apparent to the Throne from 1879 till his death. • Wilhelmina Helena Pauline Maria (1880–1962). Queen of the Netherlands from 1890 to 1948.

Titles

• His Royal Highness Prince William of the Netherlands, Prince of Orange-Nassau (1817–1840) • His Royal Highness The Prince of Orange, Prince of the Netherlands, Prince of Orange-Nassau (1840–1849) • His Majesty The King of the Netherlands, Grand Duke of Luxembourg, Duke of Limburg (1849–1890)

Royal Monogram William III of the Netherlands 352

Ancestry

16. William IV, Prince of Orange

8. William V, Prince of Orange

17. Anne, Princess Royal

4. William I of the Netherlands

18. Prince Augustus William of Prussia

9. Wilhelmina of Prussia

19. Louise Amalie of Brunswick-Lüneburg

2. William II of the Netherlands

20. Prince Augustus William of Prussia (= 18)

10. Frederick William II of Prussia

21. Louise Amalie of Brunswick-Lüneburg (= 19)

5. Wilhelmine of Prussia

22. Louis IX, Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt

11. Frederika Louisa of Hesse-Darmstadt

23. Caroline of Zweibrücken

1. William III of the Netherlands

24. Charles Frederick, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp

12. Peter III of Russia

25. Anna Petrovna of Russia

6. Paul I of Russia

26. Christian August, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst

13. Catherine II of Russia William III of the Netherlands 353

27. Johanna Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp

3. Anna Pavlovna of Russia

28. Karl Alexander, Duke of Württemberg

14. Frederick II Eugene, Duke of Württemberg

29. Princess Maria Augusta of Thurn and Taxis

7. Sophie Dorothea of Württemberg

30. Margrave Frederick William of Brandenburg-Schwedt

15. Friederike Dorothea of Brandenburg-Schwedt

31. Princess Sophia Dorothea of Prussia

Notes and references

[1] Prins van Oranje wordt koning Willem-Alexander (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ nieuws/ nieuwsberichten/ 2013/ januari/

prins-van-oranje-wordt-koning-willem-alexander/ )

[2] "Holland's Queen" (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ mem/ archive-free/ pdf?res=F40615FB355D11738DDDAF0A94D1405B8785F0D3) - New York Times September 26, 1897

External links

• Official website of the Dutch monarchy (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ globale-paginas/ taalrubrieken/ english/

history/ kings-(19th-century)/ #il-king-willem-iii-1817-1890)

William III of the Netherlands House of Orange-Nassau Born: 17 February 1817 Died: 23 November 1890 Regnal titles Preceded by King of the Netherlands Succeeded by William II 1849–1890 Wilhelmina Duke of Limburg Merged into the Kingdom 1849–1866 Treaty of London (1867) Grand Duke of Succeeded by Luxembourg Adolphe 1849–1890 Dutch royalty Preceded by Prince of Orange Succeeded by William, Prince of Orange 1840–1849 William, Prince of Orange later became King William II Sophie of Württemberg 354 Sophie of Württemberg

Sophie of Württemberg

Portrait by Franz Xaver Winterhalter (1861)

Queen consort of the Netherlands Grand Duchess of Luxembourg Duchess of Limburg

Tenure 7 March 1849 – 3 June 1877

Spouse William III

Issue

William, Prince of Orange Prince Maurice Alexander, Prince of Orange

Full name

Sophie Frederika Mathilde

Father William I of Württemberg

Mother Catherine Pavlovna of Russia

Born 17 June 1818 Ludwigsburg Palace, Stuttgart

Died 3 June 1877 (aged 58) Huis ten Bosch, The Hague

Burial Nieuwe Kerk, Delft

Sophie of Württemberg (German: Sophia Frederika Mathilde von Württemberg; 17 June 1818 – 3 June 1877) was Queen of the Netherlands as the first wife of King William III of the Netherlands.

Biography

She was born in Stuttgart, her parents were King William I of Württemberg and Grand Duchess Catherine Pavlovna of Russia, the fourth eldest daughter of Tsar Paul I. Sophie and William were first cousins as their mothers were sisters. Shortly after Sophie’s birth, her mother died, and she was cared for by her aunt, Catharina of Württemberg. She was niece of tsars Alexander I and Nicholas I of Russia and a cousin of Tsar Alexander II, George V of Hanover and England's Queen Victoria.

Prior to her marriage, King Otto of Greece and Duke William of Brunswick were possible suitors for Princess Sophie. The engagement with the first came to nothing because Princess Sophie's ambitious The Queen a horse father had no confidence in the newly established Greek monarchy of Otto. Chance prevented a proposal by the second candidate because her father let it be known that Princess Sophie was already betrothed. Sophie of Württemberg 355

She married the Prince of Orange (later King William III) in Stuttgart on 18 June 1839 with the idea that she would in the end succeed in dominating him. The couple returned to the Netherlands and established themselves at the Plein Palace and -after they became king and queen- at the Noordeinde Palace. They had three children. The marriage was not a success. King William's mother, whom he completely relied on, was totally against the marriage to a daughter of the sister she loathed and treated her daughter-in-law and niece with disdain. Intellectually, Queen Sophie was superior to her husband. She, on the other hand didn't fit his sensual character. While he loved contemporary painting, music and theatre, she was a lady of letters with a specific interest in history. William III had several extramarital relations. She let it be publicly known that she found him inferior and unsuitable Monogram os Queen of the Netherlands to be king and that she would do better as a regent for her son.

Queen Sophie tried to separate from him, but this was refused; the state interest had to prevail. From 1855 the couple lived separately during the summer season, he at Het Loo Palace and she at Huis ten Bosch Palace. She also spent time in Stuttgart, with her own family. Queen Sophie died at Huis ten Bosch Palace in the Hague. She was buried in her wedding dress, because, in her own view, her life had ended on the day she married. Queen Sophie corresponded with several European scholars and maintained warm ties with Emperor Napoleon III and Queen Victoria. She protected and stimulated the arts, supported several charities, including animal protection and construction of public parks. She was the 540th Dame of the Royal Order of Queen Maria Luisa.

Issue 1. Prince William (1840–1879), Prince of Orange from 1849 until 1879. 2. Prince Maurice (1843–1850) died in childhood. 3. Prince Alexander (1851–1884), Prince of Orange from 1879 until 1884.

Titles and styles • 17 June 1818 - 18 June 1839 Her Royal Highness Princess Sophie of Württemberg • 18 June 1839 - 7 March 1849 Her Royal Highness The Princess of Orange • 7 March 1849 – 3 June 1877 Her Majesty The Queen of the Netherlands

Honours •• Dame of the Royal Order of Queen Maria Luisa

External links • Royal House of the Netherlands and Grand-Ducal House of Luxembourg [1] Sophie of Württemberg 356

Sophie of Württemberg House of Württemberg Born: 17 June 1818 Died: 3 June 1877 Royal titles Preceded by Queen consort of the Netherlands Vacant Anna Pavlovna of Russia Grand Duchess consort of Title next held by Luxembourg Emma of Waldeck and Pyrmont 1849–1877

References

[1] http:/ / koninklijkhuis. nl Prince Alexander of the Netherlands 357 Prince Alexander of the Netherlands

Prince Alexander Prince of the Netherlands Prince of Orange-Nassau

House House of Orange-Nassau

Father William II of the Netherlands

Mother Anna Pavlovna of Russia

Born 2 August 1818 Soestdijk

Died 20 February 1848 (aged 29) Funchal

Prince Alexander of the Netherlands, Prince of Orange-Nassau (William Alexander Frederick Constantine Nicholas Michael, Dutch: Willem Alexander Frederik Constantijn Nicolaas Michiel, Prins der Nederlanden, Prins van Oranje-Nassau; 2 August 1818 – 20 February 1848) was born at Soestdijk Palace, the second son to King William II of The Netherlands and Queen Anna Paulowna, daughter of Tsar Paul I of Russia. He was nicknamed Sasha within his family.

Biography Prince Alexander was born on Sunday August 2, 1818 at a quarter past ten in the morning. His birth was announced the next day in the Nederlandsche Staatscourant.[1] To commemorate the birth of his second grandson William I of the Netherlands gifted his daughter-in-law Anna Paulowna with the Czar Peter House in Zaandam, which had been inhabited by her ancestor Peter I of Russia during his stay in the Dutch Republic. Prince Alexander was christened on the forty-sixth birthday of his grandfather, August 24, 1818 by the reverend Krieger in The Hague. The young Prince's paternal great-grandmother Wilhelmina of Prussia was present for the occasion. Alexander received the names of his maternal uncles Alexander I of Russia, Grand Duke Constantine Pavlovich of Russia, Nicholas I of Russia and Grand Duke Michael Pavlovich of Russia. Alexander was educated together with his brother William III of the Netherlands, who was only eighteen months his senior. Their father, the Prince of Orange, thought the physical education of the boys particularly important. As such they spent much time outdoors. The Prince of Orange actively parttook in the upbringing of his children. On the 22nd of October 1822 Anna Paulowna wrote to her brother Constantine 'the two eldest are big boys and are receiving their first lessons. William started to teach them to read a year ago and now they have been entrusted to the care of a tutor who comes everyday to teach them. Papa teaches them Geography.'[2] The Princes William and Alexander later continued their studies at Leiden University, but neither of them showed a particular interest in academics. Alexander did develop an interest in Numismatics [3] From early childhood on Alexander was his parents' favourite son. They saw him as more fit to rule than his brother William. Alexander had inherited his father's easy going nature. He had a large group of friends and even managed to get on reasonably well with his sister-in-law Sophie of Württemberg. The latter had a difficult relationship with her in-laws, in particular with Anna Paulowna. Alexander was also known for his sense of humour, as he once appeared for a costume ball dressed from head to toe in shining armour. Alexander was the first member of the House of Orange to have his photograph taken, and he was also the first to own a bicycle.[4] Alexanders greatest attachments were hunting and horses. He received his first horse at the age of ten and became a skilled horseman. At Het Loo he bred Frisian horses. Alexander was also passionate hunter. In 1839 he and his Prince Alexander of the Netherlands 358

brother were permitted by their grandfather the King to reinstate the old practice of falconry at Het Loo. The two brothers created the Royal Loo Hawking Club, with Alexander, as protector of the hawking sport, serving as chairman. They gathered a company of international nobility at Het Loo. Apart from hunting the company also engaged in horseraces (Queen Anna Paulowna once gifted him with a horse brought from England for 4000 Dutch guilders[5]) and shooting contests. A letter to the Prince's father proves how seriously Alexander took his hunting activities, as he explained his absence from The Hague: 'I so desire to stay at Het Loo, where the falconry is wonderful this year. You might disapprove of my behaviour and my decision, my dear father, but remember, beloved father, this is my only relaxation and the only pleasure I truly love.'[6] After Alexander's death the expensive sport came to an end and in 1855 the curtain fell for the Royal Loo Hawking Club. For one who did not particularly care for seafaring Alexander travelled a great deal. This included several visits to the United Kingdom, and longer journeys to Italy and his mother's native country. On July 23, 1839 Alexander travelled to Russia to visit his maternal uncle Tsar Nicholas I, accompanied by his mentor Major Rigot de Beguins. On August 26, 1839 the Tsar named his nephew Chief of a Novorossiysk Draagoon Regiment. On the 3rd of October Anna Paulowna wrote to Tsar Nicholas thanking him for his kindness to her son 'How I should thank you, dear friend, for the gifts you have bestowed upon my son Alexander and for the flattering honour you so mercifully bestowed upon him by making him the head of a regiment of your army. May he once deserve the honour to be taken up in the ranks of such an army! May he be worth it!' [7] Like his father, Alexander occasionally appeared at court in Russian uniform. In 1846 Alexander accompanied his mother and sister Princess Sophie of the Netherlands to Italy. The company left Rotterdam on the 26th of August 1846 and arrived at Domodossola on September 11. At the end of September they reached Genoa where Prince Henry's ship lay moored. On October 9 the Queen, Alexander and Sophie reached Rome. They visited the Pope Pope Pius IX and the Protestant prince knelt to receive his blessing.[8] Alexander returned to The Netherlands in of November. As an adult man prince Alexander lived rather modestly. Aide-de-camp Eliza Pieter Matthes in 1842 described the prince's home behind the Kloosterkerk as "rather small for a prince", but the interior was "charming."[9] In 1844 Alexander bought villa Boschlust in The Hague, after the death of the former inhabitant . Alexander relocated to villa Boschlust in 1845, but stayed for only two years, until his departure to Madeira. After his death the villa was inherited by his parents. Anna Pauwlowna inhabited Boschlust for a short time after the death of her husband (The widowed queen fled her former home, Kneuterdijk Palace in tears when she visited one last time). Soon after, the Queen dowager also left Boschlust. The villa was sold in March 1851.[10] Villa Boschlust was demolished shortly after 1888.

Career As the Prince of Orange's second son Alexander was destined for a career in the army. On August 2, 1828, for his tenth birthday, Alexander received the rank of Colonel by Royal Order. He originally started his military career in the Navy, but soon switched to the Cavalry. With his father and brother William, Alexander joined the campaign against Belgium in 1833-4.[11] Being an excellent horseman, Alexander from 1840 on served as Lieutenant-General and Inspector of the Cavalry, a position he took very seriously. Eliza Pieter Matthes, aide-de-camp to King William II, recalled a conversation he had with Alexander about the cavalry: "I had the impression he was quite knowledgeable about that weapon [the cavalry]. It is a shame he is only our Inspector-General in name, we would not be worse off if he would be so [inspector-general] effectively."[12] Prince Alexander held the positions of Lieutenant-General and Inspector-General from 1840 until his death. The Regiment Huzaren Prins Alexander is named for him. In the Autumn of 1844 King William II planned to name his second son Governour-General of the Dutch East Indies. Many people, including Minister of Colonies Jean Chrétien Baud, objected, and in the end Alexander did not receive the commission.[13] Prince Alexander of the Netherlands 359

Marriage prospects

In the late 1830s, William IV of the United Kingdom wished to marry Alexander to his niece Princess Alexandrina Victoria of Kent (and future Queen of the United Kingdom). Nothing came of this however, as Victoria remarked to her uncle Leopold I of Belgium, "The [Netherlander] boys are very plain and have a mixture of Kalmuck (Mongol) and Dutch in their faces, moreover they look heavy, dull, and frightened and are not at all prepossessing. So much for the Oranges, dear Uncle".[14]

It was suggested in 1840 that Alexander should eventually marry Alexander was an excellent horseman Isabella II of Spain when she came of age, allowing him to become regent. However, opposition from other crowns and King William’s objection to her religion (she was Catholic) prevented any marriage between the two. Alexander never married, as princess Sophie wrote to Lady Malet on May 4, 1847 'but I am in pleasant company with prince Alexander[...]It is not that he courts me, for he does not yet know what a woman is, but he gives me all friendship he is able to give.'[15] He had no issue.

Declining health and death Charlotte Disbrowe, daughter to the British diplomat Sir Edward Cromwell Disbrowe (1790–1851), recalled how in November 1836 eighteen-year-old Alexander suffered a serious accident that could easily have cost him his life. During a frightening storm 'he and his eldest brother were returning from Leiden, where they went most days to pursue their studies. The road through the wood was so entirely blocked that they were obliged to abandon their carriage and proceed on foot. As they reached the part of the wood nearest to The Hague the trees were falling on all sides [...] one fell from a direction from which they did not expect it. The Baron seized hold of the Hereditary prince who was walking right next to him and pulled him out of danger, but Prince Alexander was caught by the branches and thrown down. It was some time before help was obtainable to extricate him, for it had to be done by digging away the ground.'[16] After the branches had been removed, Alexander, bleeding and unconscious, was carried back to the palace. 'At first, wrote Disbrowe, "he was not much hurt, but after some hours fever and delirium set in, and he was very seriously ill." [17] Alexander never fully recovered from this accident, frequently suffering from breathlessness and headaches for the rest of his life. Disbrowe later again commented on the prince's declining state of health: 'Prince Alexander, a very fine young man, born in 1818, was evidently failing in health. Whether he had been injured in any way by the tree that fell on him, or whether he had done harm to himself by trying to reduce himself to jockey weight, I know not, but he was six feet four inches in height, the latter experience would have needed vigorous treatment. Often when dancing with him I noticed how breathless he was, and how the perspiration stood out in beads on his forehead, and I wished I had the courage to beg him to stop.' [18] Alexander was constantly dieting and exercising to maintain his slim figure. He rarely spared himself any exhaustion, and tried to his physical weakness from his family. Alexander, however, failed to hide his problems forever. On the 23rd of April 1847 Princess Sophie remarked to Lady Malet about her brother-in-law's health problems 'Prince Alexander is also ill now. Some kind of exhausting illness, consumption. I don't know what [it is] exactly, but he walks like an old man and his glands are swollen. He has been staying at Het Loo for a month, but there has been no improvement.' On the 3rd of June she continued 'I made long rides with him face to face and listened to his complaints about his health and his problems. Sometimes I thought to myself, it is just like being alone with an old woman.'[19] Alexander contracted tuberculosis and for health reasons relocated in November 1847 to the drier climes of Madeira, Portugal. After an emotional farewell from his family he was taken to Rotterdam where he embarked on the final journey of his life. Prince Henry of the Prince Alexander of the Netherlands 360

Netherlands commanded the flagship 'Prince of Orange' and two escortships 'Cerberus' and 'Cyclops' that brought Alexander to Madeira. On the island Henry met his future wife Amalia of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach when she and her mother came to visit Alexander.[20] Alexander moved into the villa Quinta Vigia on the outskirts of Funchal, which is currently the of the President of the Regional Government of Madeira. He died there on 20 February 1848 at the age of 29. Because of an unfavourable wind the news of his death only reached his parents a month later, reportedly while King William II was posing for a portrait. Alexander's sister-in-law Sophie wrote to Lady Malet on the 24th of March 'Our poor prince Alexander died like he lived; until the last moment his thoughts were filled with horses and sports. He had no idea of the nearing end. The autopsy showed his lungs were perfectly healthy, the stomach destroyed, there was not a drop of blood in his body.' [21] The death of their favourite son hit the King, who was in the middle of a political crisis, particularly hard. He lamented: 'We walk as if on graves. The earth is nothing but a big grave, that devours all greatness, honour and glory'.[22] The Queen wrote to her brother Nicholas on March, 30th: 'Only today I feel strong enough to write some lines to tell you about the terrible disaster that has befallen us. Our Sasja is dead! and we have survived that blow.[...]He is at peace now, but we have to go on in this world, where he had no enemies, he who for me was the most loving of sons and the most loyal of companions.[23] The Queen later had many of her son's possession brought to Soestdijk, including his two hunting dogs, Charon and Ditch, whom she visited on his birthday and the anniversary of his death. Prince Alexander was buried in the royal crypt at Nieuwe Kerk in Delft on Good Friday the 21st of April, 1848 in a peculiar turtle-shaped coffin. His brothers Henry and William, Prince of Orange were the only members of the royal family to attend the funeral. The future King William III until 1859 moved the celebrations of his birthday to that of his wife (June 17) because his own birthday (February 19) was too close to the date of his brother's death.[24]

Titles • His Royal Highness Prince Alexander of the Netherlands, Prince of Orange-Nassau (1818–1848)

Military Ranks •• Colonel (2 August 1828 until death) •• Commander, Grenadiers' Guard Regiment Royal Netherlands Cavalry •• Major-General (2 August 1839 until 1840) •• Lieutenant-General (1840 until death) •• Inspector-General (1840 until death) Imperial Russian Cavalry •• Chief, Novorossiysk Dragoon Regiment (26 August 1839 - 19 March 1848) Prince Alexander of the Netherlands 361

Honours Dutch honours and decorations • Grand Cross of the Order of the Netherlands Lion (2 August 1828) Honours and decorations of the United Kingdom • Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Guelphic Order (1836) Imperial Russian honours and decorations • Grand Cross of the Order of St. Andrew the First-Called (10 September 1839)

References

[1] Nederlandsche Staatscourant 8-3-1818 (http:/ / kranten. kb. nl/ view/ paper/ id/ ddd:010051583:mpeg21:p001:a0001) [2][2]De Romanov Relaties, p.58

[3] Dagblad van 's Gravenhage 3-20-1848 (http:/ / kranten. kb. nl/ view/ article/ id/ ddd:010058926:mpeg21:p003:a0005) [4][4]In naam van Oranje 33, p. 788 [5][5]een jaar aan het hof, p. 85 [6][6]In naam van Oranje 30, p. 709 [7][7]De Romanov Relaties, p. 186 [8][8]Sophie in Weimar, p. 273 [9][9]Een jaar aan het hof, p. 36

[10] Van villa Boschlust tot nieuw Babylon (http:/ / anemaa. home. xs4all. nl/ ges/ straten/ bezuidenhoutseweg_boschlust. htm)

[11] Koninklijke ere-commando's en militaire erefuncties (http:/ / www. collectie. legermuseum. nl/ sites/ strategion/ contents/ i004547/ arma13

koninklijke ere-commandos. pdf) [12][12]Een jaar aan het hof, p. 76 [13][13]Een jaar aan het hof, p. 126 [14][14]Weintraub, p. 49. [15][15]Een vreemdelinge in Den Haag, p. 62 [16][16]Disbrowe, p. 250. [17][17]Disbrowe, p. 251. [18][18]Disbrowe, p. 297. [19][19]Een vreemdelinge in Den Haag, p. 63 [20][20]Op en om Oranje's troon, p. 115 [21][21]Een vreemdelinge in den Haag, p.68 [22][22]Vorstelijk begraven en gedenken, p.68 [23][23]De Romanov Relaties, p. 200 [24][24]Oranje in beeld, p.75

Sources • Bouman, J.J. (1967). Op en om Oranjes troon (in dutch). Zaltbommel: Europese bibliotheek. • Bouman, J.J. (1966). Oranje in beeld. Een familiealbum uit de 19de eeuw (in dutch). Zaltbommel: Europese bibliotheek. • Coppens, Thera (2011). Sophie in Weimar. Een prinses van Oranje in Duitsland (in dutch). Amsterdam: Meulenhoff. ISBN 978-90-290-8743-8. • Disbrowe, Charlotte Anne Albania (1903). Old Days in Diplomacy. Recollections of a closed century. London: Jarold&Sons. • Jackman, S.W. (1987). De Romanov Relaties. Uit de privé-correspondentie van Anna Paulowna en haar familie (in dutch). Baarn: Bosch en Keuning. • Jackman, S.W. (1984). Een vreemdelinge in Den Haag. Uit de brieven van Koningin Sophie aan Lady Malet (in dutch). Baarn: Bosch en Keuning. • Matthes, Eliza Pieter (2010). Een jaar aan het hof. Het dagboek van Eliza Pieter Matthes 1842-1843. Een ooggetuige aan het hof van koning Willem II (in dutch). : Waanders. Prince Alexander of the Netherlands 362

• van Raak, Cees (2003). Vorstelijk begraven en gedenken. Funeraire geschiedenis van het huis Oranje-Nassau (in dutch). Bussum: Thoth. • Weintraub, Stanley (1997). Uncrowned King: The Life of Prince Albert. London: John Murray Inc. ISBN 0-7195-5756-9. •• In naam van Oranje, 30. Vijf eeuwen de Oranjes en hun sport en jacht (1994) Nationaal Museum Paleis Het Loo. Zwolle: Waanders (in Dutch) •• In naam van Oranje, 33. Vijf eeuwen de Oranjes en de onbekende oranjeprinsen (1995) Nationaal Museum Paleis Het Loo. Zwolle: Waanders (in Dutch)

External links

• Royal House of the Netherlands and Grand-Ducal House of Luxembourg (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/

english/ ) Prince Henry of the Netherlands (governor) 363 Prince Henry of the Netherlands (governor)

Prince Henry

Spouse Amalia of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach Marie of Prussia

House House of Orange-Nassau

Father William II of the Netherlands

Mother Anna Pavlovna of Russia

Born 13 June 1820 Soestdijk Palace, Baarn

Died 14 January 1879 (aged 58) Walferdange Castle, Walferdange

Prince William Frederick Henry of the Netherlands (Dutch: Willem Frederik Hendrik; 13 June 1820 – 14 January 1879) was the third son of King William II of the Netherlands and his wife, Grand Duchess Anna Pavlovna of Russia. He was born at Soestdijk Palace. Prince Henry became Governor of Luxembourg in 1850, in which capacity he served until his death in 1879. During his tenure, he worked with the government to launch the reactionary Coup of 1856, which consolidated power in the monarchy and the executive. However, most of the changes were reversed by the new constitution issued in 1868 after the 1867 Luxembourg Crisis, during which the crown tried to sell the grand duchy to Prussia.

Personal life

He married twice. On 9 May 1853, in Weimar, he married Amalia Maria da Gloria Augusta of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach (Ghent, 20 May 1830 - Walferdange Castle, 1 May 1872). On 24 August 1878, in Potsdam, he married Marie Elisabeth Louise Frederica of Prussia (Marmorpalais, 14 September 1855 – Schloss Albrechtsberg, 20 June 1888). Both marriages were childless. At the time of his death at Walferdange Castle from measles, he was third in line of succession to the Dutch throne.

Throughout his life, his title was His Royal Highness Prince Henry of the Netherlands, Prince of Orange-Nassau.

Footnotes

Henry portrayed young External links

• Royal House of the Netherlands and Grand-Ducal House of Luxembourg (http:/ / www. angelfire. com/ realm/

gotha/ gotha/ netherlands. html)

• Grand-Ducal House of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach (http:/ / www. angelfire. com/ realm/ gotha/ gotha/ saxony. html) Prince Henry of the Netherlands (governor) 364

• Royal House of Prussia (http:/ / www. angelfire. com/ realm/ gotha/

gotha/ prussia. html)

A bust of Prince Henry in Amsterdam Princess Sophie of the Netherlands 365 Princess Sophie of the Netherlands

Sophie of the Netherlands

Grand Duchess of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach

Tenure 8 July 1853 – 23 March 1897

Spouse Charles Alexander, Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach

Issue

Charles Augustus, Hereditary Grand Duke Marie, Princess Heinrich VII Reuss Princess Anna Sophia Elisabeth, Duchess Johann Albrecht of Mecklenburg

Full name

Wilhelmine Marie Sophie Louise

House House of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach House of Orange-Nassau

Father William II of the Netherlands

Mother Anna Pavlovna of Russia

Born 8 April 1824 Lange Voorhout Palace, The Hague, Netherlands

Died 23 March 1897 (aged 72) Weimar, German Empire

Religion Calvinism

Princess Sophie of the Netherlands (Wilhelmine Marie Sophie Louise; 8 April 1824 – 23 March 1897) was the only daughter of King William II of the Netherlands and of his wife Grand Duchess Anna Pavlovna of Russia. She was heir presumptive to her niece, Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands, for seven years, from the death of her brother until her own death. Princess Sophie of the Netherlands 366

Marriage and children Princess Sophie married her first cousin, Charles Alexander, Hereditary Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, at Kneuterdijk Palace in The Hague on 8 October 1842. Their mothers were sisters, daughters of Tsar Paul I of Russia. They had four children: • Karl August Wilhelm Nicolaus Alexander Michael Bernhard Heinrich Frederick Stefan, Hereditary Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach (b. Weimar, 31 July 1844 - d. Cap Martin, France, 20 November 1894), who married Princess Pauline of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach. • Marie Anna Alexandrine Sophie Auguste Helene (b. Weimar, 20 January 1849 - d. Trebschen, 6 May 1922), who married Prince Heinrich VII Reuss. •• Maria Anna Sophia Elisabeth Bernhardine Ida Auguste Helene (b. Weimar, 29 March 1851 - d. Weimar, 26 April 1859) • Elisabeth Sibylle Maria Dorothea Anna Amalie Luise (b. Weimar, 28 February 1854 - d. Wiligrad, 10 July 1908), who married Duke Johann Albrecht of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. Catherine Radziwill, a contemporary of Sophie's, commented that, "...[Sophie] was very different from her husband, and, though extremely ugly, was a most imposing Princess. She was clever, too, and upheld the reputation of the Weimar family. She was a Princess of the Netherlands by birth...and kept and maintained at her court the traditions in which she had been reared. Notwithstanding her want of beauty, moreover, she presented a splendid figure, being always magnificently dressed and covered with wonderful jewels, among which shone a parure of rubies and diamonds that were supposed to be the finest of their kind in Europe".[1]

Titles, styles honours and arms

Titles and styles • 8 April 1824 - 8 October 1842 Her Royal Highness Princess Sophie of the Netherlands, Princess of Orange-Nassau • 8 October 1842 - 8 July 1853 Her Royal Highness The Hereditary Grand Duchess of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach • 8 July 1853 – 23 March 1897 Her Royal Highness The Grand Duchess of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach

References

[1][1]Radziwill, p. 118.

Sources • Radziwill, Catherine (1915). Memories of Forty Years. New York: Funk & Wagnalls Press.

External links

• Royal House of the Netherlands (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ english/ ) Princess Sophie of the Netherlands 367

Princess Sophie of the Netherlands House of Orange-Nassau Cadet branch of the House of Nassau Born: 8 April 1824 Died: 23 March 1897 German royalty Preceded by Grand Duchess consort of Vacant Maria Pavlovna of Russia Saxe-Weimar Title next held by 8 July 1853 – 23 March 1897 Caroline Reuss of Greiz Dutch royalty Preceded by Heir to the Dutch throne Succeeded by Wilhelmina of the Netherlands as heir presumptive William Ernest of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach 23 November 1890 – 23 March 1897 Charles Alexander, Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach 368 Charles Alexander, Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach

Karl Alexander Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach

Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach

Reign 8 July 1853 – 5 January 1901

Predecessor Charles Frederick

Successor William Ernest

Spouse Sophie of the Netherlands

Issue

Charles Augustus, Hereditary Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach Marie, Princess Heinrich VII Reuss Princess Anna Sophia Elisabeth, Duchess Johann Albrecht of Mecklenburg

Full name

Charles Alexander Augustus John German: Karl Alexander August Johann Großherzog von Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach

House House of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach

Father Charles Frederick, Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach

Mother Maria Pavlovna of Russia

Born 24 June 1818 Weimar

Died 5 January 1901 (aged 82) Weimar

Religion Lutheranism

Karl Alexander August Johann, Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach (24 June 1818 – 5 January 1901) was the ruler of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach from 1853 until his death. Charles Alexander, Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach 369

Biography Born in Weimar, he was the second but eldest surviving son of Karl Frederick, Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach and Grand Duchess Maria Pavlovna of Russia. His mother engaged as tutor for Karl the Swiss scholar Frédéric Soret who became a close acquaintance to Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. When he was the Hereditary Grand Duke, Karl Alexander established a strong friendship with Fanny Lewald and , but this close relationship stopped in 1849 for the war against Denmark over the of Schleswig-Holstein (the First German-Danish War). On 8 July 1853 his father died, and Karl Alexander became Grand Duke; but he stopped his constitutional accession until the Goethe's birthday, on 28 August 1853. The Danish author and poet Hans Christian Andersen was reportedly infatuated with Karl Alexander, writing "I quite love the young duke, he is the first of all princes that I really find attractive". Karl Alexander renovated Wartburg Castle, and left his traces in many places in Eisenach. He was the protector of Richard Wagner and Franz Liszt, retained the tradition of Weimar's classical period, and gave the old part of Weimar a new and better appearance with the establishment of the Herders monuments, how/as country, and the double monument for Goethe and Schiller. In 1860, he founded the Weimar Saxon-Grand Ducal Art School (with Arnold Böcklin, Franz von Lenbach and the plastic artist Reinhold Begas. As Grand Duke he was automatically Rektor, president of Jena University where he supported especially the collections among them prominently the Oriental Coin Cabinet. In the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871), Karl Alexander participated only in "Samaritan"; stressed, however, for his war entrance in favor of Schleswig in 1849. The Weimar Congress of the Goethe (opposing the Lex Heinze) occurred towards the end of his reign, in November 1900 - that congress described his government as the Silver Age of Weimar. He was the 1,045th Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece in Spain, and was created the 71st Grand Cross of the Order of the Tower and Sword in 1854. He died at Weimar in 1901. Following his death, he was succeeded as Grand Duke by his grandson Wilhelm Ernst, his only son Carl August having predeceased him.

Family and children At Kneuterdijk Palace in The Hague, on 8 October 1842, Karl Alexander married with his first cousin, Princess Sophie of the Netherlands, daughter of William II and Grand Duchess Anna Pavlovna of Russia, sister of his mother. They had four children: 1. Karl August Wilhelm Nicolaus Alexander Michael Bernhard Heinrich Frederick Stefan, Hereditary Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach (b. Weimar, 31 July 1844 – d. Cap Martin, France, 20 November 1894). 2. Marie Anna Alexandrine Sophie Auguste Helene (b. Weimar, 20 January 1849 – d. Trebschen, 6 May 1922), known as Marie; married on 6 February 1876 to Prince Heinrich VII Reuss. 3. Maria Anna Sophia Elisabeth Bernhardine Ida Auguste Helene (b. Weimar, 29 March 1851 – d. Weimar, 26 April 1859), known as Anna. 4. Elisabeth Sibylle Maria Dorothea Anna Amalie Luise (b. Weimar, 28 February 1854 – d. Wiligrad, 10 July 1908), known as Elisabeth; married on 6 November 1886 to Duke Johann Albrecht of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. Louise of the Netherlands 371 Louise of the Netherlands

Louise of the Netherlands Queen consort of Sweden and Norway

Tenure 8 July 1859 – 30 March 1871

Spouse Charles XV of Sweden

Issue

Louise, Queen of Denmark Prince Carl Oscar, Duke of Södermanland

House House of Orange-Nassau

Father Prince Frederick of the Netherlands

Mother Princess Louise of Prussia

Born 5 August 1828 The Hague, United Kingdom of the Netherlands

Died 30 March 1871 (aged 42) Stockholm, Sweden, United Kingdoms of Sweden and Norway

Burial

Religion Dutch Reformed Church

Louise of the Netherlands (Wilhelmina Frederika Alexandrine Anna Louise) (5 August 1828 – 30 March 1871) was the Queen of Sweden and Norway as spouse of King Charles XV of Sweden and IV of Norway.

Biography

Early life Princess Louise was born on 5 August 1828 in The Hague. Her father was Prince Frederick of the Netherlands, the second child of King William I of the Netherlands and Wilhelmina of Prussia. Her mother Louise was the eighth child of King Frederick William III of Prussia and Louise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. In 1849, Louise was selected as a suitable marriage partner for Crown Prince Charles of Sweden and Norway, the son of King and Norway and Josephine of Leuchtenberg. The marriage was arranged after the negotiations to arrange a marriage between Charles and a Prussian princess had failed. King Oscar I of Sweden wished to secure royal family connections between the new Bernadotte dynasty and the old royal dynasties of Europe, and a Protestant Princess was also seen as necessary to be the next Queen of the protestant Sweden-Norway after two Catholic predecessors. Louise fulfilled these credentials, and there was also expectations for the great dowry expected from the rich Dutch dynasty. Cabinet secretary L Manderström was sent to inspect her, and diplomatically let it be known in his report that Louise had an excellent education and a good character but that she was not attractive.[1] In August 1849, a meeting was arranged between Louise and Charles in the Hague. Reportedly, Louise fell in love with Charles and felt an immediate attraction, while Charles in contrast was disappointed in her appearance.[2] Charles, however, was convinced to agree to the marriage by the King. The engagement was officially declared in February 1850. The expectations of her great fortune was debated in Sweden, both in the parliament during the discussions about the allowance, and in the radical press, who suggested that the monarch would no be able to finance the construction of the Swedish rail road net by himself.[3] In reality, however, her dowry turned out to be very small. During the engagement, Louise studied the and Louise of the Netherlands 372

history.

Crown Princess

Princess Louise and Crown Prince Charles married at in Stockholm on 19 June 1850. After the wedding, her father-in-law the King took her on a tour through Sweden to introduce her to the country. The relationship between Louise and Charles was unhappy.[4] The couple had dissimilar personalities, with Louise being introverted, shy and with a preference for a simple life, and Charles extroverted and with a love for parties and social life. Louise was reportedly unhappily in love with Charles, who found her unattractive and was unfaithful Charles XV and Louise of Orange Nassau toward her, which pained her considerably. From 1852 until 1860, betrothal in 1850. Returning home to the castle Charles had a relationship with Josephine Sparre, maid of honor to Louise, which caused a scandal. Sparre was described as so dominant that the Crown Princess and her maid of honor was said to have changed places with each other and Louise being the lady in waiting to Josephine Sparre rather than the other way around. Louise was given sympathy and Charles was considered to treat her with neglect. A known episode which attracted attention took place at the birthday garden party of Louise at in 1857, when the Crown Prince proposed a toast to "His secret love" at the table with both Louise and Josephine Sparre present. This caused a scene, and his brother, Prince Oscar, reprimanded him by asking his spouse Sofia of Nassau to toast with him. This scene caused Louise to burst in to tears and suffer and nervous attack.[5] Louise had two children; Princess Louise in 1851, and Prince Carl Oscar in 1852. Because of a complication connected the last child birth, Louise was unable to have any more children. In 1854, her son died in pneumonia. As female succession, which had previously been allowed in Sweden, had been banned in the constitution of 1809, her daughter was not accepted as an heir to the throne. Louise offered Charles a , but he declined the offer.[6]

Crown Princess Louise was not considered a social success, and her timid and shy nature was not appreciated in society because of her official position. Between 1857 and 1859, Crown Prince Charles was named regent during the incapacity of his father. During her spouses reign as prince regent, she was described in the well known court chronicle of Fritz von Dardel: "A more lovable and talented woman would have entirely recreated the atmosphere in this circle and also exerted a good influence upon the Prince, who, of a good nature, easily let himself be led by those he likes, especially women. Although good, dutiful and not one to plot, the crown princess lacks higher qualities. She is a good housewife but thinks only of her husband, herself and those closest to her and she has not the good influence on him which her good character gives her the right to have. Because of her inborn shyness, she lacks the courage to meddle in his affairs, and her only wish is to gain his love. With one word; she seems not mature enough for her great task".[7] Louise of the Netherlands 373

Queen

Louise became Queen of Sweden and Norway at the death of her father-in-law on 8 July 1859. She was the first queen of the union of Sweden-Norway to be crowned in both Sweden and Norway, as Norway had refused to crown her two predecessors because they were Catholics. Louise was crowned to Queen of Sweden in Stockholm 3 May 1859 and to Queen of Norway in Trondheim 5 August 1860. She was the first queen to be crowned in Norway since the . Louise was very celebrated in Norway during her stay there.

Louise exerted no influence upon state affairs what so ever, nor did she show any ambition to do so. The fact that she did not meddle in politics was seen as a good role model and was favorably compared to previously queens who did, as her predecessor Queen Josephine, and this view is described in a contemporary dictionary from 1864: "At last, the two kingdoms can rejoice in the blessing of again having a Queen, who does not proceed the governmental power with her own thoughts, but calmly observes the natural process through King and legitimate authority. Loved by the Swedish people, she has enough [8] opportunity for her noble wish to occupy herself in charity". She did Louise of the Netherlands not lack political views, however: she disliked the parliament reform of 1865, and she did not share the anti-German view of Charles.[9]

Louise preferred to use her royal position to philanthropic activity, which was also expected by a female member of royalty and upper class. She founded the charity organisations: "Kronprinsessan Lovisas vårdanstalt för sjuka barn" (The Crown Princess Louise's Asylum for Sick Children) in 1854; "Femöreföreningen till inrättande av barnhem i Lappland" (The Five Öre Foundation for Orphanages in Lappland) in 1864; "Lotten Wennbergs fond för hjälpbehövande" (The Lotten Wennberg Foundation for the Needing) in 1864; "Drottning Lovisas understödsförening" (The Queen Louise Charity Foundation) in 1866; "Allmänna institutet för dövstumma och blinda" (The Public Institution of the Deaf and Blind); "Sällskapet för inrättande av småbarnsskolor" (The Society for Elementary Education School's Foundation); "Den fosterländska föreningen till uppmuntran av själverksamhet för framtida oberoende" (The Patriotic Society for the Encouragement of Self Employments for Future Independence); and the "Tysta skolan, eller uppfostrings- och undervisningsanstalten för dövstumma barn" (Silent School, or The Nursing- and Education Institution for Deaf and Mute Children).[10]

Louise was interested in music and history. She translated work from the English and Dutch language to Swedish, which she sold for charitable purposes. Louise and her daughter was a student of Nancy Edberg, the pioneer of swimming for women: the art of swimming was initially not regarded as being entirely proper for females, but when the Queen and her daughter Princess Louise supported it by attending the lessons from 1862, swimming was quickly made fashionable and became accepted for women.[11] Louise employed Sweden's first female dentist, Rosalie Fougelberg, as her official personal dentist in 1867.[12] Among her own personal friends was countess Stephanie Hamilton, who served as her Mistress of the Robes in 1859-60: their correspondence is preserved. Queen Louise preferred a quite and anonymous family life and preferred to avoid ceremonial and representational duties whenever she could, some times by simulating illness. King Charles, however, did not like to appear without her at formal occasions and occasionally forced her to represent. At one occasion, he is known to have said to her that she would have to attend, otherwise: "The old women might think there is something wrong with you!" In 1866, for example, Charles forced her to open the Nordic Industrial Exhibition in Stockholm in his place. Louise of the Netherlands 374

King Charles XV loved parties and masquerades and his court life at was compared to the life at Versailles and was in some circles considered to shame the name of the monarchy, expressed by the vicar Christoffer Bruun in 1881: "It still causes as shiver that the highest power of the church was placed in the hands of this degenerated King, who has filled the whole nation with talk of his debauched life."[13] Louise was given an important part to play in his court life in her part as queen, and upon the death of Queen Dowager Desirée, who had occupied the Queen's wing in the Stockholm Royal Palace until her death in 1860, Charles redecorated it for Louise and had a luxurious Venetian Mirror hall made to her reception room, which was much talked about (it was later removed by his successor). Reportedly, Louise suffered by her spouses adultery and did her best to compete with her rivals and entertain him, and her mother-in-law gave her the advice to remove and marry away her maids of honor when Charles became attracted by them.[14] Charles had a relationship with Hanna Styrell from 1860 until 1869 and with Wilhelmine Schröder Louise as queen from 1869 until his death expect from his more temporary relationships. Charles was very found of their daughter, however Louise was worried that he treated their daughter to much like a son in a time period when gender roles was considered extremely important, thereby allowing her more freedom than what was considered to be suitable for a female at that period.

Louise suffered from bad health. On at least one occasion, during a boat trip on Mälaren, she suffered some kind of a fit (possibly an epileptic seizure from contemporary descriptions), which was interpreted to have been a hysterical reaction to her husband's neglect. The court gathered to conceal her from public view, and the King quickly took her below deck. In this issue, it is reported that: "Lovisa could at any time faint and in connection to this, she could have what is called nerve- or cramp-attacks". In 1870, Queen Louise visited the Netherlands to be present at the death bed of her mother. Upon her return to Stockholm, Charles XV fell sick and she nursed him. Exhausted, she contracted pneumonia during a walk by carriage. On her death bed, she had long conversations with her family, which has been described as dramatic. Her daughter claimed: "It was as as if mother exposed her entire life to us".[15] Louise and asked Charles to forgive her everything in which she could have failed to him, to which he responded by accusing himself,[16] after which both he and his mother Josephine reportedly fainted with movement. Louise died 30 March 1871.

Children Louisa and Charles had two children together: 1. Princess Louise of Sweden (31 October 1851 – 20 March 1926), later Queen of Denmark 2. Prince Carl Oscar, Duke of Södermanland (14 December 1852 – 13 March 1854), who died in infancy

Titles, Styles, Honours, and Arms • 1828 – 1850: Her Royal Highness Princess Louise of the Netherlands, Princess of Orange-Nassau • 1850 – 1859: Her Royal Highness The Crown Princess of Sweden and Norway • 1859 – 1871: Her Majesty The Queen of Sweden and Norway Louise of the Netherlands 375

Notes and references

[1][1]Lovisa, urn:sbl:9717, Svenskt biografiskt lexikon (art av Nils F Holm), hämtad 2013-11-01. [2][2]Lovisa, urn:sbl:9717, Svenskt biografiskt lexikon (art av Nils F Holm), hämtad 2013-11-01. [3][3]Lovisa, urn:sbl:9717, Svenskt biografiskt lexikon (art av Nils F Holm), hämtad 2013-11-01. [4][4]Lovisa, urn:sbl:9717, Svenskt biografiskt lexikon (art av Nils F Holm), hämtad 2013-11-01. [5][5]Anne-Marie Riiber (1959). Drottning Sophia. (Queen Sophia) : J. A. Lindblads Förlag. ISBN. page 39 (Swedish) [6][6]Lovisa, urn:sbl:9717, Svenskt biografiskt lexikon (art av Nils F Holm), hämtad 2013-11-01. [7][7]Dardel, Fritz von, Minnen, Stockholm 1912 [8][8]Wilhelmina Stålberg: Anteckningar om svenska qvinnor (1864) [9][9]Lovisa, urn:sbl:9717, Svenskt biografiskt lexikon (art av Nils F Holm), hämtad 2013-11-01. [10][10]Nordisk familjebok / 1800-talsutgåvan. 10. Lloyd - Militärkoloni /

[11] Idun (1890): Nr 15 (121) (http:/ / www. ub. gu. se/ fasta/ laban/ erez/ kvinnohistoriska/ tidskrifter/ idun/ 1890/ pdf/ 1890_15. pdf) [12] Österberg, Carin et al., Svenska kvinnor: föregångare, nyskapare(ISBN 91-87896-03-6) (Swedish Women: predecessors, pioneers) Lund: Signum 1990.(Swedish) [13][13]Anne-Marie Riiber (1959). Drottning Sophia. (Queen Sophia) Uppsala: J. A. Lindblads Förlag. ISBN. page 74 (Swedish) [14][14]Anne-Marie Riiber (1959). Drottning Sophia. (Queen Sophia) Uppsala: J. A. Lindblads Förlag. ISBN. page 75 (Swedish) [15][15]Anne-Marie Riiber (1959). Drottning Sophia. (Queen Sophia) Uppsala: J. A. Lindblads Förlag. ISBN. page 78 (Swedish) [16][16]Anne-Marie Riiber (1959). Drottning Sophia. (Queen Sophia) Uppsala: J. A. Lindblads Förlag. ISBN. page 78 (Swedish)

• Svenskt biografiskt handlexikon (1906), Lovisa. (http:/ / runeberg. org/ sbh/ b0095. html)

• Nationalencyklopedin, Lovisa (http:/ / www. ne. se/ jsp/ search/ article. jsp?i_art_id=244858)

• Christer Engstrand and Ingmar Andersson. Historiska Personer: Lovisa av Nederländerna (http:/ /

historiska-personer. nu/ min-s/ p2c518b2b. html). Retrieved 3 October 2004. • Lars Elgklou (1995). Familjen Bernadotte, en kunglig släktkrönika (in Swedish). Skogs boktryckeri Trelleborg. ISBN 91-7054-755-6. • Lars O. Lagerqvist (1979). Bernadotternas drottningar (in Swedish). Albert Bonniers Förlag AB. ISBN 91-0-042916-3. • Lars Elgklou (1978). Bernadotte. Historien - eller historier - om en familj.. Stockholm: Askild & Kärnekull Förlag AB.

External links

Louise of the Netherlands House of Orange-Nassau Born: 5 August 1828 Died: 30 March 1871 Royal titles Preceded by Queen consort of Sweden and Vacant Josephine of Leuchtenberg Norway Title next held by 1859–1871 Sophia of Nassau Charles XV of Sweden 376 Charles XV of Sweden

Charles XV & IV

King of Sweden and Norway

Reign 8 July 1859 – 18 September 1872

Coronation 3 May 1860, Stockholm 5 August 1860, Trondheim

Predecessor Oscar I

Successor Oscar II

Spouse Louise of the Netherlands

Issue

Louise, Queen of Denmark Prince Carl Oscar, Duke of Södermanland

Full name

Carl Ludvig Eugen

Father Oscar I

Mother Josephine of Leuchtenberg

Born 3 May 1826 Stockholm

Died 18 September 1872 (aged 46) Malmö

Burial Riddarholmskyrkan, Stockholm

Religion Lutheranism

Charles XV & IV also Carl (Carl Ludvig Eugen); Swedish and Norwegian: Karl (3 May 1826 – 18 September 1872) was King of Sweden (Charles XV) and Norway (Charles IV) from 1859 until his death. Though known as King Charles XV in Sweden, he was actually the ninth Swedish king by that name, as his predecessor Charles IX (reigned 1604–1611) had adopted a numeral according to a fictitious .[1]

Biography He was born in , Stockholm, and dubbed Duke of Skåne at birth. He was the eldest son of King Oscar I and Josephine of Leuchtenberg. He was given his first officer's commission in 1841 by his grandfather, Charles XIV John. After his father's accession to the throne in 1844, he was made a chancellor of the universities of Uppsala and Lund, and in 1853 chancellor of Royal Swedish Academy of Arts. On February 11, 1846, he was made an honorary member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. The Crown Prince was Viceroy of Norway briefly in 1856 and 1857. He became Regent on 25 September 1857, and king on the death of his father on 8 July 1859. As grandson of Augusta of Bavaria, he was a descendant of Gustav I of Sweden and Charles IX of Sweden, whose blood returned to the throne after being lost in 1818 when Charles XIII of Sweden died. On 19 June 1850 he married in Stockholm Louise of the Netherlands, niece of William II of the Netherlands through her father and niece of William I of Prussia, German Emperor, through her mother. The couple were personally quite dissimilar; Princess Louise was in love with her husband, whereas he preferred other women. His well-known Charles XV of Sweden 377

mistresses included the countess Josephine Sparre, Wilhelmine Schröder and the actresses Hanna Styrell and Elise Hwasser, the latter the most celebrated actress in Sweden during his reign, and the Crown Prince neglected his shy wife. On the other hand, his relationship to his only daughter, Louise, was warm and close. As Crown Prince, Charles' brusque manner led many to regard his future accession with some apprehension, yet he proved to be one of the most popular of Scandinavian kings and a constitutional ruler in the best sense of the word. His reign was remarkable for its manifold and far-reaching reforms. Sweden's existing communal law (1862), ecclesiastical law (1863) and criminal law (1864) were enacted appropriately enough under the direction of a king whose motto was: Land skall med lag byggas - "With law shall the land be built". Charles also helped Louis De Geer to carry through his memorable reform of the Parliament of Sweden in 1866. He also declared the freedom of women by passing the law of legal majority for unmarried women in 1858 - his sister Princess Eugenie became the first woman who was declared mature. Charles was an advocate of Scandinavianism and the political solidarity of the three northern kingdoms, and his friendship with Frederick VII of Denmark, it is said, led him to give half promises of help to Denmark on the eve of the war of 1864, which, in the circumstances, were perhaps misleading and unjustifiable. In view, however, of the unpreparedness of the Swedish army and the difficulties of the situation, Charles was forced to observe a strict neutrality. He died in Malmö on 18 September 1872. Charles XV attained some eminence as a painter and as a poet. He was followed on both the thrones of Norway and Sweden by his brother Oscar II. In 1855 he became the 990th Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece in Spain. A few weeks before Charles' death, his daughter Louise (then the Crown Princess of Denmark) gave birth to her second son. The young Prince of Denmark became christened as grandfather Charles' namesake. In 1905 this grandson, Prince Carl of Denmark, ascended the throne of Norway, becoming thus his maternal grandfather's successor in that country, and assumed the reign name Haakon VII. The present king, , is Charles' great-great-grandson, through his father and mother. No subsequent king of Sweden to this day is Charles' descendant. However, his descendants are or have been on the thrones of Denmark, Luxembourg, Greece, Belgium and Norway.

Issue

Name Birth Death Notes

Louise Josephine 31 October 21 March married, 1869, Frederick VIII of Denmark; had issue including Eugenie 1851 1926 and Haakon VII of Norway.

Carl Oscar Vilhelm 14 December 13 March died in infancy Frederik 1852 1854

[2] Carl Johan Bolander 4 February 1854 28 July 1903 father of Bishop Nils Bolander; had issue Charles XV of Sweden 378

References

[1] Article Karl (http:/ / runeberg. org/ nfbm/ 0500. html) in Nordisk familjebok [2] Carl-Erik Sahlberg in Nils Bolander diktare och predikant ISBN 91-86112-39-2 p. 11 • This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Charles XV.". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press

External links

• The Royal Norwegian Order of St Olav - Norwegian and Swedish Monarchs Grand Masters of the Order (http:/ /

www. saintolav. com)

• Family tree of the Royal Norwegian House (http:/ / www. kongehuset. no/ popup_slektstre_eng. html)

• Kings of Norway (in Norwegian) (http:/ / www. thule. no/ ~larsd/ kongerekka. html)

• Much material on early kings (in Norwegian) (http:/ / www. arild-hauge. com/ konger. htm)

Karl XV/IV Born: 3 May 1826 Died: 18 September 1872 Regnal titles Preceded by King of Sweden and Succeeded by Oscar I Norway Oscar II 1859–1872 Titles of nobility New title Duke of Skåne Vacant 1826–1859 Title next held by Gustav Adolf

Political offices

Preceded by Prime Minister of Norway Succeeded by Severin Løvenskiold 1856 Jørgen Herman Vogt Preceded by Prime Minister of Norway Jørgen Herman Vogt 1857 Princess Marie of the Netherlands 379 Princess Marie of the Netherlands

Princess Marie Princess of Wied

Marie, Princess of Wied

Spouse William, Prince of Wied

Issue

William Frederick, Prince of Wied Prince Alexander William, Prince of Albania Prince Victor Princess Louise Princess Elisabeth

Full name

Dutch: Wilhelmina Frederika Anna Elisabeth Marie

House House of Orange-Nassau (by birth) House of Wied-Neuwied (by marriage)

Father Prince Frederick of the Netherlands

Mother Princess Louise of Prussia

Born 5 June 1841 Wassenaar, Netherlands

Died 22 June 1910 (aged 69) Neuwied, Kingdom of Prussia

Princess Marie of the Netherlands (Dutch: Prinses Wilhelmina Frederika Anna Elisabeth Marie der Nederlanden, Prinses van Oranje-Nassau; 5 June 1841 – 22 June 1910) was the fourth child and younger daughter of Prince Frederick of the Netherlands and wife of William, 5th Prince of Wied. She was the mother of William, Prince of Albania. Princess Marie of the Netherlands 380

Early life Marie was born at Wassenaar, Netherlands the fourth child and younger daughter of Prince Frederick of the Netherlands (1797–1881) second son of William I of the Netherlands, and his wife, Princess Louise of Prussia (1808–1870), daughter of Frederick William III of Prussia. Princess Marie suffered at an early age of hearing problems and like her sister Louise, she was considered unattractive, but a truly spectacular heiress. Her parents hoped to marry her to Albert Edward, Prince of Wales (later King Edward VII). Edward's mother, Queen Victoria, originally a supporter of the match, blew off the plan after meeting her and found her unattractive.

Marriage and family

Marie married on 18 July 1871 in Wassenaar, William, Prince of Wied (1845–1907), elder son of Hermann, Prince of Wied and Princess Marie of Nassau. They had six children: • William Frederick, Prince of Wied (27 June 1872 – 18 June 1945) married Princess Pauline of Württemberg, had issue. • Prince Alexander of Wied (28 May 1874 – 15 January 1877) • William, Prince of Albania (26 March 1876 – 18 April 1945) married Princess Sophie of Schönburg-Waldenburg (1885–1936), had issue. • Prince Victor of Wied (7 December 1877 – 1 March 1946) married Countess Gisela of Solms-Widenfels (1891–1976), had issue. • Princess Louise of Wied (24 October 1880 – 29 August 1965) • Princess Elisabeth of Wied (28 January 1883 – 14 November 1938) Marie with her family

Titles and styles • 5 June 1841 – 18 July 1871: Her Royal Highness Princess Marie of the Netherlands, Princess of Orange-Nassau • 18 July 1871 – 22 October 1907: Her Royal Highness The Princess of Wied • 22 October 1907 – 22 June 1910: Her Royal Highness The Dowager Princess of Wied

Notes and sources • thePeerage.com - Marie von Nassau, Princess of the Netherlands [1] • Genealogics - Leo van de Pas - Princess Marie of The Netherlands [2] •• The Royal House of Stuart, London, 1969, 1971, 1976, Addington, A. C., Reference: page 354.

References

[1] http:/ / www. thepeerage. com/ p10233. htm#i102326

[2] http:/ / www. genealogics. org/ getperson. php?personID=I00006909& tree=LEO William, Prince of Wied 381 William, Prince of Wied

William Prince of Wied

William, Prince of Wied

Spouse Princess Marie of the Netherlands

Issue

William Frederick, Prince of Wied Prince Alexander William, Prince of Albania Prince Victor Princess Louise Princess Elisabeth

Full name

German: Wilhelm Adolph Maximilian Carl

House House of Wied-Neuwied

Father Hermann, Prince of Wied

Mother Princess Marie of Nassau

Born 22 August 1845 Neuwied, Duchy of Nassau

Died 22 October 1907 (aged 62) Neuwied, Kingdom of Prussia

William V, Prince of Wied (German: Wilhelm Adolph Maximilian Karl Fürst von Wied; 22 August 1845 – 22 October 1907) was a German officer and politician, elder son of Hermann, Prince of Wied. He was the father of William, Prince of Albania and brother of Queen Elisabeth of Romania. William, Prince of Wied 382

Early life William was the second child and first son of Hermann, Prince of Wied (1814–1864), son of Johann August Karl, Prince of Wied and Princess Sophie Auguste of Solms-Braunfels, and his wife, Princess Marie of Nassau (1825–1902), daughter of William, Duke of Nassau and his first wife Princess Louise of Saxe-Hildburghausen. Through her mother he was descendant of George II of Great Britain.

Military career During the Austro-Prussian War in 1866, he was a lieutenant general staff of the 2nd Army. During 1870-71 he attended Franco-Prussian War. Between 1893 and 1897 he was the Imperial commissioner and military Chief of volunteer nurses in the army. In 1893 he was appointed as General of Infantry à la suite.

Politics Politically, William was a supporter of colonial policy. Between 1891 and 1892 he was chairman of the German anti-slavery committees. This funded include expeditions to unexplored areas in Africa. Since 1897, he was a member of the Colonial Council. William was co-founder and from 1898 to 1901 President of the Navy League. Between 1875 and 1886 he was Marshal of parliament. He was from 1888 to 1894 and from 1899 to 1901 Chairman of the Rhine Province parliament. Since 1878, he was a member of the Prussian House of Lords. Which he was president from 1897 to 1904

Marriage

William married on 18 July 1871 in Wassenaar, Princess Marie of the Netherlands (1841–1910), younger daughter of Prince Frederick of the Netherlands (1792–1839) second son of William I of the Netherlands, and his wife, Princess Louise of Prussia (1808–1870), daughter of Frederick William III of Prussia. They had six children: • William Frederick, Prince of Wied (27 June 1872 – 18 June 1945) married Princess Pauline of Württemberg (1877–1965), had issue. • Prince Alexander of Wied (28 May 1874 – 15 January 1877) • William, Prince of Albania (26 March 1876 – 18 April 1945) married Princess Sophie of Schönburg-Waldenburg (1885–1936), had issue. • Prince Victor of Wied (7 December 1877 – 1 March 1946) married Countess Gisela of Solms-Widenfels (1891–1976), had issue. William with his family • Princess Louise of Wied (24 October 1880 – 29 August 1965) • Princess Elisabeth of Wied (28 January 1883 – 14 November 1938) William, Prince of Wied 383

Titles and styles • 22 August 1845 – 5 March 1864: His Serene Highness Prince William of Wied • 5 March 1864 – 22 October 1907: His Serene Highness The Prince of Wied

Notes and sources This article incorporates information from the equivalent article on the German Wikipedia. • thePeerage.com - Wilhelm Adolph Maximilian Karl Fürst von Wied [1] • Genealogics - Leo van de Pas - Wilhelm, Fürst zu Wied [2] •• The Royal House of Stuart, London, 1969, 1971, 1976, Addington, A. C., Reference: 336

William, Prince of Wied House of Wied-Neuwied Cadet branch of the House of Wied Born: 22 August 1845 Died: 22 October 1907 German nobility Preceded by Prince of Succeeded by Hermann Wied William Frederick 1864–1907

References

[1] http:/ / www. thepeerage. com/ p2669. htm#i26681

[2] http:/ / www. genealogics. org/ getperson. php?personID=I00023288& tree=LEO

William, Prince of Albania

William Prince of Albania

Prince of Albania

Reign 7 March 1914 – 3 September 1914 (de facto), 31 January 1925 (de jure, creation of Albanian Republic)

Predecessor Monarchy established

Successor Regency (1920-1925) Albanian Republic (1925-1928)

Spouse Princess Sophie of Schönburg-Waldenburg

Issue

Princess Marie Eleonore Carol Victor, Hereditary Prince of Albania

House House of Wied-Neuwied

Father William, Prince of Wied

Mother Princess Marie of the Netherlands

Born 26 March 1876 Neuwied, German Empire William, Prince of Albania 384

Died 18 April 1945 (aged 69) Predeal, Romania

Burial Biserica Luterana, Bucharest, Romania

Prince William of Wied, Prince of Albania (German: Wilhelm Friedrich Heinrich; Albanian: Princ Vidi or Princ Vilhelm Vidi) (26 March 1876 – 18 April 1945), reigned briefly as sovereign of Principality of Albania as Vidi I[1] from 7 March 1914 to 3 September 1914 when he left for exile. His reign officially came to an end on 31 January 1925 when the country was declared an Albanian Republic. Outside the country and in diplomatic correspondence, he was styled "sovereign prince", but in Albania he was referred to as mbret, or king. He was also styled Skanderbeg II, in homage to Skanderbeg, the national hero.

Family and early life William was born on 26 March 1876 in Schloss Neuwied am Rhein, near , as Prince William of Wied (German: Wilhelm Friedrich Heinrich Prinz zu Wied). He was the third son of William, 5th Prince of Wied (brother of Queen Elisabeth of Romania), and his wife Princess Marie of the Netherlands (sister of Queen Louise of Sweden). His paternal grandparents were Hermann, Prince of Wied, and Princess Marie of Nassau. Marie was a daughter of William, Duke of Nassau, and his first wife Princess Louise of Saxe-Hildburghausen, the daughter of Frederick, Duke of Saxe-Altenburg, and Duchess Charlotte Georgine of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. His maternal grandparents were Prince Frederick of the Netherlands and Princess Louise of Prussia. Louise was a daughter of Frederick William III of Prussia and Duchess Louise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. Prince William served as a Prussian cavalry officer before becoming a captain in the German General Staff in 1911.

Candidate for the Albanian throne Prince William's aunt Queen Elisabeth of Romania, on learning that the Great Powers were looking for a prince to rule over Albania, asked Take Ionescu to attempt to persuade them to appoint her nephew to the post. Eventually the European Great Powers — Austria-Hungary, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the French Third Republic, the German Empire, the and the Kingdom of Italy — selected William, a member of the German princely house of Wied, to rule over newly independent Albania. The announcement was made in November 1913 and the decision was accepted by Ismail Qemali, the head of the provisional government. The offer of the Albanian throne was first made to him in the spring of 1913 but he turned it down. Despite rejecting the offer, the Austrians put pressure on Prince William in an attempt to change his mind. Western Europeans considered Albania to be a poor, lawless and backward country in 1913, and some foreign opinion was scathing. The French press referred to Wilhelm as "le Prince de Vide", meaning "the prince of emptiness"; vide being a pun on his homeland of Wied.[2]

Prince of Albania William, Prince of Albania 385

Part of a series on the History of Albania

Albania portal

He let the Great Powers know on 7 February 1914 that he would accept the throne. On 21 February 1914 a delegation of Albanian notables and arbëreshë ones (ruled by Luigi Baffa and Vincenzo Baffa Trasci), led by Essad Pasha Toptani, made a formal request, which he accepted thereby becoming By the grace of the powers and the will of the people the Prince (Mbret) of Albania. One month after accepting the throne on 7 March, he arrived in his provisional capital of Durrës and started to organise his government, appointing Turhan Pasha Përmeti to form the first Albanian cabinet. This first cabinet was dominated by members of nobility (prince Essad Pasha Toptani defence and foreign affairs, prince George Adamidi bey Frachery finances, prince Aziz pacha Vrioni agriculture). Royal Arms of William. His brief reign proved a turbulent one. Immediately following his arrival revolts of Muslims broke out in central Albania against his Chief Minister, Essad Pasha, and against foreign domination. Greece encouraged the formation of "provisional government of North Epirus". Although an agreement was made to grant extra rights to the Greek minority, the Hellenic Army occupied Southern Albania excluding Berat and Korçë. William's position was also undermined by own officials, notably Essad Pasha himself, who accepted money from Italy to finance a revolt and to stage a coup against William. Pasha was arrested on 19 May 1914 and tried for treason and sentenced to death. Prince William and his wife Princess Sophie arriving in Durrës on 7 March 1914 Only the intervention of Italy saved his life and he escaped to Italy in exile.

The outbreak of World War I presented more problems for Prince William as Austria-Hungary demanded that he send Albanian soldiers to fight alongside them. When he refused, citing the neutrality of Albania in the Treaty of London, the remuneration that he had been receiving was cut off. William, Prince of Albania 386

Exile and death

With Albania in a state of civil war since July 1914, Greece occupying the south of the country, the great powers at war with one another, his regime collapsed, and so Prince William left the country on 3 September 1914 originally heading to Venice. Despite leaving Albania he did so insisting that he remained head of state. In his proclamation he informed the people that "he deemed it necessary to absent himself temporarily."

He returned to Germany and rejoined the Imperial German Army under the pseudonym "Count of Kruja". The name derived from the city of Krujë in Albania. When the Austro-Hungarians forced the Serbian and Montenegrian armies out of Northern Albania in the early months of 1916, William's hopes of being restored were raised although ultimately they came to nothing. After the war, he still harboured ambitions that he might be restored, but the participants at the Paris Peace Conference were unlikely to restore to the throne His tombstone in the Lutheran church in someone who had just fought against them. Bucharest Although several of the factions competing for power in postwar Albania billed themselves as regencies for William, once central authority was definitively restored in 1924 the country was declared a republic on 31 January 1925, officially ending his reign.[3] With the monarchy in Albania set to be restored with President Ahmet Zogu becoming king, Prince William reaffirmed his claim to the throne announcing he still claimed the throne for himself and his heirs. Prince William died in Predeal, near Sinaia, in Romania leaving his son Hereditary Prince Carol Victor as heir to his Albanian claims. He was buried in the Lutheran church in Bucharest.

Marriage and children On 30 November 1906 at Waldenburg, Saxony, Prince William married Princess Sophie of Schönburg-Waldenburg (1885–1936); she was distantly related to the Orthodox Ghika family of Albanian origin. They had two children:[4] • Princess Marie Eleonore (1909–1956) • Hereditary Prince Carol Victor (1913–1973).

Titles, styles, honours and arms

Styles of Prince (King)[5] Vidi I of Albania

Reference style His Highness

Spoken style Your Highness

Alternative style Sir William, Prince of Albania 387

In popular culture Prince Wilhelm is portrayed in the 2008 Albanian film Time of the Comet, which takes place during his reign. He is played by the German actor Thomas Heinze.

References

[1] http:/ / www. royalark. net/ Albania/ wied. htm

[2] http:/ / thepeerage. com/ e206. htm

[3] Worldstatesmen (http:/ / www. worldstatesmen. org/ Albania. htm)

[4] http:/ / www. angelfire. com/ realm/ gotha/ gotha/ albania. html [5][5]Outside the country and in diplomatic correspondence, he was styled "sovereign prince", but in Albania he was referred to as king.

External links

• Wilhelm zu Wied:Memorandum on Albania (http:/ / www. albanianhistory. net/ texts/ AH1917. html)

• A listing of Princes of Wied since 1791 and their descendants (http:/ / genealogy. euweb. cz/ runkel/ runkel6. html)

1909 1913 (circa) 1913 Prince Wilhelm of Wied, Isa Boletini and officers of the International Gendarmerie: Duncan Heaton-Armstrong and Colonel Thomson near Durrës in June 1914

William, Prince of Albania House of Wied Born: 26 March 1876 Died: 18 April 1945 Regnal titles Preceded by Prince of Albania Succeeded by Fejzi Bej Alizoti 7 March 1914 – 3 September Qamil Musa Haxhi Feza as Chairman of the Central 1914 as Chairman of the Administrative Government Commission

Titles in pretence

New title — TITULAR — Succeeded by Prince of Albania Carol Victor 3 September 1914–18 April 1945 Wilhelmina of the Netherlands 388 Wilhelmina of the Netherlands

Wilhelmina

Queen Wilhelmina in 1942

Queen of the Netherlands

Reign 23 November 1890 – 4 September 1948

Predecessor William III

Successor Juliana

Regent Emma of Waldeck and Pyrmont (1890–1898) Juliana (1947–1948)

Spouse Henry of Mecklenburg-Schwerin

Issue

Juliana of the Netherlands

Full name

Wilhelmina Helena Pauline Maria

House House of Orange-Nassau

Father William III of the Netherlands

Mother Emma of Waldeck and Pyrmont

Born 31 August 1880 Noordeinde Palace, The Hague, Netherlands

Died 28 November 1962 (aged 82) Het Loo Palace, Apeldoorn, Netherlands

Burial 8 December 1962 Nieuwe Kerk, Delft, Netherlands

Religion Dutch Reformed Church

Wilhelmina (Wilhelmina Helena Pauline Maria; 31 August 1880 – 28 November 1962) was Queen regnant of the Kingdom of the Netherlands from 1890 to 1948. She reigned for nearly 58 years, longer than any other Dutch monarch. Her reign saw World War I and World War II, the economic crisis of 1933, and the decline of the Netherlands as a major colonial power. Outside the Netherlands she is primarily remembered for her role in World War II, in which she proved to be a great inspiration to the Dutch resistance.[1] Wilhelmina of the Netherlands 389

Early life

Princess Wilhelmina Helena Pauline Maria of the Netherlands, Princess of Orange-Nassau, was born on 31 August 1880 in The Hague, Netherlands. She was the only child of King William III and his second wife, Emma of Waldeck and Pyrmont. Her childhood was characterised by a close relationship with her parents, especially with her father, who was 63 years of age when she was born.

King William III had three sons with his first wife, Sophie of Württemberg. However, when Wilhelmina was born, William had already outlived two of them and only the childless Prince Alexander and the King's uncle Prince Frederick of the Netherlands were alive, so under the Semi-Salic system of inheritance that was in place in the Netherlands until 1887, she was third in line to the throne from birth. When Prince Frederick died a year later in 1881, she became second in line. When Wilhelmina was four, Alexander died and the young girl became heiress presumptive.

Wilhelmina of the Netherlands wearing her coronation robe in 1898; painting by Thérèse van Duyl Schwarze

King William III died on 23 November 1890, and, although Princess Wilhelmina became queen of the Netherlands instantly, her mother, Emma, was named regent. In 1895, Queen Wilhelmina visited Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom, who penned an evaluation in her diary: The young Queen ... still has her hair hanging loose. She is slender and graceful, and makes an impression as a very intelligent and very cute girl. She speaks good English and knows how to behave with charming manners.

Enthronement and marriage Queen Wilhelmina in the 1890s Wilhelmina was enthroned on 6 September 1898. On 7 February 1901 in The Hague, she married Duke Henry of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. Nine months later, on 9 November, Wilhelmina suffered a miscarriage, and on 4 May 1902 she gave birth to a premature stillborn son. Her next pregnancy ended in another miscarriage on 23 July 1906. During this time period, Wilhelmina's heir presumptive was her first cousin once removed William Ernest, Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, and next in line was his aunt (and Wilhelmina's cousin) Princess Marie Alexandrine of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach. As it was assumed that the former would renounce his claim to the Dutch throne, and that the latter was too elderly and sickly to become Queen, Marie Alexandrine's eldest son Prince Heinrich XXXII Reuss of Köstritz stood in line to succeed Wilhelmina, assuming she had no surviving children. Heinrich was a German prince with close associations with the Imperial family and the military; and there were fears that were the Queen to remain childless, the Dutch Crown

"was bound to pass into the possession of a German prince, whose birth, training, and affiliations would naturally have led him to bring Holland within the sphere of the German Empire, at the expense of her independence, both Wilhelmina of the Netherlands 390

national and economic", according to one contemporary publication. The birth of Juliana, on 30 April 1909, was met with great relief after eight years of childless marriage. Wilhelmina suffered two further miscarriages on 23 January and 20 October 1912.

Reign

Royal styles of Wilhelmina of the Netherlands

Reference style Her Majesty

Spoken style Your Majesty

Alternative style Ma'am

Tactful, and careful to operate within the limits of what was expected by the Dutch people and their elected representatives, the strong-willed Wilhelmina became a forceful personality who spoke and acted her mind. These qualities showed up early in her reign when, at the age of 20, Queen Wilhelmina ordered a Dutch warship, HNLMS Gelderland, to South Africa to evacuate Paul Kruger, the embattled President of the Transvaal. Wilhelmina had a stern dislike of the United Kingdom partly as a result of the annexation of the republics of Transvaal and Orange in the Boer War. The Boers were descendants of early Dutch colonists, to whom Wilhelmina and the people of the Netherlands felt very closely linked. In conversation with her former governess Elisabeth Saxton Winter, she once teasingly referred to the Boer soldiers as “excellent shots”. She was not amused to hear that a Dutch medical relief team was planning to accommodate the needs of both Boer and British wounded soldiers.[2] Nevertheless, in 1940, King George VI sent the warship HMS Hereward, to rescue Wilhelmina, her family and her Government and bring them to safety to the United Kingdom, which offered the Netherlands facilities including broadcasting time on the BBC. Queen Wilhelmina also had a keen understanding of business matters and her investments made her the world's richest woman, as well as the world's first female billionaire. Before the First World War started, the young Wilhelmina visited the powerful German Emperor Wilhelm II. The Emperor thought he could impress the queen of a relatively small country by telling her, "my guards are seven feet tall and yours are only shoulder-high to them." Wilhelmina smiled politely and replied, "Quite true, Your Majesty, your guards are seven feet tall. But when we open our dikes, the water is ten feet deep!"[3] Wilhelmina of the Netherlands 391

World War I

The Netherlands remained neutral during World War I. However, the Allies included the Netherlands in their blockade of Germany, intercepting all Dutch ships and severely restricting Dutch imports to ensure goods could not be passed on to Germany. Wilhelmina was a "soldier's queen"; being a woman, she could not be Supreme Commander, but she nevertheless used every opportunity she had to inspect her forces. On many occasions she appeared without prior notice, wishing to see the reality, not a prepared show. She loved her soldiers, and was very unhappy with most of her governments, which were always eager to cut the military budget. Wilhelmina wanted a small but well trained and equipped army. In the war, she felt she was a "Queen-On-Guard". She was always wary of a German attack, especially in the beginning. However, the chief violation of Dutch sovereignty was the Allied blockade. Civil unrest gripped the Netherlands after the war, spurred by the 1917 Bolshevik revolution in Russia. Socialist leader Pieter Jelles Troelstra wanted to abolish the Queen Wilhelmina and her daughter Juliana, circa 1914 existing government and the monarchy. Instead of a violent revolution, he hoped to do this by winning control of Parliament in an election, supported by the working class. However, the popularity of the young Queen helped restore confidence in the government. Wilhelmina brought about a mass show of support by riding with her daughter through the crowds in an open carriage.

At the end of World War I, Kaiser Wilhelm fled to the Netherlands, where he was granted political asylum, partly owing to his familial links with Queen Wilhelmina. In response to Allied efforts to get their hands on the deposed Kaiser, Wilhelmina called the Allies' ambassadors to her presence and lectured them on the rights of asylum.[4]

Between the wars

During the 1920s and 1930s, the Netherlands began to emerge as an industrial power. Engineers reclaimed vast amounts of land that had been under water by building the . In 1934, both Wilhelmina's mother Queen Emma and her husband, Prince Hendrik, died.

The interbellum, and most notably the economic crisis of the 1930s, was also the period in which Wilhelmina's personal power reached its zenith; under the successive governments of a staunch monarchist prime minister, Hendrik Colijn (ARP), Wilhelmina was deeply involved in most questions of state.

In 1939, Colijn's fifth and last government was swept away by a vote of no confidence two days after its formation. It is widely accepted that Wilhelmina herself was behind the formation of this last government, Queen Wilhelmina's image on a stamp which was used between 1899 and 1926 Wilhelmina of the Netherlands 392

which was designed to be an extra-parliamentary or 'royal' cabinet. The Queen was deeply skeptical of the parliamentary system and tried to bypass it covertly more than once.

She also arranged the marriage of her daughter Juliana to Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld, a German aristocrat. Although it was claimed that he was initially a supporter of the Nazi regime, no hard evidence of this has ever been found or publicized. The prince however, was a member of the Nazi Party and of the so-called Reiter-SS (SS Cavalry Corps), as was proved by the Dutch national institute for war documentation, NIOD.

In 1939, the government proposed a refugee camp for German Jews fleeing the Nazi regime. Wilhelmina intervened, as she felt the planned location was "too close" to her summer residence. The camp was finally erected about 10 km from the village of Westerbork.

Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld in 1942.

World War II

On 10 May 1940, Germany invaded the Netherlands. An evacuation to the United Kingdom of the royal family had been planned some time in advance since at least the end of 1939.[5] Wilhelmina and her family fled The Hague, and she boarded HMS Hereward, a British destroyer which was to take her across the North Sea. She retreated to the United Kingdom, planning to return as soon as possible.[6]

Royal Monogram

The Dutch armed forces in the Netherlands, apart from those in Zeeland, surrendered on 15 May. In Britain, Queen Wilhelmina took charge of the Dutch , setting up a chain of command and immediately communicating a message to her people. Relations between the Dutch government and the Queen were tense, with mutual dislike growing as the war progressed. Wilhelmina went on to be the most prominent figure, owing to her experience and

The Queen speaking to the US Congress, 1942. Wilhelmina of the Netherlands 393

knowledge. She was also very popular and respected among the leaders of the world. The government did not have a parliament to back them and had few employees to assist them. The Dutch prime minister, Dirk Jan de Geer, believed the Allies would not win and intended to open negotiations with Germany for a separate peace. Therefore Wilhelmina sought to remove De Geer from power. With the aid of a minister, Pieter Gerbrandy, she succeeded. During the war her photograph was a sign of resistance against the Germans. Like Winston Churchill, Queen Wilhelmina broadcast messages to the Dutch people over Radio Oranje. The Queen called Adolf Hitler "the arch-enemy of mankind". Her late-night broadcasts were eagerly awaited by her people, who had to hide in order to listen to them illegally. An anecdote published in her New York Times obituary illustrates how she was valued by her subjects during this period: Although celebration of the Queen’s birthday was forbidden by the Germans, it was commemorated nevertheless. When churchgoers in the small fishing town of Huizen rose and sang one verse of the Dutch national anthem, Wilhelmus van Nassauwe, on the Queen’s birthday, the town paid a fine of 60,000 guilders. Queen Wilhelmina visited the United States from 24 June to 11 August 1942 as guest of the U.S. government. She vacationed in Lee, Massachusetts, and visited New York City, Boston, and Albany, New York. In the latter city she attended the 300th anniversary celebration of the First Church in Albany, the city's oldest, established by Dutch settlers in the 17th century. She addressed the U.S. Congress on 5 August 1942, and was the first queen to do so. Queen Wilhelmina went to Canada in 1943 to attend the christening of her grandchild Princess Margriet on 29 June 1943 in Ottawa and stayed awhile with her family before returning to the United Kingdom. During the war, the Queen was almost killed by a bomb that took the lives of several of her guards and severely damaged her country home near South Mimms in England. In 1944, Queen Wilhelmina became only the second woman to be inducted into the Order of the Garter. Churchill described her as the only real man among the governments-in-exile in London. In England, she developed ideas about a new political and social life for the Dutch after the liberation. She wanted a strong cabinet formed by people active in the resistance. She dismissed De Geer during the war and installed a prime minister with the approval of other Dutch politicians. The Queen "hated" politicians, instead stating a love for the people. When the Netherlands was liberated in 1945 she was disappointed to see the same political factions taking power as before the war. Before the end of the war, in mid-March 1945, she travelled to the Allied occupied areas of the south of the Netherlands, visiting the region of Walcheren and the city of Eindhoven where she received a rapturous welcome from the local population.[7] Following the end of World War II, Queen Wilhelmina made the decision not to return to her palace but to move into a mansion in The Hague, where she lived for eight months. She travelled through the countryside to motivate people, sometimes using a bicycle instead of a car. However, in 1947, while the country was still recovering from World War II, the revolt in the oil-rich Dutch East Indies saw sharp criticism of the Queen by the Dutch economic elite. Around the same time, Wilhelmina's health started failing her. Bad health caused her to cede her monarchial duties to her daughter Juliana temporarily towards the end of 1947 (14 October through 1 December). She considered abdication but Juliana pressed her to stay on for the stability of the nation, urging her to complete 60 years on the throne. Wilhelmina tried to comply, but exhaustion forced her to relinquish monarchial duties again on 12 May 1948. The timing was unfortunate, as it left Juliana (as regent) to deal with the early elections caused by the ceding of the Indonesian colonies. Wilhelmina remained on the throne until 4 September 1948. Then, being extremely disappointed about the return to pre-war politics, she abdicated. Wilhelmina of the Netherlands 394

Later years

As of 1948, Wilhelmina was the only survivor of the 16 European kings and one queen who were sitting on their thrones at the time of her coronation in 1898. The Dutch Royal Family was also one of seven European royal houses remaining in existence. On 4 September 1948, after a reign of 57 years and 286 days, Wilhelmina abdicated in favour of her daughter Juliana, because of advancing age and illness which had already caused two regencies, and the strain of the war years. She was thenceforward styled "Her Royal Highness Princess Wilhelmina of the Netherlands". After her reign, the Statue of Queen Wilhelmina in Noordwijk influence of the Dutch monarchy began to decline but the country's love for its royal family continued. No longer queen, Wilhelmina retreated to Het Loo Palace, making few public appearances until the country was devastated by the . Once again she travelled around the country to encourage and motivate the Dutch people.

During her last years she wrote her autobiography entitled Eenzaam, maar niet alleen (Lonely but Not Alone), in which she gave account of the events in her life, and revealed her strong religious feelings and motivations. Wilhelmina died in Het Loo Palace at the age of 82 on 28 November Collecting signatures for the queen, 1948 1962, and was buried in the Dutch Royal Family crypt in the Nieuwe Kerk in Delft, on 8 December. The funeral was, at her request and contrary to protocol, completely in white to give expression to her belief that earthly death was the beginning of eternal life.[8]

Titles and styles • Her Royal Highness Princess Pauline (1880–1884) • Her Royal Highness Princess Wilhelmina (1884–1890) • Her Majesty The Queen (1890-1948) • Her Royal Highness Princess Wilhelmina (1948–1962) Wilhelmina's regnal title from her accession to her marriage was: "Wilhelmina, by the Grace of God, Queen of the Netherlands, Princess of Orange-Nassau, etc, etc, etc." She adopted her husband's ducal title upon marriage as customary, becoming also a Duchess of Mecklenburg.

References General • Hubbard, Robert H. (1977). Rideau Hall: An Illustrated History of Government House, Ottawa, from Victorian Times to the Present Day. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press. 10-ISBN 0-7735-0310-2; 13-ISBN 978-0-7735-0310-6 • Wilhelmina. (1959). Eenzaam maar niet alleen. Amsterdam: Ten Have Uitgevers Kok. 10-ISBN 90-259-5146-5; 13-ISBN 978-90-259-5146-7 Specific

[1] "Wilhelmina of Netherlands Dies" (UPI) (http:/ / select. nytimes. com/ gst/ abstract. html?res=F10F17FF3A5A117B93CAAB178AD95F468685F9), New York Times, 28 November 1962. pp. A1–A39. Wilhelmina of the Netherlands 395

[2][2]Cees Fasseur, Wilhelmina: De jonge koningin, 1998, ISBN 9050185045

[3] "Caged no more" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,829617,00. html) Time. 7 December 1962.

[4] "Worried Queen" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,762871,00. html), Time. 27 November 1939. [5] Nanda van der Zee, Om erger te voorkomen. De voorgeschiedenis en uitvoering van de vernietiging van het Nederlandse jodendom tijdens de Tweede Wereldoorlog. Amsterdam: Meulenhoff, 1997; Also see Hans Blom, "Een droevig boek. RIOD-directeur vindt Om erger te

voorkomen totaal mislukt". Historisch Nieuwsblad nr. 2 (1997) (http:/ / www. historischnieuwsblad. nl/ nl/ artikel/ 5628/ een-droevig-boek. html)

[6] Reston, James R. "Queen Wilhelmina goes to England," (http:/ / select. nytimes. com/ mem/ archive/ pdf?res=F20912FB3A54107A93C6A8178ED85F448485F9) New York Times. 14 May 1940. [7] Henri A. van der Zee, The Hunger Winter: Occupied Holland 1944–1945, University of Nebraska Press, 1998, pp. 200–203. [8] Wilhelmina; Eenzaam maar niet alleen, p. 251.

External links

• Queen Wilhelmina (1880–1962) (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ globale-paginas/ taalrubrieken/ english/

history/ queens-(20th-and-21st-centuries)/ ) at The Dutch Royal House website

• Queen Wilhelmina State Park (http:/ / www. queenwilhelmina. com/ ) near Mena, Arkansas

Wilhelmina of the Netherlands House of Orange-Nassau Cadet branch of the House of Nassau Born: 31 August 1880 Died: 28 November 1962 Regnal titles Preceded by Queen of the Succeeded by William III Netherlands Juliana 1890–1948 Duke Henry of Mecklenburg-Schwerin 396 Duke Henry of Mecklenburg-Schwerin

Henry of Mecklenburg-Schwerin

Prince Hendrik of the Netherlands in 1912

Prince consort of the Netherlands

Tenure 7 February 1901 – 3 July 1934

Spouse Wilhelmina of the Netherlands

Issue

Juliana of the Netherlands

Full name

Heinrich Wladimir Albrecht Ernst of Mecklenburg-Schwerin

House -Schwerin

Father Frederick Francis II, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg

Mother Princess Marie of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt

Born 19 April 1876 Schwerin, Mecklenburg-Schwerin

Died 3 July 1934 (aged 58)

Burial Delft, Netherlands

Religion Dutch Reformed Church

Duke Henry of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (Heinrich Wladimir Albrecht Ernst; 19 April 1876 – 3 July 1934), later Prince Henry of the Netherlands, was prince consort of the Netherlands as the husband of Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands. In the Netherlands, the name of the German duke was rendered into Hendrik. He was the longest serving consort of the Netherlands.

Biography Heinrich Wladimir Albrecht Ernst of Mecklenburg-Schwerin was born on 19 April 1876 in Schwerin. He was the youngest son of Frederick Francis II, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, and his third wife, Princess Marie of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt. He was created Prince of the Netherlands on 6 February 1901, and married Queen Wilhelmina on 7 February 1901, in The Hague. The marriage proved in time to be an unhappy one that did little more than meet its obligation by producing an heir. They had one child, Juliana, in whose favor her mother abdicated on 4 September 1948. He was the 279th Grand Cross of the Order of the Tower and Sword and the 1,157th Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece in Spain in 1924. He died, at the age of 58, on 3 July 1934 in The Hague, Netherlands. Duke Henry of Mecklenburg-Schwerin 397

Scouting He successfully merged the two Dutch Boy Scout organisations Nederlandse Padvinders Organisatie (NPO, Netherlands Pathfinder Organisation) and the Nederlandse Padvinders Bond (NPB, Netherlands Pathfinder Federation) on 11 December 1915 to form De Nederlandse Padvinders (NPV, The Netherlands Pathfinders). He became the Royal Commissioner of that organisation and he asked Jean Jacques Rambonnet to become chairman in 1920 .

Titles • His Highness Duke Henry of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (1876–1901) • His Royal Highness The Prince of the Netherlands (7 February 1901 – 1934)

References

External links

Duke Henry of Mecklenburg-Schwerin House of Mecklenburg-Schwerin Cadet branch of the House of Mecklenburg Born: 19 April 1876 Died: 3 July 1934 Dutch royalty Vacant Prince consort of the Vacant Title last held by Netherlands Title next held by 7 February 1901 – 3 July 1934 Emma of Waldeck and Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld Pyrmont as Queen consort William, Prince of Orange 398 William, Prince of Orange

William Prince of Orange

Full name

Willem Nicolaas Alexander Frederik Karel Hendrik

House House of Orange-Nassau

Father William III of the Netherlands

Mother Sophie of Württemberg

Born 4 September 1840 Noordeinde Palace, The Hague, Netherlands

Died 11 June 1879 (aged 38) Paris, France

Burial Nieuwe Kerk, Delft, Netherlands

William, Prince of Orange (Willem Nicolaas Alexander Frederik Karel Hendrik; 4 September 1840 – 11 June 1879), was heir apparent to his father King William III of the Netherlands from 17 March 1849 until his death.

Biography Prince William was the eldest son of King William III of the Netherlands and his first wife, Princess Sophie of Württemberg. His nickname was Wiwill. At his birth, he held the third position in the line of succession to the Dutch throne and the seventeenth position in the line of succession to the British throne. A month afterwards on 7 October 1840, his great-grandfather, the reigning King William I of the Netherlands, abdicated the throne due to the disappointment over the recent Treaty of London, which recognized the independence of Belgium (previously provinces of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands), and the intention of marrying a Roman Catholic and Belgian noblewoman, Henrietta d'Oultremont. In 1849, after the death of his grandfather King William II of the Netherlands, he became the Prince of Orange as heir apparent. His Victorian upbringing turned out to be a disaster. In 1857, he was appointed the 87th Grand Cross of the Order of the Tower and Sword. William, Prince of Orange 399

After the failed plans for a marriage between Prince William and Princess Alice of the United Kingdom, the second daughter of Queen Victoria, the prince fell in love with the 19-year-old Countess Mathilde van Limburg-Stirum in 1873. The relationship between the prince and his parents became very problematic, as his parents refused William's wish to accept Mathilde as his bride in 1874. By the standards of the Dutch royal family, a marriage between a member of the royal family and a member of the nobility was considered unequal and therefore unacceptable. Also a rumor circulated that Mathilda was an illegitimate daughter of king William III and therefore, William could be marrying his half-sister. The 33-year-old William wanted to marry, if necessary, without the consent of his parents. However, Mathilda was not yet twenty and therefore permission was needed from her parents too. They denied permission and the prince's attempt to marry Mathilda failed.

The Prince of Orange at a later age Heavily disillusioned with his situation in the Netherlands, Prince William then went into exile in Paris, where he threw himself into a life of sex, drinking and gambling. He shared life with Henriette Hauser (also Hausser), his Parisian mistress, a "boulevard theatre" actress. The duc de Gramont-Caderousse, a fellow hedonist, gave him the nickname "Prince Lemon" [le prince Citron in French]; the nickname became popular among the regulars in the recently created boulevards and the Parisian newspapers when they reported about his debauched lifestyle. Prince William died at the age of 38 in his apartment in the Rue Auber, near the Paris Opera from a combination of typhus, liver complaints and total exhaustion. On 26 June 1879 his body was entombed in the royal crypt at the New Church of Delft. On his coffin there was a wreath from French Empress Eugénie of France and one from the Prince of Wales (later King Edward VII), who had been his fellow debauchee.

After his death, his brother Prince Alexander became heir-apparent and Prince of Orange. However he also died before their father, who was now without direct male heirs. Neither his uncle, Prince Henry nor his great-uncle, Prince Frederick, had any male issue as well. The States-General adopted agnatic-cognatic primogeniture making his half sister, Princess Wilhelmina, heiress presumptive. Until 1884, the Dutch constitution used a form of Salic Law. Princess Wilhelmina succeeded upon their father's death in 1890.

Titles • His Royal Highness Prince Willem of the Netherlands, Prince of Orange-Nassau (1840–1849) • His Royal Highness The Prince of Orange (1849–1879)

Footnotes William, Prince of Orange 400

William, Prince of Orange House of Orange-Nassau Born: 4 September 1840 Died: 11 June 1879 Dutch royalty Preceded by Prince of Orange Succeeded by William, Prince of Orange 1849–1879 Alexander, Prince of Orange later became King William III Heir to the Dutch throne as heir apparent 1849–1879 Prince Maurice of the Netherlands 401 Prince Maurice of the Netherlands

Prince Maurice Prince of the Netherlands Prince of Orange-Nassau

Prince Maurice of the Netherlands (left) with his brother Prince William.

House House of Orange-Nassau

Father William III of the Netherlands

Mother Sophie of Württemberg

Born 15 September 1843 Noordeinde Palace, The Hague

Died 4 June 1850 (aged 6) Noordeinde Palace, The Hague

Prince Maurice of the Netherlands, Prince of Orange-Nassau (Willem Frederik Maurits Alexander Hendrik Karel; 15 September 1843 – 4 June 1850), was the second son of King William III of the Netherlands and his first spouse, Sophie of Württemberg. When Prince Maurice suffered from meningitis, Queen Sophie wanted to consult another physician for a second opinion, but King William III refused and the child died.

Title His Royal Highness Prince Maurice of the Netherlands, Prince of Orange-Nassau (1843–1850) Alexander, Prince of Orange 402 Alexander, Prince of Orange

Alexander Prince of Orange

A drawing by F.A. Tilly

Full name

Willem Alexander Karel Hendrik Frederik

House House of Orange-Nassau

Father William III of the Netherlands

Mother Sophie of Württemberg

Born 25 August 1851 Noordeinde Palace, The Hague, Netherlands

Died 21 June 1884 (aged 32) The Hague, Netherlands

Burial Nieuwe Kerk, Delft, Netherlands

Alexander, Prince of Orange (Willem Alexander Karel Hendrik Frederik; 25 August 1851 – 21 June 1884), was heir apparent to his father King William III of the Netherlands from 11 June 1879 until his death. For a span of 116 years, from the birth of Alexander (1851) until the birth of the present king Willem-Alexander (1967), no male heirs were born into the ruling House of Orange.

Life Prince Alexander of the Netherlands was born in The Hague on 25 August 1851.[1] He was the third child of King William III and Queen Sophie.[2] Unlike his brother William, the crown prince, he was disciplined, intellectual and well-read. After Prince William's death on 11 June 1879, he became heir apparent to the Dutch throne and as such the Prince of Orange. Alexander held the position of heir apparent until his own death, at age 32, on 21 June 1884 in The Hague from typhus. Although he never married, negotiations were held for him to marry, firstly Princess Thyra of Denmark, and supposedly secondly the Infanta Marie Anne of Portugal. He was buried in the new royal burial vault in the Nieuwe Kerk in Delft on 17 July 1884.[3] After his death, his half-sister, the future Queen Wilhelmina, became heiress presumptive to the Dutch throne.[4] Alexander's death meant that on the death of William III the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg came into the hands of Duke Adolphus from the Walram line of the House of Nassau, as under the terms of the house-treaty a princess could not succeed to that title. Alexander, Prince of Orange 403

Titles and styles • His Royal Highness Prince Alexander of the Netherlands, Prince of Orange-Nassau (1851–1879) • His Royal Highness The Prince of Orange (1879–1884)

References

[1] Prins Alexander (1851 -1884) (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ content. jsp?objectid=24993). Retrieved on 2008-07-28.

[2] Stamboom Koninklijk Huis (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ stamboom/ ). Retrieved on 2008-07-28.

[3] The royal burial vaults (http:/ / www. nieuwekerk-delft. nl/ eng/ kerkgebouw/ huis_van_oranje/ koninklijke_grafkelders. html). Retrieved on 2008-07-28.

[4] Genealogy of the Royal Family of the Netherlands (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20091028120246/ http:/ / www. geocities. com/

henrivanoene/ gennetherlands. html)

External links

• Biography of Alexander of the Netherlands (1851-1884) (http:/ / www. xs4all. nl/ ~kvenjb/ madmonarchs/

alexander/ alexander_bio. htm)

Alexander, Prince of Orange House of Orange-Nassau Born: 25 August 1851 Died: 21 June 1884 Dutch royalty Preceded by Prince of Orange Vacant William, Prince of Orange 1879-1884 Title next held by Willem-Alexander, Prince of Orange Heir to the Dutch throne Succeeded by as heir apparent Princess Wilhelmina 1879–1884 Heir to the throne of Succeeded by Luxembourg Adolph, Duke of Nassau as heir apparent 1879–1884 Juliana of the Netherlands 404 Juliana of the Netherlands

Juliana

Juliana in 1963

Queen of the Netherlands

Reign 4 September 1948 – 30 April 1980

Predecessor Wilhelmina

Successor Beatrix

Spouse Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld

Issue

Princess Beatrix Princess Irene Princess Margriet Princess Christina

Full name

Juliana Louise Emma Marie Wilhelmina

House House of Mecklenburg (agnatic) House of Orange-Nassau (official) House of Lippe (matrimonial)

Father Duke Henry of Mecklenburg-Schwerin

Mother Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands

Born 30 April 1909 Noordeinde Palace, The Hague, Netherlands

Died 20 March 2004 (aged 94) Soestdijk Palace, Baarn, Netherlands

Burial 30 March 2004 Nieuwe Kerk, Delft, Netherlands

Religion Dutch Reformed Church

Juliana (Dutch pronunciation: [ˌjyliˈjaːna], Juliana Louise Emma Marie Wilhelmina; 30 April 1909 – 20 March 2004) was the Queen regnant of the Kingdom of the Netherlands between 1948 and 1980. She was the only child of Queen Wilhelmina and Prince Henry. She was married to German aristocrat Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld, with whom she had four children: Princess Beatrix (born 1938), Princess Irene (born 1939), Princess Margriet (born 1943), and Princess Christina (born 1947). During the Second World War she lived in exile with her children in Ottawa, Canada. She became Queen of the Netherlands with her mother's abdication in 1948 and was succeeded by Juliana of the Netherlands 405

Queen Beatrix after her own abdication in 1980. During her reign both (Dutch East Indies) (proclaimed in 1945, recognized in 1949) and in 1975 became independent from the Netherlands. Her birthday was celebrated annually as Koninginnedag (Queen's Day), until the accession of her grandson King Willem-Alexander to the throne, when it was replaced with (King's Day). Upon her death at the age of 94, she was the longest-lived former ruling monarch in the world. She is commemorated in space, in the name of the asteroid 816 Juliana.

Early life and education

Juliana was born in The Hague on 30 April 1909, the only daughter of Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands and Duke Henry of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. She was the first Dutch royal baby since Wilhelmina herself was born in 1880. Wilhelmina had suffered two miscarriages and one stillbirth, raising the prospect that the House of Orange-Nassau would die with her. In all likelihood, this would have meant that the Dutch throne would have passed to Prince Heinrich XXXII Reuss of Köstritz, who had very close ties to Germany. Juliana's birth thus assured the royal family's survival. Her mother suffered two further miscarriages after her birth, leaving Juliana as the royal couple's only child.

Juliana spent her childhood at Het Loo Palace in Apeldoorn, and at Noordeinde Palace and Huis ten Bosch Palace in The Hague. A small school class was formed at Noordeinde Palace on the advice of the educator Jan Ligthart so that, from the age of six, the Princess could receive her primary education with children of her own age. These children were Baroness Elise Bentinck, Baroness Juliana with her mother, circa 1914 Elisabeth van Hardenbroek and Jonkvrouwe Miek (Mary) de Jonge. As the Dutch constitution specified that Princess Juliana should be ready to succeed to the throne by the age of eighteen, her education proceeded at a faster pace than that of most children. After five years of primary education, the Princess received her secondary education (to pre-university level) from private tutors. On 30 April 1927, Princess Juliana celebrated her eighteenth birthday. Under the constitution, she had officially come of age and was entitled to assume the royal prerogative, if necessary. Two days later her mother installed her in the "Raad van State" ("Council of State"). In the same year, the Princess enrolled as a student at the University of Leiden. In her first years at university, she attended lectures in sociology, jurisprudence, economics, history of religion, parliamentary history and constitutional law. In the course of her studies she also attended lectures on the cultures of Suriname and the , international affairs, international law, history, and European law. She graduated from the university in 1930 with a bachelor's degree in international law. Juliana of the Netherlands 406

Marriage

In the 1930s, Queen Wilhelmina began a search for a suitable husband for her daughter. At the time, the House of Orange was one of the most strictly religious royal families in the world, and it was very difficult to find a Protestant prince who suited their standards. Princes from the United Kingdom and Sweden were "vetted" but either declined or were rejected by the princess.

At the 1936 Winter Olympics in Bavaria, she met Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld, a young German aristocrat. Prince Bernhard was a suave young businessman, and though not a playboy, certainly a "man Princess Juliana and Prince Bernhard after their about town" with a dashing lifestyle. But his rank and religion were engagement suitable, and so Princess Juliana's royal engagement was arranged by her mother. Princess Juliana fell deeply in love with her fiancé, a love that was to last a lifetime and that withstood separation during the war and Bernhard's many extramarital affairs and illegitimate children. The astute Queen Wilhelmina, by then the richest woman in the world, left nothing to chance. Wilhelmina had her lawyers draw up a prenuptial agreement that specified exactly what the German-born prince could and could not do, and what money he would receive from the royal estate. The couple's engagement was announced on 8 September 1936.

The wedding announcement divided a country that mistrusted Germany under Adolf Hitler. Prior to the wedding, on 24 November 1936, Prince Bernhard was granted Dutch citizenship and changed the spelling of his names from German to Dutch. They married in The Hague on 7 January 1937, the date on which Princess Juliana's grandparents, King William III and Queen Emma, had married fifty-eight years earlier. The civil ceremony was held in The Hague Town Hall and the marriage was blessed in the Great Church (St. Jacobskerk), likewise in The Hague. The young couple moved into Soestdijk Palace in Baarn. Their first child Princess Beatrix was born on 31 January 1938, and their second Princess Irene on 5 August 1939.

Canadian exile

On 12 May 1940, during the invasion of the Netherlands by Germany in World War II, the prince and princess were evacuated to the United Kingdom to be followed the following day by the Queen Wilhelmina and the Dutch Government who set up a government in exile. The princess remained there for a month before taking the children to Ottawa, the capital of Canada, where she resided at Stornoway in the suburb of Rockcliffe Park. Her mother and husband remained in Britain with the Dutch government in exile.

When her third child Margriet was born, the Governor General of Canada, Alexander Cambridge, Earl of Athlone, granted Royal Assent to a special law declaring Princess Juliana's rooms at the Ottawa Civic Hospital as extraterritorial so that the infant would have Juliana with her husband and elder daughters, Beatrix and Irene, in Ottawa Juliana of the Netherlands 407

exclusively Dutch, not dual nationality.[1] Had these arrangements not occurred, Princess Margriet would not be in the line of succession. The Canadian government flew the Dutch flag on parliament's Peace Tower while its carillon rang out with Dutch music at the news of Princess Margriet's birth. Prince Bernhard, who had remained in London with Queen Wilhelmina and members of the exiled Dutch government, was able to visit his family in Canada and be there for Margriet's birth.

Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld in 1942.

Princess Juliana's genuine warmth and the gestures of her Canadian hosts created a lasting bond which was reinforced when Canadian soldiers fought and died by the thousands in 1944 and 1945 to liberate the Netherlands from the Nazis. On 2 May 1945 she returned by a military transport plane with Queen Wilhelmina to the liberated part of the Netherlands, rushing to Breda to set up a temporary Dutch government. Once home she expressed her gratitude to Canada by sending the city of Ottawa 100,000 tulip bulbs. On 24 June 1945, she sailed on the RMS Queen Elizabeth from Gourock, Scotland, to the United States, listing her last permanent residence as London, England. Juliana with her mother, husband and daughters in Ottawa The following year (1946), Juliana donated another 20,500 bulbs, with the request that a portion of these be planted at the grounds of the Ottawa Civic Hospital where she had given birth to Margriet. At the same time, she promised Ottawa an annual gift of tulips during her lifetime to show her lasting appreciation for Canada's war-time hospitality. Each year Ottawa hosts the Canadian Tulip Festival in celebration of this gift.

On 2 August 1945, Princess Juliana was reunited with her family on Dutch soil. Juliana immediately took part in a post-war relief operation for the people in the northern part of the country, where the Nazi-caused famine (the famine winter of 1944–1945) and their continued torturing and murdering of the previous winter had claimed many victims. She was very active as the president of the Dutch Red Cross and worked closely with the National Reconstruction organization. Her down to earth manner endeared her to her people so much that a majority of the Dutch people would soon want Queen Wilhelmina to abdicate in favour of her daughter. In the spring of 1946 Princess Juliana and Prince Bernhard visited the countries that had helped the Netherlands during the occupation. During her pregnancy with her last child, Marijke Christina, Princess Juliana contracted German measles. The girl was born in 1947 with cataracts in both eyes and was soon diagnosed as almost totally blind in one eye and severely Juliana of the Netherlands 408

limited in the other. Despite her blindness, Christina, as she was called, was a happy and gifted child with a talent for languages and an ear for music. Over time, and with advances in medical technology, her eyesight did improve such that with thick glasses, she could attend school and even ride a bicycle. However, before that happened, her mother, the Princess, clinging to any thread that offered some hope for a cure, came under the strong influence of Greet Hofmans, a faith healer with heterodox beliefs, who was considered by "her many detractors" to be a sham.

Reign

For several weeks in the autumn of 1947 and again in 1948 the princess acted as regent when, for health reasons, Queen Wilhelmina was unable to perform her duties. The independence of Indonesia, which saw more than 150,000 Dutch troops stationed there as decolonization force, was regarded as an economic disaster for the Netherlands. With the certain loss of the prized colony, the queen announced her intention to abdicate. On 6 September 1948, with the eyes of the world upon her, Queen Juliana, the twelfth member of the House of Orange to rule the Netherlands, was inaugurated in the Nieuwe Kerk in Amsterdam. On 27 December 1949 at Dam Palace in Amsterdam, Queen Juliana signed the papers that recognised Indonesian sovereignty over the former Dutch colony.

Her daughter's blindness and the increasing influence of Hofmans, who had moved into a royal palace, severely affected the queen's marital relationship. Over the next few years, the controversy surrounding the Queen Juliana in the Golden Carriage on the day faith healer, at first kept out of the Dutch media, erupted into a national of her accession debate over the competency of the queen. However, the debate subsided in part due to Juliana's efforts to connect with her people. She often appeared in public dressed like any ordinary Dutch woman, and preferred to be addressed as "Mevrouw" (Dutch for "Mrs.") rather than her formal title of 'majesty'. She also began riding a bicycle for exercise and fresh air. Although the bicycle and the down-to-earth manners suggest a simple life style, the Dutch royal court of the 1950s and 1960s was still a splendid affair with chamberlains in magnificent uniforms, gilded state coaches, visits to towns in open carriages and lavish entertaining in the huge palaces. At the same time the queen began visiting the citizens of the nearby towns and, unannounced, would drop in on social institutions and schools. Her refreshingly straightforward manner and talk made her a powerful public speaker. On the international stage, Queen Juliana was particularly interested in the problems of developing countries, the refugee problem, and had a very special interest in child welfare, particularly in the developing countries. Juliana of the Netherlands 409

On the night of 31 January 1953, the Netherlands was hit by the most destructive storm in more than five hundred years. Thirty breaches of dunes and dikes occurred and many towns were swept away by twelve-foot tidal waves. More than two thousand people drowned and tens of thousands were trapped by the floodwaters. Dressed in boots and an old coat, Queen Juliana waded through water and slopped through deep mud all over the devastated areas to bring desperate people food and clothing. Showing compassion and concern, reassuring the people, her tireless efforts would permanently endear her to the citizens of the Netherlands.

In 1956, the influence of Miss Hofmans on Juliana's political views Bess Truman, President Truman, Prince Bernhard, and Queen Juliana in 1952 almost brought down the House of Orange in a constitutional crisis that caused the court and the royal family to split into a Bernhard faction set on removing a queen considered a religious fanatic and a threat to NATO, and the queen's pious and pacifist courtiers. The prime minister resolved the crisis. However, Juliana lost out to her powerful husband and his friends. Hofmans was banished from the court and Juliana's supporters were sacked or pensioned. Prince Bernhard planned to divorce his wife but decided against it when he, as he told an American journalist, "found out that the woman still loved him".

In 1963 Queen Juliana faced another crisis among the Protestant part of her people when her daughter Irene secretly converted to Roman Catholicism and, without government approval, on 29 April 1964 married Prince Carlos Hugo of Bourbon, Duke of Parma, a claimant to the Spanish throne and also a leader in Spain's Carlist party. With memories of the Dutch struggle for independence from Roman Catholic Spain and fascist German oppression still fresh in the minds of the Dutch people, the events leading to the marriage were played out in all the newspapers and a storm of hostility erupted against the monarchy for allowing it to happen—a matter so serious that the queen's abdication became a real possibility. She survived, however, thanks to the underlying devotion she had earned over the years.

Another crisis developed as a result of the announcement in July 1965 of the engagement of Princess Beatrix, heir to the throne, to German diplomat Claus von Amsberg. The future husband of the future queen Queen Juliana riding a bicycle in 1967 had been a member of the Nazi Wehrmacht and the Hitler Youth movement. Many angry Dutch citizens demonstrated in the streets, and held rallies and marches against the "traitorous" affair. While this time upset citizens did not call for the queen's abdication because the true object of their wrath, Princess Beatrix, would then be queen, they did start to question the value of having a monarchy at all. After attempting to have the marriage cancelled, Queen Juliana acquiesced and the marriage took place under a continued storm of protest and an almost certain attitude pervaded the country that Princess Beatrix might be the last member of the House of Orange to ever reign in the Netherlands. Despite all these difficulties, Queen Juliana's personal popularity suffered only temporarily.

The queen was noted for her courtesy and kindness. In May 1959, for example, American ufologist George Adamski received a letter from the lady head of the Dutch Unidentified Flying Objects Society informing him that she had been contacted by Queen Juliana's palace and "that the Queen would like to receive you." Adamski informed a London newspaper about the invitation, which prompted the court and cabinet to request that the queen cancel her Juliana of the Netherlands 410

meeting with Adamski, but the queen went ahead with the meeting saying that, "A hostess cannot slam the door in the face of her guests." After the meeting, Dutch Aeronautical Association president Cornelis Kolff said, "The Queen showed an extraordinary interest in the whole subject." The Dutch press put it more straightforwardly: According to Time Magazine Amsterdam newspaper De Volkskrant said: "The Dutch press could hardly be accused of concealing the facts last week. Once again, Queen Juliana's weakness for the preternatural had landed her back in the headlines: she had invited to the palace a crackpot from California who numbered among his friends men from Mars, Venus and other solar-system suburbs." An event in April 1967, helped by an improving Dutch economy, brought an overnight revitalization of the royal family when the first male heir to the Dutch throne in 116 years, Willem-Alexander, was born to Princess Beatrix. This time the demonstrations in the street were of love and enthusiasm. Scandal rocked the royal family again in 1976 when it was revealed that Prince Bernhard had accepted a US$1.1 million bribe from U.S. aircraft manufacturer Lockheed Corporation to influence the Dutch government's purchase of fighter aircraft in what became known as the Lockheed Scandal. The Prime Minister of the Netherlands ordered an inquiry into the affair while Prince Bernhard refused to answer reporters' questions, stating: "I am above such things." Rather than calling on the queen to abdicate, the Dutch people were this time fearful that their beloved Princess Beatrix, Prince Akihito, Queen Juliana, Princess Michiko, and Prince Claus in 1979 Juliana might abdicate out of shame or because of a criminal prosecution conducted in her name against her consort.

On 26 August 1976, a censored and toned-down, but devastating report on Prince Bernhard's activities was released to a shocked Dutch public. The prince resigned his various high-profile positions as a lieutenant admiral, a general and an inspector general of the armed forces. He resigned from his positions in the board of many businesses, charities, the World Wildlife Fund and other institutions. The prince also accepted that he would have to give up wearing his beloved uniforms. In return, the States-General accepted that there was to be no criminal prosecution. On her Silver Jubilee in 1973, Queen Juliana donated all of the money that had been raised by the National Silver Jubilee Committee to organizations for children in need throughout the world. She donated the gift from the nation which she received on her seventieth birthday to the "International Year of the Child." She was the 922nd Lady of the Order of the Garter in 1958. On 30 April 1980, her 71st birthday, Queen Juliana abdicated and her eldest daughter succeeded her as Queen Beatrix of the Netherlands. Juliana remained active in numerous charitable causes until well into her eighties.

Illness and death

From the mid-1990s, Juliana's health declined and she also suffered the progressive onset of dementia. Juliana did not appear in public after this time. At the order of the Royal Family's doctors, Juliana was placed under 24-hour care. Prince Bernhard said in a television interview in 2001 that the former Queen was no longer able to recognise her family and that she had been suffering from Alzheimer's disease for several years.[2]

Juliana died in her sleep on 20 March 2004, several weeks before her The Royal Hearse with the remains of Princess 95th birthday, at Soestdijk Palace in Baarn from complications of Juliana on its way to the Nieuwe Kerk in Delft Juliana of the Netherlands 411

pneumonia, seventy years to the day after her grandmother, the Queen regent Emma. She was embalmed, unlike her mother Wilhelmina, who chose not to be, and on 30 March 2004 interred beside her mother in the royal vaults under the Nieuwe Kerk in Delft. The memorial service made her ecumenical and often highly personal views on matters of religion public. The late Princess, a vicar said in her sermon, was interested in all religions and in reincarnation. Juliana's husband Prince Bernhard died eight months later aged 93, on 1 December 2004; his remains were placed next to hers. In 2009 an exhibition of portraits of Juliana, and objects from her life, was held at the Het Loo Palace to mark the centenary of her birth.

Titles and styles

• 30 April 1909 – 4 September 1948: Her Royal Highness Princess Juliana • 4 September 1948 – 30 April 1980: Her Majesty The Queen • 30 April 1980 – 20 March 2004: Her Royal Highness Princess Juliana Juliana's full title and style as an unmarried woman was: Her Royal Highness Princess Juliana Louisa Emma Marie Wilhelmina of the Netherlands, Princess of Orange-Nassau, Duchess of Mecklenburg, etc.[3][4] Her mother issued a decree allowing her to adopt her husband's Silver guilder coin with Juliana's portrait princely title as customary, providing that it is preceded by the title she held as a member of the House of Mecklenburg.[5] The decree became effective upon her marriage, and changed her full title and style to: Her Royal Highness Princess Juliana of the Netherlands, Princess of Orange-Nassau, Duchess of Mecklenburg, Princess of Lippe-Biesterfeld, etc. After her accession to the throne, Juliana's official title was: "Her Majesty, Juliana, Queen of the Netherlands, Princess of Orange-Nassau, Duchess of Mecklenburg, Princess of Lippe-Biesterfeld, etc, etc, etc". Upon her abdication, she resumed her pre-regnal marital title and style.[6]

Issue

Name Birth Marriage

Date Spouse Issue

Beatrix of the Netherlands 31 January 1938 10 March 1966 Claus von Amsberg Willem-Alexander of the (widowed in 2002) Netherlands Prince Friso Prince Constantijn

Princess Irene 5 August 1939 29 April 1964 Carlos Hugo, Duke of Parma Carlos, Duke of Parma (divorced in 1981) Princess Margarita Prince Jaime Princess Carolina

Princess Margriet 19 January 1943 10 January 1967 Pieter van Vollenhoven Prince Maurits Prince Bernhard Prince Pieter-Christiaan Prince Floris Juliana of the Netherlands 412

Princess Christina 18 February 1947 28 June 1975 Jorge Pérez y Guillermo Bernardo Guillermo (divorced in 1996) Nicolás Guillermo Juliana Guillermo

Prime Ministers during the Queen's reign Prime Ministers of the Netherlands • Willem Drees (1948–1958) • Louis Beel (1958–1959) • Jan de Quay (1959–1963) • Victor Marijnen (1963–1965) • Jo Cals (1965–1966) • Jelle Zijlstra (1966–1967) • (1967–1971) • Barend Biesheuvel (1971–1973) • Joop den Uyl (1973–1977) • Dries van Agt (1977–1982) Prime Ministers of the Netherlands Antilles • Moises Frumencio da Costa Gomez (1949) • Lindoro Christoffel Kwartsz (1949–1951) • Moises Frumencio da Costa Gomez (1951–1954) • Efraïn Jonckheer (1954–1968) • Ciro Domenico Kroon (1968–1969) • Gerald C. Sprockel (1969) • Ernesto O. Petronia (1969–1971) • Ramez Jorge Isa (1971) • Otto R.A. Beaujon (1971–1973) • Juancho Evertsz (1973–1977) • Lucinda da Costa Gomez-Matheeuws (1977) • Leo A.I. Chance (1977) • Silvius Gerard Marie Rozendal (1977–1979) • Miguel A. Pourier (1979) • Dominico Martina (1979–1984) Prime Ministers of Suriname • Julius Caesar de Miranda (1949–1951) • Jacques Adam Drielsma (1951–1951) • Johann Ate Eldert Buiskool (1951–1952) • Adrian Cornelis Jasper Marous Alberga (1952) • Archibald Currie (1952–1955)[7] • Johan Ferrier (1955–1958) • Severinus Désiré Emanuels (1958–1963) • Johan Adolf Pengel (1963–1969) • Arthur J. May (1969)[8] • Jules Sedney (1969–1973) • Henck Alphonsus Eugène Arron (1973–1980)[9] Juliana of the Netherlands 413

Legacy • Shortly after her birth, the inhabitants of a small village near Den Helder asked permission from Queen Wilhelmina to name their village after the young princess. They received permission and they named their village Julianadorp.

Honours and awards Dutch Honours • Grand Master of the Military William Order • Grand Master and Dame Grand Cross of the Order of the Netherlands Lion • Grand Master of the Order of Orange-Nassau • Grand Master of the Order of the Gold Lion of the House of Nassau • Grand Master and Dame Grand Cross of the Order of the House of Orange • Grand Master of the Order for Loyalty and Merit • Grand Master of the Order of the Crown Foreign honours • Grand Star of Honour for Services to the Republic of Austria (1961) • Special Class of the Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany (24 November 1969) • Commander Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of the White Rose of (1970) • Dame Grand Cross with Grand Cordon of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic (23 October 1973) • Collar of the Order of the Liberator General San Martín (Argentina) • Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold (Belgium) • Dame Grand Collar of the National Order of the Southern Cross (Brazil) • Dame Grand Cross of the Order of Valour (Cameroon) •• National Order of the Ivory Coast • Dame of the Order of the Elephant (Denmark) - 1946 • Grand Croix of the Legion of Honour (France) • Grand Cordon of the Order of the Precious Crown (Japan) • Dame Grand Cross of the Order of the Redeemer (Greece) •• Grand Cross with Gold Star of the Order of Francisco Morazán (Honduras) • Queen of the Class of the Order of the Star of the Republic of Indonesia • Dame of the Order of (Empire of Ethiopia) • Grand Collar of the Order of Pahlavi (Empire of Iran) • Dame of the Great Star of Yugoslavia •• Grand Cordon of the Order of the Pioneers of the Republic () • Dame Grand Cross of the Order of the Star of Africa (Liberia) • Dame Grand Cross of the Order of the Oak Crown (Luxembourg) • Dame Grand Cross of the House Order of the Wendish Crown with gems (Mecklenburg) • Collar of the Order of the Aztec Eagle (Mexico) • Member of the Order of Ojaswi Rajanya (Nepal) •• Collar of the Order of Pratap Vardhak (Nepal) •• Grand Cross with Gold Star Order of Ruben Dario (Nicaragua) • Dame Grand Cross with Collar of the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav (Norway) • Grand Collar of the Order of Manuel Amador Guerrero (Panama) • Dame Grand Cross with Diamonds of the Order of the Sun (Peru) • Dame of the Order of the White Eagle (Poland) • Lady of the Order of the Garter (United Kingdom) Juliana of the Netherlands 414

• Honorary Dame Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order (United Kingdom) • Royal Victorian Chain (United Kingdom) • Dame Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of Duarte, Sanchez and Mella (Dominican Republic) • National Order of the Lion (Senegal) • Collar of the Order of Charles III (Spain) • Chief Commander of the Legion of Merit (United States) • Grand Cordon of the Order of the Honorary Yellow Star (Suriname) • Member of the Order of the Seraphim (Sweden) •• Dama Special Class of the Order of Clouds favorable (Taiwan) • Lady of the Order of the Royal House of Chakri (Thailand) • Dame of the Order of the Rajamitrabhorn (Thailand, 1963) •• Grand Cordon of the Order of Independence (Tunisia) •• Order of Independence (Tunisia) • Grand Cordon of the Order of the Liberator (Venezuela) •• Nansen Refugee Award 1955 (UNHCR)

References

[1] CBC Digital Archives: "Netherlands' Princess Margriet born in Ottawa" (http:/ / archives. cbc. ca/ on_this_day/ 01/ 19/ )

[2] (http:/ / krant. telegraaf. nl/ krant/ archief/ 20010702/ teksten/ bin. prins. alzheimer. ziekte. html), Lof na uitspraken prins over Juliana, July 2, 2001

[3] H.M. (koningin Juliana) Juliana Louise Emma Marie Wilhelmina (http:/ / www. parlement. com/ 9353000/ 1/ j9vvhy5i95k8zxl/ vg09llxpg0r2) (Parlement.nl)

[4] Decree about the titles and names of the descendants of HM Queen Wilhemina (http:/ / www. angelfire. com/ ne2/ wetgeving/ nederlands/

besluitnaamnakomelingenkoningin. html) – Website with Legislation concerning the Royal House of the Netherlands (Dutch)

[5] Decree of granting the title "Princess of Lippe-Biesterfeld" to HRH Prince Juliana (http:/ / www. angelfire. com/ ne2/ wetgeving/ nederlands/

besluitverleningtiteljuliana. html) – Website with Legislation concerning the Royal House of the Netherlands (Dutch)

[6] Wet op het Kroondomein ( BWBR0002752 (http:/ / wetten. overheid. nl/ BWBR0002752/ )) [7][7]Acting Prime Minister from 1952 to 1954. [8][8]Acting Prime Minster [9][9]Suriname became independent in 1975.

External links

• Queen Juliana (1909-2004) (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ english/ content. jsp?objectid=16843) at the Dutch Royal House website

Juliana of the Netherlands House of Orange-Nassau Cadet branch of the House of Mecklenburg-Schwerin Born: 30 April 1909 Died: 20 March 2004 Regnal titles Preceded by Queen of the Netherlands Succeeded by Wilhelmina 6 September 1948 – 30 April 1980 Beatrix Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld 415 Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld

Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld

Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld in Ottawa in 1942.

Prince consort of the Netherlands

Tenure 6 September 1948 – 30 April 1980

Spouse Juliana of the Netherlands

Issue

Beatrix of the Netherlands Princess Irene Princess Margriet Princess Christina Alicia von Bielefeld Alexia Grinda

Full name

Bernhard Leopold Frederik Everhard Julius Coert Karel Godfried Pieter

House House of Lippe

Father Prince Bernhard of Lippe

Mother Armgard of Sierstorpff-Cramm

Born 29 June 1911 Jena, Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach

Died 1 December 2004 (aged 93) University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, Netherlands

Burial 11 December 2004 Nieuwe Kerk, Delft, Netherlands

Occupation Military officer Aviator Conservationist

Religion Protestant Church in the Netherlands (2004) prev. Dutch Reformed Church (1937-2004) prev. Evangelical Lutheran (1911-1937)

Prince Bernhard Leopold Frederik Everhard Julius Coert Karel Godfried Pieter of Lippe-Biesterfeld (German: Bernhard Leopold Friedrich Eberhard Julius Kurt Karl Gottfried Peter Prinz zur Lippe-Biesterfeld; 29 June 1911 – 1 December 2004), later Prince Bernhard of the Netherlands, was the husband of Queen Juliana of the Netherlands and father of her four children, including the former monarch Queen Beatrix. Although his private life was rather controversial, he was still generally regarded as a charming and popular figure by the majority of the Dutch for his performance as a combat pilot and his activities as a liaison officer and personal aide to the Queen during World War II and for his work during post-war reconstruction. During World War II the German-born prince was part of the London-based Allied war planning councils and an active RAF wing commander flying both fighter and bomber planes into combat. He was a Dutch general and supreme commander of the Dutch Armed forces, involved in negotiating the terms of surrender of the German army in the Netherlands. Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld 416

For proven bravery, leadership and loyalty during his wartime efforts he was awarded the rank of knight commander in the chivalric Military William Order, the oldest and highest honour in the Netherlands. After the War he was also made honorary Air Marshal of the RAF by Queen Elizabeth II. In 1969, Bernhard was awarded the Grand Cross, Special Class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany. Bernhard helped found the World Wildlife Fund (later renamed World Wide Fund for Nature), becoming its first president in 1961, and in 1970 establishing the WWF's "1001 Club: A Nature Trust", as a fundraiser. In 1954, he was a co-founder of the international Bilderberg Group, which has met annually since then to discuss corporate globalization and other issues concerning Europe and North America. He was forced to step down from both groups after being involved in the Lockheed Bribery Scandal.

Early life Bernhard was born Bernhard Leopold Friedrich Eberhard Julius Kurt Karl Gottfried Peter Graf von Biesterfeld in Jena, Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, German Empire, the elder son of Prince Bernhard of Lippe (younger brother of Leopold IV, Prince of Lippe, the reigning Prince of Lippe) and Armgard of Sierstorpff-Cramm. Because the marriage of his parents did not properly conform to the marriage laws of the House of Lippe and was therefore morganatic, Bernhard was born with the title of "Count" only. In 1916, the Reigning Prince of Lippe, Leopold IV, granted Bernhard and his mother the title of "Prince / Princess of Lippe-Biesterfeld" and made the marriage of his parents dynastic retroactively. After World War I, Bernhard's family lost their German principality and the revenue that had accompanied it. But the family was still wealthy and Bernhard spent his early years at Reckenwalde, the family's new estate in East Brandenburg thirty kilometers east of the River Oder, (now the village of Wojnowo, Lubusz in Poland), near the city of Züllichau (Sulechów). He received his early education at home. When he was twelve, he was sent to board at the in Züllichau and several years later to board at a gymnasium in Berlin, from which he graduated in 1929. Bernhard suffered from poor health as a boy. Doctors predicted that he would not live very long. This prediction might have been the key to Bernhard's reckless driving and the risks that he took in the Second World War and thereafter. The prince wrecked several cars and planes in his lifetime. Bernhard studied Law at the University of Lausanne, Switzerland and in Berlin, where he acquired a taste for fast cars, horse riding, and big-game hunting safaris. He was nearly killed in a boating accident and an airplane crash, and he suffered a broken neck and crushed ribs in a 160 km/h (100 mph) car crash in 1938. While at university, Bernhard joined the Nazi Party. He also enrolled in the Sturmabteilung, which he left in 1934 when he graduated. The Prince later denied that he had belonged to SA and to the Reiter-SS (SS Cavalry Corps), but these are well-documented memberships. Nevertheless, while he was not a fierce champion of democracy, the Prince was never known to hold any radical[1] political views or express any racist sentiments. The Prince eventually went to work for the German chemical giant IG Farben, then the world’s fourth-largest company (which survives today as BASF, AGFA, and Bayer). He lodged with the exiled Russian nobleman Count Pavel Kotzbue and his wife the American-born Allene Tew. After training, Bernhard became secretary to the board of directors at the Paris office in 1935. Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld 417

Marriage and children

Bernhard met then-Princess Juliana at the 1936 Winter Olympics at Garmisch-Partenkirchen. Juliana's mother, Queen Wilhelmina, was searching for a suitable husband for Juliana. As a Protestant of royal rank (the Lippe-Biesterfelds were a sovereign house in the German Empire), Bernhard was acceptable for the strictly religious Wilhelmina. Wilhelmina left nothing to chance, and had her lawyers draft a very detailed prenuptial agreement that specified exactly what Bernhard could and could not do. The couple's engagement was announced in 1936, and they were married in The Hague on 7 January Princess Juliana & Prince Bernhard celebrate 1937. Earlier, Bernhard had been granted Dutch citizenship, and their engagement in Amsterdam. September changed the spelling of his names from German to Dutch. The prince 1936. who was styled a Serene Highness, became a Royal Highness by Dutch Law. His appropriateness as consort of the future Queen would later become a matter of some public debate.

Prince Bernhard was father of six children, four of them with Queen Juliana. The eldest daughter is the former Queen of the Netherlands, Beatrix (1938). His other daughters with Juliana are Irene (1939), Margriet (1943) and Christina (1947). He had two illegitimate daughters. The first is Alicia von Bielefeld (born 21 June 1952), whose mother has not been identified. A landscape architect, she lives in the United States. Prince Bernhard's sixth daughter, Alexia Grinda (a.k.a. Alexia Lejeune or Alexia Grinda-Lejeune, born in Paris in 10 July 1967), is his child by the French socialite and fashion model Hélène Grinda.[2] Although rumours about these two children had already spread, it was made official after his death.

Attitudes to Nazi Germany Various members of his family and friends were aligned with the Nazis prior to the war, and a number of them attended the wedding. Protocol demanded that the prospective prince-consort be invited to an audience with his head of state, who at the time was Adolf Hitler. Hitler himself gives a rendering of the conversation he had with Bernhard in his Tischgespräche (Table Conversations). Table Conversations was a collection of monologues, remarks, and speeches Hitler gave during lunch or dinner to those invited to the table by him. Bernhard himself called Hitler a tyrant in a public speech on the BBC on 25 June 1940 after France fell to Germany. The Prince’s brother, Prince Aschwin of Lippe-Biesterfeld, was an officer in the German army. Although the secret services on both sides were interested in this peculiar pair of brothers, no improper contacts or leaks of information were discovered. The Prince showed himself to be a loyal Dutch citizen and officer. He cut off relations with the members of his family who were enthusiastic Nazis. As a sign of his "Dutchness" he spoke only Dutch when negotiating the surrender of German forces in the Netherlands. The Prince was known to be very fond of smart uniforms and medals. He made a point of wearing his medals in the English court style, even though members of the Dutch armed forces wear their medals in the Prussian style. The Prince’s mother was no admirer of the Nazis and got into trouble for refusing to hoist the swastika flag on her country seat at Reckenwalde. Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld 418

World War II

Prince Bernhard began to make himself popular in the eyes of the Dutch people at the outset of World War II. During the German Invasion, the Prince, carrying a machine gun, allegedly organised the palace guards into a combat group and shot at German planes. The Royal Family fled the Netherlands and took refuge in England. In disagreement with Queen Wilhelmina's decision to leave the Kingdom, the young prince consort, aged 28, is said to have initially refused to go and wanted to oppose the Nazi occupation from within its borders, but eventually agreed to join her as head of the Royal Military Mission based in London. Once safely there, his wife Princess Juliana and their children went on to Canada, where they remained until the end of the war.

In England, Prince Bernhard asked to work in British Intelligence but the War Admiralty, and later General Eisenhower's Allied

Command offices, did not trust him sufficiently to allow him Royal Monogram access to intelligence information. However, on the recommendation of Bernhard's friend and admirer, King George VI, who was also of German aristocratic descent via his great-grandfather Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, and after being personally screened by intelligence officer Ian Fleming on behalf of Churchill, he was later permitted to work in the Allied war planning councils.

"For Bernhard, the Prince of the Netherlands, the war was a frustrating business. Born a German, he had married Queen Wilhelmina's only child, Princess Juliana, and in due time made a conscious and meaningful transition of loyalties to his new fatherland. Because of this, and in view of the doubts his background initially evoked among some Britons, he longed more than anyone for a chance to get at Prince Bernhard as Commander of the Dutch armed Holland's aggressors." Erik Hazelhoff Roelfzema aka forces in 1944 after the liberation of Eindhoven Soldier of Orange, decorated war hero.[3]

On 25 June 1940, three days after France fell to the German war machine, Bernhard spoke on the Overseas Service of the BBC, calling Hitler a German tyrant and expressing his confidence that Great Britain would defeat the Third Reich. In 1940, Flight Lieutenant Murray Payne instructed the prince to fly a Spitfire. The Prince made 1,000 flight-hours in a Spitfire with the RAF's 322 "Dutch" squadron wrecking two planes during landings. He remained an active pilot throughout his life and flew his last airplane 53 years later, with his grandson and heir to the throne, who inherited his passion for flying. In 1941, Prince Bernhard was given the honorary rank of wing commander in the Royal Air Force. As "Wing Commander Gibbs (RAF)", Prince Bernhard flew over occupied Europe, attacking V-1 launch pads in a B-24 Liberator, bombing Pisa and engaging submarines over the Atlantic in a B-25 Mitchell and conducting reconnaissance over enemy-held territory in an L-5 Grasshopper. Prince Bernhard was awarded the Dutch Airman's Cross for his "ability and perseverance" (Dutch: "bekwaamheid en volharding").[4] Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld 419

He also helped organise the Dutch resistance movement and acted as personal secretary for Queen Wilhelmina. Queen Wilhelmina erased the word "honorary" (the exact words were " à la suite") in the decree that promoted Bernhard to General. In this unconstitutional manner, she gave this Royal Prince a position that was never intended by either Parliament or her ministers. The minister of defence did not choose to correct the Monarch and the Prince took a real and important role in the Dutch Armed forces. By 1944, Prince Bernhard became Commander of the Dutch armed forces. After the liberation of the Netherlands, he returned with his family and became active in the negotiations for the German surrender. He was present during the armistice negotiations and German surrender in Hotel de Wereld ("The World Hotel") in in The Netherlands on 5 May 1945, where he avoided to speak German.[5][6] The Prince was a genuine war hero in the eyes of most of the Dutch and even kept cordial relations with the communists who fought against the Nazis. In the post-war years he earned respect for his work in helping to reinvigorate the economy of the Netherlands.

Postwar roles

After the war, the position of Inspector General was created for the Prince. He was made a member of the boards of supervisors of Fokker Aircraft and KLM Royal Dutch Airlines, and within a few years he had been invited to serve as an adviser or non-executive director of numerous corporations and institutions. There have been claims about KLM helping Nazis to leave Germany for Argentina on KLM flights while Bernhard was on its board. After a 1952 trip with Queen Juliana to the United States, Prince Bernhard was heralded by the media as a business ambassador extraordinaire for the Netherlands.[7]

Prince Bernhard and Queen Juliana with president Harry S. Truman and First With his global contacts, Bernhard in May 1954, Lady Bess Truman in 1952 was a key figure in organising a meeting at the Bilderberg Hotel in the Netherlands for the business elite and intellectuals of the Western World to discuss the economic problems in the face of what they characterized as the growing threat from Communism. This first meeting was successful, and it became an annual gathering known as the Bilderberg Group. The idea for the European Union, first proposed by Robert Schuman on 9 May 1950, was encouraged at Bilderberg.

Prince Bernhard was a very outspoken person who often flouted protocol by remarking upon subjects about which he felt deeply. Almost until his last day he called for more recognition for the Polish veterans of the Second World War who had figured greatly in the liberation of the Netherlands, but only after his death did the Dutch government decide to publicly recognize the important role of the Polish army in the liberation: on 31 May 2006, at the Binnenhof in The Hague, Her Majesty Queen Beatrix conferred the Order of William, the highest Dutch military decoration, on the Polish 1st Independent Parachute Brigade. Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld 420

Scandals and insinuations

The Hofmans Affair

In the middle of the 1950s, Prince Bernhard was involved in what some considered a personal vendetta against Greet Hofmans, a faith healer and layer-on of hands. For nine years she was a friend and adviser of Queen Juliana, often residing at Palace Soestdijk. Originally, Hofmans was introduced to Queen Juliana on the initiative of Prince Bernhard in 1948 to treat the eye sickness of Princess Marijke Christina. This illness arose because Juliana was infected with rubella during pregnancy. Hofmans developed a great influence on the Queen, encouraging pacifist ideas. In the period of the Cold War this caused a crisis in the royal household. Reputedly it reached the point where it threatened the marriage of Juliana and Bernhard.

Outside the Netherlands, a great deal was written about the Hofmans affair. On 13 June 1956, an article appeared in the German magazine Der Spiegel with the title Zwischen Königin und Rasputin – "between the queen and her Rasputin", which painted a less-than-flattering picture of Hofmans. Later, Bernhard admitted that he personally provided the information Statue of Queen Juliana and Prince Bernhard in the garden of [8] for the article. It is thought that by doing this he hoped Soestdijk Palace to have Hofmans removed from the court. The Prime Minister, Willem Drees, had to act and appointed a committee of "three wise men" (elder statesmen) to advise the royal couple. The Prince got what he wanted; Hofmans was banished, and various friends and supporters of the Queen in the Royal Household had to give up their office.

In 2008 the report of the "three wise men" has been made public and is part of the book "Juliana & Bernhard" by historian Fasseur, who was also granted access to the private royal archive by the Queen. Bernhard was reprimanded for leaking confidential information to the international press, but although both Juliana and the Queen Mother Wilhelmina mention their fear of a "German putsch" (i.e. Juliana's abdication followed by Bernhard's rule on behalf of their adolescent oldest daughter and successor to the throne) Juliana was forced to break all relations with Hofmans. The book attempts to rehabilitate Bernhard, describing how the prince only resorted to bringing in the international press after repeated, desperate and often dramatic pleading with his wife to distance herself from the Hofmans clan. Fasseur said: "Bernard was obviously a free spirited chap, who independently went about his business. But he was still very much a family man. I got the feeling he was the only one that was seeing things were getting completely out of hand and tried to salvage the situation as much as he could."[9] The royal family did not edit the book, nor did they have a preview before its printing. But after reading it they endorsed its accounts of the developments that led to Hofmans’ dismissal. Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld 421

The Lockheed Scandal

Scandal rocked the Royal Family in 1976 when it was revealed that Prince Bernhard had accepted a US$1.1 million bribe from U.S. aircraft manufacturer Lockheed Corporation to influence the Dutch government's purchase of fighter aircraft. At the time he had served on more than 300 corporate boards and committees worldwide and had been praised in the Netherlands for his efforts to promote the economic well-being of the country. Prime Minister of the Netherlands Joop den Uyl ordered an inquiry into the Lockheed affair, while Prince Bernhard refused to answer Prince Bernhard and Queen Juliana returning from Italy, reporters' questions, stating: "I am above such things".[10] due to developments in the Lockheed scandal. The The Dutch and international press headlined the stories for Netherlands, 26 August 1976. months, providing proof of Prince Bernhard's Reiter SS membership and details of his numerous extramarital affairs, including the purchase of a luxurious Paris apartment for his mistress Hélène Grinda, with whom he had an illegitimate daughter, Alexia. (Bernhard also had a second illegitimate daughter, Alicia, in the USA.)

On 26 August 1976, a toned-down, but nonetheless devastating, report on Prince Bernhard's activities was released to a shocked Dutch public. The Prince's own letter of 1974, to Lockheed Corporation, demanding "commissions" be paid to him on Dutch government aircraft purchases was very damaging evidence of improper conduct by the inspector-general of the Dutch armed forces. Criminal charges were not pressed by the government out of respect for Queen Juliana, whose later abdication was tacitly understood to be directly related to her husband's conduct.

Prince Bernhard resigned as inspector-general of the Dutch armed forces. This meant that he was not allowed to wear a uniform in public, but it did not stop him from attending the 1979 funeral of Lord Mountbatten in London in full colours. Prime Minister Joop den Uyl made a statement in parliament and told the delegates that the Prince would also resign from his various high-profile positions in businesses, charities, and other institutions. The Dutch states-general voted against criminal prosecution. Prince Bernhard turned over the presidency of the international World Wildlife Fund to Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. The Dutch Royal family worked hard to rehabilitate the Prince's name, though other scandals were to be revealed in later years.

Project Lock In 1988, Prince Bernhard and Princess Juliana sold two paintings from their personal collection to raise money for the World Wildlife Fund. The paintings sold for GBP700,000, which was deposited in a Swiss WWF bank account. In 1989, however, Charles de Haes, director-general of the WWF, transferred GBP500,000 back to Bernhard, for what De Haes called a private project. In 1991, newspapers reported what this private project was: Prince Bernhard had hired KAS International, owned by Special Air Service founder David Stirling, to use mercenaries – mostly British – to fight poachers in nature reserves. The paramilitary group infiltrated organisations profiting from illegal trade in ivory in order to arrest them. This Project Lock seemed to have backfired enormously, however. Bernhard’s private army had not only infiltrated in the illegal trade, they were also participating in it. To make things worse, Irish reporter Kevin Dowling discovered that the South African army was also involved in the trade, hinting at connections between the Bernhard’s army and the WWF and the struggle for maintaining apartheid. Moreover, he claimed members of the South African-run counterinsurgency unit Koevoet (Afrikaans and Dutch for "crowbar") had been trained under Project Lock. Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld 422

In 1995, Nelson Mandela called upon the Kumleben Commission to investigate, among other things, the role of the WWF in apartheid South Africa. In the report that followed, it was suggested that mercenaries from Project Lock had planned assassinations of ANC members and that mercenaries had been running training camps in the wildlife reserves, training fighters from the anti-communist groups UNITA and Renamo. Although Prince Bernhard was never accused of any crime in its context, the Project Lock scandal dealt another damaging blow to the Prince's name.

Other controversies

Yet more controversy came on 30 October 2002, when he paid the fines of two Albert Heijn supermarket staff members, who were convicted of assaulting a shoplifter after they detained him. In an interview published after his death, on 14 December 2004, Prince Bernhard admitted that he had accepted more than one million dollars (US) in bribes from Lockheed. He acknowledged it was a mistake and claimed that all of the money went to the WWF. He said: "I have accepted that the word Lockheed will be carved on my tombstone."[11] He also admitted to having fathered two illegitimate daughters in the years following his marriage.

In February 2008, Joop den Uyl's biography claimed that the official report investigating the Lockheed bribe scandal also presented proof that the Prince had accepted money from yet another aerospace firm: Bernhard wearing his trademark carnation, 1999. Northrop. The former Prime Minister claimed he had not made the information public to protect the Dutch monarchy.[12] The 2009 publication HRH: High Stakes at the Court of His Royal Highness by historian Harry Veenendaal and journalist Jort Kelder alleges that the prince in 1950 attempted to oust the young government of the newly founded Republic of Indonesia and place himself at the head of the Islands as viceroy similar to Lord Mountbatten's role in British India. This was particularly contentious as in 1949 the Netherlands had already officially recognised its former colony as an independent nation.[13]

Death

In 1994 he had a colon tumor removed and suffered severe complications due to respiratory distress. In December, his daughter Queen Beatrix rushed to the hospital straight after landing from a trip to Africa. By Christmas the prospect of death had faded and spring the next year he recovered enough to go home. His health problems continued in 1998 when he had a prostate swelling and in 1999 when he suffered difficulties breathing and talking. He did, however, attend the wedding of his grandson, right after having prostate Funeral of Prince Bernhard in Delft in 2004 Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld 423

surgery. In 2000, his life was endangered again when he suffered neurological complications and continued breathing problems. Two days after intensive medical (and media) attention the Royal Press Office issued a statement the Prince was reading newspapers again. Over the following years Bernhard continued to shine at the military parades on the national liberation day celebrating the defeat of Nazi Germany. Only when his wife Juliana died in March 2004 the terribly upset Prince became exceedingly fragile. Up to the last moment it remained uncertain if he could attend the Royal funeral, which he eventually managed to attend. He said his final farewells to his war comrades on liberation day in May and in November that same year he was diagnosed with untreatable cancer.[14] Prince Bernhard died of cancer at the age of 93 in an Utrecht hospital (the Universitair Medisch Centrum Utrecht – University of Utrecht Medical Centre) on 1 December 2004; until his death he suffered from malignant lung and intestinal tumors. On 11 December 2004, he was interred in a lavish state funeral at the Nieuwe Kerk, Delft. Bernhard's funeral was different from those of Prince Claus and Queen Juliana in that Bernhard's coffin was transported on the undercarriage of a cannon instead of in the traditional carriage used when the coffins of Prince Claus and Queen Juliana were transported to Delft. Together with the playing of many military marches and the forming of guards of honour by Second World War veterans this gave the funeral procession a military character as the late Prince, a Second World War veteran, had wished. As a final tribute to his former military role in the Royal Netherlands Air Force, three modern F-16 jet fighters and a World War II Spitfire plane performed a low fly-by during the funeral in a classic missing man formation.

Contemporary media coverage and popular culture In the years after Bernhard died his life story still fascinates many and is the inspiration for literature, theatre, television and even comic books.[15] In 2010 fact and fiction of the life of Bernhard was portrayed in a Dutch television series. In a biographical dissertation by Dutch journalist and historian Annejet van der Zijl published in March 2010, Bernhard was called "a failure" in the history of the Dutch Royal Family and a "creature of his own myths".[16]

Titles and styles

• 29 June 1911 – 1916: Count Bernhard of Biesterfeld • 1916 – 7 January 1937: His Serene Highness Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld • 7 January 1937 – 6 September 1948: His Royal Highness Prince Bernhard of the Netherlands, Prince of Lippe-Biesterfeld[17] • 6 September 1948 – 30 April 1980: His Royal Highness The Prince of the Netherlands • 30 April 1980 – 1 December 2004: His Royal Highness Prince Bernhard of the Netherlands, Prince of Lippe-Biesterfeld Standard of Bernhard as Prince-consort of The Netherlands. Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld 424

Military ranks •• Royal Netherlands Army

• Captain (1936–1942) • Major general (1942–1943) • Lieutenant general (1943–1945) • General (1945–1976) •• Royal Netherlands East Indies Army

• Captain (1940–1943) • Lieutenant general (1943–1945) • General (1945–1950) •• Royal Netherlands Air Force

• General (1953–1976) •• Royal Netherlands Navy

• Lieutenant commander (1936–1940) • Captain (1940–1942) • Rear admiral (1942–1943) • Vice admiral (1943–1945) • Lieutenant admiral (1945–1976) •• Royal Air Force

• Honorary Air commodore (1941–1964)

• Honorary Air marshal (1964–2004) •• Royal New Zealand Air Force

• Honorary Air commodore (1948–2004) • Retired from Active duty (1945) • Honorable discharge from the Armed forces of the Netherlands (1976)

Honours and awards On 15 September 1964, Queen Elizabeth II appointed Prince Bernhard to the honorary rank of Air Marshal in the Royal Air Force. Dutch decorations • Grand Master of the Order of the Golden Ark •• Grand Master and Knight of the Order of St. John of the bailiwick of the Netherlands • Commander of the Military William Order • Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Netherlands Lion • Knight of the Order of the Gold Lion of the House of Nassau • Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the House of Orange •• Airman's Cross Foreign Decorations • Grand Star of the Decoration for Services to the Republic of Austria (1961) • Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Liberator General San Martín (Argentina) • Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold (Belgium) Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld 425

• Croix de guerre 1939-1945 with palm (Belgium) • Knight Grand Cross of the National Order of the Southern Cross (Brazil) • Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Star of Karađorđe (House of Karađorđević) • Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Valour (Cameroon) • Collar of the Order of Merit (Chile) •• Czechoslovak War Cross 1939-1945 • Grand Cross of the Order of Boyacá (Colombia) • Grand Cross with gold star of the Military Order of the Cross of San Carlos (Colombia) • Knight Grand Cross of the National Order of the Ivory Coast • Knight of the Order of the Elephant (Denmark, 1946) • Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of Ecuador (Ecuador) • Knight of the Order of Abdon Calderón, 1st class (Ecuador) • Commander Grand Cross of the Order of the White Rose of Finland • Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour (France) • Commander of the Ordre des Palmes Académiques (France) • Croix de guerre 1939-1945 (France) • Médaille de l'Aéronautique (France) • Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Redeemer (Greece) • Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Seal of Solomon (Empire of Ethiopia) • Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the (Empire of Ethiopia) • Grand Cordon of the Order of Pahlavi (Empire of Iran) • Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Mahaputera (Indonesia) • Knight Grand Cross with Grand Cordon of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic (23 October 1973) • Grand Star of the Order of the Yugoslav Star • Grand Cordon of the Order of the Pioneers of the Republic (Liberia) • Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Star of Africa (Liberia) • Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Oak Crown (Luxembourg) • War Cross, 1939-1945 (Luxembourg) • Collar of the Order of the Aztec Eagle (Mexico) • Member of the Order of Ojaswi Rajanya (Nepal) • Grand Cross with Silver Star of the Order of Ruben Dario (Nicaragua) • Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav • Collar of the National Order of Merit of Paraguay • Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Sun with diamonds (Peru) • Special Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of Peru • War Cross 1940, 3rd class (Kingdom of Greece) • Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (United Kingdom) • Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order (United Kingdom) • Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire (United Kingdom) • Bailiff Grand Cross of the Venerable Order of St. John (United Kingdom) • King George VI Coronation Medal (United Kingdom, 1937) • Queen Elizabeth II Coronation Medal (United Kingdom), 2 June 1953 • France and Germany Star (United Kingdom) • Defence Medal (United Kingdom) • Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of Duarte, Sanchez and Mella (Dominican Republic) • Special class of the Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany, 24 November 1969) Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld 426

• Knight Grand Cross of the Order of August 23 (Romania) • Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the National Lion (Senegal) • Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Pius IX (Holy See) • Bailiff Grand Cross of Honour and Devotion of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta • Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Charles III (Spain) • Grand Cordon of the Honorary Order of the Yellow Star (Suriname) • Knight of the Royal Order of the Seraphim (Sweden) • Knight, First Class of the Order of Clouds favorable (Taiwan) • Knight of the Order of the Royal House of Chakri (Thailand) • Grand Cordon of the Order of Independence (Tunisia) • Chief Commander of the Legion of Merit (USA) • Bronze Star Medal (USA) • World War II Victory Medal (USA) • Grand Cordon of the Order of the Liberator (Venezuela)

References

[1] http:/ / toolserver. org/ %7Edispenser/ cgi-bin/ dab_solver. py?page=Prince_Bernhard_of_Lippe-Biesterfeld&

editintro=Template:Disambiguation_needed/ editintro& client=Template:Dn [2] Hélène Grinda: born in 1944, wife of Stanislas, 6e Baron Lejeune (1945–1998), son of Edgard-Louis, 5e Baron Lejeune (born 1915), and wife Claude de Bonardi du Mesnil (1914–1967), by whom she has a son Cyril, 7e Baron Lejeune, born 1972, and daughter of Jean-Paul Grinda (1900–1975) and wife Françoise Blason [3] Hazelhoff, Erik Soldier of Orange (The Holland Heritage Society, New York, 1980) ISBN 0-943010-00-4 P.190 [4][4]Source: Interview with the Prince, 1993, Henny Meyer, published in "Het Vliegerskruis" (1997) [5] DE WERELD – herdenking en interview met Prins Bernhard 35 jaar na de bevrijding;embed=1 Video footage of 1980 commemoration of the German capitulation at 'Hotel de Wereld' in Wageningen, opening speech by the Prime Minister, and interview with Prince

Bernhard.(Dutch) (http:/ / cgi. omroep. nl/ cgi-bin/ streams?/ tv/ vpro/ GE/ sb. hoteldewereld. asf?title=HOTEL)

[6] TE WAGENINGEN Historic video footage (black and white, no audio) (http:/ / cgi. omroep. nl/ cgi-bin/ streams?/ tv/ vpro/ GE/ bb.

capitulatiebesprekingen. asf?title=CAPITULATIEBESPREKINGEN).

[7] BEZOEK AAN DE VERENIGDE STATEN Historic video footage of the Royal visit to the USA. (http:/ / cgi. omroep. nl/ cgi-bin/

streams?/ ibg/ sn215009-bb. wmv?title=KONINKLIJK)

[8] Video footage of Queen Beatrix revealing the statue in the Palace garden on 19 May 2009. (http:/ / www. youtube. com/

watch?v=V9Pav12XSZo& feature=fvsr)

[9] http:/ / www. volkskrant. nl/ binnenland/ article1090514. ece/ Brief_Bernhard_aan_Juliana Interview (Dutch) with historian Fasseur.

[10] Times article (http:/ / www. timesonline. co. uk/ article/ 0,,3-1387624,00. html)

[11] Times article (http:/ / www. timesonline. co. uk/ tol/ news/ world/ article398546. ece)

[12] NOS.nl | Nieuws, Sport en Evenementen op Radio, TV en Internet | Nederlandse Omroep Stichting (http:/ / www. nos. nl/ nos/ artikelen/

2008/ 02/ art000001C8741816873E2D. html)

[13] http:/ / www. volkskrant. nl/ binnenland/ article1321864. ece/ Bernhard_genoemd_als_onderkoning_Indonesie Dutch newspaper article about the book release.

[14] http:/ / www. nu. nl/ algemeen/ 450300/ bernhard-kleurrijk-en-onstuimig-video. html ANP (National Press Association of the Netherlands) news coverage summary.

[15] http:/ / lambiek. net/ artists/ v/ varekamp. htm Comic book 'Agent Orange' by artist Varekamp

[16] " Queen's father a creature of his own myths (http:/ / www. nrc. nl/ international/ article2500347. ece/ Queens_father_a_creature_of_his_own_myths)"

[17] Decree about the titles and names of Prince Bernhard after his marriage with Princess Juliana (http:/ / www. angelfire. com/ ne2/ wetgeving/

nederlands/ besluitverleningtitelbernhard. html) – Website with Legislation concerning the Royal House of the Netherlands (Dutch) Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld 427

External links

• Official Biography (Summary) Official Dutch Royal Website (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ english/

Special_pages/ Bernhard/ Prince_Bernhard/ Biography)

• Prince Bernhard takes delivery of his second [[Corgi Motorcycle Co Ltd.|Corgi (http:/ / www. cybermotorcycle.

com/ gallery/ corgi/ Corgi_Prince_Bernhard. htm)]]

• Dutch Royal House official website (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ english/ index. jsp)

• The World Wildlife Fund website (http:/ / www. panda. org)

• Official memorial (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ Speciale_webpagina_s/ Bernhard/ Prins_Bernhard. html)

• Article about Prince Bernhard during World War II on Go2War2 (Dutch) (http:/ / www. go2war2. nl/ artikel/ 1072)

• The Mars en Mercurius website (http:/ / www. mars-mercurius. nl)

• video footage Montgomery visit 1945. (http:/ / cgi. omroep. nl/ cgi-bin/ streams?/ ibg/ sn040003-sb. wmv?title='''Historic)

• video footage Churchill visit 1946. (http:/ / cgi. omroep. nl/ cgi-bin/ streams?/ ibg/ sn036006-sb. wmv?title='''Historic)

• video footage Eisenhower visit 1951. (http:/ / cgi. omroep. nl/ cgi-bin/ streams?/ ibg/ sn207021-bb. wmv?title='''Historic)

Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld House of Lippe Born: 29 June 1911 Died: 1 December 2004 Dutch royalty Vacant Prince consort of the Netherlands Succeeded by Title last held by 1948–1980 Claus von Amsberg Henry of Mecklenburg-Schwerin Non-profit organization positions First Chairmen of the Bilderberg Group Succeeded by 1954-1976 Walter Scheel Chairman of Oxfam Novib Succeeded by 1956-1971 Unknown President of the World Wide Fund for Nature Succeeded by 1961-1977 John Hugo Loudon

Military offices

Vacant Commander-in-chief of the Armed forces of the Vacant Title last held by Netherlands Title next held by 1944-1945 Henri Winkelman Hendrik Johan Kruls as Chief of the Netherlands Defence Staff Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld 428

First Inspector General of the Royal Netherlands Army Last 1945-1970 Became Inspector General of the Armed forces of the Inspector General of the Royal Netherlands Navy Netherlands 1946-1970 Inspector General of the Royal Netherlands Air Force 1953-1970 Inspector General of the Armed forces of the Succeeded by Netherlands Witius Henrik de Savornin 1970-1976 Lohman

Beatrix of the Netherlands

Beatrix

Beatrix in 2013, prior to her abdication.

Queen of the Netherlands

Reign 30 April 1980 – 30 April 2013

Predecessor Juliana

Successor Willem-Alexander

Prime Ministers

Spouse Claus van Amsberg

Detail

Issue

Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands Prince Friso of Orange-Nassau Prince Constantijn of the Netherlands

Full name

Beatrix Wilhemina Armgard

House House of Orange-Nassau (modern) House of Lippe

Father Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld

Mother Juliana of the Netherlands

Born 31 January 1938 Soestdijk Palace, Baarn, Netherlands

Signature

Religion Protestant Church in the Netherlands

Princess Beatrix of the Netherlands (Beatrix Wilhelmina Armgard, Dutch pronunciation: [ˈbeːjaˌtrɪks ˌʋɪlɦɛlˈmina ˈɑrmɣɑrt] ( listen); born 31 January 1938) is the former queen regnant of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, having reigned from 1980 to 2013. Following her abdication on 30 April 2013, she is referred to as Princess Beatrix. Beatrix of the Netherlands 429

Beatrix is the eldest daughter of Queen Juliana and her husband, Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld. In 1948, she became heiress presumptive to the throne of the Netherlands. When her mother abdicated on 30 April 1980, Beatrix succeeded her as queen. She attended a public primary school in Canada, during World War II, and then finished her primary and secondary education in the Netherlands in the post war period. In 1961, she received her law degree from Leiden University. In 1966, Beatrix married Claus von Amsberg, a German diplomat, with whom she had three children: Willem-Alexander, King of the Netherlands (1967), Prince Friso (1968-2013) and Prince Constantijn (1969). Prince Claus died in 2002. At the time of her abdication, Queen Beatrix was the oldest reigning monarch of the Netherlands.[1] Beatrix's reign saw the country's possessions reshaped with 's secession and becoming its own constituent country within the Kingdom in 1986 as well as the subsequent Antillean Dissolution in 2010, which created the new special of Sint Eustatius, Saba, & Bonaire & the two new constituent countries of & Curaçao On 28 January 2013 Beatrix announced that she would abdicate on 30 April 2013, Koninginnedag (Queen's Day), in favour of her eldest son Willem-Alexander, the heir apparent to the throne. He is the first King of the Netherlands in 123 years.

Early life

Beatrix was born Princess Beatrix Wilhelmina Armgard of the Netherlands, Princess of Orange-Nassau, Princess of Lippe-Biesterfeld, on 31 January 1938 at the Soestdijk Palace in Baarn, Netherlands. She was the first child of Princess Juliana of the Netherlands and German aristocrat Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld.[2] Beatrix was baptized on 12 May 1938 in the Great Church in The Hague.[3] Her five godparents were King Leopold III of the Belgians; Princess Alice, Countess of Athlone; Elisabeth, Princess of Erbach-Schönberg; Duke Adolf Friedrich of Mecklenburg; and Countess Allene de .[4] Beatrix's middle names are the first names of her maternal grandmother, the then reigning Queen Wilhelmina, and her paternal grandmother, Armgard of Sierstorpff-Cramm.

When Beatrix was one year old, in 1939, her younger sister Princess Irene was born. Princess Beatrix in February 1938 with her parents Princess Juliana and World War II broke out in the Netherlands on 10 May 1940 (Westfeldzug). On Prince Bernhard 13 May, the Dutch Royal Family evacuated to London, United Kingdom. One month later, Beatrix went to Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, with her mother Juliana and her sister Irene, while her father Bernhard and maternal grandmother Queen Wilhelmina remained in London. The family lived at the Stornoway residence (traditionally the residence of the Leader of the Opposition in the Parliament of Canada). With bodyguards and ladies in waiting, the family summered at Bigwin Inn on Lake of Bays, Ontario where four private stone cottages of the resort served as their retreat. While on Bigwin Island, the constitution of the Netherlands was stored in the cast iron safe of Bigwin Inn's Rotunda building. Princess Juliana and her Family were remembered for their "down to earth" friendliness, general gratefulness and great reverence for their homeland and people, to whom they paid homage by refraining from all luxuries offered to guests at the resort that was once billed as the largest and most luxurious summer resort in Canada. In order to provide them with a greater sense of security, culinary chefs and staff catered to personal orders at meal time. Upon their departure, the hotel musicians of the Bigwin Inn Orchestra

assembled dockside; and at every public performance afterward through to the end of World War II, the Wilhelmus was played. In the years following the shuttering and neglect of the island resort, the "Juliana" cottages were well Beatrix of the Netherlands 430

maintained and preserved in an informal tribute to Princess Juliana and her family. In thanks for the protection of her and her daughters, Princess Juliana established the custom of the delivery to the Canadian government every spring of tulips, which are the centrepiece of the Canadian Tulip Festival. The second sister of Beatrix, Princess Margriet, was born in Ottawa in 1943. During their exile in Canada, Beatrix attended nursery and[5] Rockcliffe Park Public School, a primary school where she was known as "Trixie Orange". On 5 May 1945, the German troops in the Netherlands surrendered. The family returned to the Netherlands on 2 August 1945. Beatrix went to the progressive primary school De Werkplaats in Bilthoven. Her third sister Princess Christina was born in 1947. On 6 September 1948, her mother Juliana succeeded her grandmother Wilhelmina as queen of the Netherlands, and Beatrix became the heiress presumptive to the throne of the Netherlands at the age of ten.

Education

In April 1950, Princess Beatrix entered the Incrementum, a part of Baarnsch Lyceum, where, in 1956, she passed her school-graduation examinations in the subjects of arts and classics. In 1954, Princess Beatrix served as bridesmaid at the wedding of Baroness Van Randwijek and Mr T Boey. On 31 January 1956 Princess Beatrix celebrated her 18th birthday. From that date, under the Constitution of the Netherlands, she was entitled to assume the Royal Prerogative. At that time, her mother installed her in the Council of State.

The same year her studies at Leiden University began. In her first years

Princess Beatrix and Queen Juliana in 1960 at the university, she studied sociology, jurisprudence, economics, parliamentary history and constitutional law. In the course of her studies she also attended lectures on the cultures of Suriname and the Netherlands Antilles, the Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands, international affairs, international law, history and European law.

The princess also visited various European and international organisations in Geneva, Strasbourg, Paris, and Brussels. She was also an active member of the VVSL (Female Union for Students in Leiden), now called L.S.V. Minerva, after it had merged with the Leidsch Studenten Corps (which before then was male-only). In the summer of 1959, she passed her preliminary examination in law, and she obtained her law degree in July 1961.

Political involvement

Dutch Royal Family Beatrix of the Netherlands 431

HM The King * HM The Queen * • HRH The Princess of Orange * • HRH Princess Alexia * • HRH Princess Ariane *

HRH Princess Beatrix * •• HRH Princess Mabel •• Countess Luana •• Countess Zaria • HRH Prince Constantijn * HRH Princess Laurentien * •• Countess Eloise •• Count Claus-Casimir •• Countess Leonore

Her appearance on the political scene was almost immediately marked by controversy. In 1965, Princess Beatrix became engaged to the German aristocrat Claus von Amsberg, a diplomat working for the German Foreign Office. Their marriage caused a massive protest during the wedding day in Amsterdam on 10 March 1966. Prince Claus had served in the Hitler Youth and the Wehrmacht and was, therefore, associated by a part of the Dutch population with German Nazism. Protests included such memorable slogans as "Claus 'raus!" (Claus out!) and "Mijn fiets terug" ("Return my bicycle" – a reference to occupying German soldiers confiscating Dutch bicycles during WWII). A smoke bomb was thrown at the Golden Coach by a group of Provos causing a violent street battle with the police. As time went on, however, Prince Claus became one of the most popular members of the Dutch monarchy and his 2002 death was widely mourned. An even more violent riot occurred on 30 April 1980, during the investiture (sovereigns of the Netherlands are not crowned as such) of Queen Beatrix. Some people, including socialist squatters, used the occasion to protest against poor housing conditions in the Netherlands and against the monarchy in general, using the also memorable slogan "Geen woning; geen Kroning" (No home, no coronation). Clashes with the police and security forces turned brutal and violent. The latter event is reflected in contemporary Dutch literature in the books of A.F.Th. van der Heijden. As monarch, Beatrix had weekly meetings with the prime minister. She signed all new Acts of Parliament and royal decrees, and until a constitutional change late in her reign, appointed the public servant who assisted in brokering the formation of new governments. At the state opening of parliament each September, she delivered the Speech from the Throne, in which the government announces its plans for the coming parliamentary year. As queen, she was president of the Council of State. Her role was largely ceremonial and as a focus of national unity; she did not make legislative or executive decisions. Beatrix is a member of the Bilderberg Group, a secretive, invitation-only annual conference co-founded by her father which meets in Hotel de Bilderberg in Oosterbeek.

Marriage and children On 28 June 1965, the engagement of Princess Beatrix to the German diplomat Claus von Amsberg was announced. Claus and Beatrix had met at the wedding-eve party of Princess Tatjana of Sayn-Wittgenstein-Berleburg and Moritz, Landgrave of Hesse, in summer 1964. (In fact they had already met once before, on New Year's Eve 1962 in Bad Driburg at a dinner hosted by the count von Oeynhausen-Sierstorpff who was a distant relative of both of them.) Following the consent of Parliament to the marriage, Claus von Amsberg became a Dutch citizen, and upon his marriage became Prince Claus of the Netherlands, van Amsberg. Princess Beatrix married Claus von Amsberg on 10 March 1966 in civil and religious ceremonies. The bride wore a traditional gown with train in duchesse silk satin, designed by Caroline Bergé-Farwick of Maison Linette, in Den Beatrix of the Netherlands 432

Bosch, and the Württemberg Ornate Pearl Tiara. The senior bridesmaids were the bride’s youngest sister, Princess Christina of the Netherlands; Princess Christina of Sweden, Lady Elisabeth Anson, Joanna Roëll, Eugénie Loudon and the bridegroom’s sister, Christina von Amsberg. The junior bridesmaids were Daphne Stewart Clark and Carolijn Alting von Geusau, with page boys Joachim Jencquel and Markus von Oeynhausen-Sierstorpff. The royal couple travelled to the ceremony together in the gold state carriage. The civil ceremony was conducted by the Mayor of Amsterdam, Gijsbert van Hall, at Amsterdam City Hall. The marriage blessing took place in the Westerkerk, conducted by Rev. Hendrik Jan Kater, with a sermon by Rev. Johannes Hendrik Sillevis Smitt. Princess Beatrix and Prince Claus have three sons: King Willem-Alexander (b. 1967), Prince Johan Friso (b. 1968 - d. 2013[6]) and Prince Constantijn (b. 1969). The royal couple lived at Drakensteyn Castle in Lage Vuursche with their children until Beatrix ascended the throne. In 1981, they moved into Huis ten Bosch Palace in The Hague.

Reign On 30 April 1980, Beatrix became the monarch when her mother abdicated. By longstanding convention, Beatrix had to sign every piece of legislation before it becomes law. As Queen, her main tasks were to represent the Kingdom abroad and to be a unifying figurehead at home. She received foreign ambassadors and awarded honours and medals. She performed the latter task by accepting invitations to open exhibitions, attending anniversaries, inaugurating bridges, etc. Beatrix was rarely quoted directly in the press during her reign since the government information service (Rijksvoorlichtingsdienst) made it a condition of interviews that she may not be quoted. This policy was introduced shortly after her inauguration, reportedly to protect her from political complications that may arise from "off-the-cuff" remarks. It did not apply to her son Prince Willem-Alexander. Throughout much of her reign Beatrix had a considerable role in the cabinet formation process; notably she appointed the informateur, the person who leads the negotiations that ultimately lead to the formation of a government. However, this was changed in 2012, and now the largest party in the States-General appoints a "scout" who then appoints an informateur. On 1 January 1986, Aruba seceded from the Netherlands Antilles and became a separate constituent country in the Dutch Kingdom. On 6 October 2002, the Queen's husband, Prince Claus, died after a long illness. A year and a half later her mother died after long suffering from senile dementia, while her father succumbed to cancer in December 2004. On 8 February 2005, Queen Beatrix received a rare honorary doctorate

Queen Beatrix and President Vladimir Putin from Leiden University, an honour the Queen does not usually accept. during his state visit to the Netherlands in 2005 In her acceptance speech she reflected on the monarchy and her own 25 years as queen.[7] The speech was broadcast live.[8] Beatrix of the Netherlands 433

On 29 and 30 April 2005, she celebrated the 25th anniversary of her reign. She was interviewed on Dutch television, was offered a concert on Dam Square in Amsterdam, and a celebration took place in The Hague, the country's seat of government. On 10 October 2010, the Netherlands Antilles were formally dissolved. The new municipalities of Bonaire, Saba, & Sint Eustatius and the new constituent countries of Curaçao & Sint Maarten were established in its place. The ceremony in the capital, Willemstad, was attended by the then-Prince & Princess of Orange, Willem-Alexander and his wife Queen Beatrix and Prince Willem-Alexander in Máxima, representing the Queen. the Gold Coach in 2007

Assassination attempt on the Royal Family

On 30 April 2009, the queen and many senior members of the royal family were targeted in a car attack by a man called Karst Tates. Tates crashed his car into a parade in Apeldoorn, narrowly missing a bus carrying the queen. Five people were killed instantly and two victims and the assailant Tates died later. Other victims of the crash were critically hurt. One week after the attack another victim succumbed to the injuries he had sustained. The royal party were unharmed, but the queen and members of her family saw the crash at close range and were visibly shaken. Within hours, Queen Beatrix made a rare televised address to express her shock and condolences. The man apparently told police he was deliberately targeting the royal family.

Abdication

In a broadcast on national media on 28 January 2013 Beatrix announced her intention to abdicate on 30 April (Queen's Day), when she would have been on the throne for exactly 33 years. Beatrix stated that it was time to "place the responsibility for the country in the hands of a new generation." Her heir apparent was her eldest son, Prince Willem-Alexander. She was the third successive Dutch monarch to abdicate, following her grandmother and her mother. The broadcast was followed by a statement from Prime Minister Mark Rutte who paid tribute to Beatrix, saying "Since her investiture in 1980 she has applied herself heart and soul to Dutch society."

The official programme for the abdication and investiture took place on 30 April 2013. The Queen signed the Instrument of Abdication in the Vroedschapkamer (also known as Mozeszaal)[9] in the Royal Princess Beatrix following her abdication with her son and successor and his wife Palace, Amsterdam at 10:07 a.m. local time. With the completion of her signature she was no longer monarch. The investiture of Willem-Alexander as king took place in the afternoon in the Nieuwe Kerk in Amsterdam. Beatrix of the Netherlands 434

Personal wealth In 2009, Forbes estimated her wealth at US$300 million.

Cultural impact Queen Beatrix has given her name to a number of facilities in the Netherlands and beyond. These include: • Streekziekenhuis Koningin Beatrix, regional hospital in Beatrixpark, .[10] • Queen Beatrix International Airport in Aruba. • Reina Beatrix School in Aruba.[11] • Queen Beatrix Hospital Medical Center, Sint Eustatius.[12] • Queen Beatrix Chair in Dutch Studies at UC Berkeley[13] • Queen Beatrix Nursing Home, Albion Park Rail, NSW, Australia.[14]

Titles, styles, and honours

Princess Beatrix has held titles throughout her life, as a granddaughter or daughter of a monarch, and eventually as the Sovereign. Queen Beatrix's official title was Her Majesty the Queen of the Netherlands, Princess of Orange-Nassau, etc., etc., etc.[15] The triple 'etc.' refers to the monarch's many dormant titles. She signed official documents with only "Beatrix". In common parlance she was referred to as The Queen (de koningin or de vorstin) or Her Majesty (Hare Majesteit). But when in conversation with the queen the practice was to initially address her as "Your Majesty" or in Dutch as "Uwe Majesteit" and thereafter as "Mevrouw" (ma'am).

Beatrix has received honours and awards from countries around the world, both during her life as a princess and as a monarch. In her capacity as the Sovereign she was Grand Master of the Military Order of William (Militaire Willemsorde) and the other Dutch Royal Monogram of Queen orders of merit. She is the 975th Member and Lady of the Most Noble Order of the Beatrix Garter, the 1,187th Dame of the Order of the Golden Fleece in Spain and has received numerous other medals and decorations.

After her abdication her title officially became: Her Royal Highness Princess Beatrix of the Netherlands, Princess of Orange-Nassau, Princess of Lippe-Biesterfeld.

Issue

Name Birth Marriage Death

Date Spouse Issue

King April 27, 1967 February 2, Máxima Zorreguieta •• Catharina-Amalia, Princess of Willem-Alexander 2002 Orange •• Princess Alexia •• Princess Ariane

Prince Friso September 25, April 24, 2004 Mabel Wisse Smit •• Countess Luana August 12, 1968 •• Countess Zaria 2013

Prince Constantijn October 11, 1969 May 19, 2001 Laurentien •• Countess Eloise Brinkhorst •• Count Claus-Casimir •• Countess Leonore Beatrix of the Netherlands 435

Prime Ministers during the Queen's reign

Prime Ministers during the Queen's reign

Polity Prime Minister Start year End year

[16] Aruba Henny Eman 1986 1989

Nelson O. Oduber 1989 1994

Henny Eman 1994 2001

Nelson O. Oduber 2001 2009

Mike Eman 2009 2013

Netherlands Dries van Agt 1977 1982

Ruud Lubbers 1982 1994

Wim Kok 1994 2002

Jan Peter Balkenende 2002 2010

Mark Rutte 2010 2013

Netherlands Antilles Dominico Martina 1979 1984

Maria Liberia Peters 1984 1986

Dominico Martina 1986 1988

Maria Liberia Peters 1988 1993

Susanne Camelia-Römer 1993

Alejandro Felippe Paula

Miguel Arcangel Pourier 1994 1998

Susanne Camelia-Römer 1998 1999

Miguel Arcangel Pourier 1999 2002

Etienne Ys 2002 2003

Ben Komproe 2003

Mirna Louisa-Godett 2003 2004

Etienne Ys 2004 2006

Emily de Jongh-Elhage 2006 2010

Curaçao Gerrit Schotte 2010 2012

Stanley Betrian 2012 2012

Daniel Hodge 2012 2013

Sint Maarten Sarah Wescot-Williams 2010 2013 Beatrix of the Netherlands 436

References

[1] Myrtille van Bommel, " Beatrix oldest Dutch reigning monarch (http:/ / www. rnw. nl/ english/ article/ beatrix-oldest-dutch-reigning-monarch)", Radio Netherlands Worldwide, 2011. Retrieved on 2012-05-15.

[2] Youth (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ english/ content. jsp?objectid=18162). The Dutch Royal House. Retrieved on 2008-07-11.

[3] Geschiedenis (http:/ / www. grotekerkdenhaag. nl/ index. cfm/ grote-kerk-den-haag/ grote-kerk/ geschiedenis), Grote Kerk Den Haag. Retrieved on 2012-05-15.

[4] De vijf peetouders van prinses Beatrix (http:/ / www. geheugenvannederland. nl/ ?/ en/ items/ KONB05:1299). The Memory of the Netherlands. Retrieved on 2008-07-11.

[5] Education (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ english/ content. jsp?objectid=18163). The Dutch Royal House. Retrieved on 2008-07-11.

[6] Prins Friso overleden (nl) (http:/ / www. telegraaf. nl/ binnenland/ 21803614/ __Prins_Friso_overleden__. html) Telegraaf.nl

[7] The complete text of the speech can be found at http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ NL/ nieuws/ nieuws. html?Toespraken/ 2223. html

[8] The complete broadcast is available at http:/ / cgi. omroep. nl/ cgi-bin/ streams?/ nos/ nieuws/ 2005/ februari/ video/ 080205/

beatrix_toespraak. wmv

[9] http:/ / www. paleisamsterdam. nl/ het-paleis/ troonswisseling/ programma

[10] SKB website http:/ / www. skbwinterswijk. nl/

[11] List of Schools – VisitAruba http:/ / www. visitaruba. com/ about-aruba/ general-aruba-facts/ list-of-schools/

[12] University of Sint Eustatius School of Medicine http:/ / www. eustatiusmed. edu/ island-life. html

[13] Flanders House website http:/ / www. flandershouse. org/ uc-berkely-dutch-studies-program

[14] Zadro website http:/ / www. zadro. com. au/ Aged-Care/ Queen-Beatrix-Nursing-Home. html

[15] H.M. (koningin Beatrix) Beatrix Wilhelmina Armgard (http:/ / www. parlement. com/ 9353000/ 1f/ j9vvhy5i95k8zxl/ vg09llxoh0r1) (Parlement.nl) [16] Aruba received status aparte in 1986.

External links

• Queen Beatrix: Official website (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ globale-paginas/ taalrubrieken/ english/

members-of-the-royal-house/ her-majesty-the-queen/ )

Beatrix of the Netherlands House of Orange-Nassau Cadet branch of the House of Lippe Born: 31 January 1938 Regnal titles Preceded by Queen of the Netherlands Succeeded by Juliana 1980–2013 Willem-Alexander

Lines of succession

Preceded by Line of succession to the British throne Succeeded by Huberta Deuse descended from Anne, daughter of George II The Princess of Orange Prince Claus of the Netherlands 437 Prince Claus of the Netherlands

Claus von Amsberg

Prince Claus in 1970

Prince consort of the Netherlands

Tenure 30 April 1980 – 6 October 2002

Spouse Beatrix of the Netherlands (m. 1966-2002; his death)

Issue

Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands Prince Friso of Orange-Nassau Prince Constantijn of the Netherlands

Full name

Claus George Willem Otto Frederik Geert van Amsberg

House House of Amsberg

Father Claus Felix von Amsberg

Mother Gösta von dem Bussche-Haddenhausen

Born 6 September 1926 Hitzacker, Germany

Died 6 October 2002 (aged 76) Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, Netherlands

Burial 15 October 2002 Nieuwe Kerk, Delft, Netherlands

Occupation Diplomat

Signature

Religion Dutch Reformed Church

Claus George Willem Otto Frederik Geert van Amsberg (6 September 1926 – 6 October 2002), later Prince Claus of the Netherlands; né Klaus-Georg Wilhelm Otto Friedrich Gerd von Amsberg was the husband of Queen Beatrix of the Netherlands, and as such was prince consort of the Netherlands from Beatrix's ascension in 1980 until his death in 2002. Prince Claus of the Netherlands 438

Biography

Prince Claus was born Klaus-Georg Wilhelm Otto Friedrich Gerd von Amsberg, on his family's estate, Haus Dötzingen, near Hitzacker, Germany on 6 September 1926. His parents were Claus Felix von Amsberg and Baroness Gösta von dem Bussche-Haddenhausen. His father, a member of the untitled German nobility, operated a large farm in Tanganyika (formerly German East Africa) from 1928 until World War II. From 1938 Claus and his six sisters grew up on their maternal grandparents' manor in ; he attended the Friderico-Francisceum-Gymnasium in Bad Doberan from 1933 to 1936 and a boarding school in Tanganyika from 1936 to 1938.

The future prince was a member of such Nazi youth organisations as Deutsches Jungvolk and the Hitler Youth (membership in the latter was mandatory for all fit members of his generation). From 1938 until 1942, he attended the Baltenschule Misdroy. In 1944, he was conscripted into the German Wehrmacht, becoming a soldier in the German 90th Panzergrenadier Division in Italy in March, 1945, but taken as a prisoner of Royal Monogram war by the American forces at Meran before taking part in any fighting. After his repatriation, he finished school in Lüneburg and studied law in . He then joined the German diplomatic corps and worked in Santo Domingo and Côte d'Ivoire. In the 1960s, he was transferred to Bonn.

Claus met Crown Princess Beatrix for the first time on New Year's Eve 1962 in Bad Driburg at a dinner hosted by the count von Oeynhausen-Sierstorpff who was a distant relative of both of them. They met again at the wedding-eve party of Princess Tatjana of Sayn-Wittgenstein-Berleburg and Moritz, Landgrave of Hesse, in the summer of 1964. Sections of the Dutch population were unhappy that Beatrix's fiancé was a German and former member of the Hitler Youth, only twenty years after the end of the war, and there were protests during the wedding celebrations, most notably by the anarchist-artist group Provo. Nonetheless, her engagement was approved by the States-General—a necessary step for Beatrix to remain heiress to the throne—in 1965. He was granted Dutch citizenship later that year and changed the spellings of his names to Dutch. The pair were married on 10 March 1966. Their wedding day saw violent protests, including such memorable slogans as "Claus, 'raus!" (Claus, get out!) and "Mijn fiets terug" (Give me back my bike), a reference to the memory of occupying German soldiers confiscating Dutch bicycles. A smoke bomb was thrown at the wedding carriage by a group of Provos. However, over time, Claus became accepted by the public, so much so that during the last part of his life he was generally considered the most popular member of the Royal Family.[1] This change in Dutch opinion was brought about by Claus's strong motivation to contribute to public causes (especially third-world development, on which he was considered an expert), his sincere modesty, his candor (within but sometimes on the edge of royal protocol), and his approachability by all levels of societyWikipedia:No original research. The public also sympathised with Claus for his efforts to give meaning to his life beyond the restrictions that Dutch law imposed on the Royal Family's freedom of speech and action (lest they get involved in political controversy)Wikipedia:No original research. Many also believed that these restrictions were at least partly the cause of his severe depression, which lasted many years. As a result, restrictions were loosened; Claus was even appointed as senior staff member at the Department of Developing Aid, albeit in an advisory role. One example of his attitude toward protocol was the "Declaration of the Tie". In 1998, after presenting the annual Prince Claus Awards to three African fashion designers, Claus told "workers of all nations to unite and cast away the new shackles they have voluntarily cast upon themselves", meaning the necktie, that "snake around my neck," and encouraged the audience to "venture into open-collar paradise". He then removed his tie and threw it on the floor.[2] In 2001, when on Dutch television he announced the marriage of his son Willem-Alexander, Prince of Orange, and Máxima Zorreguieta, an Argentine woman of Spanish and Italian descent, Prince Claus referred to himself as more a Prince Claus of the Netherlands 439

citizen of the world than anything else.

Titles and style

• Klaus von Amsberg (1926–1965) • Jhr. Claus van Amsberg (1965–1966); his name was changed officially after obtaining Dutch citizenship • His Royal Highness Prince Claus of the Netherlands, Jonkheer van Amsberg (1966–2002)[3] • His Royal Highness The Prince of the Netherlands (1980–2002)

Honours and awards Standard of Claus as Prince-consort of the Netherlands.

Dutch orders and decorations • Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Netherlands Lion • Knight of the Order of the Gold Lion of the House of Nassau • Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the House of Orange

Foreign honours • Austria : Grand Star of the Decoration of Honour for Services to the Republic of Austria (1994) • Germany : Knight Grand Cross Special Class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany (01/03/1983) • Iceland : Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Falcon (1994) [4] • Norway : Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Norwegian Order of Saint Olav (1986)[5] • Portugal : Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Christ (14/05/1991) • South Africa : Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Good Hope (1999) [6] • Spain : Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Charles III (07/10/1985)[7][8] • United Kingdom : Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order (1982)[9] • Italy : Knight Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic (27/03/1985) [10]

Academic awards • Honorary Doctor of the International Institute of Social Studies (1988) Prince Claus was also appointed Honorary Fellow of the International Institute of Social Studies (ISS) in 1988. Prince Claus was held in very high esteem in the international development cooperation community, partly because of his considerable insight and understanding of the problems involved, and partly because of his exceptional gift for expressing the hopes and anxieties felt by all. Prince Claus of the Netherlands 440

Issue

Name Birth Notes

King Willem-Alexander 27 April 1967 He married Máxima Zorreguieta Cerruti in 2002, and has three daughters.

[11] Prince Friso 25 September 1968 He married Mabel Wisse Smit in 2004, and had two daughters. He died on 12 August 2013.

Prince Constantijn 11 October 1969 He married Laurentien Brinkhorst in 2001, and has two daughters and a son.

Health/Death

Claus suffered various health problems, such as depression, cancer and Parkinson's disease. He died in Amsterdam on 6 October 2002 after a long illness, aged 76. He died less than 4 months after the birth of his first grandchild. He was interred in the Royal Family's tomb in Delft on 15 October. It was the first full state funeral since Queen Wilhelmina's in 1962.

References

[1] Máxima en Claus populairste Oranje-leden (http:/ / www. rtl. nl/ Funeral of Prince Claus (/ actueel/ rtlnieuws/ binnenland/ )/ components/ actueel/

rtlnieuws/ 12_december/ 13/ binnenland/ maxima. xml)

[2] Claus' speech in which he removes his tie, among other video fragments (http:/ / nos. nl/ video/ 47116-prins-claus-wars-van-protocol-2002. html)

[3] Decree concerning the titles and names of Prince Claus after his marriage with Princess Beatrix (http:/ / www. angelfire. com/ ne2/

wetgeving/ nederlands/ besluitverleningtitelclaus. html) – Website with Legislation concerning the Royal House of the Netherlands (Dutch)

[4] State visit, Photo (http:/ / www. anp-archief. nl/ page/ 2225053/ nl) of Beatrix, Claus and Icelandese President

[5] Volks krant, State visit of Netherlands in Norway, 1986, Group Photo (http:/ / static0. volkskrant. nl/ static/ photo/ 2012/ 14/ 10/ 8/

album_large_1067168. jpg)

[6] 1999 National Orders awards (http:/ / www. info. gov. za/ aboutgovt/ orders/ recipients/ 1999. htm)

[7] Boletín Oficial del Estado (http:/ / www. boe. es/ boe/ dias/ 1985/ 10/ 08/ pdfs/ A31635-31635. pdf)

[8] Viva Máxima Blog, State visit of Beatrix in Spain in 1985, Group Photo (http:/ / fast. mediamatic. nl/ f/ tqgr/ image/ 844/ 87273-800-794. jpg)

[9] Volks krant, State visit of Netherlands in United Kingdom, 11/1982, Group Photo (http:/ / static2. volkskrant. nl/ static/ photo/ 2012/ 6/ 4/ 4/

album_large_1067179. jpg)

[10] Italian Presidency (http:/ / www. quirinale. it/ elementi/ DettaglioOnorificenze. aspx?decorato=15019), S.A.R. Claus Principe dei Paesi Bassi - Decorato di Gran Cordone

[11] Prins Friso overleden (nl) (http:/ / www. telegraaf. nl/ binnenland/ 21803614/ __Prins_Friso_overleden__. html) Telegraaf.nl Prince Claus of the Netherlands 441

External links

• In pictures: Prince Claus remembered (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ world/ europe/ 2306935. stm)

• Video: Condolences pour in, 7 October 2002 (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ media/ video/ 38308000/ rm/

_38308129_claus02_cheallaigh_vi. ram)

• Dutch Royal Family website: Biography (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ english/ content. jsp?objectid=13929)

• Profile at The International Institute of Social Studies (http:/ / www. iss. nl/ About-ISS/ History/ Honorary-Fellows) (ISS)

Prince Claus of the Netherlands House of Amsberg Born: 6 September 1926 Died: 6 October 2002 Dutch royalty Preceded by Prince consort of the Vacant Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld Netherlands until 2013 1980 – 2002 Title next held by Máxima Zorreguieta Cerruti as queen consort

Princess Irene of the Netherlands

Princess Irene

Princess Irene of the Netherlands

Spouse Carlos Hugo, Duke of Parma (1964–1981)

Issue

Carlos, Duke of Parma Princess Margarita, Countess of Colorno Prince Jaime, Count of Bardi Princess Carolina, Marchioness of Sala

Full name

Irene Emma Elisabeth

Father Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld

Mother Juliana of the Netherlands

Born 5 August 1939 Soestdijk Palace

Religion Roman Catholicism prev Dutch Reformed Church

Princess Irene Emma Elisabeth of the Netherlands, Princess of Orange-Nassau, Princess of Lippe-Biesterfeld (born 5 August 1939) is the second child of Queen Juliana of the Netherlands and Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld. In the public eye since birth, Irene made headlines when she and her family fled during World War II, first to Britain and then to Canada. Her decision to convert to Catholicism and to marry the eldest son and heir of one of the to the Spanish throne caused a crisis in both the Dutch royal family and government, Princess Irene of the Netherlands 442

bringing her into the world spotlight once again. A disarmament and nature activist, she is now well known for her work with nature.

Childhood and family The princess was born at Soestdijk Palace. At the time of her birth, war was a distinct possibility but, because her parents hoped for a peaceful solution, they chose to name their new daughter for the Greek goddess of peace. She has three sisters, the eldest of whom is the former monarch of the Netherlands, Princess Beatrix of the Netherlands; the two younger ones are Princess Margriet and Princess Christina. Because of the invasion of the Netherlands by Nazi Germany during World War II the Dutch royal family first fled to the United Kingdom. Irene was not yet a year old when the family was forced to leave the Netherlands; she was christened in the Chapel-Royal of in London, the wife of King George VI, Queen Elizabeth being one of her godparents. As the family was leaving the Netherlands, the port where they were boarding the British warship was fiercely attacked by a German air raid; one of the German bombs exploded within 200 yards of the family. Irene was placed in a gasproof carrier to guard the child against chemical warfare. Princess Juliana and her daughters again took flight when the London Blitz began, this time to exile in Ottawa, Canada, where her younger sister, Margriet, was born and where Irene attended Rockcliffe Park Public School. As a teenager, she was dubbed by the Dutch press "the glamorous Princess of the Netherlands." During the war, the Royal Dutch Brigade (the formation of Free Dutch soldiers that fought alongside the Allies) was named for Princess Irene. This was continued after the war as the Regiment Prinses Irene. Princess Irene with the future King Constantine II Always an independent person, Irene was thrilled to receive a sports of Greece in July 1960 car from her father, one of the gifts he had been presented with. Irene's happiness was short-lived; when she opened the hood of the automobile, she noticed that the car was sporting in appearance only, having an ordinary car's engine. She asked her father for permission to turn the vehicle into a true racing-type auto, which Prince Bernhard refused to allow. She was a bridesmaid at the 1962 wedding of Prince Juan Carlos of Spain and Princess Sophia of Greece and Denmark. Princess Irene studied at the University of Utrecht, then went to Madrid to learn the and became proficient enough to become an official interpreter.

Marriage controversy

Conversion While studying Spanish in Madrid, Irene met Carlos Hugo, Duke of Parma, eldest son of Carlist pretender to the Spanish throne, Xavier. In the summer of 1963, Princess Irene secretly converted from Protestantism to Roman Catholicism. The first time the public or the Royal Family knew about the conversion was when a photograph appeared on the front page of an Amsterdam newspaper showing the Princess kneeling to receive communion at a Mass in the Roman Catholic Church of the Geronimites (Los Jerónimos) in Madrid. Irene's conversion took place a year before her engagement announcement, but the royal family did not officially announce the news until January 1964. When news leaked out that she was engaged to Prince Carlos Hugo (b. 1930), it provoked a Protestant outcry and a constitutional crisis. Although it was a constitutional tradition and not a law that forbade a Catholic to reign over the Netherlands, it was a practice predicated upon a history of the Protestant-dominated Dutch Parliament (States-General) born out of the Princess Irene of the Netherlands 443

16th-century Eighty Years' War with Spain and the assassination of William of Orange by a supporter of Philip II of Spain who believed William had betrayed both the Spanish monarch and the Catholic Church. Fears of a resurgence of Catholic domination had increased over the centuries through difficulties and wars over the policies of many neighboring Catholic European countries. By the middle of the 20th century religious attitudes had begun to change, but only very slowly. While members of the Roman Catholic Church accounted for approximately 34 percent of the Dutch population, and Catholic political parties had been in coalition governments since 1918, the high fertility rate of the Catholics was a matter of some concern for all non-Catholics. Amplifying the crisis over a Royal conversion to Catholicism and a marriage without approval of the Dutch States-General, were the still very fresh memories of General Franco's support for Nazi Germany. For the second in line to the throne to not merely convert to Roman Catholicism but also to associate with an alleged leader of Franco's party caused shock and consternation in the Netherlands. When Princess Irene left the Netherlands to join Prince Carlos in Paris after the announcement of their engagement, a threat was telephoned to KLM Royal Dutch Airways by an anonymous caller saying, "you should investigate the plane". The telephone call was construed to be a bomb threat and the airliner was searched, causing more than an hour's delay for the flight. It was the first instance of any threat involving the royal family and their air travel. Queen Juliana attempted to stop the marriage, first by sending a member of her staff to Madrid to persuade the Princess not to go ahead with a marriage that would be a political disaster for the monarchy in the Netherlands. It seemed to work and the Queen went on Dutch radio to tell the citizens that Princess Irene had agreed to cancel her engagement and was returning to the Netherlands. When the airplane arrived at Schiphol Airport, the Princess was not on it, and Queen Juliana and her husband, Prince Bernhard were supplied with a Dutch military plane to go to Spain to retrieve their daughter. However, a message was delivered to the Queen from the Dutch government warning that it would resign en masse if she set foot in Spain. It was suggested that Princess Irene was a pawn of General Francisco Franco who tried to maximize the event to his benefit. Given the ramifications and the fact that a monarch from the House of Orange had never visited Spain, the Queen had no choice but to turn back. Prince Bernhard then traveled to Madrid to meet with his daughter and her fiancé, who both accompanied him back to the Netherlands, where an immediate meeting took place with the couple, the Queen, Prime Minister Marijnen, himself a Roman Catholic, and three top cabinet ministers. When the meeting had ended in the early hours of the morning on Sunday, 9 February 1964, Dutch radio broke its traditional Sabbath day silence to announce that Princess Irene would give up any rights of succession to the throne so she could marry Carlos Hugo. The princess further stated that she did not want the government to create a bill which would grant official consent to her marriage. In an attempt to gain public favour for her proposed marriage, Princess Irene publicly stated that her marriage was intended to help end religious intolerance. This caused a division in public opinion, as less than 40 percent of the country ruled by the Protestant House of Orange was Roman Catholic. Over the ensuing weeks, things deteriorated further when Pope Paul VI granted an audience requested by the couple in Rome. The Vatican believed the meeting was being held with the consent of the Dutch Royal Family. The Queen at first denied such a meeting had taken place, but it was later verified. Because the constitution prohibits members of the royal family from any involvement in foreign politics, Irene alienated herself from almost every Dutch citizen when a photo appeared in a Dutch paper showing her at a Carlist rally in Spain and she declared that she supported her fiancé's political goals. The Dutch government officially announced that it had no responsibility for either the words or actions of Princess Irene in the future on 10 April 1964. It was done in response to Irene's declaration of joining Carlos Hugo's political campaign to regain the throne of Spain on 8 April 1964. Princess Irene of the Netherlands 444

Marriage

Dutch Royal Family

HM The King * HM The Queen * • HRH The Princess of Orange * • HRH Princess Alexia * • HRH Princess Ariane *

HRH Princess Beatrix * •• HRH Princess Mabel •• Countess Luana •• Countess Zaria • HRH Prince Constantijn * HRH Princess Laurentien * •• Countess Eloise •• Count Claus-Casimir •• Countess Leonore

No one from the Dutch Royal family or any Dutch diplomatic representative attended the marriage of Princess Irene and Prince Carlos Hugo in the Borghese Chapel at the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome, Italy, on 29 April 1964. There were also no representatives of Spain's Franco government at the ceremony; the couple chose Rome as the site of their nuptials because of its neutrality. Dutch television provided coverage of the marriage and Irene's family were among those who watched the ceremonies, although fate conspired in the form of a power failure which made them unable to see the last part of the rite. The Dutch royal family gathered at the home of Prince Bernhard's mother, Princess Armgard, for the television coverage. Princess Armgard had also converted to Roman Catholicism like her granddaughter, but decided against attending the wedding. Irene and her mother spoke on the telephone before she left for the Basilica. Governmental fears that the attendance of the wedding by the Dutch royal family might be construed as becoming too close to the politics of Spain made it impossible for the family to do anything else. The Dutch government had also vetoed the possibility of the wedding being held in the Netherlands. While it is said that Pope Paul VI had been asked to officiate at the wedding and declined, he did send the couple his special blessing before the ceremony. He received the newlyweds at a private Vatican audience after their wedding.[1] Because she had failed to obtain the approval of the States-General to marry, Irene lost her right of succession to the Dutch throne. She agreed that she would live outside of the Netherlands. In an effort to maintain there was no conflict between the royal family and the government, Queen Juliana invited Premier Marijnen to her birthday celebration at the palace the day after Irene's wedding. In 1968, Princess Irene was libeled by the West German "rainbow press". The publications operated similarly to movie and television gossip magazines, with the exception being that instead of stories about film or television stars, the rainbow press wrote about royalty and their supposed secret lives. One of the publications printed a story that Irene had undergone an abortion with parental consent before she was married. Irene's father, Prince Bernhard, took the paper to court to clear his daughter's name. The court found in favor of father and daughter, ordering the Princess Irene of the Netherlands 445

newspaper to pay them both damages and to print a public apology. After the wedding, Irene was very active in her husband's right-wing political cause, but over time they drifted away from right wing extremism to left wing sympathies and became a part of the international jet-set crowd. In 1977, Irene was expelled from Spain because of her political views; her husband was also barred from the country for the same reason. Prince Carlos was allowed to return in late 1977, but Princess Irene was not permitted back in the country until April 1978. The prince, head of the Royal House of Bourbon-Parma, became a naturalized Spanish citizen in 1979. The couple had four children, but the marriage ended in divorce in 1981. Having been married to the Duke of Parma, she is the only one of her sisters whose husband was of princely status. Her youngest sister, Princess Christina, later waived her rights to the throne when she married , a United States citizen born in Cuba and a Roman Catholic.

Since divorce In 1980, Irene and her children returned to live in the Netherlands, initially moving back into the palace and became involved in various personal development workshops, trying to "find herself". By 1981, she and her children had moved to their own home across the street from the palace, where Irene did traditional household chores like grocery shopping. In 1983 and 1985, she publicly spoke out against the additional deployment of NATO missiles at a large anti-nuclear rally in The Hague and with a letter to the newspaper De Volkskrant. Her connection with nature, that she says she had felt since childhood, intensified, and in 1995 she published her book Dialogue with Nature. The book outlined her philosophy that human beings are alienated from the natural world, but the Dutch media seized upon passages that recounted conversations she said she had with the trees and dolphins. In 1999 Princess Irene purchased a farm near Nieu-Bethesda in South Africa, turning it into a sanctuary. In 2001, she helped establish the NatuurCollege in the Netherlands. She is also the founder of NatureWise, an organization that brings elementary school children in the Netherlands directly in touch with nature.[2][3] The Princess is an honourable member of the Club of Budapest.

Children Carlos Hugo and Princess Irene had four children:

Name Birth Marriage Issue

Carlos, Duke of Parma 27 January 12 June 2010 (civil) Annemarie Gualthérie van Carlos Klynstra (illegitimate) 1970 20 November 2010 Weezel Princess Luisa of (religious) Bourbon-Parma

Princess Margarita, Countess of 13 October 19 June 2001 (civil) Edwin de Roy van Zuydewijn Colorno 1972 22 September 2001 (religious) Divorced 8 November 2006

3 May 2008 (civil) Tjalling ten Cate Julia ten Cate Paola ten Cate

Prince Jaime, Count of Bardi 13 October 3 October 2013 (civil) Viktória Cservenyák 1972 5 October 2013 (religious)

Princess Carolina, Marchioness of 23 June 1974 21 April 2012 (civil) Albert Brenninkmeijer Sala 16 June 2012 (religious) Princess Irene of the Netherlands 446

Styles of Princess Irene

Reference style Her Royal Highness

Spoken style Your Royal Highness

Alternative style Ma'am

Honours

National honours • Grand Cross of the Order of the Netherlands Lion • Royal Wedding Medal 1966 (10 March 1966) • Queen Beatrix Investiture Medal (30 April 1980) • Royal Wedding Medal 2002 (2 February 2002) • King Willem-Alexander Investiture Medal (30 April 2013)

Foreign honours • Austria: Grand Decoration of Honour in Gold with Sash for Services to the Republic of Austria (1961) • Belgium: Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold • Iran: Member of the Order of the Pleiades, 2nd Class • Mexico : Sash of the Order of the Aztec Eagle • Peru: Grand Cross of the Order of the Sun • Thailand: Grand Cross of the Order of Chula Chom Klao

References

[1] "THE HAGUE, 10 April (UPI) -- The Netherlands has informed Pope Paul VI that she would oppose a papal marriage ceremony for Princess Irene and Prince Carlos of Bourbon-Parma, court sources said today." (pay-per-view) [2][2](Google English translation) [3][3](Google English translation) Princess Margriet of the Netherlands 447 Princess Margriet of the Netherlands

Princess Margriet

Spouse Pieter van Vollenhoven

Issue

Prince Maurits Prince Bernhard Prince Pieter-Christiaan Prince Floris

Full name

Margriet Francisca

Father Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld

Mother Queen Juliana of the Netherlands

Born 19 January 1943 The Ottawa Hospital, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada (International Territory)

Religion Protestant Church in the Netherlands

Dutch Royal Family

HM The King * HM The Queen * • HRH The Princess of Orange * • HRH Princess Alexia * • HRH Princess Ariane *

HRH Princess Beatrix * •• HRH Princess Mabel •• Countess Luana •• Countess Zaria • HRH Prince Constantijn * HRH Princess Laurentien * •• Countess Eloise •• Count Claus-Casimir •• Countess Leonore

Princess Margriet Francisca of the Netherlands (born 19 January 1943) is the third daughter of Queen Juliana and Prince Bernhard of the Netherlands. As an aunt of the reigning monarch, King Willem-Alexander, she is a member of the Dutch Royal House and currently eighth and last in the line of succession to the Dutch throne.[1] Princess Margriet has often represented the monarch at official or semi-official events. Some of these functions have taken her back to Canada, her country of birth, and to events organised by the Dutch merchant navy of which she is a Princess Margriet of the Netherlands 448

patron.

Birth in Canada The Princess was born in The Ottawa Hospital,[2] Ottawa, Ontario, as the family had been living in Canada since June 1940 after the occupation of the Netherlands by Nazi Germany. The maternity ward of Ottawa Civic Hospital in which Princess Margriet was born was temporarily declared to be extraterritorial by the Canadian government.[3] Making the maternity ward outside of the Canadian domain caused it to be unaffiliated with any jurisdiction and technically international territory. This was done to ensure that the newborn would derive her citizenship from her mother only, thus making her solely Dutch. It is a common misconception that the Canadian government declared the maternity ward to be Dutch territory. Since Dutch nationality law is based primarily on the principle of jus sanguinis it was not necessary to make the ward Dutch territory for the Princess to become a Dutch citizen. Since Canada followed the rule of jus soli, it was necessary for Canada to disclaim the territory temporarily so that the Princess would not, by virtue of birth on Canadian soil, become a Canadian citizen.

Namesake and christening She was named after the marguerite, the flower worn during the war as a symbol of the resistance to Nazi Germany. (See also the book When Canada Was Home, the Story of Dutch Princess Margriet, by Albert VanderMey, Vanderheide.) Princess Margriet was christened at St. Andrew's Presbyterian Church, Ottawa, on 29 June 1943. Her godparents included the President of the United States Franklin D. Roosevelt, the Queen of the United Kingdom, the Crown Princess of Norway, Martine Roell (who was a lady-in-waiting to Princess Juliana in Canada) and The Dutch Merchant Fleet.[4]

After the war It was not until August 1945, when the Netherlands had been liberated, that Princess Margriet first set foot on Dutch soil. Princess Juliana and Prince Bernhard returned to Soestdijk Palace in Baarn, where the family had lived before the war. It was while she was studying at Leiden University that Princess Margriet met her future husband, Pieter van Vollenhoven. Their engagement was announced on 10 March 1965, and they were married on 10 January 1967 in The Hague, in the St. James Church.[5] It was decreed that any children from the marriage would be styled HH Prince/Princess of Orange-Nassau, van Vollenhoven, titles that would not be held by their descendants. The Princess and her husband took up residence in the right wing of Het Loo Palace in Apeldoorn. In 1975 the family moved to their present home, Het Loo, which they had built on the Palace grounds. Princess Margriet of the Netherlands 449

Children

Princess Margriet and Pieter van Vollenhoven have four sons: • Prince Maurits (born 17 April 1968) m. Marilène van den Broek (born 4 February 1970) on 29 May 1998. They have three children: •• Anastasia (Anna) Margriet Joséphine van Lippe-Biesterfeld van Vollenhoven (born 15 April 2001) •• Lucas Maurits Pieter Henri van Lippe-Biesterfeld van Vollenhoven (born 26 October 2002) •• Felicia Juliana Benedicte Barbara van Lippe-Biesterfeld van Vollenhoven (born 31 May 2005) • Prince Bernhard (born 25 December 1969) m. Annette Sekrève (born 18 April 1972) on 6 July 2000. They have three children: •• Isabella Lily Juliana van Vollenhoven (born 14 May 2002) •• Samuel Bernhard Louis van Vollenhoven (born 25 May 2004) •• Benjamin Pieter Floris van Vollenhoven (born 12 March 2008) Princess Margriet arrives in Ottawa to attend the • Prince Pieter-Christiaan (born 22 March 1972) m. Anita van Canadian Tulip Festival in May 2002. Eijk (born 27 October 1969) on 25 August 2005. They have two children: •• Emma Francisca Catharina van Vollenhoven (born 28 November 2006) •• Pieter Anton Maurits Erik van Vollenhoven (born 19 November 2008) • Prince Floris (born 10 April 1975) m. Aimée Söhngen (born 19 October 1977) on 20 October 2005. They have three children: •• Magali Margriet Eleonoor van Vollenhoven (born 9 October 2007) •• Eliane Sophia Carolina van Vollenhoven (born 5 July 2009) •• Willem Jan Johannes Pieter Floris van Vollenhoven (born July 1 2013)

Royal role and patronages Princess Margriet is an active member of the Royal Family, representing the Monarch at a range of events. She is particularly interested in health care and cultural causes. From 1987 to 2011 she was vice-president of the Netherlands Red Cross, who set up the Princess Margriet Fund in her honour. She is a member of the board of the International Federation of National Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. From 1984 to 2007 Princess Margriet was President of the European Cultural Foundation, who set up the Princess Margriet Award for Cultural Diversity in acknowledgement of her work. She is a member of the Honorary Board of the International Paralympic Committee. Princess Margriet of the Netherlands 450

Titles and styles • 19 January 1943 – 10 January 1967: Her Royal Highness Princess Margriet of the Netherlands, Princess of Orange-Nassau, Princess of Lippe-Biesterfeld[6] • 10 January 1967 – present: Her Royal Highness Princess Margriet of the Netherlands, Princess of Orange-Nassau, Princess of Lippe-Biesterfeld, Mrs Van Vollenhoven

Honours

National honours • Grand Cross of the Order of the Netherlands Lion[7] • Grand Cross of the Order of the House of Orange • Royal Wedding Medal 1966 (10 March 1966) • Queen Beatrix Investiture Medal (30 April 1980) • Royal Wedding Medal 2002 (2 February 2002) • King Willem-Alexander Investiture Medal (30 April 2013)

Foreign honours Here are her honours (according to this site [8], mark °) : • Belgium: Grand Cross of the Order of the Crown° • Cameroon: Grand Cordon of Order of Merit (Cameroon) ° • Germany: Grand Cross First class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany ° • Finland: Grand Cross of the Order of the White Rose of Finland ° • France: Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour ° • Italy: Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic ° • Ivory Coast: Grand Cross of the National Order ° • Japan: Grand Cordon of the Order of the Precious Crown ° • Jordan: Grand Cordon of the Supreme Order of the Renaissance[9][10] • Luxembourg: Grand Cross of the Order of Adolphe of Nassau[11] ° • Luxembourg: Grand Cross of the Order of the Oak Crown ° • Luxembourg: Commemorative Medal of the marriage of TRH Prince Henri and Princess Maria Teresa of Luxembourg ° • Norway: Grand Cross of the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav ° • Mexico: Grand Cross of the Order of the Aztec Eagle ° • Portugal: Grand Cross of the Order of Christ (Portugal) ° • Romania: Grand Cross of the Order of 23 August ° • Senegal: Grand Cross of the National Order of the Lion ° • Spain : Grand Cross of the Order of Isabella the Catholic °[12] • Suriname: Grand Cordon of the Honorary Order of the Yellow Star ° • Venezuela: Grand Cordon of the Order of the Liberator ° • Sweden: Commander Grand Cross of the ° Princess Margriet of the Netherlands 451

References

[1] Current line of succession (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ english/ Monarchy/ Succession_to_the_throne/ Current_line_of_succession. html) – Official website of the Dutch Royal House

[2] Place of birth (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ globale-paginas/ taalrubrieken/ english/ members-of-the-royal-house/ princess-margriet/ )

[3] CBC Digital Archives - Second World War - 1943: Netherlands' Princess Margriet born in Ottawa (http:/ / www. cbc. ca/ archives/

categories/ war-conflict/ second-world-war/ netherlands-princess-margriet-born-in-ottawa. html)

[4] Christening. (http:/ / www. canadascapital. gc. ca/ bins/ ncc_web_content_page. asp?cid=16297-16298-10118-10120& lang=1& bhcp=1)

[5] Royal Wedding in the Netherlands (http:/ / www. britishpathe. com/ video/ orange-wedding) [6] Royal decree of 8 Januari 1937: Besluit betreffende den naam, te dragen door de kinderen van Hare Koninklijke Hoogheid Prinses JULIANA

(http:/ / www. angelfire. com/ ne2/ wetgeving/ nederlands/ besluitnaamkinderenjuliana. html)

[7] News-Blog "Noblesse et Royautés" (French), Opening (http:/ / www. noblesseetroyautes. com/ nr01/ 2012/ 09/

la-famille-royale-des-pays-bas-a-louverture-de-la-session-parlementaire/ ) of Dutch Parliament 2012, photo (http:/ / www. noblesseetroyautes.

com/ nr01/ wp-content/ uploads/ 2012/ 09/ PPE12091857. jpg)

[8] http:/ / www. allesopeenrij. nl/ article. php?aid=547

[9] PPE Agency, Group photo (http:/ / www. ppe-agency. com/ 500px/ Oct2006/ 06103032. jpg)

[10] PPE, Margriet (http:/ / www. ppe-agency. com/ 500px/ Oct2006/ 06103022. jpg)

[11] The royal forums (http:/ / www. theroyalforums. com/ forums/ f17/

state-visit-from-luxembourg-to-the-netherlands-april-24th-26th-2006-a-9073-3. html), State visit of Luxembourg to Netherlands, 2006, Photo

(http:/ / cdn. theroyalforums. com/ forums/ attachment. php?attachmentid=239855& d=1145905354)

[12] Viva Maxima Blog, State visit of Juan Carlos in Netherlands 2001, Group photo (http:/ / www. christinesroyalty. net/ news/ pic/

staatsbezoek_juancarlos. jpg)

External links

• Royal House of the Netherlands (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ zoeken?term=margriet) (Dutch)

• CBC Archives (http:/ / archives. cbc. ca/ society/ family/ clip/ 12821/ ) – A look at Princess Margriet's birth in Ottawa (from 1992).

Princess Margriet of the Netherlands House of Orange-Nassau Cadet branch of the House of Lippe Born: 19 January 1943

Lines of succession

Preceded by Line of succession to the Dutch throne Last in line Countess 8th position Leonore Line of succession to the British throne Succeeded by of Orange Nassau descended from Anne, daughter of George II Lucas van Vollenhoven van Lippe-Biesterfeld Pieter van Vollenhoven 452 Pieter van Vollenhoven

Pieter van Vollenhoven

Born , 1939 Schiedam, Netherlands

Residence Apeldoorn, Netherlands

Nationality Dutch

Alma mater Leiden University

Occupation Emeritus Professor

Organization Dutch Transport Safety Board Dutch Safety Board

Title Master of Laws

Religion Protestant Church in the Netherlands

Spouse(s) Princess Margriet of the Netherlands

Children Prince Maurits Prince Bernhard Prince Pieter-Christiaan Prince Floris

Parents Pieter van Vollenhoven, Sr. Jacoba Gijsbertha Stuyling de Lange

Pieter van Vollenhoven, Jr. (born 30 April 1939) is the husband of Princess Margriet of the Netherlands and a member, by marriage, of the Dutch Royal House. Pieter van Vollenhoven 453

Early life and career Born in Schiedam, he is the second son of Pieter van Vollenhoven, Sr. (1897–1977) and his wife Jacoba Gijsbertha Stuylingh de Lange (1906–1983). Van Vollenhoven attended secondary school in Rotterdam, and he subsequently studied law at the University of Leiden. He graduated in 1965, after which he worked as a legal officer for the Netherlands Council of State. In 1966, he performed his military service with the Royal Netherlands Air Force, and attained a military pilot license the following year.

Current positions Pieter van Vollenhoven is currently most well known in The Netherlands for having been the chairman of the Dutch Safety Board from which he retired in February 2011. He was originally appointed chairman of the Road Transportation Safety Board and the Rail Incident Board by minister Tjerk Westerterp. Following the Bijlmer and Hercules disasters, a need was felt in The Netherlands for a single body to investigate all transportation-related incidents; the Transportation Safety Council (Dutch: Raad voor de Transportveiligheid) was created, which incorporated the earlier Road Transportation Safety and Rail Incident Boards and also had Van Vollenhoven as chairman. Van Vollenhoven felt, however, that the country should have a single board to investigate all safety-related issues; lobbying on his part finally convinced the government to transform the Transportation Safety Council into a general Safety Board, of which Van Vollenhoven was made the first chairman. Due to his expertise in the area, the University of Twente made Van Vollenhoven a Professor on 1 October 2005. He holds the policy research chair, which is a subspecialty of the risk management group. He held his oration on 28 April 2006 and called for the creation of a Minister of Safety at that time. In 1989, Van Vollenhoven took the initiative in setting up the Dutch Victim Support Fund, of which he is also the chairman. He is also chairman of the Nationaal Groenfonds, the National Restorationfund and the Society, Safety and Police Association and the International Transport Safety Board. He is a member of the European Transport Safety Council.

Notable acts As Chairman of the Safety Board, Van Vollenhoven oversaw the investigation of the Schipholbrand, a fire in a holding facility for illegal immigrants in The Netherlands. He presented a final report on 21 September 2006 with such devastating findings that ministers Piet Hein Donner and Sybilla Dekker resigned over it. A third responsible minister, Rita Verdonk refused to resign despite her responsibility in the matter. Following the Turkish Airlines Flight 1951 crash, Van Vollenhoven led the investigation by the Safety Board. This investigation brought him into conflict with the Office of the Attorney General, which requested access to the black box data. Citing that there was no reason at that time to suspect foul play and that the Board investigation would be hampered by the threat of legal action against persons, Van Vollenhoven absolutely refused this access. When he turned 70, Barry Sweedler (of the US National Transportation Safety Board) said to him: "The world is a safer place because of your work and leadership".

Hobbies Van Vollenhoven is an avid pianist. In 1986 he formed a trio - De Gevleugelde Vrienden - with two of the country's leading pianists (Pim Jacobs and Louis van Dijk) and gave some twenty concerts a year both at home and abroad in aid of the Victim Support Fund. De Gevleugelde Vrienden were awarded four gold discs. Since the death of one of the members of the trio, Pim Jacobs, Van Vollenhoven has continued to give concerts with pianists Louis van Dijk and Koos Mark. Pieter van Vollenhoven 454

Van Vollenhoven is still an active pilot and he also dives. He almost lost the tip of his right index finger during a dive in 2005, when he got caught between the boat and the dock steps. Doctors were able to reattach the tip. He is also a photographer. The Victim Support Fund raised money in 2008 and 2009 by selling calendars with his photographs.

Dutch Royal Family

HM The King * HM The Queen * • HRH The Princess of Orange * • HRH Princess Alexia * • HRH Princess Ariane *

HRH Princess Beatrix * •• HRH Princess Mabel •• Countess Luana •• Countess Zaria • HRH Prince Constantijn * HRH Princess Laurentien * •• Countess Eloise •• Count Claus-Casimir •• Countess Leonore

Marriage and family Van Vollenhoven married Princess Margriet of the Netherlands at The Hague on 10 January 1967, in the St. James Church.[1] This made him the first member of the Dutch Royal House being a commoner and not of royal or noble origin. He was not given any royal titles as a result of the marriage and is therefore formally addressed as "Mister Van Vollenhoven" or by his professional title as "Professor Van Vollenhoven". The couple went to live in Het Loo House, near the Het Loo Palace. They have four children, all sons: • HH Prince Maurits of Orange-Nassau, van Vollenhoven (born 17 April 1968), married Marilène van den Broek (born 4 February 1970); • HH Prince Bernhard of Orange-Nassau, van Vollenhoven (born 25 December 1969), married Annette Sekrève (born 18 April 1972); • HH Prince Pieter Christiaan of Orange-Nassau, van Vollenhoven (born 22 March 1972), married Anita van Eijk (born 27 October 1969); • HH Prince Floris of Orange-Nassau, van Vollenhoven (born 10 April 1975), married Aimée Söhngen (born 19 October 1977). The German house name Lippe-Biesterfeld is borne by the children of Prince Maurits (making them Van Lippe-Biesterfeld van Vollenhoven); his other (grand)children are just van Vollenhoven. Pieter van Vollenhoven 455

Honours and awards

van Vollenhoven received numerous honours and awards in the Netherlands but also internationally:[2]

Netherlands Honours and decorations • Grand Cross of the Order of the House of Orange (10 January 1967) • Grand Cross of the Order of the Netherlands Lion (29 April 2004) •• Wedding Medal 1966 •• The Netherlands Coronation Medal 1980 •• Medal visiting Netherlands Antilles 1980 •• Wedding Medal 2002 • Officer's Long Service Decoration (The Netherlands), with Roman numeral XX •• The Netherlands Coronation Medal 2013

Foreign honours and decorations • Belgium: Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold • Cameroon: Grand Cordon of Order of Merit (Cameroon) • Germany: Grand Cross First class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany • Finland: Grand Cross of the Order of the White Rose of Finland • France: Grand Cross of the National Order of Merit • Italy: Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic • Ivory Coast: Grand Cross of the National Order • Japan: Grand Cordon of the Order of the Sacred Treasure • Jordan: Grand Cordon of the Supreme Order of the Renaissance[3][4] • Luxembourg: Grand Cross of the Order of Adolphe of Nassau[5] • Luxembourg: Grand Cross of the Order of the Oak Crown • Luxembourg: Commemorative Medal of the marriage of TRH Prince Jean and Princess Josephine-Charlotte of Luxembourg • Norway: Grand Cross of the Royal Norwegian Order of Merit • Portugal: Grand Cross of the Order of Prince Henry • Romania: Grand Cross of the Order of 23 August • Senegal: Grand Cross of the National Order of the Lion • Spain: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Isabella the Catholic[6] • Suriname: Grand Cordon of the Honorary Order of the Yellow Star • Venezuela: Grand Cordon of the Order of the Liberator • Sweden: Commander Grand Cross of the Order of the Polar Star[7] Pieter van Vollenhoven 456

Honorary appointments He is Aide-de-Camp Extraordinary to Her Majesty Queen Beatrix.

Honorary citizenship On 12 June 2004, he was made an Honorary citizen of the town of Vollenhove.

References

[1] Royal Wedding in the Netherlands (http:/ / www. britishpathe. com/ video/ orange-wedding)

[2] Onderscheidingen van de koninklijke familie (http:/ / www. allesopeenrij. nl/ lijsten/ monarchie/ onderscheiding_konfam. html) - website Alles op een rij

[3] PPE Agency, Group photo (http:/ / www. ppe-agency. com/ 500px/ Oct2006/ 06103032. jpg)

[4] PPE Agency, Pieter (http:/ / www. ppe-agency. com/ 500px/ Oct2006/ 06103026. jpg)

[5] The royal forums (http:/ / www. theroyalforums. com/ forums/ f17/

state-visit-from-luxembourg-to-the-netherlands-april-24th-26th-2006-a-9073-3. html), State visit of Luxembourg to Netherlands, 2006, Photo

(http:/ / cdn. theroyalforums. com/ forums/ attachment. php?attachmentid=239855& d=1145905354)

[6] Viva Maxima Blog, State visit of Juan Carlos in Netherlands 2001, Group photo (http:/ / www. christinesroyalty. net/ news/ pic/

staatsbezoek_juancarlos. jpg)

[7] "Noblesse et Royautés" (http:/ / www. noblesseetroyautes. com/ nr01/ 2009/ 04/ diner-de-gala-en-lhonneur-des-souverains-suedois/ )

(French), State visit of Sweden in the Netherlands, April 2009, Group photo (http:/ / www. noblesseetroyautes. com/ nr01/ wp-content/

uploads/ 2009/ 04/ sw1. jpg)

External links

• Professor Pieter van Vollenhoven (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ english/ Who_s_who/

Professor_Pieter_van_Vollenhoven. html) Description and CV on the Royal House website

Princess Christina of the Netherlands

Princess Christina

Princess Christina and Jorge Guillermo at their wedding

Spouse Jorge Pérez y Guillermo (m. 1975; div. 1996)

Issue

Bernardo Guillermo Nicolás Guillermo Juliana Guillermo

Full name

Maria Christina

Father Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld

Mother Queen Juliana of the Netherlands

Born 18 February 1947 Soestdijk Palace, Baarn, Netherlands Princess Christina of the Netherlands 457

Dutch Royal Family

HM The King * HM The Queen * • HRH The Princess of Orange * • HRH Princess Alexia * • HRH Princess Ariane *

HRH Princess Beatrix * •• HRH Princess Mabel •• Countess Luana •• Countess Zaria • HRH Prince Constantijn * HRH Princess Laurentien * •• Countess Eloise •• Count Claus-Casimir •• Countess Leonore

Princess Maria Christina of the Netherlands (born 18 February 1947) is the youngest of four daughters born to Queen Juliana of the Netherlands and Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld.

Birth She was born Maria Christina (Marijke) at Soestdijk Palace, The Netherlands. Among her godparents was Winston Churchill. Her mother had contracted German measles during her pregnancy and as a result, the Princess was born nearly blind. Over time, advances in medicine allowed for treatments that, with the aid of special glasses, brought about an improvement in her vision so that she could attend school and live a relatively normal life. Despite this initial handicap, she was a brilliant and happy child, with a considerable talent for music. She also had a capacity for languages and as a young girl delighted the visiting President of the French Republic René Coty, by conversing fluently with him in the French language.

Marriage In 1963, Princess Marijke changed her name to her second name, Christina. Pursuing her gift for music, at age 21 she moved to Canada to study classical music in Montreal. After a few years, she accepted a teaching position at a Montessori school in New York City. There, living under the name Christina van Oranje, the Princess met and started a relationship with a Havana-born Cuban exile named Jorge Pérez y Guillermo, himself a teacher for the Addie May Collins Shelter of Harlem and a former hotelier. Guillermo was born in Havana on 1 August 1946. He is the son of Federico Gilberto Pérez y Castillo and wife Edenia Mercedes Guillermo y Marrero, who died in Florida in 2002. Although societal attitudes were changing, because Guillermo was a Roman Catholic, it was still possible that any marriage could cause another public scandal in the Netherlands such as the one that occurred in 1964 when her sister, Princess Irene married the Catholic Carlos Hugo, Duke of Parma. Accordingly, Princess Christina, at that time Princess Christina of the Netherlands 458

ninth in line for the Dutch throne, renounced her and her descendants' rights to the throne before converting to Catholicism and officially announcing her engagement on St. Valentine's Day, 1975. Married on 28 June 1975, in the Cathedral of , Utrecht, in The Netherlands, the newlyweds rode through the streets of the city to the cheers of thousands of Dutch citizens. Following their marriage, she and her husband chose to live in New York but later moved to her native land where they built a home on an estate in Wassenaar, near The Hague. Their children were: • Bernardo Federico Tomás Guillermo, (born 17 June 1977), Married civilly on 2 March 2009 in New York City to Eva Marie Valdez, (born 2 August 1979), an editor at a prominent publisher. Married religiously on 5 September 2009 at the Queen of All Saints Church. Has a daughter Isabel Christina (born 13 April 2009) and a son Julián Jorge Guillermo (born 21 September 2011). • Nicolás Daniel Mauricio Guillermo, (born 6 July 1979). •• Juliana Edenia Antonia Guillermo, (born 8 October 1981). Divorced in 1996, Princess Christina returned with her children to live in the United States. After her mother's death she has lived partly in London, partly in Monte Argentario, Italy. She recorded several CDs and has a Music Foundation in the Netherlands. She sang at her father's funeral and at her mother's funeral and participated in a tribute concert that the CIMA Festival did in Italy for Queen Juliana, under the direction of Jorge Chaminé.

Titles and honours

• 1947 – present: HRH Princess Christina of the Netherlands, Princess of Orange-Nassau, Princess of Lippe-Biesterfeld

National honours • Grand Cross of the Order of the Netherlands Lion • Royal Wedding Medal 1966 (10 March 1966) • Queen Beatrix Investiture Medal (30 April 1980) • Royal Wedding Medal 2002 (2 February 2002) • King Willem-Alexander Investiture Medal (30 April 2013)

References

External links

• Royal House of the Netherlands (http:/ / koninklijkhuis. nl)

• Princess Christina singing "My sweetheart is the man in the moon" (http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=Kqpbq8Kapp8) Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands 459 Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands

Willem-Alexander

Willem-Alexander in 2010

King of the Netherlands

Reign 30 April 2013 – present

Predecessor Beatrix

Heiress apparent Catharina-Amalia

Prime Minister Mark Rutte

Spouse Máxima Zorreguieta Cerruti (2002–present)

Detail

Issue

Catharina-Amalia, Princess of Orange Princess Alexia of the Netherlands Princess Ariane of the Netherlands

Full name

Willem-Alexander Claus George Ferdinand

House House of Orange-Nassau (modern) House of Amsberg

Father Claus von Amsberg

Mother Beatrix of the Netherlands

Born 27 April 1967 University Medical Center, Utrecht, Netherlands

Religion Protestant Church in the Netherlands

Willem-Alexander (pronounced [ˈʋɪləm ɑlɛˈksɑndər]; Willem-Alexander Claus George Ferdinand; born 27 April 1967) is the reigning King of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, consisting of the countries of the Netherlands, Curaçao, Aruba, and Sint Maarten. He is head of the Dutch royal house and the House of Amsberg and upon coming to the throne became the first male monarch of the Netherlands since the death of his great-great-grandfather King William III in 1890. Willem-Alexander was born in Utrecht and is the eldest child of Princess Beatrix and German diplomat Claus von Amsberg. He became Prince of Orange and heir apparent to the throne of the Netherlands on 30 April 1980, when his mother became queen regnant, and he ascended the throne on 30 April 2013 when his mother abdicated. Upon his accnssion, he is Europe's youngest monarch. He went to public primary and secondary schools, served in the Royal Netherlands Navy, and studied history at Leiden University. He married Máxima Zorreguieta Cerruti in 2002 and they have three daughters: Catharina-Amalia, Princess of Orange (born 2003), Princess Alexia (born 2005), and Princess Ariane (born 2007). Willem-Alexander is interested in sports and international water management issues. Until his accession to the throne, he was a member of the International Olympic Committee (1998–2013), chairman of the Advisory Committee on Water to the Dutch Minister of Infrastructure and the Environment (2004–2013), and chairman of the Secretary-General of the United Nations' Advisory Board on Water and Sanitation (2006–2013).[1][2] Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands 460

Willem-Alexander is one of the world's four new monarchs to take the throne in 2013 along with Pope Francis of the Vatican, Sheikh Tamim of Qatar, and Philippe of Belgium.

Early life and education

Prince Willem-Alexander (left) at age 14 and his brother Constantijn in 1982

Dutch Royal Family

HM The King * HM The Queen * • HRH The Princess of Orange * • HRH Princess Alexia * • HRH Princess Ariane *

HRH Princess Beatrix * •• HRH Princess Mabel •• Countess Luana •• Countess Zaria • HRH Prince Constantijn * HRH Princess Laurentien * •• Countess Eloise •• Count Claus-Casimir •• Countess Leonore

Willem-Alexander Claus George Ferdinand was born on 27 April 1967 in the University Medical Center in Utrecht, Netherlands. He was the first child of Princess Beatrix and Prince Claus,[3] and the first grandchild of Queen Juliana and Prince Bernhard. He was the first male Dutch royal baby since the birth of Prince Alexander in 1851, and the first immediate male heir since Alexander's death in 1884. From birth, Willem-Alexander has held the titles Prince of the Netherlands (Dutch: Prins der Nederlanden), Prince of Orange-Nassau (Dutch: Prins van Oranje-Nassau), and Jonkheer of Amsberg (Dutch: Jonkheer van Amsberg). He was baptised as a member of the Dutch Reformed Church[4] on 2 September 1967[5] in Saint Jacob's Church in The Hague.[6] His godparents are Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld, Prince Ferdinand von Bismarck, former Prime Minister Jelle Zijlstra, and Queen Margrethe II of Denmark. Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands 461

He has two younger brothers: Prince Friso of Orange-Nassau, (1968-2013), and Prince Constantijn of the Netherlands, born in 1969. He lived with his family at the castle Drakesteijn in the Lage Vuursche near Baarn from his birth until 1981, when they moved to the larger palace Huis ten Bosch in The Hague. His mother Beatrix became Queen of the Netherlands in 1980, after his grandmother Juliana abdicated. He then received the title of Prince of Orange as heir apparent to the throne of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Willem-Alexander attended Nieuwe Baarnse Elementary School in Baarn from 1973 to 1979. He went to three different high schools: the Baarns Lyceum in Baarn from 1979 to 1981, the Eerste Vrijzinnig Christelijk Lyceum in The Hague from 1981 to 1983, and the United World College of the Atlantic in Wales near Llantwit Major (1983 to 1985), where the prince had friends, and from which he received his International Baccalaureate.[7]

Military training and career

Between high school and his academic studies, Willem-Alexander performed military service in the Royal Netherlands Navy from August 1985 until January 1987. He received his training at the Royal Netherlands Naval College and the HNLMS Tromp and HNLMS Abraham Crijnssen, where he was an ensign. In 1988 he received additional training at the ship HNLMS Van Kinsbergen and became a lieutenant (junior grade) (wachtofficier).[8]

As a reservist for the Royal Netherlands Navy, Willem-Alexander was Willem-Alexander in the army uniform of promoted to Lieutenant Commander in 1995, Commander in 1997, Brigadier General in 2010 Captain at Sea in 2001, and Commodore in 2005. As a reservist for the Royal Netherlands Army, he was made a Major (Grenadiers' and Rifles Guard Regiment) in 1995, and was promoted to Lieutenant Colonel in 1997, Colonel in 2001, and Brigadier General in 2005. As a reservist for the Royal Netherlands Air Force, he was made Squadron Leader in 1995 and promoted to Air Commodore in 2005. As a reservist for the Royal Marechaussee, he was made Brigadier General in 2005.

Before his investiture as king, Willem-Alexander was honorably discharged from the armed forces. The government declared that the head of state cannot be a serving member of the armed forces, since the government itself holds supreme command over the armed forces. As king, Willem-Alexander may choose to wear a military uniform with royal insignia, but not with his former rank insignia.[9] Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands 462

Education After his military service from 1985–1987, Willem-Alexander studied history at Leiden University from 1987 onwards and received his academic degree in 1993. His final dissertation was on the Dutch response to France's decision under President Charles de Gaulle to leave NATO's integrated command structure. Willem-Alexander speaks English, Spanish and German in addition to his native Dutch.

Royal duties and social interests

Since 1985, when he became 18 years old, Willem-Alexander has been a member of the Council of State of the Netherlands. This is the highest council of the Dutch government and is chaired by the head of state (then Queen Beatrix).[10] He attended its weekly meetings as often as possible.[11] King Willem-Alexander is interested in water management and sports issues. He was an honorary member of the World Commission on Water for the 21st century and patron of the Global Water Partnership, Prince Willem-Alexander and Princess Máxima meet Michelle Obama, Susan Sher, Barack a body established by the World Bank, the UN, and the Swedish Obama and Fay Hartog-Levin at the White House Ministry of Development. He was appointed as the Chairperson of the in 2009. United Nations Secretary General's Advisory Board on Water and Sanitation on 12 December 2006.

He was a patron of the Dutch Olympic Games Committee until 1998 when he was made a member of the International Olympic Committee (IOC). After becoming King, he relinquished his membership and received the Gold Olympic Order at the 125th IOC Session. To celebrate the 100th anniversary of the 1928 Summer Olympics held in Amsterdam, he has expressed support to bid for the 2028 Summer Olympics.[12] He was a member of the supervisory board of (the Dutch central bank), a member of the Advisory Council of ECP (the information society forum for government, business and civil society), patron of Veterans' Day and held several other patronages and posts.[13]

Reign On 28 January 2013, Queen Beatrix announced that she planned to abdicate in favour of Willem-Alexander. The official programme for the abdication and investiture took place on 30 April 2013. The Queen signed the Instrument of Abdication at the Royal Palace, Amsterdam. After the abdication, Willem-Alexander was inaugurated as king on 30 April 2013. The abdication was signed at 10:07 am at the Moseszaal (Moses Hall) at the Royal Palace of Amsterdam. The Royal Inauguration, together with the United Assembly of the States-General, took place at 2:30 pm at the Nieuwe Kerk.[14] As king, Willem-Alexander has weekly meetings with the prime minister and speaks regularly with ministers and state secretaries. He also signs all new Acts of Parliament and royal decrees. He represents the kingdom at home and abroad. At the State Opening of Parliament, he delivers the Speech for the Throne, which announces the plans of the government for the parliamentary year. The Constitution requires that the king appoint, dismiss and swear in all government ministers and state secretaries. Willem-Alexander is also the president of the Council of State, which is a historical role. The monarch seldom chairs meetings of the Council of State.[15] Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands 463

Leisure activities

He is an aircraft pilot and sportsman. In 1989, Willem-Alexander flew as a volunteer for the African Medical Research and Education Foundation (AMREF) in Kenya, and in 1991 he spent a month flying for the Kenya Wildlife Service. To make sure he flies enough hours each year to retain his license, he occasionally flies KLM Cityhopper's Fokker 70s or the Dutch royal airplane.

Using the name "W. A. van Buren", one of the least-known titles of the House of Orange-Nassau, he participated in the 1986 Frisian Willem-Alexander with his family at the 2012 Elfstedentocht, a 200 kilometres (120 mi) long ice skating tour. He ran Summer Olympics, here supporting Ellen van the New York City Marathon under the same pseudonym in 1992. Dijk.

Marriage and children

On 2 February 2002, he married Máxima Zorreguieta Cerruti (born 17 May 1971) at the Nieuwe Kerk in Amsterdam. Máxima is an Argentine woman of Basque, Portuguese and Italian ancestry, who prior to their marriage worked as an investment banker in New York City. The marriage triggered significant controversy due to the role the bride's father, Jorge Zorreguieta, had in the Argentinian military dictatorship.

Prince Willem-Alexander and Princess Máxima kiss at the balcony of the Royal Palace of Amsterdam on their wedding day in 2002.

The couple has three daughters: • The Princess of Orange (Catharina-Amalia Beatrix Carmen Victoria), born 7 December 2003 • Princess Alexia Juliana Marcela Laurentien of the Netherlands, born 26 June 2005 • Princess Ariane Wilhelmina Máxima Inés of the Netherlands, born 10 April 2007

Privacy and the press King Willem-Alexander and Queen Máxima with In an attempt to strike a balance between privacy for the royal family their daughters Princess Catharina-Amalia (left), Princess Alexia (right) and Princess Ariane and availability to the press, the Netherlands Government Information (middle) Service (RVD) instituted a media code on 21 June 2005 which essentially states that: •• Photographs of the members of the royal house while performing their duties are always permitted. •• For other occasions (like holidays), the RVD will arrange a photo-op on condition that the press leave the family alone for the rest of the holiday. Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands 464

During a ski vacation in Argentina, several photographs were taken of the prince and his family during the private part of their holiday, including one by Associated Press staff photographer Natacha Pisarenko, in spite of the media code, and after a photo opportunity had been provided earlier. The Associated Press decided to publish some of the photos, which were subsequently republished by several Dutch media. Willem-Alexander and the RVD jointly filed suit against the Associated Press on 5 August 2009, and the trial started on 14 August at the district court in Amsterdam. On 28 August, the district court ruled in favour of the prince and RVD, citing that the royal couple has a right to privacy; that the pictures in question add nothing to any public debate; and that they are not of any particular value to society since they are not photographs of the royals "at work". Associated Press was sentenced to stop further publication of the photographs, on pain of a €1,000 fine per violation with a €50,000 maximum.

Properties The royal family currently lives in Villa Eikenhorst on the De Horsten estate in Wassenaar. After the move of Princess Beatrix to castle Drakensteyn and a renovation, Willem-Alexander and his family will move to palace Huis ten Bosch in The Hague.[16] On 10 July 2008, the then Prince of Orange and Princess Maxima announced that they had invested in a development project on the Mozambican peninsula of Machangulo. The development project was aimed at building an ecologically responsible vacation resort, including a hotel and several luxury vacation houses for investors. The project was to invest heavily in the local economy of the peninsula (building schools and a local clinic) with an eye both towards responsible sustainability and maintaining a local staff. After contacting Mozambican president Armando Guebuza to verify that the Mozambican government had no objections, the couple decided to invest in two villas. In 2009, controversy erupted in parliament and the press about the project and the prince's involvement. Politician Alexander Pechtold questioned the morality of building such a resort in a poor country like Mozambique. After public and parliamentary controversy the royal couple announced that they decided to sell the property in Machangulo once their house was completed.[17] In January 2012, it was confirmed that the villa had been sold.[18] In April 2012, the royal couple bought a villa near Kranidi in Greece, they will stay there during their summer holidays.[19]

Titles, styles, honours and arms

Titles and styles • 27 April 1967 – 30 April 1980: His Royal Highness Prince Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands • 30 April 1980 – 30 April 2013: His Royal Highness The Prince of Orange • 30 April 2013 – present: His Majesty The King Willem-Alexander's full style from birth until his mother's accession was: "His Royal Highness Prince Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands, Prince of Orange-Nassau, Jonkheer van Amsberg". On his mother's accession, it became: "His Royal Highness the Prince of Orange, Prince of the Netherlands, Prince of Orange-Nassau, Jonkheer van Amsberg". Following his accession, Willem-Alexander's official title, as appearing in preambles, is: "Willem-Alexander, by the Grace of God, King of the Netherlands, Prince of Orange-Nassau, etc. etc. etc." He was the first male heir apparent to the Dutch throne since Prince Alexander, son of King William III, who died in 1884. Prince Willem-Alexander had earlier indicated that when he would become king, he would take the name William IV,[20] but it was announced on 28 January 2013 that his regnal name would be Willem-Alexander.[21] Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands 465

Military ranks

Royal Netherlands Navy – Conscription • Ensign (August 1985 – January 1987) • Lieutenant (junior grade) (watch officer, 1988) Royal Netherlands Navy – Reserve • Lieutenant (1988–1995) • Lieutenant Commander (1995–1997) • Commander (1997–2001) • Captain at Sea (2001–2005) • Commodore (2005–2013)

Royal Netherlands Air Force – Reserve Willem-Alexander in the navy uniform of • Squadron Leader (1995–2005) Commodore at the wedding of the Crown Princess of Sweden and Daniel Westling in June • Air Commodore (2005–2013) 2010 Royal Netherlands Army – Reserve • Major, Grenadiers' and Rifles Guard Regiment (1995–1997) • Lieutenant Colonel (1997–2001) • Colonel (2001–2005) • Brigadier General (2005–2013) Royal Marechaussee – Reserve • Brigadier General (2005–2013)

Honours

Dutch orders and decorations In his capacity as the Sovereign, Willem-Alexander is Grand Master of the Military Order of William (Militaire Willemsorde) and the other Dutch orders of merit. • Grand Cross of the Military William Order (30 April 2013) • Grand Cross of the Order of the Netherlands Lion (27 April 1985) • Knight of the Order of the Gold Lion of the House of Nassau (30 April 1980) • Grand Cross of the Order of the House of Orange (27 April 1967) • Queen Beatrix Investiture Medal (30 April 1980) • Royal Wedding Medal 2002 (2 February 2002) • Officer's cross for long service, with numeral XX (6 December 2006) • Knight of the Order of Saint John in the Netherlands (8 June 1996) Foreign orders Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands 466

[22][23] Belgium Grand Cross of the Order of the Crown (before 1993)

Brazil Grand Cross of the Order of the Southern Cross

Brunei [24] Senior (Dato Laila Utama) of the Most Esteemed Family Order of Brunei (DK I, January 2013)

Chile Grand Cross of the Order of the Merit of Chile

Denmark Knight of the Order of the Elephant

France Grand Cross of the National Order of the Legion of Honour

France Grand Cross of the National Order of Merit

Germany Grand Cross 1st Class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany

Indonesia Grand Cross of the Order of Mahaputera

IOC Gold Olympic Order (8 September 2013)

Japan Grand Cordon of the Order of the Chrysanthemum [25] Luxembourg Grand Cross of the Order of Adolphe of Nassau

Luxembourg Grand Cross of the Order of the Oak Crown

[26] Mexico Band of the Order of the Aztec Eagle

Norway Grand Cross of the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav (1996)

Oman [27] Supreme Class of the Order of the Renaissance of Oman (10 January 2012)

[28] Spain Grand Cross of the Order of Isabella the Catholic (19 October 2001)

Sweden Knight of the Royal Order of the Seraphim (RSerafO, 2006)

[29] Thailand Grand Cross of the Order of Chula Chom Klao (2004)

UAE [30] Member of the Union Order (9 January 2012)

Venezuela Grand Cordon of the Order of the Liberator

Honorary appointment • Aide-de-camp to Her Majesty The Queen (until 2013)

Ancestry Through his father, a member of the House of Amsberg, he is descended from families of the lower German nobility, and through his mother, from several royal German/Dutch families such as the House of Lippe, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, the House of Orange-Nassau, Waldeck and Pyrmont, and the House of Hohenzollern. He is descended from the first King of the Netherlands, William I of the Netherlands, who was also a ruler in Luxembourg and several German states, and all subsequent Dutch monarchs. By his mother, Willem-Alexander also descended from Paul I of Russia and thus from German princess . Through his father, he is also descended from several Dutch/Flemish families who left the Low Countries during Spanish rule, such as the Berenbergs. His paternal great-great-grandfather Gabriel von Amsberg (1822–1895), a Major-General of Mecklenburg, was recognized as noble as late as 1891, the family having adopted the "von" in 1795.[31][32] King Willem-Alexander is a multiple descendant of Anne, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange, eldest daughter of British King George II. However, under the British Act of Settlement, King Willem-Alexander forfeited his (distant) succession rights to the throne of the United Kingdom, because he married a Roman Catholic. Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands 467

References

[1] Who We Are (http:/ / www. unsgab. org/ index. php?menu=219), United Nations Secretary-General's Advisory Board on Water and Sanitation. Retrieved 19 April 2013.

[2] Willem-Alexander neemt afscheid 'waterprins' (http:/ / www. trouw. nl/ tr/ nl/ 4492/ Nederland/ article/ detail/ 3413108/ 2013/ 03/ 21/

Willem-Alexander-neemt-afscheid-als-waterprins. dhtml), Trouw, 2013. Retrieved 19 April 2013.

[3] The Prince of Orange (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ english/ dsc?c=getobject& s=obj& objectid=18194& ext=document. pdf). Dutch Royal House. Retrieved 19 July 2009.

[4] Doop Willem-Alexander (http:/ / koningshuis. nos. nl/ video/ bekijk/ id/ tcm:5-437878/ title/ doop-willem-alexander). Nederlandse Omroep Stichting. Retrieved 13 December 2009.

[5] 40 meest gestelde vragen (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ Speciale_webpagina_s/ 40ste_verjaardag_Prins_van_Oranje_27_april_2007/ 40_veelgestelde_vragen). Dutch Royal House. Retrieved 13 December 2009.

[6] Doopplechtigheid Prins Willem-Alexander in Sint Jacobskerk (http:/ / blogs. rnw. nl/ haa/ b232960-doopplechtigheid-prins-willem-alexander-in-sint-jacobskerk-3-delen-1967-09-02). Radio Netherlands Worldwide. Retrieved 13 December 2009.

[7] Z.M. koning Willem-Alexander , koning der Nederlanden, prins van Oranje-Nassau (http:/ / www. parlement. com/ id/ vg09llxsqztx/ willem_alexander_alexander_willem), Parlement. Retrieved 5 April 2013.

[8] Military career (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ english/ Who_s_who/ The_Prince_of_Orange/ Military_career). Dutch Royal House. Retrieved 17 December 2009.

[9] King will retain close relationship with armed forces (http:/ / www. defensie. nl/ english/ latest/ news/ 2013/ 03/ 07/ 48203811/ King_will_retain_close_relationship_with_armed_forces) (press release), Ministry of Defense, 2013. Retrieved 3 March 2013

[10] The Dutch Council of State (http:/ / www. raadvanstate. nl/ the-council-of-state. html), De Raad van State. Retrieved 24 July 2013.

[11] King Willem-Alexander: Preparing for the role of monarch (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ globale-paginas/ taalrubrieken/ english/

members-of-the-royal-house/ his-majesty-king-willem-alexander/ preparing-for-the-role-of-monarch/ ), Koninklijk Huis. Retrieved 24 July 2013.

[12] Netherlands May Bid For 2028 Games (http:/ / www. gamesbids. com/ eng/ olympic_bids/ future_bids_2016/ 1216133621. html), Gamesbids [13][13]His Majesty King Willem-Alexander, Koninklijk Huis. Retrieved 24 July 2013. [14] Troonswisseling in Nederland (2013), Dutch Wikipedia, 2 May 2013

[15] Position and role as head of state (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ globale-paginas/ taalrubrieken/ english/ members-of-the-royal-house/

his-majesty-king-willem-alexander/ position-and-role-as-head-of-state/ ), Koninklijk Huis. Retrieved on 2013-7-24. [16][16](Dutch) Verhuizing Prinses Beatrix, Koninklijk Huis. Retrieved 24 July 2013. [17][17]"Crown prince bows to public pressure over Mozambique villa". NRC. November 23, 2009. Retrieved 11 June 2010. [18][18](Dutch) "Prins verkoopt villa in Mozambique". Nederlandse Omroep Stichting. 18 January 2012. Retrieved 2 May 2013. [19][19](Dutch) Prins koopt villa in Griekenland, NOS Nieuws. Retrieved 24 July 2013.

[20] Interview with Paul Witteman (http:/ / www. racchvs. com/ alex/ biointerview. htm), September 1997, Racchvs

[21] Prince of Orange to become King Willem-Alexander (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ globale-paginas/ taalrubrieken/ english/ news/ / )

[22] Belga Pictures, group photo (http:/ / 0. t. cdn. belga. be/ picture:23466052:preview:watermark)

[23] King Baudouin's funerals (08/1993), Willem-Alexander (http:/ / 3. bp. blogspot. com/ -RqcwnIRBkR0/ TngJgvCjmtI/ AAAAAAAADfc/

7jzHVxyL7ys/ s1600/ PrincePhilipBaudouinFuneral. jpg) on third row

[24] Noblesse et Royautés (http:/ / www. noblesseetroyautes. com/ nr01/ 2013/ 01/ diner-de-gala-au-palais-du-sultan-de-brunei) (French), State

visit of Netherlands in Brunei (01/2013), Photo (http:/ / www. noblesseetroyautes. com/ nr01/ wp-content/ uploads/ 2013/ 01/ PPE13012170. jpg)

[25] The royal forums (http:/ / www. theroyalforums. com/ forums/ f17/

state-visit-from-luxembourg-to-the-netherlands-april-24th-26th-2006-a-9073-3. html), State visit of Luxembourg to Netherlands, 2006, Photo

(http:/ / cdn. theroyalforums. com/ forums/ attachment. php?attachmentid=239855& d=1145905354)

[26] Official decree (http:/ / dof. gob. mx/ nota_detalle. php?codigo=5116645& fecha=02/ 11/ 2009)

[27] His Majesty receives Queen Beatrix (http:/ / www. omanobserver. om/ files/ pdf/ 2012/ 1/ 11/ OmanObserver_11-01-12. pdf) – website of the Oman Observer

[28] Boletín Oficial del Estado (http:/ / www. boe. es/ boe/ dias/ 2001/ 10/ 20/ pdfs/ A38632-38632. pdf)

[29] 3rd Photo of this gallery (http:/ / 4. bp. blogspot. com/ -jVox0hjQlD8/ T8fzDukVb1I/ AAAAAAAAHwU/ GFRrFpu1Aj0/ s1600/ _Day2-1. jpg) shows the Prince wearing the order

[30] H.H Sheikh Khalifa welcomes HM Queen Beatrix of Netherlands (http:/ / www. mofa. gov. ae/ mofa_english/ portal/

42ecc95b-fb75-4066-b7fd-c03dd28ea209. aspx) – website of the UAE Ministry of Foreign Affairs [31] The Coat of Arms, Vol. 9, 66–72, p. 112, Heraldry Society [32] F. J. J. Tebbe, W. D. E. Aerts, Arnout van Cruyningen, Jean Klare (eds.), Encyclopedie van het Koninklijk Huis, p. 17, Winkler Prins, 2005 Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands 468

External links

• His Majesty King Willem-Alexander (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ globale-paginas/ taalrubrieken/ english/

members-of-the-royal-house/ his-majesty-king-willem-alexander/ ), biography on the official website of the Dutch Royal House

Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands House of Orange-Nassau Cadet branch of the House of Amsberg Born: 27 April 1967 Regnal titles Preceded by King of the Netherlands Incumbent Beatrix 2013–present Heir apparent: Catharina-Amalia Dutch royalty Vacant Prince of Orange Succeeded by Title last held by 1980–2013 Catharina-Amalia Alexander

Titles in pretence

Preceded by — TITULAR — Incumbent Prince Claus of the Netherlands Head of the House of Heir: Amsberg Prince Constantijn of the Netherlands 2002–present

Prince of Orange

Prince of Orange is a title of nobility, originally associated with the Principality of Orange, in what is now southern France. In French it is la Principauté d'Orange. The title is carried by members of the House of Orange-Nassau, as heirs to the crown of the Netherlands which, since 1983, descends via absolute primogeniture - meaning that the Orange-Nassau holder can be either Prince or Princess of Orange. Rival claims to the title are made by members of the House of Hohenzollern and the family of Mailly. The current users of the title are Catharina-Amalia, Princess of Orange suo jure (Orange-Nassau), Georg Friedrich, Prince of Prussia (Hohenzollern), and Guy, Marquis de Mailly-Nesle (Mailly). Coat of Arms of the counts of Orange of the first house of Orange. It came to stand for the principality of History Orange. Prince of Orange 469

Coat of Arms of the city/town of Orange in the Vaucluse. They were granted to the city by the princes of Orange of the house of des Baux in the last quarter of the XIIth century.

County of Orange

The title originally referred to Orange, Vaucluse in the Rhone valley in southern France, which was a property of the House of Orange, then the House of Baux and the House of Châlon-Arlay before passing in 1544 to the House of Orange-Nassau. The area started as the County of Orange, a fief in the Holy Roman Empire, in its constituent . It was awarded to William of Gellone, a grandson of and therefore a cousin of , around the year 800 for his services in the wars against the Moors and reconquering southern France and the Spanish March. His Occitan name is Guilhem. However, as a Frankish lord, he probably knew himself by the old Germanic version of Wilhelm. William was also count of Toulouse, , and marquis of Septimania. The horn that came to symbolize Orange when heraldry came in vogue much later

in the 12th century was a pun on his name in French, from Four generations Princes of Orange - William I, Maurice and the character his deeds inspired in the chanson de geste, the Frederick Henry, William II, William III (Willem van Chanson de Guillaume, "Guillaume au Court Nez" or Honthorst, 1662) "Guillaume au Cornet". The chanson appears to be based on William of Gellone's battle at the Orbieu or Orbiel river near Carcassonne in 793 as well as his seizure of the town of Orange. Prince of Orange 470

Principality of Orange As the kingdom of Burgundy fragmented in the early Middle Ages, the title was raised by the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa elevated to a principality in 1163 to shore up his supporters in Burgundy against the Pope and the King of France. As the Empire's boundaries retreated from those of the principality, the prince acceded to the sovereign rights that the Emperor used to exercise.:7 As William the Silent wrote in his marriage proposal to the uncle of his second wife, the Elector August of Saxony, he held Orange as "my own free property", not as a fief of anyone else, neither the Pope, nor the King of Spain or France. However, in the days where one's position honor and reputation were determined by such things, it drove William the Silent forward as much as it also fueled his great grandson's William III's opposition to Louis XIV when that king continually invaded and occupied Orange. The last descendant of the original princes, René of Nassau, left the principality to his cousin William the Silent, who was not a descendant of the original Orange family but the legal heir to the principality of Orange. In 1673, Louis XIV of France annexed all territory of the principality to the royal domain, as part of the war actions against the stadtholder William III of Orange — who later became King William III of England and King William II of Scotland. Orange ceased to exist as a separate sovereign principality, or in today's parlance, a separate sovereign nation.

In 1673, Louis XIV bestowed the (now non-sovereign) principality on Louis of Mailly-Nesles, marquis of Nesles (1689–1764), a very remote descendant of the original princes of Orange, through the marriage of the marquis to a descendant of the Chalons & des Baux. His descendant still claims the title today. In 1714 Louis XIV bestowed the usufruct of the principality on Prince Louis Armand of Bourbon-Conti. He died in 1727 and the principality was merged in the Crown in 1731.

Abolition of the principality, continuation of the title Map of the principality of Orange in the 16th century. Because William III died without legitimate children, the principality was regarded as having been inherited by his closest relative on the basis of the testament of Frederic-Henry, Frederick I of Prussia, who ceded the principality — at least the lands, but not the formal title — to France in 1713. France supported his claim. In this way, the territory of the principality lost its feudal and secular privileges and became a part of France. The Treaty of Utrecht allowed the King of Prussia to erect part of the duchy of Gelderland (the cities of , Straelen and Wachtendonk with their , Krickenbeck (including Viersen), the land of Kessel, the lordships of Afferden, Arcen-Velden-Lomm, Walbeck-Twisteden, Raay and Klein-Kevelaer, Well, Bergen and Middelaar) into a new Principality of Orange. The kings of Prussia and the German emperors styled themselves Princes of Orange till 1918. Prince of Orange 471

An agnatic relative of William III, John William Friso of Nassau, who was also cognatically descended from William the Silent, was designated the heir to the princes of Orange in the Netherlands by the last will of William III. Several of his descendants became stadtholders. They claim the principality of Orange on the basis of agnatic inheritance, similar to that of William the Silent, inheriting from his cousin René, though not being descendants of the original princes of Orange. They also claim on basis of the testament of Philips William, Maurice and William III. Finally, they claim on the basis that Orange was an independent state, where the sovereign had the right to assign his succession according to his A detailed map of the principality in the first half of the will. France never recognized any of this, nor allowed the 17th century reproduced from the famous 1627 Atlas of Willem Janszoon Blaeu. The area of the principality Oranje-Nassaus or the Hohenzollerns to obtain anything of the was approximately 12 miles long by 9 miles wide, or principality itself. The Oranje-Nassaus nevertheless assumed the 108 sq. miles. title and also erected several of their lordships as new principality of Orange. From that derivation of the title comes the tradition of the house of Nassau-Dietz/Friesland, the later stadtholders of the Netherlands, and the present-day royal family of the Netherlands, of holding this title. They maintain the tradition of William the Silent and the house of Orange-Nassau.

Thus, there are now two pretender claimants to this title, or claimants, depending on whose claims take precedence: • The House of Hohenzollern, who reigned in Prussia until 1918 • The House of Mailly-Nesles

Bearers of the title

As Counts of Orange

House of Orange

No Name Picture Birth Became Count(ess) of Ceased to be Death Other titles Spouse Orange Count(ess)

1. Pons de Mevouillon Blismodis

2. Pons II de Mevouillon Richilde

3. Laugier de Nice Odile de Provence

3. Rambaud de Nice Accelena d’Apt

4. Bertrand-Rambaud 1. Adélaïde de Cavenez d'Orange Gerberge

5. Raimbaut II ?

6. Tiburge d'Orange 1. Giraud Adhémar de Monteil 2. Guillaume d'Aumelas

7. Raimbaut of Orange Lord of None Aumelas Prince of Orange 472

As sovereign prince of Orange Until 1340, it was customary for all sons of the prince of Orange to inherit the title. Only the direct line of descent to Raimond V is shown here.

House of Baux The house of Baux succeeded to the principality of Orange when Bertrand of Baux married the heiress of the last native count of Orange, Tiburge, daughter of William of Orange, Omelaz, and Montpellier. Their son was William I of Baux-Orange. Bertrand was the son of Raymond of Baux and Stephanie of Gevaudan. Stephanie was the younger daughter to the heiress of the counts of Provence.

No Name Picture Birth Created Prince of Orange Ceased to be Death Other titles Princess Prince of while Prince of Orange of Orange Orange

1. Prince 1110/1115 1173 April/October 1180 Lord of Baux Tibors de Bertrand I After the death of his brother-in-law, Raimbaut, Sarenom Count of Orange, the County of Orange was elevated to a principality in 1163 by the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I.

Bertrand I used as Prince of Orange the coat of arms of the House of Baux: a 16-pointed white star placed on a field of gules. Later on, the Princes of Orange quartered the legendary bugle-horn as a heraldic figure into their coat of arms.

House of Baux-Orange

No Name Arms Birth Became Prince of Ceased to be Prince Death Other titles while Prince Princess Orange of Orange of Orange of Orange

2. Prince William 1155 31 October 1180 bef. 30 July 1218 Co-Prince (with brothers); 1. Ermengarde of I Lord of Baux Mévouillon 2. Alix

3. Prince William - 31 October 1180 bef. 1 November 1239 Co-Prince (with brothers); Précieuse II Lord of Baux

4. Prince - bef. 30 July 1218 1282 Lord of Baux Malberjone of Aix Raymond I

5. Prince - 1282 aft. 21 July 1314 Lord of Baux Eleanore of Geneva Bertrand II

6. Prince - aft. 21 July 1314 1340, aft. 9 September Lord of Baux and Anne of Viennois Raymond II Condorcet

7. Prince - aft. 9 September 10 February 1393 Lord of Baux 1. Constance of Trian Raymond III 1340 2. Jeanne of Geneva

8. Princess Mary - 10 February 1393 October 1417 Lady of Arlay, Cuiseaux, Prince John I and Vitteaux Prince of Orange 473

House of Châlon-Arlay (also House of Ivrea of Anscarid dynasty) The lords of Chalons and Arlay were a cadet branch of the ruling house of the county of Burgundy, the Anscarids or House of Ivrea. They married the heiress of Baux-Orange.

No Name Picture Arms Birth Became Ceased to Death Other titles while Prince of Orange Princess Prince of be Prince of Orange of Orange Orange

9. Prince none - 10 February October 2 Lord of Arlay, Cuiseaux and Vitteaux Princess Mary John I 1393 1417 September 1418

10. Prince none 1390 October 3 December 1463 Lord of Arlay, Arguel, Orbe, and Echelens 1. Jeanne of Louis I 1417 Montbéliard 2. Eleanor d'Armagnac 3. Blanche of Gamaches

11. Prince none - 3 December 27 September 1475 Lord of Arlay and Arguel Catherine of William 1463 Brittany II

12. Prince none 1443 27 15 April 1502 Count of Tonnerre; Lord of Arlay, Arguel 1. Jeanne de John II September and Montfaucon; Admiral of Guyenne Bourbon 1475 2. Philiberte of Luxembourg

13. Prince no wife 18 15 April 3 August 1530 Viceroy of Naples; Prince of Melfi; Duke of Philibert March 1502 Gravina; Count of Tonnerre, Charny, 1502 Penthièvre; Viscount of Besançon; Lord of Arlay, Nozeroy, Rougemont[1], Orgelet and Montfaucon, Lieutenant-General in the Imperial army.

House of Châlon-Orange Rene inherited the principality of Orange from his uncle Philbert on the condition that he bear the name and arms of the house of Châlon-Orange. Therefore, he is usually counted as one of the Châlon-Orange and history knows him as Rene of Châlon, rather than "of Nassau".

No Name Picture Arms Birth Became Ceased to Death Other titles while Prince of Orange Princess Prince of be Prince of Orange of Orange Orange

14. Prince 5 3 August 15 July 1544 Stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht and Guelders; Anna of René February 1530 Count of Nassau, and Vianden; Viscount of Antwerp; Lorraine 1519 Baron of Breda, Diest, Herstal, Warneton, Beilstein, Arlay, and Nozeroy; Lord of Dasburg, Geertruidenberg, Hooge en Lage Zwaluwe, Klundert, Montfort, Naaldwijk, Niervaart, Polanen, Steenbergen, Bütgenbach, Sankt Vith, and Besançon. Prince of Orange 474

House of Orange-Nassau (first creation) William of Nassau inherited the principality of Orange from his cousin Rene when Rene willed it to him, along with his other lordships. Although William had no blood from the previous princes, this was deemed to be "legal" as Orange was a sovereign principality (in modern parlance, independent state), and the sovereign prince (Rene) had the right to leave his sovereignty to whomever he pleased. This began the Dutch Royal House of Orange-Nassau.

No Name Picture Arms Birth Became Ceased Death Other titles while Prince of Orange Princess Prince of to be of Orange Prince Orange of Orange

15. Prince 24 April 15 July 10 July 1584 Stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht and 1. Anna van William I 1533 1544 Friesland; Marquis of Veere and Vlissingen, Egmont .: Count of Nassau-Dillenburg, 2. Anna of Katzenelnbogen, and Vianden; Viscount of Saxony Antwerp; Baron of Breda, Lands of Cuijk, 3. Charlotte de City of Grave, Diest, Herstal, Warneton, Bourbon Beilstein, Arlay, and Nozeroy; Lord of 4. Louise de Dasburg, Geertruidenberg, Hooge en Lage Coligny Zwaluwe, Klundert, Montfort, Naaldwijk, Niervaart, Polanen, Steenbergen, Willemstad, Bütgenbach, Sankt Vith, and Besançon.

16. Prince 19 10 July 20 February Count of Nassau-Dillenburg, Buren, Éléonore de Philip December 1584 1618 Leerdam, Katzenelnbogen, and Vianden; Bourbon William 1554 Viscount of Antwerp; Baron of Breda, Cranendonck, Lands of Cuijk, Eindhoven, City of Grave, IJsselstein, Diest, Herstal, Warneton, Beilstein, Arlay, and Nozeroy; Lord of Dasburg, Geertruidenberg, Hooge en Lage Zwaluwe, Klundert, Montfort, Naaldwijk, Niervaart, Polanen, Steenbergen, Sint-Maartensdijk, Willemstad, Bütgenbach, Sankt Vith, and Besançon.

17. Prince 14 20 23 April 1625 Stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, no wife Maurice November February Guelders, Overijssel and Groningen; 1567 1618 Marquis of Veere and Vlissingen; Count of Nassau-Dillenburg, Buren, Leerdam, Katzenelnbogen, and Vianden; Viscount of Antwerp; Baron of Aggeris, Breda, Cranendonck, Lands of Cuijk, Daesburg, Eindhoven, City of Grave, Lek, IJsselstein, Diest, Grimbergen, Herstal, Warneton, Beilstein, Bentheim-Lingen, Moers, Arlay, and Nozeroy; Lord of Dasburg, Geertruidenberg, Hooge en Lage Zwaluwe, Klundert, Montfort, Naaldwijk, Niervaart, Polanen, Steenbergen, Sint-Maartensdijk, Willemstad, Bütgenbach, Sankt Vith, and Besançon. Prince of Orange 475

18. Prince 29 23 April 14 March 1647 Stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Amalia of Frederick January 1625 Guelders, and Overijssel; Marquis of Veere Solms-Braunfels Henry 1584 and Vlissingen; Count of Nassau-Dillenburg, Buren, Leerdam, Katzenelnbogen, and Vianden; Viscount of Antwerp; Baron of Aggeris, Breda, Cranendonck, Lands of Cuijk, Daesburg, Eindhoven, City of Grave, Lek, IJsselstein, Diest, Grimbergen, Herstal, Warneton, Beilstein, Bentheim-Lingen, Moers, Arlay, and Nozeroy; Lord of Dasburg, Geertruidenberg, Hooge en Lage Zwaluwe, Klundert, Montfort, Naaldwijk, Niervaart, Polanen, Steenbergen, Sint-Maartensdijk, Willemstad, Bütgenbach, Sankt Vith, and Besançon.

19. Prince 27 May 14 March 6 November Stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Mary, Princess William 1626 1647 1650 Guelders and Overijssel; Marquis of Veere Royal II and Vlissingen; Count of Nassau-Dillenburg, Buren, Leerdam, Katzenelnbogen, and Vianden; Viscount of Antwerp; Baron of Aggeris, Breda, Cranendonck, Lands of Cuijk, Daesburg, Eindhoven, City of Grave, Lek, IJsselstein, Diest, Grimbergen, Herstal, Warneton, Beilstein, Bentheim-Lingen, Moers, Arlay, and Nozeroy; Lord of Dasburg, Geertruidenberg, Hooge en Lage Zwaluwe, Klundert, Montfort, Naaldwijk, Niervaart, Polanen, Steenbergen, Sint-Maartensdijk, Turnhout, Willemstad, Zevenbergen, Bütgenbach, Sankt Vith, and Besançon.

20. William 14 14 8 March 1702 King of England, Scotland, and Ireland, Queen Mary II III November November Stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, of England 1650 1650 Guelders, and Overijssel; Marquis of Veere and Vlissingen; Count of Nassau-Dillenburg, Buren, Leerdam, Katzenelnbogen, and Vianden; Viscount of Antwerp; Baron of Aggeris, Breda, Cranendonck, Lands of Cuijk, Daesburg, Eindhoven, City of Grave, Lek, IJsselstein, Diest, Grimbergen, Herstal, Warneton, Beilstein, Bentheim-Lingen, Moers, Arlay, and Nozeroy; Lord of Baarn, , Dasburg, Geertruidenberg, Hooge en Lage Zwaluwe, Klundert, 't Loo, Montfort, Naaldwijk, Niervaart, Polanen, Steenbergen, Sint-Maartensdijk, Soest, Ter Eem, Turnhout, Willemstad, Zevenbergen, Bütgenbach, Sankt Vith, and Besançon. Prince of Orange 476

As a personal title or as heir apparent

House of Orange-Nassau (second creation)

As personal title of nobility

No Name Picture Arms Heir of Birth Became Ceased to be Death Other titles while Prince of Orange Princess Prince Prince of of of Orange Orange Orange

21. Prince William 4 8 March 14 July 1711 Stadtholder of Friesland and Groningen; Landgravine John III August 1702 Fürst of Nassau-Dietz → Fürst of Marie Louise William 1687 Orange-Nassau; Marquis of Veere and of Friso Vlissingen; Count of Buren, Leerdam, Hesse-Kassel Katzenelnbogen, Spiegelberg, and Vianden; Viscount of Antwerp; Baron of Aggeris, Breda, Cranendonck, Lands of Cuijk, Daesburg, Eindhoven, City of Grave, Lek, IJsselstein, Diest, Grimbergen, Herstal, Warneton, Beilstein, Arlay, and Nozeroy; Hereditary Lord of Ameland; Lord of Baarn, Bredevoort, Dasburg, Geertruidenberg, Hooge en Lage Zwaluwe, Klundert, Liesveld, 't Loo, Montfort, Naaldwijk, Niervaart, Polanen, Steenbergen, Sint-Maartensdijk, Soest, Ter Eem, Turnhout, Willemstad, Zevenbergen, Bütgenbach, Sankt Vith, and Besançon.

22. Prince Prince 1 September 1711 22 October 1751 General Stadtholder of the United Anne, William John Provinces; Fürst of Orange-Nassau; Princess IV William Marquis of Veere and Vlissingen; Count Royal Friso of Buren, , Leerdam, and Vianden; Viscount of Antwerp; Baron of Aggeris, Breda, Cranendonck, Lands of Cuijk, Daesburg, Eindhoven, City of Grave, Lek, IJsselstein, Diest, Grimbergen, Herstal, Warneton, Arlay, and Nozeroy; Hereditary Lord of Ameland; Lord of Baarn, Bredevoort, Dasburg, Geertruidenberg, Hooge en Lage Zwaluwe, Klundert, Liesveld, 't Loo, Montfort, Naaldwijk, Niervaart, Polanen, Steenbergen, Sint-Maartensdijk, Soest, Ter Eem, Turnhout, Willemstad, Zevenbergen, Bütgenbach, Sankt Vith, and Besançon. Prince of Orange 477

23. Prince Prince 8 22 9 April 1806 General Stadtholder of the United Princess William William March October Provinces; Fürst of Orange-Nassau; Wilhelmine V IV 1748 1751 Marquis of Veere and Vlissingen; Count of Prussia of Buren, Culemborg, Leerdam, and Vianden; Viscount of Antwerp; Baron of Aggeris, Breda, Cranendonck, Lands of Cuijk, Daesburg, Eindhoven, City of Grave, Lek, IJsselstein, Diest, Grimbergen, Herstal, Warneton, Arlay, and Nozeroy; Hereditary Lord of Ameland; Lord of Baarn, Bredevoort, Borculo, Dasburg, Geertruidenberg, Hooge en Lage Zwaluwe, Klundert, Lichtenvoorde, Liesveld, 't Loo, Montfort, Naaldwijk, Niervaart, Polanen, Steenbergen, Sint-Maartensdijk, Soest, Ter Eem, Turnhout, Willemstad, Zevenbergen, Bütgenbach, Sankt Vith, and Besançon.

24. Prince Prince 24 9 April 16 March 7 Fürst of Orange-Nassau; Marquis of Wilhelmine William William August 1806 1815 October Veere and Vlissingen; Count of Buren, of Prussia VI V 1772 title dropped 1840 Culemborg, Leerdam, and Vianden; later when Viscount of Antwerp; Baron of Aggeris, William invested as Breda, Cranendonck, Lands of Cuijk, I first King of Daesburg, Eindhoven, City of Grave, the Lek, IJsselstein, Diest, Grimbergen, Netherlands Herstal, Warneton, Arlay, and Nozeroy; Hereditary Lord of Ameland; Lord of Baarn, Bredevoort, Borculo, Geertruidenberg, Hooge en Lage Zwaluwe, Klundert, Lichtenvoorde, Liesveld, 't Loo, Montfort, Naaldwijk, Niervaart, Polanen, Steenbergen, Sint-Maartensdijk, Soest, Ter Eem, Turnhout, Willemstad, Zevenbergen, Bütgenbach, Sankt Vith, and Besançon.

As royal title for the heir apparent

No Name Picture Arms Heir of Birth Became Created Ceased to Death Other titles Spouse Heir to Prince(ess) be while the of Orange Prince(ess) Prince(ess) of Crown of Orange Orange

25. Prince William William I 6 16 March 1815 7 October 17 March Prince of the Grand later William II December father's accession as 1840 1849 Netherlands, Duchess 1792 King became Prince of Anna King Orange-Nassau Pavlovna of Russia

26. Prince William William II 19 7 October 1840 17 March 23 Prince of the Princess later William III February father's accession as 1849 November Netherlands, Sophie of 1817 King became 1890 Prince of Württemberg King Orange-Nassau Prince of Orange 478

27. Prince William William III 4 17 March 1849 11 June 1879 Prince of the none September father's accession as Netherlands, 1840 King Prince of Orange-Nassau

28. Prince Alexander 25 August 11 June 1879 21 June 1884 Prince of the none 1851 brother's death Netherlands, Prince of Orange-Nassau

Beatrix 27 April 30 April 1980 29. Prince 30 April – Prince of the Princess 1967 mother Willem-Alexander 's accession 2013 Netherlands, Máxima of later as Queen regnant became Prince of the Willem-Alexander King Orange-Nassau, Netherlands [2] Jonkheer van Amsberg

Willem-Alexander 7 30 April 2013 30. Princess Incumbent – Princess of the – December father Catharina-Amalia 's accession as Netherlands, [3] 2003 King Princess of Orange-Nassau

House of Hohenzollern • Frederick I of Prussia (1702–1713), a senior descendant in female line from William the Silent, who ceded his claims to the lands of Orange to France in 1713, and his descendants, but kept his right to use the title in its German form: currently Georg Friedrich, Prince of Prussia, "Prinz von Oranien" (1976-)

House of Mailly • Louis de Mailly, Marquis de Nesle et de Mailly, appointed by the French king, and his descendants, descended through another line of the house of Chalons-Arlay, currently Guy, Marquis de Nesle et de Mailly, Prince d'Orange.

House of Bourbon • Louis Armand II, Prince of Conti, appointed by the French king, and his descendants

The Princes of Orange of the House of Orange-Nassau

Historical background William the Silent (Willem I) was the first stadtholder of the Dutch Republic and the most significant representative of the House of Orange in the Netherlands. He was count of a small German county, part of the Duchy of Nassau and heir to some of his father's fiefs in Holland. William obtained more extensive lands in the Netherlands (the lordship of Breda and several other dependencies) as an inheritance from his cousin René, Prince of Orange, when William was only 11 years old. After William's assassination in 1584, the title passed to his son Philip William (who had been held hostage in Spain until 1596), and after his death in 1618, to his second son Maurice, and finally to his youngest son, Frederick Henry. The title of Prince of Orange became synonymous with the stadtholder of the Netherlands. William III (Willem III) was also King of England, Scotland and Ireland, and his legacy is commemorated annually by the Protestant Orange Order. William and Mary had no legitimate children. After his death in 1702, the Dutch contender to his title was his heir in the Netherlands, John William Friso of Nassau-Diez, who assumed the title. William's testament designated Friso to inherit the title. The other contender was the King in Prussia, who based his claim to the title on the will of Frederick Prince of Orange 479

Henry, William III's grandfather. Eventually, a compromise was reached by which both families were entitled to bear the title of Prince of Orange. By then, it was no more than a title because the principality had been annexed by Louis XIV of France. Friso's line held it as their principal title during the 18th century. The French army drove them away from the Netherlands in 1795, but on their return, the Prince of Orange became the first sovereign of the Netherlands in 1813. After the establishment of the current Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1815, the title was partly reconstitutionalized in a bill and granted to the eldest son of King William I of the Netherlands, Prince William, who later became William II of the Netherlands. Since 1983, the heir to the Dutch throne, whether male or female bears the title Prince or Princess of Orange. The first-born child of the heir to the Dutch throne bears the title Hereditary Prince(ss) of Orange. When her father Willem-Alexander became King of the Netherlands following the abdication of Queen Beatrix, Princess Catharina-Amalia became the Princess of Orange.

Style The Prince(ss) of Orange is styled His/Her Royal Highness the Prince(ss) of Orange (Dutch: Zijne/Hare Koninklijke Hoogheid de Prins(es) van Oranje). During the 15th, 16th and 17th Centuries, The Prince(ss) of Orange was styled His/Her Highness the Prince(ss) of Orange (Dutch: Zijne/Hare Hoogheid de Prins(es) van Oranje), except for William III, who rated the "Royal/Koninklijke" as his mother was the Princess Royal of England.

Arms The princes of Orange in the 16th and 17th century used the following sets of arms. On becoming prince of Orange, William placed the Châlon-Arlay arms in the center ("as an inescutcheon") of his father's arms. He used these arms until 1582 when he purchased the marquisate of Veere and Vlissingen. He then used the arms attributed to Frederick Henry, etc. with the arms of the marquisate in the top center, and the arms of the county of Buren in the bottom center. Their growing complexity shows how arms are used to reflect the growing political position and royal aspirations of the house of Orange-Nassau.

Coat of arms of René of Châlon Coat of arms of William the The coat of arms used by Maurice The coat of arms used by as Prince of Orange. Silent as Prince of Orange until showing the county of Moers (top left William the Silent after 1582, 1582 and his eldest son Philip center and bottom right center) and Frederick Henry, William II, and William his mother's arms of Saxony (center) William III as Prince of Orange UNIQ-ref-2-f50aae89a7b7a85a-QINU Prince of Orange 480

An alternate coat of arms sometimes used by Frederick Henry, William II, and William III as Prince of Orange showing the county of Moers in the top center rather than Veere. UNIQ-ref-6-f50aae89a7b7a85a-QINU

The Counts of Orange of the First House of Orange The first house of Orange is somewhat of a conjecture given the fragmentary nature of documentation in the early medieval era. The French Wikipedia page for the first House of Orange has presented what is known with references. Their chart is reproduced here. Descendants of Pons de Mevouillon (the arms of the counts d'Orange is a reference point. Arms did not exist until the late 12th century. :

Pons de Mevouillon

x Blismodis

|

| --> Humbert évêque de Vaison, jusqu’en 1005

|

| --> Garnier, évêque d’Avignon (976-991)

|

| --> Ison

|

| --> Pons II de Mevouillon (ca 920-986)

x Richilde, originaire de l’Uzège

|

| --> Féraud de Nice évêque de Gap

|

| --> Pierre de Mirabel évêque de Vaison

|

| --> Pons III de Mevouillon

| | ... --> Descendance Mevouillon...

|

| --> Arnoul de Theys

| | ... --> Descendance Theys...

| Prince of Orange 481

| --> Gérard

|

| --> Rambaud

|

| --> Raoul

|

| --> Laugier de Nice (ca 1050-1032)

x Odile de Provence (976-1032), fille de fr:Guillaume Ier de Provence:Guillaume Ier de Provence

|

| --> Rostan de Gréolières

| | ... --> Descendance Gréolières...

|

| --> Pierre de Nice, évêque de Sisteron (1043–1059)

|

| --> Jauccara de Nice

| x Amic de Vence-Avignon

|

| --> Gerberge de Nice

| x fr:Bérenger d’Avignon:Bérenger d’Avignon.

|

| --> Rambaud de Nice (1006–1073)

x 1032 Accelena d’Apt

|

| --> Laugier d’Apt

x Amancia de Lacoste-Castellane

|

| --> Odila de Nice

x Boniface de Reillanne

|

| --> Gisla de Nice

x Rostang d'Agoult

|

| --> Laugier d'Agout, évêque d'Apt, croisé

|

| --> Pierre II de Nice évêque de Sisteron, puis évêque de Vaison

|

| --> Rostan de Fréjus

x Accelena de Marignane

|

| --> Rambaud de Nice, seigneur de Gréolières (+ jeune)

|

x Bélieldis de Marseille

|

| --> Amic

|

| --> Guillaume

| Prince of Orange 482

x avant 1045 Azalaïs de Reillanne, veuve de Guilhem d'Agoult

|

| --> Bertrand-Rambaud d’Orange

x 1068 Adélaïde de Cavenez, veuve de Guillaume V Bertrand de Provence

| | --> Léger ou Laugerus, évêque d’Avignon(1124 ou 1126-1142) | | --> Jausserand Laugier, seigneur de Gréolières | x 1064 Gerberge, fille de Foulques Bertrand de Provence | | --> Pierre | | --> Rambaud II d'Orange, the crusader or English Wiki | | --> Thiburge d'Orange x 1104 Giraud Adhémar de Monteil | x 1129 Guillaume d'Aumelas | | --> Raimbaut d'Orange, the famous troubadour. or English Wiki | | --> Thiburge II d'Orange | x 1171 Bertrand des Baux | | --> Hughes IV | | --> Bertrand II | | --> Thiburge | | --> Guillaume des Baux or English Wiki x Ermengarde de Mévouillon | | --> Guillaume II des Baux or English Wiki Prince of Orange 483

References

[1] http:/ / toolserver. org/ %7Edispenser/ cgi-bin/ dab_solver. py?page=Prince_of_Orange& editintro=Template:Disambiguation_needed/

editintro& client=Template:Dn

[2] Website Dutch Royal House on Willem-Alexander (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ english/ Who_s_who/ The_Prince_of_Orange. html)

[3] Website Dutch Royal House on Catharina-Amalia (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ encyclopedie/ wie-is-wie/ prinses-catharina-amalia/ )

Literature • Herbert H. Rowen, The princes of Orange: the stadholders in the Dutch Republic. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988. • John Lothrop Motley, "History of the United Netherlands from the Death of William the Silent to the Synod of Dort". London: John Murray, 1860. • John Lothrop Motley, "The Life and Death of John of Barenvelt". New York & London: Harper and Brothers Publishing, 1900. • Petrus Johannes Blok, "History of the people of the Netherlands". New York: G. P. Putnam's sons, 1898. • Reina van Ditzhuyzen, Het Huis van Oranje: prinsen, stadhouders, koningen en koninginnen. Haarlem : De Haan, [1979].

External links

• Treaty ceding the Principality to Louis XIV (http:/ / visualiseur. bnf. fr/ CadresFenetre?O=NUMM-96031&

I=128& M=tdm)

• Treaty of Partition (1732) (http:/ / www. heraldica. org/ topics/ royalty/ berlin1732. htm)

Queen Máxima of the Netherlands

Máxima

Queen Máxima in 2013.

Queen consort of the Netherlands

Tenure 30 April 2013 – present

Spouse Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands

Issue

Catharina-Amalia, Princess of Orange Princess Alexia Princess Ariane

Full name Queen Máxima of the Netherlands 484

Máxima

House House of Orange-Nassau (by marriage)

Father Jorge Zorreguieta

Mother María del Carmen Cerruti Carricart

Born 17 May 1971 Buenos Aires, Argentina

Religion Roman Catholic

Royal styles of Queen Máxima of the Netherlands

Reference style Her Majesty

Spoken style Your Majesty

Alternative style Ma'am

Queen Máxima of the Netherlands (née Máxima Zorreguieta; born 17 May 1971) is the wife of King Willem-Alexander. On 30 April 2013, she became the first Dutch queen consort since Emma of Waldeck and Pyrmont who held that title until 1890.

Early life and education Máxima Zorreguieta Cerruti was born in Buenos Aires, Argentina, on 17 May 1971. Queen Máxima is the daughter of Jorge Zorreguieta (born 1928) and his second wife, María del Carmen Cerruti Carricart (born 1944). She has two brothers, a sister and three half-sisters by her father's first wife, Marta López Gil.[1] She is named after her paternal great-grandmother Máxima Bonorino Gonzalez (1874–1965), whose mother Máxima González y de Islas belonged to the family of Justo José de Urquiza († 1870), the first Constitutional President of Argentina.[2] She studied at Northlands School in Argentina and worked as an investment banker before graduating with a degree in Economics from the Universidad Católica Argentina in 1995. She subsequently worked for large international finance companies in Argentina, New York and Brussels. Through her father, she is a descendant of King Afonso III of Portugal, many noble families of the Iberian Peninsula[3][4] and of Inca princess Catalina Paucar Ocllo, palla del Cuzco, a descendant of a puppet Emperor Túpac Huallpa, a younger brother of Atahualpa.[5][6] Queen Máxima of the Netherlands 485

Relationship with Prince Willem-Alexander

Máxima met Willem-Alexander, who was at the time the Prince of Orange, in April 1999 in Seville, Spain, during the Seville Spring Fair. In an interview, they stated that he introduced himself only as "Alexander", so that she did not know he was a prince. She thought he was joking when he later told her who he was. They agreed to meet again two weeks later in New York, where Máxima was working for Dresdner Kleinwort Benson. Their relationship apparently began in New York, but she did not meet his parents, Queen Beatrix and Prince Claus, for some time.

The news of the couple's relationship and eventual marriage plans caused controversy in the Netherlands, due to the involvement of Máxima's father as a [7] Princess Máxima during her second cabinet minister during the regime of Argentine President Jorge Rafael Videla. pregnancy. At the request of the Dutch Parliament, Michiel Baud, a Dutch professor in Latin American studies, carried out an inquiry into the involvement of Zorreguieta in the Dirty War. Although Zorreguieta claimed that, as a civilian, he was unaware of the Dirty War while he was a cabinet minister, Baud concluded that it would have been unlikely for a person in such a powerful position in the government to be unaware of it. However, Baud's research determined that Máxima's father had not been directly involved with the many deaths during that period.[8] Even so, his possible presence at the royal wedding was debated for several months.

Approval for the marriage was granted by the Dutch parliament (as necessary by law for the Prince of Orange to remain heir to the throne), but Máxima's parents were not invited to attend the wedding.[9]

Marriage and family

The couple announced their engagement on 30 March 2001; Máxima addressed the nation in fluent Dutch during the live televised broadcast.[10] Máxima was granted Dutch citizenship by Royal Decree on 17 May 2001 and now has dual citizenship: Argentine and Dutch.[11] Máxima and Willem-Alexander were married on 2 February 2002 in a civil ceremony in the Beurs van Berlage, Amsterdam, which was then followed by a religious ceremony at Amsterdam's Nieuwe Kerk ("New Church").[12][13] She remained a Roman Catholic after her marriage.[14] Máxima's parents were not present at the wedding; her father was told he could not attend due to his role as a government Willem-Alexander, Maxima and their daughters; on the balcony of the Royal Palace, after the minister during the Argentinian National Reorganization Process, and abdication of Queen Beatrix in 2013. her mother chose not to attend without her husband.[15]

The couple has three daughters: • The Princess of Orange (Catharina-Amalia Beatrix Carmen Victoria), born 7 December 2003 • Princess Alexia Juliana Marcela Laurentien of the Netherlands, born 26 June 2005 • Princess Ariane Wilhelmina Máxima Inés of the Netherlands, born 10 April 2007 Queen Máxima of the Netherlands 486

Royal duties

Queen Máxima focuses on the issue of integration of immigrants into Dutch culture. She was a member of a special parliamentary commission which sought to recommend ways to increase the participation of female immigrants in the workforce. Máxima stresses the importance for immigrants of learning the Dutch language (as she did) in order to fully participate in Dutch society. Dutch is actually the Queen's third language; she is also fluent in Spanish (her native language) and English. Willem-Alexander and Maxima meeting with the Prime Minister Mark Rutte in 2010. The Queen participates in conferences around the world representing the Netherlands. She was granted a seat in the Dutch Council of State on 20 October 2004, the highest advisory body and court of administration. She became a member of the Committee for Ethnic Minority Women’s Participation;Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers#Chronological items has a seat on the board of governors of the Chair on the Management of Diversity and Integration at the Free University of Amsterdam; she (along with her husband) is a patron of the Orange Fund (established to promote social welfare and cohesion in the Netherlands); and she also chairs the Board of Trustees of the Prince Claus Chair of the University of Utrecht. Royal Standard of Máxima Máxima is one of the few royals in the world to be an open supporter of gay rights, and was the first royal to attend an LGBT rights conference on 5 March 2008.[16]

International appointments

Queen Máxima currently serves as the United Nations Secretary General’s Special Advocate for Inclusive Finance for Development (UNSGSA). The UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-Moon designated her to this role in September 2009 in order to raise awareness on the importance of inclusive financial systems for achieving economic and development goals such as poverty alleviation, food security and education. In her work as UNSGSA, the Queen focuses on how formal financial services such as savings, insurance, credit can prevent people from falling into poverty due to expenditures on Willem-Alexander and Maxima in Wiesbaden, 2013. healthcare, and people who are not able to protect themselves against rising food prices and poverty because they do not have access to basic savings accounts. The role of the UNSGSA is to foster action by governments, private sector, financial system standard setters, and others towards a more inclusive financial system that works for the poor.[17] Queen Máxima of the Netherlands 487

Máxima is also the Honorary Patron of the G20 Global Partnership for Financial Inclusion (GPFI) since June 2011. In this role she works with governments and partners to advance the G20 Action Plan on Financial Inclusion, and the G20 Financial Inclusion Peer Learning Program. Previously, the Queen was a member of the Advisors Group for the United Nations' International Year of Microcredit 2005. and until 2009, was a member of UN Advisors Group on Inclusive Financial Sectors.

Titles, honours and arms

Titles and styles

Dutch Royal Family

HM The King * HM The Queen * • HRH The Princess of Orange * • HRH Princess Alexia * • HRH Princess Ariane *

HRH Princess Beatrix * •• HRH Princess Mabel •• Countess Luana •• Countess Zaria • HRH Prince Constantijn * HRH Princess Laurentien * •• Countess Eloise •• Count Claus-Casimir •• Countess Leonore

• 17 May 1971 – 2 February 2002: Miss Máxima Zorreguieta Cerruti • 2 February 2002 – 30 April 2013: Her Royal Highness Princess Máxima of the Netherlands, Princess of Orange-Nassau, Mevrouw van Amsberg • 30 April 2013 – present: Her Majesty Queen Máxima, Princess of the Netherlands, Princess of Orange-Nassau By Royal Decree nr. 41 of 25 January 2002, upon the solemnization of marriage, Máxima Zorreguieta was taken up into the Dutch nobility and the titles Princess of the Netherlands and Princess of Orange-Nassau, and the predicate Royal Highness, were formally conferred upon her.[18] By Royal Decree nr. 42 of 25 January 2002, the Princess was granted her own personal coat of arms and a personal standard.[19] On 13 May 2011, the Dutch parliament confirmed that when the Prince of Orange ascends the throne, Princess Máxima will take the style and title of Her Majesty Queen Máxima, Princess of the Netherlands, Princess of Orange-Nassau.[20] On 28 January 2013, it was announced that Queen Beatrix would abdicate on 30 April in favour of Willem-Alexander.[21] Máxima is the Kingdom's first queen consort since Emma of Waldeck and Pyrmont, the second wife of William III. She is the first Dutch queen consort to have been born as a commoner. She is also the Queen Máxima of the Netherlands 488

first Dutch queen consort to be born outside Europe.

Honours

• Netherlands : Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Netherlands Lion • Netherlands : Royal Wedding Medal 2002 (2 February 2002) • Netherlands : King Willem-Alexander Investiture Medal (30 April 2013) • Belgium : Grand Cross of the Order of the Crown (2006)[22] • Brazil: Grand Cross of the Order of the Southern Cross • Brunei: Senior (Dato Laila Utama) of the Most Esteemed Family Order of Brunei (DK I, January 2013) [23] • Chile: Grand Cross of the Order of the Merit of Chile • Luxembourg: Grand Cross of the Order of Adolphe of Nassau (2006)[24] • Mexico: Sash of the Order of the Aztec Eagle (2009)[25] • Norway: Grand Cross of the Order of St. Olaf (2 October 2013)[26] • Oman: Member 1st Class of the Order of Sultan Qaboos (10 January 2012)[27] • Spain: Dame Grand Cross of the Order of Isabella the Catholic (19/10/2001)[28] • Sweden: Commander Grand Cross of the Order of the Polar Star (2010)[29] • UAE: Member 1st Class of the Union Order (9 January 2012)[30]

Arms

References

[1] Andrea Borella "Annuario della Nobiltà Italiana" Edizione XXXI Teglio (SO) 2010 S.A.G.I. Casa Editrice, vol. 1 and Ascendencia de Da.

Máxima Zorreguieta, Princesa de la Corona de los Paises Bajos (http:/ / www. genealogia. org. ar/ maxima. html)

[2] Ancestry of Maxima Zorreguieta (http:/ / www. wargs. com/ royal/ maxima. html)

[3] http:/ / www. genealogia. org. ar/ maxima. html

[4] La Casa de Orange - Nassu y su parentesco político con Doña Máxima Zorroguieta (http:/ / nuevaeranet. com. ar/ sociales/

nota-la-casa-de-orange-nassu-y-su-parentesco-politico-con-doña-maxima-zorroguieta-28349. html)

[5] La Nacion 11 April 2004: Interview with Jorge Zorreguieta (http:/ / alt. talk. royalty. narkive. com/ IrPVniVm/ interview-with-maxima-s-father): "I've also discovered that, through a family line, I descended from an Inca princess."

[6] The Heirs of Europe: Netherlands (http:/ / heirsofeurope. blogspot. de/ 2010/ 01/ netherlands. html) [7] Maxima's father, Jorge Zorreguieta, had been the Minister of Agriculture during the regime of former Argentine President Jorge Rafael Videla, a military dictator who ruled Argentina from 1976 to 1981 and who was responsible for many atrocities against civilians. An estimated 10,000–30,000 people disappeared during Videla's and subsequent military regimes before democracy was restored to Argentina in 1983.

[8] Human rights: Zorreguieta vs.humanrights (http:/ / www. noticias. nl/ zr_baud_maart01. html), March 2001.

[9] Joyful christening of Catharina-Amalia (http:/ / www. helloonline. com/ royalty/ 2004/ 06/ 14/ dutchchristening/ )

[10] Engagement period (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ english/ Special_pages/ Royal_Wedding_2002/ Royal_wedding_2_2_2002/

Engagement_period/ Engagement_period. html), Royal Wedding 2002.

[11] Ook Beatrix heeft dubbele nationaliteit (http:/ / www. rnw. nl/ nederlands/ article/ ook-beatrix-heeft-dubbele-nationaliteit), (Queen Beatrix also has dual citizenship), Radio Netherlands Worldwide, 6 March 2007.

[12] Amsterdam Museum toont trouwtafel van Prins Willem-Alexander en Prinses Maxima (http:/ / amsterdammuseum. nl/ 260112-amsterdam-museum-toont-trouwtafel-van-prins-willem-alexander-en-prinses-maxima), Royal Wedding 2002.

[13] Princess Maxima & Prince Willem-Alexander's Wedding: A Look Back (http:/ / www. huffingtonpost. com/ 2010/ 10/ 27/

princess-maxima-prince-willem-alexander-wedding_n_775050. html#s166907)

[14] We're all princesses now: The rise of the middle-class monarchy (http:/ / www. dailymail. co. uk/ home/ you/ article-1364948/

Were-princesses-The-rise-middle-class-monarchy. html)

[15] Dutch abdication: profile of Maxima Zorreguieta, Holland's new Queen consort (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ news/ worldnews/ europe/

netherlands/ 10027777/ Dutch-abdication-profile-of-Maxima-Zorreguieta-Hollands-new-Queen-consort. html)

[16] FreeForm | Chicago Free Press: Judge Not... (http:/ / www. chicagofreepress. com/ node/ 1400)

[17] Her Royal Highness Princess Máxima of the Netherlands (http:/ / www. uncdf. org/ en/ UNSGSA-old)

[18] Royal Decree nr. 41 of 25 January 2002, regarding the royal titles and predicate for Princess Máxima (https:/ / zoek.

officielebekendmakingen. nl/ stb-2002-41. html?zoekcriteria=?zkt=Uitgebreid& pst=Staatsblad& vrt=M%c3%a1xima+ Zorreguieta&

zkd=InDeGeheleText& dpr=Alle& sdt=DatumUitgifte& pnr=1& rpp=10& resultIndex=0& sorttype=1& sortorder=4) - Official gazette of the Queen Máxima of the Netherlands 489

Kingdom of the Netherlands

[19] Royal decree nr. 42 of 25 January 2002, regarding the coat of arms and personal standard for Princess Máxima (https:/ / zoek.

officielebekendmakingen. nl/ stb-2002-42. html?zoekcriteria=?zkt=Uitgebreid& pst=Staatsblad& dpr=Alle& jgp=2002& nrp=42&

sdt=DatumUitgifte& pnr=1& rpp=10& resultIndex=0& sorttype=1& sortorder=4) - Official gazette of the Kingdom of the Netherlands

[20] (http:/ / www. nrc. nl/ nieuws/ 2013/ 02/ 15/ deskundigen-in-nrc-maxima-kreeg-te-snel-titel-koningin/ ), www.nrc.nl

[21] www.koninklijkhuis.nl (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ )

[22] State visit of Beatrix in Belgium, 2006, Belga Pictures, group photo (http:/ / 0. t. cdn. belga. be/ picture:23466052:preview:watermark)

[23] Noblesse et Royautés (http:/ / www. noblesseetroyautes. com/ nr01/ 2013/ 01/ diner-de-gala-au-palais-du-sultan-de-brunei) (French), State

visit of Netherlands in Brunei (01/2013), Photo (http:/ / www. noblesseetroyautes. com/ nr01/ wp-content/ uploads/ 2013/ 01/ PPE13012174. jpg)

[24] The royal forums (http:/ / www. theroyalforums. com/ forums/ f17/

state-visit-from-luxembourg-to-the-netherlands-april-24th-26th-2006-a-9073-3. html), State visit of Luxembourg to Netherlands, 2006, Photo

(http:/ / cdn. theroyalforums. com/ forums/ attachment. php?attachmentid=239855& d=1145905354)

[25] Official decree (http:/ / dof. gob. mx/ nota_detalle. php?codigo=5116646& fecha=02/ 11/ 2009), 02/11/2009

[26] Kongehuset (http:/ / www. kongehuset. no/ tildelinger. html?tid=28028& sek=27995& q=Máxima& type=& aarstall=)

[27] His Majesty receives Queen Beatrix (http:/ / www. omanobserver. om/ files/ pdf/ 2012/ 1/ 11/ OmanObserver_11-01-12. pdf) - website of the Oman Observer

[28] Boletín Oficial del Estado (http:/ / www. boe. es/ boe/ dias/ 2001/ 10/ 20/ pdfs/ A38632-38632. pdf)

[29] Mad Hattery (http:/ / madhattery. royalroundup. com/ 2010/ 06/

the-crown-princess-of--wedding-hrh-princess-maxima-of-the-netherlands/ ), pictures during Princess Victoria of Sweden's wedding

[30] H.H Sheikh Khalifa welcomes HM Queen Beatrix of Netherlands (http:/ / www. mofa. gov. ae/ mofa_english/ portal/

42ecc95b-fb75-4066-b7fd-c03dd28ea209. aspx) - website of the UAE Ministry of Foreign Affairs

[31] Wapens van leden van het Koninklijk Huis (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ encyclopedie/ monarchie/ wapens/

wapens-van-leden-van-het-koninklijk-huis/ ), Dutch Royal House. Retrieved on 2013-05-06.

External links

• Queen Máxima (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ globale-paginas/ taalrubrieken/ english/

members-of-the-royal-house/ her-majesty-queen-maxima/ ) at the website of the Royal House

• Queen/Reina Máxima (http:/ / www. reinamaxima. com/ ) non official website; biography, news and fashion

Dutch royalty Vacant Queen consort of the Incumbent Title last held by Netherlands 30 April 2013 – present Claus von Amsberg as Prince Consort Prince Friso of Orange-Nassau 490 Prince Friso of Orange-Nassau

Prince Friso

Spouse Princess Mabel of Orange-Nassau (2004–2013; his death)

Issue

Countess Luana Countess Zaria

Full name

Johan Friso Bernhard Christiaan David

House House of Orange-Nassau

Father Claus of Amsberg

Mother Beatrix of the Netherlands

Born 25 September 1968 University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, Netherlands

Died 12 August 2013 (aged 44) Huis ten Bosch, The Hague, Netherlands

Burial 16 August 2013 Lage Vuursche, Utrecht

Religion Protestant Church in the Netherlands

Prince Friso of Orange-Nassau (Johan Friso Bernhard Christiaan David van Oranje-Nassau van Amsberg; 25 September 1968 – 12 August 2013) was a younger brother of King Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands. Prince Friso was a member of the Dutch Royal Family, but because of his marriage without an Act of Consent in 2004, he lost his membership of the Dutch Royal House and was no longer in the line of succession to the throne. On 17 February 2012, Prince Friso was buried under an in Lech, Austria, while skiing off piste. He was taken to a hospital in Innsbruck where he was in critical but stable condition. According to his doctor, Dr. Wolfgang Koller, even though he was trapped for a relatively short time and hopes had originally been higher, subsequent neurological tests showed that after fifty minutes of cardiopulmonary resuscitation in moderate hypothermia he suffered massive brain damage due to oxygen shortage. His initial coma later progressed to a minimally conscious state and it was unclear whether he would ever regain full consciousness. On 12 August 2013, one and a half years after the accident, Prince Friso died of complications.

Early life and education Johan Friso Bernhard Christiaan David was born on 25 September 1968[1] at the University Medical Center in Utrecht, Netherlands[2] as the second son of princess Beatrix and prince Claus,[3] and grandson of queen Juliana of the Netherlands and prince Bernhard.[4] He had one elder brother, king Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands (1967) and one younger brother, prince Constantijn (1969). His titles at birth were Prince of the Netherlands, Prince of Orange-Nassau, Jonkheer van Amsberg. Prince Friso was baptized on 28 December 1968 in the Dom Church in Utrecht.[5] His godparents are prince Harald of Norway, Johan Christian Baron von Jenisch, Herman van Roijen, queen Juliana of the Netherlands and Christina von Amsberg.[6] In 1986, he graduated from the secondary school Eerste Vrijzinnig Christelijk Lyceum in The Hague. From 1986 until 1988, he studied mechanical engineering at the University of California, Berkeley, where he joined Delta Kappa Epsilon fraternity. From 1988 to 1994 he studied at Delft University of Technology, where he Prince Friso of Orange-Nassau 491

obtained an engineer's degree in aeronautical engineering. Additionally, he has an MSc degree in economics from Erasmus University Rotterdam. To prepare himself for the possibility of succession to the throne, he took courses in Dutch law and parliamentary history.

Work Prince Friso worked from 1995 until 1996 at the Amsterdam branch of the international management consultancy McKinsey. After completing an MBA-programme at INSEAD, Prince Friso worked as vice president from 1998 till 2003 for Goldman Sachs International in London. In 2004 be became part-time co-president of TNO Space in Delft. From October 2006, Prince Friso was Managing Director in the London office of the private investment and advisory firm Wolfensohn & Company. Prince Friso was a co-founder of the MRI Centre in Amsterdam and is also a founding shareholder of Wizzair, the largest low-cost airline in . Prince Friso was honorary chairman of the Prince Claus Fund for Culture and Development (a position he held together with his younger brother Prince Constantijn).[7] Prior to his accident, Prince Friso was working as a chief financial officer for URENCO, a uranium enrichment company.

Marriage and children

On 30 June 2003, it was announced that Prince Friso was to marry Mabel Wisse Smit. The Dutch cabinet, however, did not seek the permission of parliament for this marriage; constitutionally necessary if Prince Friso was to remain a member of the Dutch Royal House and in line of succession for the throne (he had been second in the line, after his older brother, Willem-Alexander).

The Prime Minister Jan Peter Balkenende explained that this was due to discussions with Mabel Wisse Smit in October 2003 where she had admitted that her previous statements about an alleged relationship with Klaas Bruinsma (1953–1991), known Dutch drug lord, had not been complete and accurate. She had previously stated that she had contact for a few months with Bruinsma, but in a casual context, not intimate or relating to business and that she had broken the contact on learning of Bruinsma's occupation.

This "breach of trust" was the reason the government did not seek parliament's permission, respecting the wishes of the couple.[8] They nevertheless married in Delft on 24 April 2004, and Mabel Wisse Smit Prince Friso with his wife Mabel and daughters in became a member of the Dutch Royal Family but not a member of the 2010 Dutch Royal House. Considering that his elder brother King Willem-Alexander has three children, Prince Friso's exclusion from the succession was unlikely to have an effect on the monarchy in the Netherlands. After their marriage, Prince Friso and his wife Princess Mabel set up home in London, in the suburb of Kew. The couple had two daughters: • Countess Emma Luana Ninette Sophie of Orange-Nassau, Jonkvrouwe van Amsberg, born 26 March 2005 • Countess Joanna Zaria Nicoline Milou of Orange-Nassau, Jonkvrouwe van Amsberg, born 18 June 2006 Prince Friso of Orange-Nassau 492

Avalanche accident and death

On 17 February 2012, Prince Friso was buried under an avalanche in Lech, Austria, and he was taken to a hospital in Innsbruck. According to a formal statement of the Netherlands Government Information Service (RVD), a prognosis could only be given after some days. The prince's condition was described as "stable, but critical".[9] The Dutch royal family issued a statement on 19 February saying "The

Location of the avalanche near Lech in Austria Royal Family is very grateful and deeply touched by all expressions of support and sympathy after the ski accident of His Royal Highness Prince Friso. It was a great support for them during this difficult time." A prognosis on his health situation was expected within a few days, but this was pushed back to 24 February, a week after his accident. The RVD's comment remained the same: stable, but critical. On 24 February, an Innsbruck medical team announced that the prince had been buried for 25 minutes, followed by a 50-minute CPR to treat his cardiac arrest. Wolfgang Koller stated that an MRI was performed a day earlier revealing little change, however other neurological tests indicated significant damage due to oxygen shortage. It remained unclear whether the prince would ever regain full consciousness. Koller said that the Prince's family may now look for a rehabilitation institution. On the same day the Dutch royal family issued a statement requesting that the privacy of the Prince's family be respected to enable them to come to terms with his condition.

On 1 March 2012, Prince Friso was transferred to the Wellington Hospital in London where he and his wife had lived for many years. On 19 November 2012, it was announced that the prince had started to show some signs of consciousness but it was still not certain whether he would ever wake up, and if he did, in what state. On 9 July 2013, Prince Friso was moved back to Huis ten Bosch in the Netherlands. It was understood that his coma had then evolved into a minimally conscious state. As he was no longer in need of hospital-level medical care, he stayed with his family for the summer. On 12 August 2013, it was announced that Prince Friso died in Huis ten Bosch due to complications from the accident. He was buried on 16 August in the hamlet of Lage Vuursche near Drakesteijn Castle, where he had spent his childhood and where Princess Beatrix is returning to live. The funeral service, at Stulpkerk church, was strictly private. Members of the public and media were not able to attend, nor did members of other royal families attend with the exception of Friso's godfather, King Harald V. A ceremony of commemoration was held on November 2, 2013 in the Oude Kerk in Delft. Prince Friso of Orange-Nassau 493

Style, titles and names

• His Royal Highness Prince Johan-Friso of the Netherlands, Prince of Orange-Nassau, Jonkheer van Amsberg (1968–2004) • His Royal Highness Prince Friso of Orange-Nassau, Count of Orange-Nassau, Jonkheer van Amsberg (2004–2013) Under the Act on the Membership of the Royal House (2002), Prince Friso lost the title 'Prince of the Netherlands' by entering into a marriage without an Act of Consent. By Royal Decree of 19 March 2004, nr. 126 the Prince was granted the surname 'Van Oranje-Nassau van Amsberg' and the hereditary title 'Count of Orange-Nassau' to take effect upon his marriage. By the same Royal Decree the Prince was allowed to continue his title 'Prince of Orange-Nassau' as a personal and non-hereditary title and the style of 'Royal Highness'. According to the notification of this Royal Decree, any children born to the couple were to receive the surname 'Van Oranje-Nassau van Amsberg' and become a 'Count (Countess) of Orange-Nassau' and also have the noble predicate 'Jonkheer (Jonkvrouw) van Amsberg'. Herewith, his children had the same titles and names as those of Prince Constantijn, and thereby to show that they altogether belong to the royal family with Royal Monogram descendance from Queen Beatrix and Prince Claus. In social use they are named with their comital title. His wife acquired the feminine version of her husband's style and titles as a courtesy title, since it is customary for wives of members of the royal family to take the titles of their husbands.

Referred to from birth as Prince Johan-Friso, in 2004 the royal court announced that he had requested that his first name be simply "Friso" without the prefix "Johan".

Honours

• Netherlands : Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Netherlands Lion[10] • Netherlands : Knight of the Order of the Gold Lion of the House of Nassau (by birth)

References

[1] Prins Friso (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ encyclopedie/ wie-is-wie/ koninklijke-familie/ prins-friso/ ), Royal House. Retrieved 18 February 2013.

[2] Geboorte prins Johan Friso (http:/ / nos. nl/ video/ 6154-geboorte-prins-johan-friso. html), NOS, 2008. Retrieved 18 February 2013

[3] Huwelijk en gezin (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ encyclopedie/ wie-is-wie/ hm-de-koningin/ huwelijk-en-gezin/ ), Royal House. Retrieved 18 February 2013.

[4] Jeugd (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ encyclopedie/ wie-is-wie/ hm-de-koningin/ jeugd/ ), Royal House. Retrieved 19 February 2013.

[5] Prins Friso wordt gedoopt in Utrecht (http:/ / nos. nl/ koningshuis/ video/ 373009-prins-friso-wordt-gedoopt-in-utrecht. html), NOS, 2011. Retrieved 18 February 2013.

[6] Oorkonde (http:/ / kranten. kb. nl/ view/ article/ id/ ddd:010554429:mpeg21:p001:a0008), Nederlands dagblad, 30 december 1968

[7] Prince Claus Fund for Culture and Development http:/ / www. princeclausfund. org/ en/ the-fund/ organisation/ organization/ board-of-the-prince-claus-fund

[8] "Revelations About Dutch Prince's Fiancée Rattle Royal Family" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2003/ 10/ 12/ world/

revelations-about-dutch-prince-s-fiancee-rattle-royal-family. html)

[9] In hospital (http:/ / worldnews. msnbc. msn. com/ _news/ 2012/ 02/ 17/ 10434484-dutch-prince-friso-in-hospital-after-austria-ski-avalanche) MSNBC, 17 February 2012

[10] "Noblesse et Royautés" (http:/ / www. noblesseetroyautes. com/ nr01/ 2010/ 06/ les-invites-royaux-au-mariage-princier-suite/ ), Guests to

Victoria of Sweden's wedding, Photo (http:/ / www. noblesseetroyautes. com/ nr01/ wp-content/ uploads/ 2010/ 06/ 18. jpg) Prince Friso of Orange-Nassau 494

External links

• Geen Toestemmingswet Huwelijk Friso en Mabel (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20061205042631/ http:/ /

regering. nl/ actueel/ nieuwsarchief/ 2003/ 10October/ 10/ 42_21755. jsp?ComponentID=21755& SourcePageID=7496), archived from regering.nl, 10 October 2003 (Dutch)

Prince Constantijn of the Netherlands

Prince Constantijn

Prince Constantijn in 1988.

Spouse Princess Laurentien of the Netherlands

Issue

Countess Eloise Count Claus-Casimir Countess Leonore

Full name

Constantijn Christof Frederik Aschwin

House House of Orange-Nassau

Father Claus von Amsberg

Mother Beatrix of the Netherlands

Born 11 October 1969 Utrecht, Netherlands

Religion Protestant Church in the Netherlands

Royal styles of Constantijn of the Netherlands

Reference style His Royal Highness

Spoken style Your Royal Highness

Alternative style Sir Prince Constantijn of the Netherlands 495

Dutch Royal Family

HM The King * HM The Queen * • HRH The Princess of Orange * • HRH Princess Alexia * • HRH Princess Ariane *

HRH Princess Beatrix * •• HRH Princess Mabel •• Countess Luana •• Countess Zaria • HRH Prince Constantijn * HRH Princess Laurentien * •• Countess Eloise •• Count Claus-Casimir •• Countess Leonore

Prince Constantijn of the Netherlands (given names: Constantijn Christof Frederik Aschwin; born 11 October 1969) is the third and youngest son of the former Dutch queen, Beatrix, and her husband, Claus von Amsberg, and is the younger brother of the current Dutch monarch, King Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands. He is a member of the Dutch Royal House and currently fourth in the line of succession to the Dutch throne.[1]

Life and education

Prince Constantijn was born in Utrecht, following the births of his brothers, Willem-Alexander (born in 1967), and Johan-Friso (1968–2013). He goes by the nickname Tijn. His godparents are former King Constantine II of Greece, Prince Aschwin zu Lippe-Biesterfeld, Axel Freiherr von dem Bussche-Streithorst, Max Kohnstamm, and Corinne de Beaufort-Sickinghe.

Prince Constantijn studied Law at Leiden University, becoming a lawyer, and then worked at the Brussels department of (Dutch) Prince Willem-Alexander (left) at age 14 and his brother Constantijn in 1982 European Union commissioner of foreign relations Van den Broek. Later, he was hired by the EU, and continued to work there in various capacities until the end of 1999. In December 2000, he was awarded a Master of Business Administration at INSEAD in Fontainebleau, France. He then spent a summer working for the International Finance Corporation of the World Bank group in Washington, D.C.. He worked until late 2002 for strategic consultants Booz Allen Hamilton in London. Since 2003 he works for the RAND Corporation Europe in Brussels. Furthermore, he has a part-time position at the Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs in The Hague.

Prince Constantijn rarely attends public events in his capacity as a member of the Dutch Royal House. Prince Constantijn is a keen sportsman and enjoys football, tennis, golf and skiing. His other hobbies include drawing, Prince Constantijn of the Netherlands 496

cooking and reading.

Marriage and family The engagement of Prince Constantijn and Petra Laurentien Brinkhorst was announced on 16 December 2000. The civil marriage was conducted by the mayor of The Hague, Wim Deetman, in the Oude Raadzaal, Javastraat, The Hague, on 17 May 2001. The church wedding took place two days later on 19 May in the Grote of St Jacobskerk, with Reverend Carel ter Linden officiating. Prince Constantijn and Princess Laurentien have three children: • Countess Eloise Beatrix Sophie Laurence, Jonkvrouwe van Amsberg (born 8 June 2002 in Bronovo Hospital in The Hague) • Count Claus-Casimir Bernhard Marius Max, Jonkheer van Amsberg (born 21 March 2004 at Bronovo Hospital in The Hague) • Countess Leonore Marie Irene Enrica, Jonkvrouwe van Amsberg (born 3 June 2006 at Bronovo hospital in The Hague) The family currently lives in Brussels. Upon the abdication of Queen Beatrix on 30 April 2013, the children of Prince Constantijn and Princess Laurentien ceased to be members of the Royal House, although they continue to be members of the royal family.

Titles, styles, honours and arms • 11 October 1969 – present: His Royal Highness Prince Constantijn Christof Frederik Aschwin of the Netherlands, Prince of Orange-Nassau, Jonkheer van Amsberg

Honours and awards

National Honours • Netherlands : Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Netherlands Lion[2] • House of Nassau : Knight of the Order of the Gold Lion of the House of Nassau (by birth) • Netherlands : Queen Beatrix Investiture Medal (30 April 1980) • Netherlands : Royal Wedding Medal 2002 (2 February 2002) • Netherlands : King Willem-Alexander Investiture Medal (30 April 2013)

Foreign Honours • Belgium : Grand Cross of the Order of the Crown (Belgium)[3] • Jordan: Grand Cordon of the Supreme Order of the Renaissance[4] • Luxembourg / Netherlands : Knight of the Order of the Gold Lion of the House of Nassau (by birth)

Arms

References

[1] Current line of succession (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ english/ Monarchy/ Succession_to_the_throne/ Current_line_of_succession. html) – Official website of the Dutch Royal House

[2] Belga Pictures, Victoria of Sweden's wedding, Constantijn & Laurentien (http:/ / picture. belga. be/ belgapicture/ picture/ 20856313. html?page=1)

[3] PPE group photo (http:/ / www. ppe-agency. com/ 500px/ Jun2006/ 06062071. jpg) Prince Constantijn of the Netherlands 497

[4] PPE Agency, Group photo (http:/ / www. ppe-agency. com/ 500px/ Oct2006/ 06103032. jpg)

[5] Wapens van leden van het Koninklijk Huis (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ encyclopedie/ monarchie/ wapens/

wapens-van-leden-van-het-koninklijk-huis/ ), Dutch Royal House. Retrieved on 2013-05-06.

External links

• Official page created by the Dutch Royal House (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ english/ content. jsp?objectid=5522) (English version)

• Fan site containing images of the wedding (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20091027145914/ http:/ / www.

geocities. com/ marliesq/ ned_laurentien. htm) of Prince Constantijn and Princess Laurentien

Prince Constantijn of the Netherlands House of Orange-Nassau Cadet branch of the House of Nassau Born: 11 October 1969

Lines of succession

Preceded by Line of succession to the Dutch throne Succeeded by Princess Ariane of the 4th position Countess Eloise of Orange-Nassau Netherlands Preceded by Line of succession to the British throne Succeeded by Countess Zaria of Orange-Nassau descended from Anne, daughter of George Count Claus-Casimir of II Orange-Nassau

Princess Laurentien of the Netherlands

Princess Laurentien

Princess Laurentien in 2010

Spouse Prince Constantijn of the Netherlands

Issue

Countess Eloise Count Claus-Casimir Countess Leonore

Full name

Petra Laurentien Brinkhorst

House House of Orange-Nassau

Father Laurens Jan Brinkhorst

Mother Jantien Brinkhorst-Heringa

Born 25 May 1966 Leiden, Netherlands

Religion Protestant Princess Laurentien of the Netherlands 498

Royal styles of Laurentien of the Netherlands

Reference style Her Royal Highness

Spoken style Your Royal Highness

Alternative style Ma'am

Princess Laurentien of the Netherlands (née Petra Laurentien Brinkhorst; born 25 May 1966)[1] is the wife of Prince Constantijn and sister-in-law of King Willem-Alexander and Queen Máxima.

Early life Petra Laurentien Brinkhorst was born in Leiden on 25 May 1966, the daughter of the former Dutch minister of Economic Affairs, Laurens Jan Brinkhorst and Jantien Brinkhorst-Heringa. She has one brother. She is known by her middle name, Laurentien, a portmanteau of her parents' given names. Princess Laurentien started primary school in Groningen. Her family then moved to The Hague, where she completed her primary education. She spent four years at the Christelijk Gymnasium Sorghvliet, and a year at the Eerste Vrijzinnige Christelijk Lyceum, both in The Hague. In 1984, she passed the Baccalauréat A examinations at the Lycée français in Tokyo. Her father was working in Japan at the time, being the Permanent Envoy of the European Union. Princess Laurentien studied History at the University of Groningen, where she received her propaedeuse in 1986. After this she studied at College of Queen Mary of the University of London were she received her Bachelor of Arts (BA) degree in Political Science in 1989 and subsequently at the University of California, Berkeley, where she obtained her Master of Journalism (MJ) degree in 1991.

Marriage and children The engagement of Prince Constantijn and Laurentien Brinkhorst was announced on 16 December 2000. The civil marriage was conducted by the mayor of The Hague, Wim Deetman, in the Oude Raadzaal, Javastraat, The Hague, on 17 May 2001. The church wedding took place two days later on 19 May in the Grote of St Jacobskerk, with Reverend Carel ter Linden officiating. Princess Laurentien wore a wedding gown designed by Edouard Vermeulen. Prince Constantijn and Princess Laurentien have three children: Princess Laurentien of the Netherlands 499

Name Birth Birthplace

Countess Eloise of Orange-Nassau, Jonkvrouwe van Amsberg 8 June 2002 The Hague

Count Claus-Casimir of Orange-Nassau, Jonkheer van Amsberg 21 March 2004 The Hague

Countess Leonore of Orange-Nassau, Jonkvrouwe van Amsberg 3 June 2006 The Hague

Her niece, Princess Alexia Juliana Marcela Laurentien of the Netherlands, second daughter of the King Willem-Alexander and his Queen Máxima, received Laurentien as her fourth given name. Her cousin, Paola Cecilia Laurentien ten Cate, second daughter of Princess Margarita of Bourbon-Parma, received Laurentien as her third given name. She is also the godmother of Leah Isadora Behn, the daughter of Princess Märtha Louise of Norway. Prince Constantijn, Princess Laurentien and their children live in Brussels.

Style, titles and names

• Miss Petra Laurentien Brinkhorst (1966–2001) • Her Royal Highness Princess Petra Laurentien of the Netherlands, Princess of Orange-Nassau, Mrs. van Amsberg (since 17 May 2001) Since her marriage, Laurentien has held the courtesy titles of Princess of the Netherlands and Princess of Orange-Nassau. Princess Laurentien was not created a princess by law, but holds courtesy titles through her marriage, as custom allows a wife to use her husband’s titles. All children of the marriage hold the titles Royal Standard of Laurentien Count or Countess of Orange-Nassau and Jonkheer or Jonkvrouw van Amsberg.

By Royal Decree of 15 January 2003, nr. 36, Princess Laurentien was granted her own personal standard.

Honours

• Netherlands : Grand Cross of the Order of the House of Orange[2][3] • Netherlands : Royal Wedding Medal 2002 (2 February 2002) • Netherlands : King Willem-Alexander Investiture Medal (30 April 2013)

Foreign honours • Jordan: Grand Cordon of the Supreme Order of the Renaissance[4][5]

Work as Princess of the Netherlands Princess Laurentien of the Netherlands 500

Dutch Royal Family

HM The King * HM The Queen * • HRH The Princess of Orange * • HRH Princess Alexia * • HRH Princess Ariane *

HRH Princess Beatrix * •• HRH Princess Mabel •• Countess Luana •• Countess Zaria • HRH Prince Constantijn * HRH Princess Laurentien * •• Countess Eloise •• Count Claus-Casimir •• Countess Leonore

Princess Laurentien has a long record of fighting against illiteracy in the Netherlands, which is now to be considered an underestimated problem. In 2009, she was designated UNESCO Special Envoy on "Literacy for Development" in recognition of her “outstanding commitment to the promotion of education and her profound dedication to the Organization’s ideals and objectives”. In 2010 she was co-recipient of the Major Bosshardt Prize for her work in combating illiteracy. Official duties: •• Spokesperson for "Scouts for Climate" for the World Organization of the Scout Movement's initiative up to COP15 in . • Vice-President of Fauna & Flora International. •• Chair of the European Cultural Foundation. • Chair of the Dutch Reading and Writing Foundation (Stichting Lezen & Schrijven) •• Honorary chair of the Dutch Association of Public Libraries (Vereniging van Openbare Bibliotheken) • Patron of the Dutch language society Genootschap Onze Taal •• Patron of the Netherlands Listening and Braille Library (Nederlandse Luister- en Braillebibliotheek) •• UNESCO Special Envoy on Literacy for Development Princess Laurentien of the Netherlands 501

References

[1] The Dutch Royal House (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ english/ content. jsp?objectid=18219)

[2] Belga Pictures, Victoria of Sweden's wedding, Constantijn & Laurentien (http:/ / picture. belga. be/ belgapicture/ picture/ 20856313. html?page=1)

[3] PPE Agency, Opening (http:/ / www. ppe-agency. com/ show. php?start=15& zoektype=2& search=18-09-2012 The Hague) of Dutch

Parliament 2012, photo (http:/ / www. ppe-agency. com/ 500px/ Sep2012/ PPE12091831. jpg) showing the red-crossed badge of the order

[4] PPE Agency, Group photo (http:/ / www. ppe-agency. com/ 500px/ Oct2006/ 06103032. jpg)

[5] PPE, Laurentien (http:/ / www. ppe-agency. com/ 500px/ Oct2006/ 06103035. jpg)

http:/ / portal. unesco. org/ en/ ev. php-URL_ID=44938& URL_DO=DO_TOPIC& URL_SECTION=201. html

External links

• The Dutch Royal House | Princess Laurentien (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ globale-paginas/ taalrubrieken/

english/ members-of-the-royal-house/ princess-laurentien/ )

• UNESCO on Literacy (official website) (http:/ / www. unesco. org/ education/ literacy)

Catharina-Amalia, Princess of Orange

Princess Catharina-Amalia Princess of Orange

Photo of Catharina-Amalia

The Princess of Orange on 30 April 2013

Full name

Catharina-Amalia Beatrix Carmen Victoria

House House of Orange-Nassau

Father Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands

Mother Máxima Zorreguieta

Born 7 December 2003 Bronovo Hospital The Hague, Netherlands

Religion Protestant Church in the Netherlands

Dutch Royal Family Catharina-Amalia, Princess of Orange 502

HM The King * HM The Queen * • HRH The Princess of Orange * • HRH Princess Alexia * • HRH Princess Ariane *

HRH Princess Beatrix * •• HRH Princess Mabel •• Countess Luana •• Countess Zaria • HRH Prince Constantijn * HRH Princess Laurentien * •• Countess Eloise •• Count Claus-Casimir •• Countess Leonore

Catharina-Amalia, Princess of Orange (given names: Catharina-Amalia Beatrix Carmen Victoria; born 7 December 2003), is the heiress apparent to the throne of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, consisting of the countries Netherlands, Curaçao, Aruba, and Sint Maarten. Her titles are Her Royal Highness The Princess of Orange, Princess of the Netherlands, Princess of Orange-Nassau. Princess Catharina-Amalia was born in The Hague and is the eldest child of King Willem-Alexander and Queen Máxima, and the second-eldest grandchild of Princess Beatrix and Prince Claus. She became heiress apparent when her father ascended the throne on 30 April 2013. Princess Catharina-Amalia lives with her family in Villa Eikenhorst in Wassenaar. She goes to the public primary school Bloemcamp in this town.

Birth and baptism Princess Catharina-Amalia Beatrix Carmen Victoria was born at 17:01 CET on 7 December 2003 in the Bronovo Hospital in The Hague.[] Because Amalia was born on Sunday no official celebration was held. She is the first child of (then) Prince Willem-Alexander and Princess Máxima, and the second grandchild of (then) Queen Beatrix and Prince Claus. After her birth was made public, 101 salute shots were fired at four places in the Kingdom of the Netherlands: Den Helder and The Hague in the Netherlands, Willemstad in the Netherlands Antilles, and Oranjestad in Aruba.[1] On 12 June 2004, Princess Catharina-Amalia was baptised by Reverend Carel ter Linden in the Great Church in The Hague. Her godparents are her uncle Prince Constantijn, Crown Princess Victoria of Sweden, (then) vice-president of the Council of State of the Netherlands Herman Tjeenk Willink, friend of her mother Samantha Deane, her uncle Martín Zorreguieta, and friend of her father Marc ter Haar.[2] Princess Catharina-Amalia's maternal grandparents, Jorge Zorreguieta and María del Carmen Cerruti Carricart, were prohibited from attending her parents' wedding in 2002 due to Zorreguieta's involvement in the regime of General Jorge Rafael Videla, but were present at her baptism, which was a private rather than a state affair.[3] Catharina-Amalia, Princess of Orange 503

Childhood Princess Catharina-Amalia has two younger sisters: Princess Alexia (born in 2005) and Princess Ariane (born in 2007). She lives with her parents and sisters in Villa Eikenhorst on the estate De Horsten in Wassenaar. The family will move to Huis ten Bosch in The Hague in the future. Since 10 December 2007, Princess Catharina-Amalia has attended the public primary school Bloemcampschool in Wassenaar. Her birthdays are traditionally celebrated with a concert at the Kloosterkerk in The Hague, which is attended by ambassadors and members of the royal household and the Council of State of the Netherlands. On her seventh birthday, a Douglas C-47 Skytrain once owned by her great-grandfather, Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld, was named after Catharina-Amalia by Peter Hartman. The princess herself was prevented from attending the naming ceremony by school obligations. Princess Catharina-Amalia was one of the bridesmaids at the wedding of her godmother, Crown Princess Victoria of Sweden and Daniel Westling; which took place in 2010 at Stockholm Cathedral in Sweden. Queen Beatrix abdicated on 30 April 2013, and Princess Catharina-Amalia, as the heiress apparent to her father, assumed the title of Princess of Orange, becoming the first to do so in her own right (Suo jure) since Mary of Baux-Orange. Princess Catharina-Amalia will assume a seat in the Advisory Division of the Council of State of the Netherlands upon reaching the age of majority at 18.

Titles, styles, honours and arms

Titles • 7 December 2003 – 30 April 2013: Her Royal Highness Princess Catharina-Amalia of the Netherlands, Princess of Orange-Nassau • 30 April 2013 – present: Her Royal Highness The Princess of Orange, Princess of the Netherlands, Princess of Orange-Nassau Her official title in Dutch is Hare Koninklijke Hoogheid De Prinses van Oranje. Queen Beatrix abdicated the Dutch throne on 30 April 2013. Upon the abdication, Princess Catharina-Amalia became the Princess of Orange as heiress apparent.

Arms

References

[1] A new government and Dutch troops go to Iraq (http:/ / www. innl. nl/ page/ 14489/ en?lang=en), Museum of National History. Retrieved on 2013-05-06.

[2] Princess Catharina-Amalia (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ globale-paginas/ taalrubrieken/ english/ members-of-the-royal-house/

princess-catharina-amalia/ ), Dutch Royal House, 2013. Retrieved on 2013-05-06.

[3] Joyful christening of Catharina-Amalia (http:/ / www. helloonline. com/ royalty/ 2004/ 06/ 14/ dutchchristening/ )

[4] Wapens van leden van het Koninklijk Huis (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ encyclopedie/ monarchie/ wapens/

wapens-van-leden-van-het-koninklijk-huis/ ), Dutch Royal House. Retrieved on 2013-05-06. Catharina-Amalia, Princess of Orange 504

External links

• Princess Catharina-Amalia (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ encyclopedie/ wie-is-wie/ de-prinses-van-oranje/ ) at the website of the Royal House of the Netherlands

Catharina-Amalia, Princess of Orange House of Orange-Nassau Cadet branch of the House of Amsberg Born: 7 December 2003 Dutch royalty Preceded by Princess of Orange Incumbent Willem-Alexander 2013-present

Lines of succession

First in line Line of succession to the Dutch throne Succeeded by Princess Alexia of the Netherlands Preceded by Line of succession to the British throne Princess Beatrix of the Netherlands descended from Anne, daughter of George II

Princess Alexia of the Netherlands

Princess Alexia

Full name

Alexia Juliana Marcela Laurentien

House House of Orange-Nassau

Father Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands

Mother Máxima Zorreguieta

Born 26 June 2005 The Hague, Netherlands

Dutch Royal Family Princess Alexia of the Netherlands 505

HM The King * HM The Queen * • HRH The Princess of Orange * • HRH Princess Alexia * • HRH Princess Ariane *

HRH Princess Beatrix * •• HRH Princess Mabel •• Countess Luana •• Countess Zaria • HRH Prince Constantijn * HRH Princess Laurentien * •• Countess Eloise •• Count Claus-Casimir •• Countess Leonore

Princess Alexia of the Netherlands, Princess of Orange-Nassau (given names: Alexia Juliana Marcela Laurentien; born 26 June 2005)[1] is the second daughter of King Willem-Alexander and Queen Máxima. Princess Alexia is member of the Dutch Royal House and second in the line of succession to the Dutch throne.[2]

Life Princess Alexia was born in the Bronovo Hospital in The Hague. Her baptism took place on 19 November 2005 in Wassenaar. The godparents to Princess Alexia are: Queen Mathilde of Belgium; Jonkvrouwe Alexandra Jankovich de Jeszenice; Prince Friso of Orange-Nassau; Juan Zorreguieta and Jonkheer Frans Ferdinand de Beaufort. Princess Alexia has an elder sister, Catharina-Amalia, The Princess of Orange, and a younger sister, Ariane. All three enjoy the style of Royal Highness.

Titles, styles, honours and arms

Titles and styles • 26 June 2005 - present: Her Royal Highness Princess Alexia of the Netherlands

Arms

References

[1] The Dutch Royal House (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ english/ content. jsp?objectid=18208)

[2] Current line of succession (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ english/ Monarchy/ Succession_to_the_throne/ Current_line_of_succession. html) – Official website of the Dutch Royal House

[3] Wapens van leden van het Koninklijk Huis (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ encyclopedie/ monarchie/ wapens/

wapens-van-leden-van-het-koninklijk-huis/ ), Dutch Royal House. Retrieved on 2013-05-06.

External links

• http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ english/ index. html Princess Alexia of the Netherlands 506

Princess Alexia of the Netherlands House of Orange-Nassau Cadet branch of the House of Amsberg Born: 26 June, 2005

Lines of succession

Preceded by Line of succession to the Dutch throne Succeeded by The Princess of Orange 2nd position Princess Ariane of the Netherlands Line of succession to the British throne descended from Anne, daughter of George II

Princess Ariane of the Netherlands

Princess Ariane

Full name

Ariane Wilhelmina Máxima Inés

House House of Orange-Nassau

Father Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands

Mother Máxima Zorreguieta

Born 10 April 2007 The Hague, Netherlands

Dutch Royal Family

HM The King * HM The Queen * • HRH The Princess of Orange * • HRH Princess Alexia * • HRH Princess Ariane *

HRH Princess Beatrix * •• HRH Princess Mabel •• Countess Luana •• Countess Zaria • HRH Prince Constantijn * HRH Princess Laurentien * •• Countess Eloise •• Count Claus-Casimir •• Countess Leonore Princess Ariane of the Netherlands 507

Princess Ariane of the Netherlands (given names: Ariane Wilhelmina Máxima Inés; born 10 April 2007) is the third and youngest daughter of King Willem-Alexander and Queen Máxima. Princess Ariane is member of the Dutch Royal House and currently third in the line of succession to the Dutch throne.[1]

Birth Princess Ariane was born in the Bronovo Hospital in The Hague at 21:56 local time[2] on 10 April 2007 as the third child and third daughter of Prince Willem-Alexander and Princess Máxima. Princess Ariane weighed 4.135 kilograms (9.12 pounds) and was 52 centimeters (20.5 inches) long at birth. Prime Minister Balkenende addressed the nation shortly afterwards and said both mother and child were healthy and doing well. The next morning, Prince Willem-Alexander appeared on television with his new daughter.[3] The names of the baby were announced on 13 April, when the birth was registered in The Hague.

Names and titles Her given names are Ariane Wilhelmina Máxima Ines. The names were announced by her father on 13 April 2007. The origin of the name Ariane is speculated about. It can either come from the Latin name Hadrian or from the Greek name Ariadne. Like her sisters Princess Amalia and Princess Alexia her first name starts with an A, according to King Willem-Alexander "to conclude the triple A rating". By Royal Decree of 25 January 2002, nr. 41 is determined that all children of Prince Willem-Alexander will bear the title of Prince (Princess) of the Netherlands and Prince (Princess) of Orange-Nassau. Her full style is Her Royal Highness Ariane Wilhelmina Máxima Inés, Princess of the Netherlands, Princess of Orange-Nassau (Dutch: Hare Koninklijke Hoogheid Ariane Wilhelmina Máxima Ines, Prinses der Nederlanden, Prinses van Oranje-Nassau). Princess Ariane has two elder sisters, the princesses Catharina-Amalia and Alexia.

Hospitalization On 2 May 2007, Princess Ariane was admitted to the Leiden University medical centre with a suspected lung infection. She was released from the hospital on 5 May 2007 after treatment for her bacterial and viral infection. On 13 June 2007, Prince Willem-Alexander and Princess Máxima released a thank you note "not only for the congratulations upon Ariane's birth but also for the best wishes they received upon her hospitalisation" and released a third official picture with their newborn daughter. The couple reportedly received over 30,000 letters of well-wishers.[4] On 8 October 2009, Princess Ariane was again admitted to a hospital, in which she had to stay for one night, due to a respiratory infection.[5]

Baptism Princess Ariane was baptized in the Abbey Church in The Hague on 20 October 2007. Vicar Deodaat van der Boon used water from the Jordan River to baptize the princess, who was wearing the christening gown that Princess Wilhelmina first wore in 1880.[6] Over 850 guests were invited to attend, including Princess Máxima's parents and Dutch prime minister Jan Peter Balkenende. The godparents of Princess Ariane are Valeria Delger, Inés Zorreguieta, Hereditary Grand Duke Guillaume of Luxembourg, Tijo Baron Collot d’Escury, and Anton Friling.[7] Princess Ariane of the Netherlands 508

Titles, styles, honours and arms

Titles and styles • 10 April 2007 - present: Her Royal Highness Princess Ariane of the Netherlands

Arms

References

[1] Current line of succession (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ english/ Monarchy/ Succession_to_the_throne/ Current_line_of_succession. html) - Official website of the Dutch Royal House

[2] Trotse kroonprins toont 'voorbeeldbaby'; Retrieved on 2007-04-11 (http:/ / www. elsevier. nl/ web/ Nieuws/ Nederland. htm?contentid=119226)

[3] It's a girl - Ariane Wilhelmina Máxima Ines (http:/ / www. theroyalforums. com/ forums/ f48/

its-a-girl-ariane-wilhelmina-m-xima-ines-12401-5. html)

[4] http:/ / www. volkskrant. nl/ binnenland/ article435036. ece/ Prins_en_prinses_bedanken_voor_belangstelling_Ariane Prince and princess say thanks

[5] http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ Actueel/ Nieuwsberichten/ Nieuwsarchief/ 2009/ Oktober/

Prinses_Ariane_8_oktober_2009_opgenomen_in_ziekenhuis_met_benauwdheidsverschijnselen. html Princess Ariane atmitted to hospital

[6] Prinses Ariane gedoopt (http:/ / www. nrc. nl/ binnenland/ article792227. ece/ Prinses_Ariane_gedoopt). Retrieved on 2007-10-20.

[7] Royal News: October 2007 (http:/ / www. nettyroyal. nl/ newsoct07. html)

[8] Wapens van leden van het Koninklijk Huis (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ encyclopedie/ monarchie/ wapens/

wapens-van-leden-van-het-koninklijk-huis/ ), Dutch Royal House. Retrieved on 2013-05-06.

External links

• Royal House of the Netherlands (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ globale-paginas/ taalrubrieken/ english/ news/ )

• (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ encyclopedie/ wie-is-wie/ prinses-ariane/ ) (official website Dutch Royal House)

Princess Ariane of the Netherlands House of Orange-Nassau Cadet branch of the House of Amsberg Born: 10 April, 2007

Lines of succession

Preceded by Line of succession to the Dutch throne Succeeded by Princess Alexia of the Netherlands 3rd position Prince Constantijn of the Netherlands Line of succession to the British throne Succeeded by descended from Anne, daughter of George II Countess Luana of Orange-Nassau Countess Eloise of Orange-Nassau van Amsberg 509 Countess Eloise of Orange-Nassau van Amsberg

Countess Eloise Countess Eloise of Orange-Nassau, Jonkvrouwe van Amsberg

Full name

Eloise Beatrix Sophie Laurence

Father Prince Constantijn of the Netherlands

Mother Laurentien Brinkhorst

Born 8 June 2002 Bronovo Hospital, The Hague, Netherlands

Religion Protestant Church in the Netherlands

Dutch Royal Family

HM The King * HM The Queen * • HRH The Princess of Orange * • HRH Princess Alexia * • HRH Princess Ariane *

HRH Princess Beatrix * •• HRH Princess Mabel •• Countess Luana •• Countess Zaria • HRH Prince Constantijn * HRH Princess Laurentien * •• Countess Eloise •• Count Claus-Casimir •• Countess Leonore

Countess Eloise of Oranje-Nassau, Jonkvrouwe van Amsberg (Eloise Beatrix Sophie Laurence; born 8 June 2002) is the first child and daughter of Prince Constantijn and Princess Laurentien of the Netherlands. She is member of the Dutch Royal House and currently fifth in the line of succession to the Dutch throne.[1] Countess Eloise was born in Bronovo Hospital in The Hague. She lives with her parents, her brother and her sister in Brussels, Belgium. Countess Eloise of Orange-Nassau van Amsberg 510

Style, titles and names By Royal Decree of 11 May 2001, nr. 227, it was determined that all children and male-line descendants of Prince Constantijn of the Netherlands would bear the title of Count (Countess) of Orange-Nassau and the honorific Jonkheer (Jonkvrouwe) van Amsberg, and have the surname Van Oranje-Nassau van Amsberg.[2] Upon the abdication of Queen Beatrix, which took place on 30 April 2013, the children of Prince Constantijn and Princess Laurentien ceased to be members of the Royal House, although they continue to be members of the royal family.

References

[1] Current line of succession (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ english/ Monarchy/ Succession_to_the_throne/ Current_line_of_succession. html) – Official website of the Dutch Royal House

[2] Titles of the children of HRH Prince Constantijn (http:/ / www. minaz. nl/ dsc?c=getobject& s=obj& objectid=469) – Communiqué of the Netherlands Central Office of Information (in Dutch)

External links

Countess Eloise of Orange-Nassau van Amsberg House of Orange-Nassau Cadet branch of the House of Amsberg Born: 8 June 2002

Lines of succession

Preceded by Line of succession to the Dutch throne Succeeded by Prince Constantijn of the 5th position Count Claus-Casimir of Netherlands Orange-Nassau Preceded by Line of succession to the British throne Succeeded by Count Claus-Casimir of descended from Anne, daughter of Countess Leonore of Orange-Nassau Orange-Nassau George II Count Claus-Casimir of Orange-Nassau van Amsberg 511 Count Claus-Casimir of Orange-Nassau van Amsberg

Count Claus-Casimir Count Claus-Casimir of Oranje-Nassau, Jonkheer van Amsberg

Full name

Claus-Casimir Bernhard Marius Max

Father Prince Constantijn of the Netherlands

Mother Laurentien Brinkhorst

Born 21 March 2004 Bronovo Hospital, The Hague, Netherlands

Religion Protestant Church in the Netherlands

Dutch Royal Family

HM The King * HM The Queen * • HRH The Princess of Orange * • HRH Princess Alexia * • HRH Princess Ariane *

HRH Princess Beatrix * •• HRH Princess Mabel •• Countess Luana •• Countess Zaria • HRH Prince Constantijn * HRH Princess Laurentien * •• Countess Eloise •• Count Claus-Casimir •• Countess Leonore

Count Claus-Casimir of Orange-Nassau, Jonkheer van Amsberg (Claus-Casimir Bernhard Marius Max; born 21 March 2004 at Bronovo Hospital in The Hague), is the second child of Prince Constantijn and Princess Laurentien of the Netherlands and their only son. He was a member of the Dutch Royal House but remains sixth in the line of succession to the Dutch throne.[1] His birth was overshadowed by the death, only a day before, of his great-grandmother, the former Queen Juliana. He is the only grandson of Queen Beatrix and her husband, Claus von Amsberg. He has two sisters: Countess Eloise, born 8 June 2002 and Countess Leonore, born 3 June 2006. Count Claus-Casimir of Orange-Nassau van Amsberg 512

His christening took place in the chapel of Het Loo Palace in Apeldoorn on October 10, 2004. Claus-Casimir's godparents are King Willem-Alexander, Prince Maurits of Orange-Nassau, van Vollenhoven, Ed P. Spanjaard, and Countess Tatiana Razumovsky von Wigstein.

Titles and styles By Royal Decree of 11 May 2001, nr. 227, it was determined that all children and male-line descendants of Prince Constantijn of the Netherlands would bear the title of Count (Countess) of Orange-Nassau and the honorific Jonkheer (Jonkvrouwe) van Amsberg, and have the surname Van Oranje-Nassau van Amsberg.[2] As he is her only male grandchild, Claus-Casimir is currently the only one of Queen Beatrix's grandchildren who will be able to pass this title on to his children. Upon the abdication of Queen Beatrix on 30 April 2013, the children of Prince Constantijn and Princess Laurentien ceased to be members of the Royal House, although they continue to be members of the royal family. When asked about their choice of name, the new parents said their little boy had been named after his grandfather Claus von Amsberg, who died in 2002, and three Friesian stadtholders who were all called Casimir. "If he develops more as a Claus, then it will be Claus, if he develops more as a Casimir, it will be Casimir," explained his father. He is called 'Clausimir' by his family and the press. He was named after his paternal grandfather (Claus von Amsberg), distant ancestor Henry Casimir II, Count of Nassau-Dietz, paternal great-grandfather (Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld), maternal uncle and father's godfather (Max Kohnstamm).

References

[1] Current line of succession (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ english/ Monarchy/ Succession_to_the_throne/ Current_line_of_succession. html) – Official website of the Dutch Royal House

[2] Titles of the children of HRH Prince Constantijn (http:/ / www. minaz. nl/ dsc?c=getobject& s=obj& objectid=469) – Communiqué of the Netherlands Central Office of Information (in Dutch)

Count Claus-Casimir of Orange-Nassau van Amsberg House of Orange-Nassau Cadet branch of the House of Amsberg Born: 21 March 2004

Lines of succession

Preceded by Line of succession to the Dutch throne Succeeded by Countess Eloise of Orange-Nassau 6th position Countess Leonore of Orange-Nassau Preceded by Line of succession to the British throne Succeeded by Prince Constantijn of the descended from Anne, daughter of George Countess Eloise of Orange-Nassau Netherlands II Countess Leonore of Orange-Nassau van Amsberg 513 Countess Leonore of Orange-Nassau van Amsberg

Countess Leonore Countess Leonore of Orange-Nassau, Jonkvrouwe van Amsberg

Full name

Leonore Marie Irene Enrica

Father Prince Constantijn of the Netherlands

Mother Laurentien Brinkhorst

Born 3 June 2006 Bronovo Hospital, The Hague, Netherlands

Religion Protestant Church in the Netherlands

Dutch Royal Family

HM The King * HM The Queen * • HRH The Princess of Orange * • HRH Princess Alexia * • HRH Princess Ariane *

HRH Princess Beatrix * •• HRH Princess Mabel •• Countess Luana •• Countess Zaria • HRH Prince Constantijn * HRH Princess Laurentien * •• Countess Eloise •• Count Claus-Casimir •• Countess Leonore

Countess Leonore of Orange-Nassau, Jonkvrouwe van Amsberg (Leonore Marie Irene Enrica; born 3 June 2006 at Bronovo hospital in The Hague), is the third child and second daughter of Prince Constantijn and Princess Laurentien of the Netherlands, née Brinkhorst. She is member of the Dutch Royal House and currently seventh in the line of succession to the Dutch throne.[1] Countess Leonore was baptised in the chapel of Het Loo Palace in Apeldoorn on 8 October 2006. Her godparents are her paternal aunt, Queen Máxima; her maternal uncle, Marius Brinkhorst; her father's first cousin, Juliana Guillermo; and Count Jean-Charles Ullens de Schooten Whettnall. Countess Leonore of Orange-Nassau van Amsberg 514

Titles and styles By Royal Decree of 11 May 2001, nr. 227, it was determined that all children and male-line descendants of Prince Constantijn of the Netherlands would bear the title of Count (Countess) of Orange-Nassau and the honorific Jonkheer (Jonkvrouwe) van Amsberg, and have the surname Van Oranje-Nassau van Amsberg.[2] Upon the abdication of Queen Beatrix, on 30 April 2013, the children of Prince Constantijn and Princess Laurentien ceased to be members of the Royal House, although continue to be members of the royal family.

References

[1] Current line of succession (http:/ / www. koninklijkhuis. nl/ english/ Monarchy/ Succession_to_the_throne/ Current_line_of_succession. html) – Official website of the Dutch Royal House

[2] Titles of the children of HRH Prince Constantijn (http:/ / www. minaz. nl/ dsc?c=getobject& s=obj& objectid=469) – Communiqué of the Netherlands Central Office of Information (in Dutch)

Countess Leonore of Orange-Nassau van Amsberg House of Orange-Nassau Cadet branch of the House of Amsberg Born: 3 June 2006

Lines of succession

Preceded by Line of succession to the Dutch throne Succeeded by Count Claus-Casimir of 8th position Princess Margriet of the Orange-Nassau Netherlands Preceded by Line of succession to the British throne Countess Eloise of Orange-Nassau descended from Anne, daughter of George II Article Sources and Contributors 515 Article Sources and Contributors

Dutch monarchs family tree Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=573308428 Contributors: Againme, Daranz, DrKiernan, Eugene van der Pijll, HansM, JMvanDijk, Magioladitis, Mark J, OdysseasII, Ron B. Thomson, Rubenescio, Targaryen, Wolbo, 11 anonymous edits

Chalon-Arlay Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=577025328 Contributors: BDD, Barticus88, Fnorp, JMvanDijk, Neddyseagoon, The Emperor's New Spy, 4 anonymous edits

Philibert of Chalon Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=577025540 Contributors: Attilios, AxelBoldt, Btfcppura2, Deor, HansM, Harpercollege, Hemlock Martinis, Iacobus, Jaraalbe, Joseph Solis in Australia, Kirill Lokshin, Magioladitis, Monegasque, Neddyseagoon, RogDel, Sir Gawain, Srnec, Stijn Calle, Thomas Antonius, WOSlinker, 9 anonymous edits

Claudia of Chalon Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=577025365 Contributors: Dimadick, For An Angel, Gaius Cornelius, HansM, Kmorozov, Neddyseagoon, Paparodo, Rich Farmbrough, Srnec, Stijn Calle, Thomas Antonius, Travelbird, Vanished user ikijeirw34iuaeolaseriffic, 3 anonymous edits

Henry III of Nassau-Breda Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=573030491 Contributors: Againme, Betacommand, Biruitorul, Brandon97, Cryptic, Eugene van der Pijll, Fentener van Vlissingen, Filiep, Fuhghettaboutit, Gidonb, Gil Gamesh, Grutness, HansM, JMvanDijk, JdH, Johnbod, Kirill Lokshin, Kmorozov, LouisPhilippeCharles, Luci Sandor, Magioladitis, Marigold100, Mboverload, Nice poa, Rich Farmbrough, Saforrest, Scope creep, Thomas Antonius, Ulric1313, WOSlinker, 16 anonymous edits

René of Chalon Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=577025565 Contributors: Afasmit, Anárion, Barticus88, Biederman, Biruitorul, Brandon97, Buster7, Christiaan.Brown, Cwtyler, DelftUser, Eugene van der Pijll, Everyking, Fnorp, GJo, Gaius Cornelius, GyroMagician, HansM, Harpercollege, Iacobus, JMvanDijk, JdH, LilHelpa, Mandarax, Neddyseagoon, Niceguyedc, Paparodo, Pethan, Rich Farmbrough, Saforrest, Secretlondon, Skurrkrow, Srnec, Stijn Calle, Sunquanliangxiuhao, Tdevries, The Quill, Thomas Antonius, Vlaascho, Wikidoctor956, Wolbo, 28 anonymous edits

House of Nassau Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=579068683 Contributors: Abrahami, Againme, AnnekeBart, Archivare, Arjayay, Bluedenim, D6, DaQuirin, Demophon, Dimadick, Diodecimus, Domino theory, Edward Waverley, Eire102, Equord, Filiep, Ghirlandajo, Gryffindor, HansM, Henq, JMvanDijk, Jamesinderbyshire, Jeweetwel youknow, Johnbod, Kmorozov, LeoDavid, Longshot14, M'encarta, Mark J, Martim33, Michael Zimmermann, Minimac's Clone, Nick Number, Nirvaan.wiki, Nomadic Whitt, OwenBlacker, PBS, PBS-AWB, Radagast83, Rmhermen, Robofish, Sodacan, Staffelde, Stijn Calle, Sunquanliangxiuhao, Tamfang, Thinking of England, Titodutta, Valentinian, Varlaam, Welsh, Willthacheerleader18, Woohookitty, YSSYguy, Yorkshirian, 29 anonymous edits

Johann V of Nassau-Vianden-Dietz Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=542829723 Contributors: AnnekeBart, Anthony Appleyard, Bgwhite, Edison, Filiep, HansM, JaGa, Klemen Kocjancic, Lady Meg, LouisPhilippeCharles, M'encarta, Omegastar, Thurstan, Woohookitty

William I, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=553656476 Contributors: Againme, Alex Middleton, Bender235, D6, Dany174, Eugene van der Pijll, Fentener van Vlissingen, Filiep, Former user, Gryffindor, Guusbosman, HansM, JerryOrr, Kmorozov, LouisPhilippeCharles, Maed, Neddyseagoon, P.wormer, Remuel, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, RogDel, Rtol, Saforrest, Sietse Snel, Waacstats, 15 anonymous edits

Juliana of Stolberg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=576374855 Contributors: Auntof6, Bermicourt, Braisd8080, Dany174, Darena mipt, FeanorStar7, HansM, Kmorozov, Leonidaa, Lipsgurd, Lockley, LouisPhilippeCharles, Manticore126, Markussep, Monegasque, MsHyde, Neddyseagoon, Paco the immigrant, Peaceingalaxy, Rich Farmbrough, RogDel, Targaryen, Ton1974, Waacstats, 3 anonymous edits

William the Silent Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=578381678 Contributors: 1Veertje, 52 Pickup, A purple wikiuser, ARDink, ATX-NL, Aclagett, Adambondy, Ahkond, Ahoerstemeier, Al Silonov, Alfion, AltMazter, Amkoboy, Amroussi, Andre Engels, Andrei Iosifovich, AnonEMouse, Anárion, Archengigi, Arnoutf, Asrghasrhiojadrhr, Auntof6, Bachrach44, Barek, Beardless, Bender235, BertSen, Bgwhite, Biruitorul, Blue Henk, BlueMoonlet, Bobblewik, Boneyard90, BorgHunter, BraneJ, Branko, Brederode, BruKerst, Calibanu, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Caponer, Cb6, Ceoil, Chris55, Chrisdoyleorwell, Chuljin, Cladeal832, Clarityfiend, Commander Keane, CommonsDelinker, Cst17, Cwoyte, Cyopardi, Daanschr, Daaviiid, Dale Arnett, Dany174, Daytrivia, Deb, Demophon, Derek Ross, Dethme0w, Deucalionite, DiSteele, Dimadick, Diodecimus, Discworldian, DocWatson42, Dougweller, Downwards, DrJos, DrKiernan, Dragons flight, Dremdros, Drieakko, Duffman, Dyersgoodness, EDT95, Eclecticology, EdwardG, Eleuther, Elonka, Epbr123, Ereunetes, Erik Zachte, Erik75, Error, Esrever, Eugene van der Pijll, Evil Monkey, Fabartus, FactStraight, Fidelia, Filiep, Fixings, Floodamanny, Foxhunt king, Francis Schonken, Freeman501, Fvdham, GRider, Gaius Cornelius, Geoff.powers, Gerardvanschip, Ghepeu, Giantwolfman, Gigemag76, Goethicus, Golradir, Good Olfactory, Grantsky, Grebaldar, Grillo, Gryffindor, Guusbosman, Hadal, Hall Monitor, Hans Dunkelberg, HansM, Hardouin, Helixblue, Heroeswithmetaphors, Hooloovoo, Howcheng, Hurricane111, Iacobus, Iblardi, Icairns, IceDragon64, Iijjccoo, Ilse@, Iluvcapra, Infrogmation, Inglok, Irishcent, Islandman, JMvanDijk, JRM, JackofOz, Japanese Searobin, JdH, Jeff5102, Jeronimo, John K, John kirpestein, John of Reading, Johnbod, Jon Harald Søby, Jonegn, Jooler, Jor, Joseph Solis in Australia, Jpgordon, June w, Junes, Khazar2, Killerman2, Kmorozov, Kusma, Lambiam, Leandrod, Leonidaa, Lindsey40186, Littlealien182, Lockley, Lord Emsworth, Lotje, Lugnuts, Luwilt, Lvl, MWAK, MZMcBride, MacGyverMagic, Magnus Manske, Mandarax, Manxruler, Maralia, Marcika, Marcov, Marek69, Martin Wisse, Massimo Macconi, Materialscientist, Matthead, Maypigeon of Liberty, Mdotley, Michael David, Michaela A. Denny, Michaelsanders, Mike M SA, Mikenlesley, MisfitToys, Mississippienne, Mmxx, Monegasque, Mowsbury, Mvdleeuw, Mygerardromance, NYArtsnWords, NawlinWiki, Neddyseagoon, Neutron, Newyorkbrad, Niceguyedc, Nk, Noneforall, Northern Book Lover, Ocee, Ohconfucius, Omegastar, Ornil, OwenBlacker, PFHLai, Parkjunwung, PatGallacher, Patrick, Paul Koning, Pavel Vozenilek, Peter Delmonte, Peter Pan, PeterSymonds, Pethan, Petrb, Phantomsteve, Philip Trueman, PoccilScript, PrimeCupEevee, Proofreader77, Rbraunwa, Red4tribe, Rex Germanus, Rich Farmbrough, Richardot, Ricky81682, Robert Prummel, Robert Weemeyer, RogDel, Ronline, Rosh2610, RossPatterson, RoyBoy, Rrostrom, Rubenescio, Ruittenb, Ruszewski, Ryanhoefle, Ryanjunruzhou, SE7, Saforrest, Sam Hocevar, Samuel Blanning, Sarvodaya, Scafloc, ScottyBoy900Q, Seaaron, Senator Palpatine, Serinde, Sesel, Sethoeph, Sgr927, Shanes, Shimwell, Sir Gawain, Sjoerd22, Skittles the hog, Skurrkrow, Solitude, Somerwind, Sopranosmob781, Spudsyandthebhoys, StAnselm, StanZegel, Stefanomione, Stijn Calle, Suncheng125, Surtsicna, Susurrus, Szpawq, T@nn, TRBlom, Ta bu shi da yu, Targaryen, Taxman, Tedickey, Thane, The Emperor's New Spy, The Last Heretic, The Ogre, Thomas Antonius, Thunderbird2, Tintinlover123, Tktru, Tolly4bolly, Ton1974, Tony360X, Tpbradbury, Tphelps2520, Trevor MacInnis, Ukexpat, Vald, Valentinian, Vervin, Vgranucci, Vojvodaen, Vykk, WOSlinker, Watisfictie, Whaledad, Wikipelli, Wikipeterproject, Wikix, Wjhonson, Wlegro, X3210, Xorkl000, Xyboi, Yknok29, 388 anonymous edits

John VI, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=540055926 Contributors: Abberley2, Againme, Aldebaran69, Biruitorul, D6, Dany174, Djneufville, FeanorStar7, Filiep, GrahamHardy, Guusbosman, H.kremer, HansM, JMvanDijk, JeLuF, Jeff5102, Johnpacklambert, Kbdank71, Kmorozov, Maed, Mairi, Monegasque, NawlinWiki, Neddyseagoon, PBS-AWB, Rbraunwa, Rich Farmbrough, Saforrest, Staffelde, Sunquanliangxiuhao, TomasBat, 5 anonymous edits

Philip William, Prince of Orange Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=568074570 Contributors: Afasmit, Auntof6, BD2412, BertSen, Chochopk, Demophon, Dimadick, Dougweller, Download, FeanorStar7, Filiep, HansM, Ilse@, Inglok, Japanese Searobin, John K, Kusma, Leonidaa, LouisPhilippeCharles, Martínhache, Monegasque, Njcraig, Richardot, Skurrkrow, Smith2006, Stijn Calle, The Emperor's New Spy, Thomas Antonius, Yopie, 13 anonymous edits

Maurice, Prince of Orange Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=580499817 Contributors: .0, Adam sk, Aecharri, Aetas volat., Afasmit, AjaxSmack, Albrecht, Andre Engels, Anárion, Archengigi, Auntof6, Bakeysaur99, Bawm79, Biruitorul, BlueMoonlet, Brandmeister, Bundesamt, Calsicol, Caponer, Chris the speller, ChristineD, Cladeal832, Closedmouth, Cntreras, Coemgenus, Crowsnest, Cwoyte, DarkTemplarFury, Dedden, Demophon, Dhum Dhum, Dimadick, Ekabhishek, Ellywa, Ereunetes, Eugene van der Pijll, Foxhunt king, Fvdham, Guusbosman, HansM, HeartofaDog, Ilse@, Iridescent, IsaacFarmer, J-stan, JMvanDijk, Japanese Searobin, JdH, John K, John of Reading, Kansas Bear, Kees38, LouisPhilippeCharles, MWAK, Machina.sapiens, Machinarium, Makeemlighter, Markussep, Martin Wisse, Monegasque, Mvdleeuw, NawlinWiki, Neddyseagoon, Omegastar, Per Honor et Gloria, Pethan, Picapica, Ppntori, Qmwne235, Rajofcanada, Rex Germanus, Rich Farmbrough, Rjensen, Rjwilmsi, Robocooop, RogDel, Saforrest, Sarvodaya, Scipius, Stijn Calle, Surtsicna, Targaryen, TeunSpaans, The Emperor's New Spy, The Rambling Man, TheBlueCanoe, Thomas Antonius, TimBentley, TomasBat, Top.Squark, Ugajin, Valérie75, Varlaam, Wandalstouring, Wikiuser100, Wikix, Woohookitty, XLR8TION, Zoe, Милан Јелисавчић, 68 anonymous edits

Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=550203391 Contributors: A930913, Adam sk, Aecharri, Afasmit, AjaxSmack, Alexcoldcasefan, Angusmclellan, Anárion, Attilios, Biruitorul, Brandon97, Brederode, Caponer, Chochopk, ChrisGualtieri, DMG413, Daaviiid, Deb, Demophon, Dimadick, Downwards, Edton, Ereunetes, Eugene van der Pijll, Fabartus, Fdewaele, FeanorStar7, Fvdham, HansM, Herodotos, Ilse@, Isnow, JMvanDijk, Jane023, Japanese Searobin, John K, Kweniston, LouisPhilippeCharles, MWAK, Man vyi, Mario777Zelda, Martin Wisse, Martínhache, Ms2ger, Neddyseagoon, Niceguyedc, Ninly, Omegastar, Pethan, Quantumobserver, Rex Germanus, Rjensen, RogDel, Rubenescio, Sietse Snel, Skurrkrow, StAnselm, Stijn Calle, Surtsicna, TeunSpaans, The Emperor's New Spy, Thomas Antonius, WOSlinker, Wikipeterproject, Wikix, 21 anonymous edits

Amalia of Solms-Braunfels Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=577572062 Contributors: Aciram, Angusmclellan, Auntof6, Austriacus, Betacommand, Binky, Brandon97, Caponer, Cladeal832, D6, Daaviiid, Dancter, Dimadick, EDT95, EoGuy, Equord, Eugene van der Pijll, FactStraight, FeanorStar7, Filiep, Gadfium, HansM, JdH, Kmorozov, Lee S. Svoboda, Leonidaa, LouisPhilippeCharles, Monegasque, Ruby2010, TeunSpaans, The Emperor's New Spy, Ton1974, Weather72787, Welsh, Wetman, 34 anonymous edits

Ernest Casimir I, Count of Nassau-Dietz Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=565361328 Contributors: Graeme Bartlett, HansM, Jane023, Kweniston, Kwiki, Monegasque, Niceguyedc, Raymond Ellis, Rjwilmsi, Rpyle731, Sunquanliangxiuhao, U2fancat, Woohookitty, СЛУЖБА, 1 anonymous edits Article Sources and Contributors 516

William II, Prince of Orange Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=568025640 Contributors: 12snyder, Adam sk, Aecharri, Alexcoldcasefan, Andre Engels, BertSen, Biruitorul, Brandon97, Brederode, Caponer, Choess, Cladeal832, Daaviiid, Dancter, Demophon, Dimadick, DrKiernan, Ekki01, Ereunetes, Giacomo Augusto, Good Olfactory, Gräff Matthias, HansM, Ilse@, Inglok, JMvanDijk, JdH, Jeff, Jmabel, John K, Kansas Bear, Kmmontandon, KnightRider, Lightmouse, Lotje, LouisPhilippeCharles, Luwilt, Martin Wisse, Mathmannix, Moribunt, Mvdleeuw, Nate Silva, Niceguyedc, Nicke L, Parafernalia, Pethan, Pratyya Ghosh, Rich Farmbrough, Rmhermen, Skier Dude, Skurrkrow, Smallweed, Spellcast, Stijn Calle, Surtsicna, TaintedMustard, Taksen, Thejeweledweevil, Thomas Antonius, V8rik, Vrenator, Wetman, Wickethewok, Wikijens, Wikix, 48 anonymous edits

Mary, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=574587660 Contributors: Aciram, Aecis, Amandajm, Andrei Iosifovich, Anglius, Astorknlam, Astrotrain, BrainyBroad, Brandon97, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Charles Matthews, Craigy144, D6, Danbarnesdavies, Dancter, Dimadick, DrKiernan, DutchDevil, FactStraight, Good Olfactory, Gustav von Humpelschmumpel, Hebel, HenryXVII, Iamthecheese44, Inglok, JNW, Jaraalbe, JdH, Jeff, JimCubb, Jrm03063, K1590, Kimmayyy11, Kpeyn, Ladydayelle, Leonidaa, Lord Emsworth, LouisPhilippeCharles, Luwilt, Mais oui!, Marcus2, Matthiasb, Mattis, Maximus Rex, MiLo28, Monty845, Moribunt, Nexus5, Parafernalia, Piledhigheranddeeper, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, RogDel, Ruby2010, Saforrest, Sir Gawain, Smallweed, Surtsicna, TZ0607, Tasc, The Emperor's New Spy, Waacstats, Yellowdesk, Yk Yk Yk, 54 anonymous edits

Charles I of England Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=580651595 Contributors: (jarbarf), *jb, -Midorihana-, 09saenn21, 116redrock, 142.150.48.xxx, 15lsoucy, 21655, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, 95jb14, A. B., A.amitkumar, AH Dean, Aardvark007, Aarktica, Schulz, Aatomic1, Abberley2, Adam Bishop, Adam sk, AdamCarden, Adambro, Adashiel, AdjustShift, Admiral Sneaky, Advantecon, Againme, Ahoerstemeier, Aibdescalzo, Aitias, Ajaxfiore, Ajb gb, Akhtard, AlanUS, Alaniaris, Alansohn, Aldebaran69, Alessgrimal, Alex Middleton, Alex.muller, Alexalynwod, Alexander Fischer, Alexandercox1963, Alexandria, AlexiusHoratius, Alexjdevor, Alexmeske, Allakshmi, Allstarecho, Alphaboi867, Altenmann, Amalthea, Amandajm, AnAbsolutelyOriginalUsername42, Anbu121, Andonic, Andrea 93, Andrei Iosifovich, Andrewpmk, Andy M. 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Countess Albertine Agnes of Nassau Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=540402472 Contributors: Aciram, Afasmit, Arnoutf, Charles Matthews, Cladeal832, Daaviiid, Deb, FactStraight, HansM, Hebrides, Leonidaa, LouisPhilippeCharles, Niceguyedc, Omegastar, Rich Farmbrough, Sunquanliangxiuhao, Surtsicna, The Emperor's New Spy, Tony1, 13 anonymous edits Article Sources and Contributors 517

William Frederick, Prince of Nassau-Dietz Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=569577732 Contributors: Afasmit, Collideascope, Demophon, Ereunetes, Gräff Matthias, HansM, JMvanDijk, Ohconfucius, Omegastar, R'n'B, Rich Farmbrough, Surtsicna, Waacstats, Woohookitty, 3 anonymous edits

William III of England Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=579731868 Contributors: (, *Kat*, 12dstring, 1exec1, 4twenty42o, AMCKen, Accurizer, Adam Bishop, Adam sk, Adrianiks, Afasmit, Afil, Againme, Ahoerstemeier, Ahseaton, AjaxSmack, Akendall, Akwardbanana421, Alan Canon, Alansohn, Aldaron, Alexius08, AlexiusHoratius, Alison, AlphaGamma1991, Amandajm, Amberrock, Americasroof, Andre Engels, Andres, Angela, Angusmclellan, Animefreak234, Antandrus, Anthonyhcole, Anárion, Arno, Art LaPella, Arvwd, Arwel Parry, Astorknlam, AtilimGunesBaydin, Attilios, Aughavey, Avenged Eightfold, Avram Fawcett, AzaToth, Bark, Bart133, Beardo, Behlal, Bender235, Benedoceridebes, Benjiboi, Benson85, Bento00, Bigblackcat99, Bill Thayer, Binabik80, Biruitorul, BoBo, Bobblewik, Bobo192, Boerenfox, Bolinda, BolinhasFofas, Booboo29, Bookandcoffee, Bpgleason, Brandon97, Branko, BrianHansen, Brianga, Brighterorange, Britannicus, BrownHairedGirl, Burn the asylum, Bury Medved, Butros, Cabiria, Cadan001, CalicoCatLover, CambridgeBayWeather, Camembert, Cameron, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Canuckian89, Caponer, Carl Logan, Catterick, CattleGirl, CelticWonder, Century0, Chappo, Chardon, Charitwo, Charles, Charles Matthews, Chicheley, Chino301996, Choess, Chris the speller, Chrishmt0423, Christopher Parham, Cinik, Cladeal832, Classicalsteve, Clawed, Clementina, Closedmouth, Cmills924, Coemgenus, Coinman62, Collywolly, Colonies Chris, ConCompS, Coniris, Connormah, Contaldo80, Conversion script, Costello, Courcelles, Craigy144, CrewCrew, Crusoe8181, Curps, D6, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DBaba, DOSGuy, Dabomb87, Dammit, Danbarnesdavies, DarkFalls, Dave souza, DaveGorman, Daven200520, Davepape, Dawn Bard, Deacon of Pndapetzim, DeadEyeArrow, Deb, Declan Clam, Demophon, Den fjättrade ankan, DerHexer, Derek Ross, Dimadick, Discospinster, Dlohcierekim, Dnalrom123, Doc glasgow, Dowser, Dpodoll68, Dr. Dan, DrKiernan, Drhaggis, Dweller, EEMIV, Eeekster, Eezie, El C, Electionworld, Englatar8888, Engleham, Epbr123, Ereunetes, Eric-Wester, Ericoides, Estellerama, Everyking, Examtester, FOGHORN LEGGIE, Fabartus, Facts707, Fastily, Favonian, Fayenatic london, Fdewaele, FeanorStar7, Fep70, FinnBjo, Formeruser0910, Francis Schonken, Frankstroker, Frietjes, Frustrated american progressive, Fry1989, Funnyhat, Fuzheado, Fæ, GHe, GWhitewood, Gabbe, Gaius Cornelius, Gareth Griffith-Jones, Gary Kirk, Gdr, Geogre, Gerardmulholland, Gerrit Oopje, Gfa2f, Ghirlandajo, Gimboid13, Girlwithgreeneyes, Glane23, GoDawgs1, Godlord2, Good Olfactory, GoodDay, Graham87, Great Scott, GregU, Ground Zero, Grunners, Gräff Matthias, Gullucum, Gustav von Humpelschmumpel, Gwernol, Hadal, Hadseys, Haiduc, Hairy Dude, HansM, Happysailor, Hargettp, Hartenhof, , Haukurth, Hcheney, Henrygb, Hibou8, History Lunatic, Homagetocatalonia, Huggins1308, Hulzenga, Hunterabanks, Hyperlinker, Iacobus, Iapetus, Ilse@, Insanity Incarnate, Iota, Ipankonin, Irishdude89, Isis, J S Ayer, J.delanoy, JFMATLOCK, Jab843, JackofOz, Jake Wartenberg, JamesAM, Jamesinderbyshire, Jamieb561, Jammie114, Jane023, Jarble, JasonDUIUC, Jay-Sebastos, Jdforrester, Jdorney, Jeanne boleyn, Jeff, Jeff G., Jefferykill5, JefffSandies, Jeronimo, Jess Cully, Jfhutson, Jh51681, Jhbuk, Jiang, Jivecat, Jjkkhh, Jmabel, Jmlk17, Jmont1, JoanneB, John K, Johncmullen1960, Johnny neutronic, Johnny10, Jon C., Jonathan.s.kt, Joost 99, Jord, Josh Parris, Jpbowen, Jprg1966, Jtdirl, Jtsavatewa, Jubileeclipman, Juliancolton, Jusdafax, KF, Kafziel, Kaobear, KarlFrei, KarlaQat, Katalaveno, Katxena, Kauffner, Kbdank71, Kendrick7, Kernel Saunters, Kinneyboy90, Koavf, Känsterle, L Kensington, Lacrimosus, LadyNorbert, Lamro, Lapsed Pacifist, Laurel Lodged, Lauren68, Leandrod, LeilaniLad, Leontodd, LibLord, Lightmouse, LilHelpa, LittleWink, Loginnigol, Lord Emsworth, Lost tourist, Lotje, LouisPhilippeCharles, Ltwin, Luk, Luke360, Lupin, M.O.X, MA (Cantab), MBisanz, MFCSpeirs, MWAK, MWaller, MacRusgail, Mackensen, Macy, Mais oui!, Makeemlighter, Manathon, Manticore126, Marek69, Mark J, MarkGallagher, Markwiki, Martin Wisse, Martin451, Martinbsp, Masterknighted, Matthewcollins1989, Mattratt9, Mav, Mcgeek, Meiskam, Menchi, MetsFan76, MiLo28, Michael David, Michaelgai, Mifren, Million Little Gods, Mimihitam, Minimac, Montrealais, Mouchoir le Souris, Mr. Anon515, Mr. D. 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Mary II of England Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=579949713 Contributors: *Kat*, 142.150.48.xxx, 1exec1, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, Adam sk, Againme, Alan Peakall, Andre Engels, Angusmclellan, Animefreak234, Antandrus, Aquila89, Arch dude, Aristotelle, Ariwara, Arwel Parry, Astorknlam, Astrotrain, Audiovideo, Auntof6, Average Earthman, BD2412, BertSen, Bevo74, Big Brother 1984, Blitzmut, Bobblewik, Booboo29, Brighterorange, BrownHairedGirl, Camembert, Cameron, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Canuckian89, Caoanroad4800, Caponer, Chameleon, Charles, Charlierichmond, Chicheley, Choess, Chrislk02, Cnhardman, Coemgenus, Conversion script, Costello, Craigy144, D6, DWC LR, Danbarnesdavies, Dark Shikari, Deacon of Pndapetzim, Deb, Demophon, DerHexer, Derek Ross, Dimadick, Discospinster, Dmlandfair, Dnalrom123, Doc glasgow, Downwards, DrKeirnan, DrKiernan, E0steven, Ejdguiseley, Electrobe, Englatar8888, Eregli bob, Everyking, Extransit, Fabartus, Faigl.ladislav, Favonian, FeanorStar7, Fep70, Flauto Dolce, Flunkybi, Flyte35, Formeruser0910, FreplySpang, Fry1989, Funkygerbil, G Clark, G.-M. Cupertino, GWhitewood, Gabbe, Gaius Cornelius, Gasta220, Gauss, Gene Poole, Gerardmulholland, Gidonb, Good Olfactory, GoodDay, Graham87, Grorland, Gustav von Humpelschmumpel, Hall Monitor, Haltiamieli, Harpsichord246, Heers98, Heyheyhey123123, Hmains, Hottentot, Huangdi, IP Address, Icairns, Indopug, Iota, Isis, J S Ayer, J.delanoy, JW1805, Jake Wartenberg, Jaraalbe, Jarble, Jdforrester, JeremyA, Jguk, Jmlk17, JoanneB, John K, Johnatill, Jpbowen, Jpers36, Jtdirl, KAVEBEAR, KJS77, Kansas Bear, KarlaQat, Kauffner, Keith D, KitHutch, Klemenntroskyiamwitz!, Koavf, KosmischeSynth, Kotniski, Kozuch, Krenair, Kristof vt, KuatofKDY, Kvkc039, Leonidaa, Libby995, Lifthrasir1, Lightmouse, Lockesdonkey, Lord Emsworth, Lord Horatio Nelson, LouisPhilippeCharles, Lupin, Luwilt, MONGO, MWaller, MacRusgail, Maintain, Marcus2, Mark J, MarkGallagher, Marskell, Matjlav, Matthewrbowker, Mattissa, Maury Markowitz, Mav, Maypigeon of Liberty, Mcferran, MegX, Mevlüt Kılıç, Mfcayley, Mhardcastle, Michael Devore, Michaelsanders, Mimihitam, Mithridates, Montrealais, Mouchoir le Souris, Mucky Duck, Mufka, Muriel Gottrop, Musical Linguist, N5iln, Nauka, Necrothesp, Neddyseagoon, Niaz, Nikai, Nimetapoeg, Nocrowx, Npj678, Olivier, Owen, PBS-AWB, PatGallacher, Pbl1998, PeR, Peanutcactus, Peter jackson, PeterSymonds, PhilKnight, Philip Stevens, Philip72, Pianokeys2u, Pjamescowie, Poppy, Popsracer, Prezboy1, Profx89, Prolog, Qwerty Binary, RandomCritic, Raul654, Raymond Palmer, Rdsmith4, RetiredUser2, RexNL, Rich Farmbrough, Richard75, Richwales, Rjwilmsi, Robert Prummel a, RobertG, Robzy, Rothorpe, Rs09985, Ruby2010, Sam Hocevar, SandyGeorgia, Sango123, Schissel, Screetchy cello, Serinde, Shanes, ShelfSkewed, SilverStar, Skteosk, Sodacan, Spencer creek woods, Splash, SpookyMulder, StAnselm, Stbalbach, Stefan Milosevski, Stewcarr, Stijn Calle, Stix2mallets, Stubbleboy, Sun Creator, Surtsicna, Tbhotch, TharkunColl, The Duke of Waltham, The Emperor's New Spy, The Prince of Darkness, The Quill, The Thing That Should Not Be, Thehelpfulone, Theothertudorgirl, TigerShark, Tim!, Timrollpickering, Trek011, Trevor MacInnis, Truthsort, Ulric1313, Validporch, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Welsh, Westmidlands, White Wolf, Wholetone, Wiki alf, Williammaryhistorian, YeshuaDavid, Yintan, Yomangani, Yossarian, Zoe, Zondor, Ævar Arnfjörð Bjarmason, Ιων, 240 anonymous edits

Henry Casimir II, Prince of Nassau-Dietz Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=556129475 Contributors: Afasmit, Biruitorul, Charles, Coemgenus, Demophon, Docu, HansM, Jane023, JdH, Kmorozov, Leonidaa, LouisPhilippeCharles, Mathmannix, Omegastar, Rajofcanada, Rich Farmbrough, Stephenb, Sunquanliangxiuhao, TRAJAN 117, TimBentley, Woohookitty, 7 anonymous edits

John William III, Duke of Saxe-Eisenach Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=540467470 Contributors: Aldebaran69, Caponer, DWC LR, HansM, Kmorozov, MaEr, Omegastar, Rdthiessen, Rich Farmbrough, Shilkanni, Slb nsk, The Emperor's New Spy, Ælfgar, 1 anonymous edits

John William Friso, Prince of Orange Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=569569642 Contributors: Aecis, Andrei Iosifovich, Biruitorul, BomBom, Bugloaf, Charles, Cladeal832, Coemgenus, Demophon, Dimadick, DrKiernan, Eugene van der Pijll, Favonian, Fdewaele, Flux.books, Fred26, Frietjes, Garion96, Gidonb, Good Olfactory, Gothamscholar, Gryffindor, HansM, Hmains, Inglok, Iwalters, JFrawley032759, JasonB007, Jeepday, John K, Joseph Solis in Australia, Kasjanek21, Kittybrewster, Kmorozov, Känsterle, Lignomontanus, LouisPhilippeCharles, Martínhache, Monegasque, Nightstallion, Omegastar, P199, PMLawrence, Pethan, Plastikspork, Presidentman, Rebel Redcoat, Rmhermen, Rojomoke, Rtol, Ruby2010,

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Landgravine Marie Louise of Hesse-Kassel Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=571532387 Contributors: Auntof6, Caponer, Click23, DrKiernan, Ettrig, Fetchcomms, Gidonb, HansM, Inglok, LittleWink, Lockley, Magioladitis, Mild Bill Hiccup, Moloch981, Mvdleeuw, R'n'B, Rich Farmbrough, RogDel, Ruby2010, Surtsicna, Tabletop, Thayts, The Emperor's New Spy, Waacstats, 3 anonymous edits

Princess Amalia of Nassau-Dietz Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=557438499 Contributors: Afasmit, Evangelista, GoodDay, HansM, Iamthecheese44, Kgrad, Lithoderm, Little Cambridge, LouisPhilippeCharles, Omegastar, Rich Farmbrough, Ruby2010, The Emperor's New Spy, WadeSimMiser, 2 anonymous edits

Frederick, Hereditary Prince of Baden-Durlach Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=545821465 Contributors: Attilios, Auntof6, Bgwhite, Favonian, HammyDoo, HansM, Kgrad, Little Cambridge, Lost on belmont, LouisPhilippeCharles, Methodox one, NellieBly, Omegastar, StAnselm, Surtsicna, 1 anonymous edits

William IV, Prince of Orange Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=570638801 Contributors: Adam sk, Afasmit, Againme, Anárion, Arnoutf, Bemoeial, Biruitorul, Brandon97, Cabiria, Caponer, Carlossuarez46, Charles, Cladeal832, DO11.10, Demophon, Dimadick, DrKiernan, Duncharris, Ereunetes, Ericje, Eugene van der Pijll, FactStraight, Filiep, G.-M. Cupertino, Gidonb, HansM, Iacobus, Jackie, JackofOz, Jeff5102, Jmabel, Joerd, John K, KTC, Kaiwynn, KarlFrei, LouisPhilippeCharles, Martin Wisse, Martínhache, Mcferran, Mr. D. E. Mophon, Article Sources and Contributors 518

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Anne, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=571676901 Contributors: AnnaP, Annahjo2, Astorknlam, Astrotrain, Bearian, Bob247, Caponer, Charles, Cladeal832, Cmills924, Craigy144, D6, DGJM, DWC LR, Danbarnesdavies, Danicalove79, Diamantina, Dimadick, DrKiernan, DutchDevil, Edward321, Eugene van der Pijll, Everyking, FactStraight, Filiep, Frietjes, G.-M. Cupertino, HansM, Iamthecheese44, Ipankonin, J04n, Jane023, Jeff, Jmabel, Jopo1150, Jozefus, K1590, Keivan.f, Klemen Kocjancic, Kmorozov, Känsterle, Leonidaa, Lightmouse, Lockley, Lord Cornwallis, Mathmannix, Matjlav, Matthiasb, Mav, Morhange, Mvdleeuw, Neddyseagoon, Nightstallion, Prsgoddess187, Rich Farmbrough, Roux, Ruby2010, Sir Gawain, Slb nsk, Sun Creator, SuperJumbo, Surtsicna, Taksen, Tasc, The Emperor's New Spy, Tim1357, Tommy2010, Top.Squark, Waacstats, Wesley Biggs, Woogee, 53 anonymous edits

George II of Great Britain Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=579534981 Contributors: 2601:0:5400:602:9DC8:F2F7:9B30:5256, 2fort5r, 69PornLover69, 83d40m, A. Parrot, ADS190, Aaron north, Abberley2, Ablyall, Ackees, Adam Carr, Adam sk, Adambiswanger1, AdjustShift, Aengus Kierney, Ahahaha44536, Alarob, Alexbryans, AlexiusHoratius, Alison, Allen4names, Altenmann, Andreas Kaganov, Another Believer, Anthony, Antiquary, ApprenticeFan, Arno, Astorknlam, Astrotrain, Audiovideo, August Dominus, Auntof6, AutomaticStrikeout, AxSkov, Aytrus, Beland, Bender235, Benedict of Constantinople, Berean Hunter, Binabik80, Bob247, Bobobkkkkd, BolinhasFofas, BomBom, Brendanconway, BrianHansen, Britannicus, Buonaparte69, Burbridge92, CalJW, Calthrina450, Cam2171, Cantus, Canuckian89, Caponer, Carbuncle, Carlossuarez46, Carlson288, Charles, Chicheley, ChrisSk8, Cladeal832, Closedmouth, Cmills924, Coemgenus, Colonies Chris, CommonsDelinker, Conscious, Coppertwig, Craigy144, Crimson Observer, CrniBombarder!!!, Curps, D6, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Da Vynci, Dabit100, Danbarnesdavies, Danicalove79, Dank, David Underdown, Davidforbes, Dcfleck, Deagle AP, Deb, Demophon, Den fjättrade ankan, Dez9999, Dimadick, Discomboulate, Discospinster, Dl2000, Dnalrom123, Domino theory, Donnog, Dpodoll68, DrKiernan, Dthomsen8, Ducker, Duncharris, Dunfan, Dysmorodrepanis, EDT95, Ealdgyth, EamonnPKeane, Eddaido, Eldredo, Electrobe, Englatar8888, English Bobby, Eqfbrown, Eshlare, Everyking, Ewen, Excirial, Falcon8765, Farras Octara, Favonian, Fdewaele, FeanorStar7, Fep70, Fifth Rider, Filiep, Formeruser0910, Fraggle81, Francs2000, Franzy89, FrenchIsAwesome, Frietjes, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Fæ, G.-M. Cupertino, GHe, Gabbe, Gallina3795, Gdr, General Jazza, General Lafayette, George Ponderevo, Gerry Ashton, Giacomo Augusto, GiovanniCarestini, Girlwithgreeneyes, Golbez, GoodDay, GranvilleHouston, Gurch, Gustav von Humpelschmumpel, Hadal, Hahaboy702, HandsomeFella, Heavens To Betsy, HexaChord, Hollene, Hotcrocodile, Iain99, Ian Rose, Ianneub, Inner Earth, Iota, Isentropiclift, Isis, Island, Isnow, J04n, JGC1010, Jack1755, Jameshuang, Jamesysilber, Jcam, Jcasey0705, JdH, Jdforrester, JeLuF, Jedravent, Jeff, Jeff schiller, Jenna shih, Jiang, Jim Sweeney, Jmcrek, Jmrowland, JoaoRicardo, John, John K, John Nevard, Jon186, JonBonWonTon, Jontomkittredge, Jorvikian, Jtdirl, JuJube, KF, KarlaQat, Kbdank71, Kbh3rd, Keivan.f, Kgrad, Kiinslayer, Kildruf, Kmorozov, Kurpfalzbilder.de, Lacrimosus, Lam1974, LarsJanZeeuwRules, Laurel Lodged, Lear's Fool, Lec CRP1, Lee-Anne, Lightmouse, Linmhall, Lir, Lockesdonkey, Looxix, Lord Cornwallis, Lord Emsworth, Loren.wilton, LouisPhilippeCharles, Lugia2453, Lugnad, Lupin, MA (Cantab), MBK004, Mackensen, MahiMahi, Man vyi, Manxruler, Marcus2, Mark J, Mathmannix, Matjlav, Mattissa, Max Tomos, Maxl, McSly, Mdann52, Medo9, Melinoe, Menswear, Mentifisto, Michael Devore, Mike Rosoft, Mikran, Milosbandovic12, MisfitToys, Molly-in-md, Montrealais, Moonraker, Mr. D. E. Mophon, Munibert, Muriel Gottrop, Murraypaul, Mvdleeuw, Nasarullah.rda, Necrothesp, Neddyseagoon, NellieBly, Nocrowx, Nunh-huh, Oda Mari, Ohconfucius, Okapi, Opera hat, OwenBlacker, Oxymoron83, Paperella21, Parkwells, PatGallacher, Pcpcpc, Peeperman, PeterSymonds, Philip Stevens, Phoe, Piano non troppo, Piccadilly, Piledhigheranddeeper, Plucas58, Pol098, Pramod.marapalli, Prezboy1, Prsgoddess187, Punctured Bicycle, Pwt898, QCPIMPIN, Quadell, R'n'B, R. fiend, RP459, RSekulovich, RandomCritic, Rasiel, Rbbloom, Rcpaterson, Rdsmith4, Redrose64, RenamedUser01302013, Reynardo, Reywas92, Rich Farmbrough, Richard75, RichardAirking, RickK, Ricky81682, Rigadoun, Rjensen, Rjwilmsi, RobertG, Rrius, Rschen7754, Ruby2010, Sailsbystars, Sam Hocevar, SassyLilNugget, Scalpy, Sextingwhiledriving, ShadowTerror10, Shanes, Silverhorse, SimonATL, Sir Stanley, Slugguitar, Smalljim, Snoyes, Sodacan, Some jerk on the Internet, Someone else, SpookyMulder, Stelio, Stijn Calle, Stix2mallets, Stmoose, StringRay, Sunquanliangxiuhao, SuperJumbo, Surtsicna, Swagginout, Sylvain1972, TAnthony, TCashion, TJ Spyke, TSP, Tad Lincoln, Tamfang, Tarquin, Tarquin Binary, Tayger, Tbharding, Tbhotch, The Duke of Waltham, The Emperor's New Spy, The Quill, The Thing That Should Not Be, TheMonarchman, Thefixed, Thomas.W, Tide rolls, Tim!, Tim1357, TimJimBoBob, Timc, Timrollpickering, Tomblaze, Tpbradbury, TraceyR, Trahelliven, Tryde, Turzh, TysK, Ucucha, Ulf Heinsohn, Ulfig, Uncle Milty, Unreal7, Verica Atrebatum, Versicolor, Violetriga, Voyager, Vrenator, Wally, Wehwalt, Westbromwich, Westmidlands, Wholetone, Widr, Wikievil666, WikipedianMarlith, Winston365, Wkozar, Woohookitty, Writers Block2006, Wwwillly, Wylandwombat, Yamamoto Ichiro, YeshuaDavid, Zoe, Алигиери, 489 anonymous edits

Princess Carolina of Orange-Nassau Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=577778915 Contributors: AK456, Auntof6, Caponer, Charles, Danicalove79, Demophon, Dimadick, DrKiernan, Enredados, FeanorStar7, Filiep, G.-M. Cupertino, HansM, Jacostrauss, Jeff5102, Kdebem, Keivan.f, Leonidaa, Matjlav, Mr. D. E. Mophon, NYMets2000, PBS-AWB, Rich Farmbrough, Rosenstolzannapeter, Ruby2010, Suedois, Surtsicna, Waacstats, 13 anonymous edits

Charles Christian, Prince of Nassau-Weilburg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=570679922 Contributors: AK456, Aldebaran69, Cao Ren, Caponer, Charles, Danicalove79, DiSteele, DrKiernan, FactStraight, Felix Folio Secundus, Filiep, G.-M. Cupertino, HansM, Iridescent, IrisColumbine, Mr. D. E. Mophon, Mulder1982, NYMets2000, Nyttend, Oskar71, Oxxo, Rich Farmbrough, U2fancat, 5 anonymous edits

William V, Prince of Orange Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=577025508 Contributors: 7fex5q2ek, Aciram, Adam Bishop, Adam sk, Afasmit, AjaxSmack, Aldebaran69, Alexcoldcasefan, Andrewman327, Anárion, Arnoutf, Axeman89, Bemoeial, Bender235, Benea, Biruitorul, Black Kite, Brandon97, Branko, Bwcajp, Caponer, Chameleon222, Chochopk, ChrisHodgesUK, Chrisdoyleorwell, Cladeal832, Classical geographer, Closedmouth, Connormah, Cypher z, Daffodillman, Danbarnesdavies, Davewild, Demophon, Dimadick, DrKiernan, Egel, Ereunetes, Eubulides, Eugene van der Pijll, Fnorp, G.-M. Cupertino, Ghirlandajo, Gothika, Gugganij, HansM, Hive of scum and viliany!, Iacobus, J JMesserly, JanCarel, Japanese Searobin, JasonB007, Jeff5102, Jenks24, John K, KirbyMeister, Känsterle, Lacrimosus, Lord Cornwallis, Martin Wisse, Martínhache, Matjlav, Mufka, Mvdleeuw, Neddyseagoon, Neelvk, Nit Wit Woo, Ohconfucius, PFHLai, Pethan, Polylerus, Princetoniac, Psmith, Rbraunwa, Rich Farmbrough, Rossami, Rubenescio, Ruby2010, Scafloc, Solitude, Someone else, Sonett72, Spoonkymonkey, Stj6, Surtsicna, Tabletop, Taksen, Tanthalas39, The Emperor's New Spy, Thomas Antonius, TimBentley, Wikibout, Wikix, Wolbo, Андрей Романенко, СЛУЖБА, 41 anonymous edits

Wilhelmina of Prussia, Princess of Orange Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=574140424 Contributors: Aciram, AjaxSmack, Alexcoldcasefan, Andrei Iosifovich, Anthony Appleyard, Brandon97, Buistr, Caponer, Chadoz, Cladeal832, Conscious, Danbarnesdavies, Dimadick, DrKiernan, EoGuy, Eugene van der Pijll, G.-M. Cupertino, Gidonb, HansM, Joshua, LilHelpa, LouisPhilippeCharles, MussoMusso, Mvdleeuw, Neddyseagoon, ObRoy, Prasenberg, Renata3, Rich Farmbrough, Ruby2010, Summer Song, Surtsicna, Taksen, The Emperor's New Spy, Travelbird, Varlaam, Velfr, Wolbo, 33 anonymous edits

Princess Louise of Orange-Nassau Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=574135367 Contributors: Aciram, Againme, Bgwhite, Chris the speller, Cladeal832, FactStraight, Hurricanefan25, Khazar, Millat.ibrahim, Mr. D. E. Mophon, Rich Farmbrough, 6 anonymous edits

William I of the Netherlands Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=579012954 Contributors: 66.47.62.xxx, ATX-NL, Adam sk, Aecis, Alast0r, Aldebaran69, Anárion, Apie, Argos'Dad, Asbestos, Aumnamahashiva, Axeman89, Bastin, Bellerophon5685, Bemoeial, Bender235, Bjh21, Black Kite, Bluezy, Burgundavia, CanadianCaesar, Caponer, Chappo, Chl, Chris Roy, Chris.urs-o, ChrisCork, Cladeal832, Cmills924, Coemgenus, Connormah, Craigy144, Cwoyte, Cybergoth, D6, Daanschr, Dahn, Daimanta, Danski14, Darth Kalwejt, Dave Foley, Demophon, Derek Ross, Dimadick, Donarreiskoffer, DrKiernan, Ekrenor, Elliskev, Ereunetes, Eugene van der Pijll, Fdewaele, Fentener van Vlissingen, Francis Schonken, Frietjes, Fry1989, G.-M. Cupertino, Gidonb, Gimboid13, Glatisant, GoodDay, Grillo, Guusbosman, HangingCurve, HansM, HeartofaDog, Hebel, Hede2000, Hermis, Ilse@, Innotata, Iohannes Animosus, JamesBrownIsDead, JasonB007, JdH, Jimfbleak, John, John K, Kdebem, Keith H99, Keivan.f, Kingboyk, KnightRider, Känsterle, LarRan, Leandrod, Lord Cornwallis, Lord Emsworth, LouisPhilippeCharles, Lucyin, Mark J, MartinHarper, Massimo Macconi, Matjlav, Mgiganteus1, Mitrius, Morhange, Mrlob, Mulder1982, Mvdleeuw, NCurse, Necrothesp, Nicke L, Oliphaunt, Orbicle, Ornil, PFHLai, Pethan, Pietdesomere, Plastikspork, Pontauxchats, Pvosta, Rich Farmbrough, Risk34, Rjensen, Rjwilmsi, Roxi2, Rsrikanth05, Rtol, Ruby2010, Ruhrjung, RussBlau, Rysz, Saforrest, Scafloc, Scipio1900, Scrivener-uki, Ssilvers, Str1977, Summer Song, Surtsicna, TRAJAN 117, TaalVerbeteraar, Tdevries, The Emperor's New Spy, The Quill, TommyBoy, Ton1974, Velders, Vlastimil Svoboda, Wetman, Wolbo, Writtenright, Wwwwolf, ÄDA - DÄP, 95 anonymous edits

Wilhelmine of Prussia, Queen of the Netherlands Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=575112335 Contributors: Aciram, Againme, Aldebaran69, Auntof6, Billinghurst, CE, Caponer, Czarkoff, Demophon, Dimadick, Empoor, G.-M. Cupertino, HansM, Kdebem, Keivan.f, Lemonade100, Peacedance, Redgolpe, Retired username, Rlhatch1989, Ruby2010, Scafloc, Scwlong, Surtsicna, TV Tony, The Emperor's New Spy, Ton1974, Waacstats, 16 anonymous edits

John IV of Chalon-Arlay Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=577025462 Contributors: Auntof6, Diodecimus, HansM, Khazar2, Neddyseagoon, Omegastar, Paul Barlow, Rich Farmbrough, Slon02, 7 anonymous edits

Louis of Nassau Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=566657159 Contributors: Alex Middleton, Auntof6, Bradipus, Cabiria, Chamberlian, Chris the speller, Clicketyclack, Cyde, Dany174, Dcoetzee, Dogaroon, Fvdham, Geoff.powers, Greenshed, HansM, Jeff5102, Kansas Bear, LouisPhilippeCharles, Mike-Kerkhoven, Nascigl, Neddyseagoon, Omegastar, P.wormer, RHaworth, Rich Farmbrough, StAnselm, Thomas Antonius, Ttwaring, Uneath, Vachnic, Wikix, 8 anonymous edits

Adolf of Nassau (1540–1568) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=562487146 Contributors: 97198, ChrisGualtieri, Neddyseagoon, Ohconfucius, PhnomPencil, StAnselm, 1 anonymous edits

Henry of Nassau-Dillenburg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=571566516 Contributors: ATX-NL, Alex Middleton, Betacommand, Bradipus, Cla68, Cryptic, Dionysos1, Jaraalbe, Jeff5102, Kmorozov, Monegasque, Mvdleeuw, P.wormer, Rich Farmbrough, Salmar, Waacstats

Countess Louise Juliana of Nassau Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=540402521 Contributors: Adam sk, Angusmclellan, DrKiernan, FactStraight, FeanorStar7, Gottorp, HansM, Jack1755, Jameslwoodward, Kystilla, Leonidaa, LouisPhilippeCharles, RandomCritic, Rich Farmbrough, Surtsicna, The Emperor's New Spy, Ton1974, 5 anonymous edits Article Sources and Contributors 519

Countess Elisabeth of Nassau Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=540619314 Contributors: Auntof6, CASSAUWERS, Certes, Colonies Chris, EDT95, FactStraight, FeanorStar7, Gtstricky, HalfShadow, HansM, Jprg1966, Leonidaa, LouisPhilippeCharles, Passepresent, Surtsicna, The Emperor's New Spy, Ton1974, 4 anonymous edits

Justinus van Nassau Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=579793041 Contributors: Afasmit, Benea, Classical geographer, Colonies Chris, Delirium, FactStraight, Filiep, Ilse@, JMvanDijk, MWAK, Mdotley, Omegastar, Randee15, 3 anonymous edits

William Louis, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=571483530 Contributors: Abberley2, AjaxSmack, Auntof6, Bgwhite, CommonsDelinker, Demophon, Dmelo2, Drbreznjev, Ereunetes, Gilbertese, HansM, Inwind, Jane023, John, Leonidaa, Lockley, Monegasque, NawlinWiki, Neddyseagoon, Omegastar, PMDrive1061, Quaritch48, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, RogDel, StAnselm, Sunquanliangxiuhao, Tyciol, Waacstats, 5 anonymous edits

John VII, Count of Nassau-Siegen Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=548243874 Contributors: A1000, Arnaudls, Bamse, Cladeal832, DrKiernan, FactStraight, Filiep, Guusbosman, HansM, Ian Pitchford, Jaanusele, Johnpacklambert, Kjlewis, Kmorozov, Koppas, Lockley, Luckyz, Maed, Mysid, Omegastar, Reedy, Rich Farmbrough, Rotational, SE7, Taksen, The Emperor's New Spy, Tonei, 7 anonymous edits

William of Nassau (1601–1627) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=543406455 Contributors: ATX-NL, Eugene van der Pijll, Frank Soetermeer, JMvanDijk, Janhct, Kweniston, Mr. D. E. Mophon, Mvdleeuw, Neddyseagoon, Omegastar, P. S. Burton, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, RogDel, Woohookitty, 2 anonymous edits

Louis of Nassau, Lord of De Lek and Beverweerd Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=577986372 Contributors: ATX-NL, Afasmit, Collideascope, Eugene van der Pijll, JMvanDijk, Jane023, Kweniston, LilHelpa, Mr. D. E. Mophon, Mvdleeuw, Neddyseagoon, Rich Farmbrough, Triquetra, Wikibiohistory, 2 anonymous edits

Frederick V, Elector Palatine Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=575919010 Contributors: -Ilhador-, Adam Faanes, Adam sk, AdamFunk, Andres, Angela, Arniep, Auntof6, BD2412, Bahamut Star, Barbarine, Barticus88, Bgwhite, Binary TSO, Bonás, Brederode, Ceplm, Charles Matthews, Chl, Chmod007, Choess, Ciphers, Coemgenus, CommonsDelinker, Cop 663, Crowsnest, DaQuirin, Danicalove79, Danwhite2008, Davecrosby uk, David Newton, Deb, Den fjättrade ankan, Dimadick, Domino theory, Doug Bell, DrKiernan, FactStraight, FeanorStar7, Fnorp, Fortdj33, Fuzzform, Gamonetus, GenQuest, Geschichte, Glengese, Gogafax, Gryffindor, HammyDoo, HansM, Harry Potter, Hchc2009, Iacobus, Iamthecheese44, Ifackingluvplants, Ioannes Pragensis, Iohannes Animosus, Isnow, Itai, J04n, Jammydodger, Jaraalbe, JdH, Jfruh, Jim62sch, John K, Joseph Solis in Australia, Jvano, Kariteh, Kelisi, Kelson, Kibi78704, Kmorozov, Knochen, LadyNorbert, Lec CRP1, Leonidaa, LouisPhilippeCharles, Lucky13pjn, Luwilt, Magioladitis, Magnus Manske, Martg76, Mathiasrex, Mattis, Mcferran, Megakacktus, Monegasque, Mrpearcee, Mt99lp, Neddyseagoon, Nedrutland, Nicholasemjohnson, Nunh-huh, Oashi, Ohconfucius, Olessi, Omnipaedista, PatrickGuadalupe, Pedant17, Petri Krohn, Pietje96, Qertis, R'n'B, RCNesland, Rdthiessen, Rich Farmbrough, Richhil, Rjwilmsi, Ruby2010, Simeon24601, Sjoerd22, Skybum, Someone else, StanZegel, Str1977, Suedois, Surtsicna, SuzanneIAM, TeunSpaans, The Emperor's New Spy, Ulric1313, Wavelength, Weijiya, Weisbrod, Александър, 81 anonymous edits

Henri de la Tour d'Auvergne, Vicomte de Turenne Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=561233718 Contributors: Abu America, Adam sk, Ahoerstemeier, Alan, Alex Middleton, Angusmclellan, Azurfrog, Barticus88, BoH, Brederode, Carl Logan, Carlossuarez46, Choess, Chris the speller, Cladeal832, Colonies Chris, D6, DITWIN GRIM, Dejvid, Den fjättrade ankan, Deucalionite, DrKiernan, Edmilne, Fdewaele, Filiep, Funnyhat, GeeJo, Geoff Plourde, Geraki, Gerhard51, Ghirlandajo, Guthrum, Hardouin, Ian Spackman, Iawas, Icairns, Jan Arkesteijn, Jerzy, JoJaEpp, Johnpacklambert, Josh Parris, Jun Nijo, Kelson, Ketiltrout, Kevyn, Klemen Kocjancic, Kumioko (renamed), Kusma, Leondumontfollower, Loren Rosen, LouisPhilippeCharles, M-le-mot-dit, MartinHarper, Mike riversdale, Mitrius, Moagim, Monegasque, Moonraker12, NYArtsnWords, Nuno Tavares, Olivier, PBS, Pedant17, Potapt, R'n'B, RedWolf, Roger Davies, Roltz, Scewing, Scipius, SeNeKa, Stan Shebs, Stijn Calle, Stymphal, TheParanoidOne, Tkinias, Tsemii, Vdorta, Waacstats, WikHead, Zapvet, 51 anonymous edits

James II of England Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=580349308 Contributors: (jarbarf), *Kat*, 1Coolcat1, 1exec1, 2help, 3405858k, 69rocks, 6SJ7, A.amitkumar, Adam Carr, Adam sk, Adambro, AdjustShift, Adrian.benko, Againme, Ahoerstemeier, Alansohn, Albanman, Ale jrb, Alex Kinloch, Alexcoldcasefan, Alexei9736, American Eagle, AmiDaniel, AnakngAraw, Andre Engels, Andreas Kaganov, Andvari7, Angela, Anglius, Angusmclellan, Animum, Antandrus, Arbor to SJ, Arno, Arundel22, Asdfqwe123, Ashley Y, Astorknlam, Astrotrain, Aude, Audiovideo, Auntof6, Aurelia Kay, Awxy, Axinar, Axle12693, B.d.mills, BScar23625, Babajobu, Baron von Chickenpants, Barryob, Basher1234, Bdb484, Bejnar, Bender235, Benedoceridebes, Besieged, Bigdottawa, Billinghurst, BinaryTed, Bobblehead, Bobblewik, Bobo192, BolinhasFofas, Bongwarrior, Boomboxkid, BorisG, BradMajors, Breadandcheese, Brendandh, BrianY, Brighterorange, Britannicus, Bryan Derksen, Caknuck, Caltas, Canuckian89, Caponer, CaptainVindaloo, 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Charles II of England Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=580485199 Contributors: *Kat*, -- April, 12345oakwell12345678987654321, 172, 1exec1, 2A01:E35:2EC1:35B0:4903:D149:1B0:E173, 5 albert square, A930913, AXXHegemon, Achangeisasgoodasa, Achorn316, Actam, Adam Carr, Adam sk, Adashiel, Addshore, Admiral, Adrian.benko, AeonicOmega, Againme, Agurvits, Ahkond, Ahoerstemeier, Ahseaton, Alansohn, Alex1111, Amandajm, AmiDaniel, AndyBQ, Angusmclellan, Annehsmith, Antandrus, ApprenticeFan, ArloBee, Art LaPella, Astorknlam, Astrotrain, Ationnaa, Atlantia, Audaciter, Audiovideo, Auntof6, Avicennasis, Awien, AxelBoldt, Azuris, Badgerpatrol, Barbatus, Bedoyere, Ben davison, Benedoceridebes, Benson85, Bevo74, Billinghurst, Biruitorul, Bishonen, Bjh21, Blehfu, Bo, Bobo192, Bodnotbod, Boleyn, BolinhasFofas, BoomerAB, Brandmeister (old), Brandon97, Brighterorange, Brough87, Brythnoth, Bucketsofg, CJGB, CTtcg, Caiaffa, Caledones, Calsicol, Camboxer, Cameron, Cammoore, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Canuckian89, Caponer, Capricorn42, CattleGirl, Ccsmall1, Cdamgen, Cdc, Ceoil, Chamika1990, Charles01, Chasingsol, Ches88, Chesterabramarthur, Chicheley, ChildeRolandofGilead, Chricke, Cimorcus, Cnyborg, Coemgenus, Cometstyles, Connormah, Conor.hogan.2, Conscious, Coomgoog3, Coriolise, Courcelles, Craighardman, Craigy144, Creanaugusta, Cripipper, Curps, Cxz111, D6, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Da ballerina, Da.skitz, Danbarnesdavies, Danicalove79, Danny Sprinkle, Dar-Ape, Darwinbish, David Newton, DavidBrooks, Davidonline, Dbenbenn, Dcheagle, Dchilled1, Dcoetzee, Dduck, Deacon of Pndapetzim, Deb, Deeahbz, DemirBajraktarevic, Demophon, Den fjättrade ankan, DerHexer, Derek Ross, Dietary Fiber, Dimadick, Discospinster, Donner60, Dori, Downwards, Dpodoll68, Dr. D, Dr.alf, DrKeirnan, DrKiernan, Drmaik, Drutt, Dsp13, Dukes of Gaia, DuncanHill, Dying, Dysprosia, Edderso, Edivorce, Edward, Eliyak, Englatar8888, EnglishMyst, Epbr123, Ericoides, Erik9, Escape Orbit, Euchiasmus, EuroCarGT, Evansbrand, Everyking, Excirial, Exofort, Explicit, Eyesnore, Favonian, FeanorStar7, Fep70, Filth, Flameviper, Flowerpotman, Flubajub boy, Fluffernutter, Fluri, Fonzy, ForestCreature, Formeruser0910, Francs2000, Frietjes, G.-M. Cupertino, Gabbe, Gadfium, Gaidheal, Gaius Cornelius, Galwhaa, Garryq, Gawaxay, Gazzster, Gdr, Geogre, Giacomo Augusto, Gilliam, Gillian E Shaw, Gob Lofa, Gofreddo63, Gogo Dodo, Golbez, GoodDay, Goodnightmush, Goombanator, Gopherbone, GrahamHardy, Grye, Gscshoyru, Gustav von Humpelschmumpel, Guy Peters, Hadal, Hadrian89, Hairy Dude, Hampshire1234567890, HansHermans, Harryjohnston, Hasbro, Haunti, Hazhk, Heavens To Betsy, Hedwig0407, Hendersondonald, Hi878, HighKing, Hirudo, Historianrule, Homagetocatalonia, Hot Stop, Huw Powell, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, IP Address, ISTB351, Iawas, Icairns, IgnorantArmies, Ihcoyc, Immunize, Indisciplined, Infrogmation, Inglok, Iota, Isis, It Is Me Here, Iustinus, J. Van Meter, J.delanoy, JASpencer, JW1805, Jack93885, Jaguarjaguar, Article Sources and Contributors 520

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Countess Louise Henriette of Nassau Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=574129541 Contributors: 84user, Aciram, Afasmit, Againme, Apparition11, Avoidipod33, Chris the speller, Daaviiid, Deb, Filiep, HansM, Jdsteakley, Keithh, LeoHerz, LouisPhilippeCharles, Monegasque, Niceguyedc, RandomCritic, Rich Farmbrough, Ruby2010, Surtsicna, The Emperor's New Spy, Vlastimil Svoboda, 13 anonymous edits

Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=578223394 Contributors: 52 Pickup, AWhiteC, Aciram, Adam sk, Alexvonf, Arniep, Aviados, Barliner, Bbcrackmonkey, BismarckTheIronChancellor, Bob Burkhardt, Bobo192, Bonus Onus, Bonás, Brighterorange, Bryan Derksen, Buchraeumer, Buspirtraz, Caltas, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Caponer, Carolina wren, Cave troll, Cdbarnim, Cdecoro, Cewvero, Charles, Chicheley, ChrisGualtieri, Cladeal832, Conversion script, Daaviiid, Den fjättrade ankan, Dimadick, Djmutex, Domino theory, Dpv, DrKiernan, Electrobe, Erik9, Eugene van der Pijll, FactStraight, Favonian, FeanorStar7, Filiep, GoodDay, Gryffindor, H.J., HansM, Hyperboreios, Igiffin, Iridescent, JHK, JYOuyang, Jane023, Jdsteakley, Jeran, Jmabel, John K, Leifern, Liist, Lord Emsworth, LouisPhilippeCharles, Luwilt, M.luke.myers, Magioladitis, Magnus Manske, Marco polo, Matthead, Mattis, Meinertzhagen, Mike Moresi, Monegasque, Morn, Mykej, Neddyseagoon, Nexander, Nfr-Maat, Ohconfucius, Olessi, Olivier, Omnipaedista, PBS-AWB, Petri Krohn, Pizza Puzzle, Pruis, Pymouss, R'n'B, Rich Farmbrough, Ricm4012, RogDel, Roux-HG, Runehelmet, RussBlau, Sardanaphalus, Sietse Snel, Skäpperöd, Someone else, Space Cadet, Spacenukls123, Stidmatt, Swid, Sümpf, TicketMan, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Tresckow, Ulf Heinsohn, Urselius, Vlastimil Svoboda, WilliamH, 115 anonymous edits

Frederick Nassau de Zuylestein Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=545308671 Contributors: Bgwhite, Coemgenus, Indisciplined, JMvanDijk, Jane023, Klemen Kocjancic, Mvdleeuw, RogDel, Tom Morris, 1 anonymous edits

Earl of Rochford Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=546825260 Contributors: Charles Matthews, Coemgenus, Download, FeanorStar7, Hahaandy1, Histmag, Ipflo, JMvanDijk, Jordi Roqué, Mackensen, Mr. D. E. Mophon, MrH, Mvdleeuw, Opera hat, Scwlong, Sloman, TimBentley, Tryde, TubularWorld, Woohookitty, 2 anonymous edits

Henry Casimir I of Nassau-Dietz Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=540513296 Contributors: Afasmit, Graeme Bartlett, HansM, Jane023, Mild Bill Hiccup, Rich Farmbrough, Sunquanliangxiuhao, Woohookitty

John Maurice, Prince of Nassau-Siegen Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=555806112 Contributors: Afasmit, AndreasPraefcke, Attilios, Bcody80, Bob Burkhardt, Bobblewik, Chl, ChrisGualtieri, CommonsDelinker, Crowsnest, Cwoyte, D6, Damiens.rf, Dornicke, DutchDevil, Ereunetes, Eugene van der Pijll, Firstorm, Gidonb, Guusbosman, JMvanDijk, JdH, Jlpspinto, Klemen Kocjancic, Kmorozov, Känsterle, Lockley, Magafuzula, Markussep, MatthewVanitas, Miguel1626, Milena Popovic, Monegasque, PBS-AWB, PeterHuntington, Pethan, Polylerus, Sietse Snel, Smallweed, Thismightbezach, Tony1, Valérie75, XPTO, 22 anonymous edits

Georg Friedrich, Prince of Prussia Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=578139780 Contributors: 7 Letters, Acjelen, Aigues-Mortes, Aldebaran69, Alexander Domanda, Alexander Lichtenstein, Alistair1978, Anchorite, Angr, Angusmclellan, Astorknlam, AstroChemist, BD2412, Barticus88, Beetstra, Berks105, Blur4760, Bridgetfox, CSvBibra, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Caponer, CenturionZ 1, Charles, CharlesMartel, Clarkefreak, Claypoint2, Cometstyles, D6, DWC LR, Danbarnesdavies, Dancingwombatsrule, David0811, Demophon, Dgw, Dimadick, Downwards, DrKiernan, Duckyboi, DuncanBCS, Ejgreen77, Ekem, Emperor001, Equord, Ewing7179, FactStraight, Firstorm, FrederickJr, FredrikT, Frietjes, G.-M. Cupertino, Genealogiajapan, Geshtaldt, GoodDay, Gryffindor, Gsmgm, GyaroMaguus, Herr Rockefeller, Hippo43, Hydrargyrum, Iamthecheese44, Inglok, J.delanoy, JCO312, JFBurton, John K, Johnwilliammiller, Jonjames1986, Jooler, Jtdirl, Kauffner, Kmorozov, Kuralyov, Kyle sb, Leifern, LeighBCD, Lethiere, Louis88, Man vyi, Matthew Fennell, Mcferran, Millbart, Mirekmarut, Miroslaw, Monarchist TuL, Morhange, Mr. D. E. Mophon, Nightstallion, Noimnotokay, Olessi, Olli J., Owain, OwenBlacker, PBS, PBS-AWB, Pavel Vozenilek, Peamm, Peeperman, Perey, Pigsonthewing, Pkeets, Plastikspork, Prsgoddess187, Pseudo-Richard, R'n'B, RandomCritic, Reenem, Rich Farmbrough, Richard416282, RobNS, Romanc19s, Rrostrom, Ruby2010, Salamurai, Schrödinger's Neurotoxin, Scolaire, Seewolf, Silverhelm, Sleigh, Snowdrop44, Sortior, Springyboy, Stijn Calle, Sulzbeach, Supernova0, Surtsicna, Th.M., The Emperor's New Spy, Thorwald, Trijnstel, Twthmoses, Vladislaus Draculea, Warhorus, Wereon, Wikiroyals, William Avery, Wizardman, Woohookitty, СЛУЖБА, 124 anonymous edits

Princess Augusta of Great Britain Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=574135237 Contributors: Aciram, Alexpostfacto, Araldo81, Astrotrain, AxelBoldt, Bob247, CSCarlosXXVIII, Caponer, Charles, Chris the speller, Cladeal832, Colonies Chris, Dalit Llama, Danbarnesdavies, Deb, Demophon, Dimadick, FactStraight, Filiep, Franzy89, Gensanders, GoodDay, Gustav von Humpelschmumpel, HansM, Hurricanefan25, Jaraalbe, Jtdirl, Kbthompson, Lec CRP1, Lizzie Harrison, LouisPhilippeCharles, Lozleader, M'encarta, Magioladitis, Mandarax, Margacst, Millat.ibrahim, Montrealais, Morhange, OP41, ObRoy, Pascal.Tesson, PiRSquared17, RafikiSykes, RegentsPark, Rich Farmbrough, Rrostrom, Ruby2010, Sir Gawain, Surtsicna, Tabletop, Tassedethe, The Emperor's New Spy, UpDown, Valentinian, Westbromwich, 43 anonymous edits

Prince Frederick of Orange-Nassau Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=574135185 Contributors: Alexcoldcasefan, Ereunetes, Mvdleeuw, 2 anonymous edits

Frederick William, Prince of Nassau-Weilburg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=568927836 Contributors: Brandon97, Caponer, Charles, Cladeal832, Demophon, Dimadick, DrKiernan, G.-M. Cupertino, HansM, JR08rec, Jeff5102, John K, Lec CRP1, Mr. D. E. Mophon, Omegastar, Oxxo, PBS-AWB, Rich Farmbrough, Rmhermen, Ruby2010, Usb10, Waacstats, 4 anonymous edits

William, Duke of Nassau Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=578450774 Contributors: Alexcoldcasefan, Caponer, Chris the speller, Cladeal832, Colonies Chris, Danicalove79, Darklilac, Demophon, Deskruns54, Dimadick, DrKiernan, Enredados, FactStraight, G.-M. Cupertino, HansM, Iamthecheese44, Jeff G., Jevansen, John K, Johnwilliammiller, Kdebem, Känsterle, Lec CRP1, Logan, Mcferran, Monegasque, Mr. D. E. Mophon, Omegastar, Oxxo, PBS-AWB, R'n'B, Sam Blacketer, Surtsicna, The Emperor's New Spy, 38 anonymous edits

Adolphe, Grand Duke of Luxembourg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=576353034 Contributors: Adam sk, Alatar144, Alfion, Amalas, Andromeda, Astorknlam, Bastin, Berasategui, Betty-la-fea, Bgwhite, Caponer, Carabinieri, Chochopk, Cladeal832, Colonies Chris, CommonsDelinker, Craigy144, D6, Danicalove79, Darth Kalwejt, Demophon, Dimadick, Dr Gangrene, DrKiernan, Efghij, Enredados, EstherLois, Freako, G.-M. Cupertino, HansM, Hektor, Indisciplined, Jao, Japanese Searobin, John K, Kdebem, Känsterle, Le baron, Lightmouse, Lord Emsworth, Lunar eyes, M'encarta, Magister Mathematicae, Maile66, Miguelemejia, Mimich, Mirekmarut, Mr. D. E. Mophon, Nick UA, NoCal100, Nyttend, OP41, OwenBlacker, Pearle, R sirahata, R'n'B, Rich Farmbrough, Richf in mo, Saforrest, Scwlong, Stassats, Stijn Calle, Surtsicna, The Emperor's New Spy, Ulf Heinsohn, Ultracobalt, Valentinian, 37 anonymous edits

Grand Ducal Family of Luxembourg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=580789848 Contributors: *Kat*, 7 Letters, A2Kafir, APPER, Albanman, Andromeda, Angela, Astorknlam, Bastin, Benbel, Bigbadsnowman, Bill Thayer, Biruitorul, Bjh21, Bollar, CalJW, Charles, ChrisGualtieri, Crazynas, DWC LR, DanielCD, David Warner, Demiurge, Docu, Eboracum, Efghij, Electionworld, Emes, Esrever, Everyking, FactStraight, Flecanda, FoCuSandLeArN, Fram, Gryffindor, Guilherme Styles, Hektor, Henrygb, Iamthecheese44, Ibagli, JMvanDijk, Jameszapper, Jess Cully, JillandJack, John K, Johnpf, Jtdirl, Kez 1982, LCahill, MSGJ, Materialscientist, Matjlav, MithrandirAgain, Mocctur, Morhange, Neilc, Nightstallion, Nsaa, ObRoy, OwenBlacker, Princess Robijn, Pyroclastic, Redlady1, Rich Farmbrough, Rory096, Rpyle731, RussBlau, Saforrest, Salvio giuliano, Scafloc, Sotakeit, Stijn Calle, Str1977, Sundostund, Surtsicna, Tad Lincoln, Tamfang, The Duke Of England, Trier, Unyoyega, Zoe, 111 anonymous edits Article Sources and Contributors 521

William II of the Netherlands Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=579012539 Contributors: 1exec1, ATX-NL, Adam sk, Al-Nofi, Alansohn, Aldo samulo, Anadessma, And we drown, Andres, Andromeda, AnnekeBart, Anomalicious, AttoRenato, Bastin, Bemoeial, Binabik80, Bjh21, Bnynms, CCMoir, Caponer, Chochopk, Chrisdoyleorwell, Cladeal832, Cleared as filed, Craigy144, D6, Daanschr, Dahn, Darth Kalwejt, Dca5347, Demophon, Dereleased, Deville, Dimadick, DrJos, DrKiernan, Ealdgyth, Edton, Engleham, EuroCarGT, Fbdave, Filiep, Fnorp, Fogeltje, Fraggle81, Frietjes, G.-M. Cupertino, Garion96, Genealogisch, Glatisant, Gogo Dodo, GoodDay, Grblomerth, Gryffindor, HansM, Hashar, Hede2000, IJA, Ian13, Ilse@, Ironiridis, JadziaLover, Jahoe, Japanese Searobin, JasonB007, Jiang, Jmholmberg, John K, Junes, Jza84, KarlFrei, Kdebem, Kernel Saunters, Kummi, Känsterle, Le baron, Lord Emsworth, Luisldq, Lupine Proletariat, M'encarta, Mark J, Matjlav, Mav, Mazzelino, Mike-Kerkhoven, Mocko13, Montrealais, Mr. D. E. Mophon, Mvdleeuw, Necrothesp, Neddyseagoon, NellieBly, Opera hat, Orioane, Ozewiezewoze, PKT, Parafernalia, Pbl1998, Pethan, Piledhigheranddeeper, Plastikspork, Prine man, QTxVi4bEMRbrNqOorWBV, RandomCritic, Rich Farmbrough, Risk34, Rmhermen, Rotational, Royalty Parsing Project, Rtol, Ruby2010, Ruhrjung, Rupertslander, Ruslik0, Rysz, SCZenz, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Shervink, Sketchmoose, Spoonkymonkey, Ssilvers, Summer Song, Surtsicna, TRAJAN 117, Tassedethe, Tdevries, Terrillja, The Banner, The Emperor's New Spy, The Phoenix, The Quill, Theamazingzeno, Toddy1, Ton1974, Ultrafreiheit, Waacstats, Wetman, Wimvandorst, Wkharrisjr, Wolbo, YellowMonkey, Youngamerican, 143 anonymous edits

Anna Pavlovna of Russia Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=573715501 Contributors: Aciram, AdventurousSquirrel, Alex Bakharev, Askedome, Bemoeial, Bocianski, Bridgetfox, Caponer, Charles, Cladeal832, Colonies Chris, Cwoyte, D6, DWC LR, Danicalove79, Demophon, Dimadick, DrKiernan, EDT95, Elonka, Empoor, Enredados, Evangeline, Fry1989, G.-M. Cupertino, Geary, Gidonb, Grunherz, Gryffindor, HansM, Henq, Itubisadiatur, John K, Jtdirl, Kdebem, Keivan.f, Klemen Kocjancic, Kwiki, Känsterle, LeighBCD, Leszek Jańczuk, Lunar eyes, MPF, Mannanan51, Markussep, Morhange, Nightstallion, NuclearWarfare, Otto ter Haar, Ozewiezewoze, Pamdhiga, Pbl1998, Rich Farmbrough, Roquai, Ruby2010, Russavia, Scwlong, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Surtsicna, Tachitsuteto, Targaryen, Tezz mission, The Emperor's New Spy, The wub, Trigaranus, Valentinian, Valérie75, Waacstats, Weijiya, Woohookitty, 73 anonymous edits

Prince Frederick of the Netherlands Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=574179859 Contributors: ATX-NL, Alexcoldcasefan, Caponer, ChrisCork, Cladeal832, Demophon, Dimadick, DrKiernan, DutchDevil, Editør, Fdewaele, Filiep, Frietjes, G.-M. Cupertino, Great Cthulhu, HansM, Iamthecheese44, Isis Simone, Johnwilliammiller, Kdebem, Känsterle, M'encarta, Markussep, Mathmannix, Monegasque, Olessi, PBS, Rrostrom, Ruby2010, Shoeofdeath, Stepshep, Steven J. Anderson, Summer Song, Surtsicna, The Emperor's New Spy, Ton1974, Waacstats, 25 anonymous edits

Princess Pauline of Orange-Nassau Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=568925883 Contributors: ATX-NL, Aldebaran69, Caponer, Chris the speller, DWC LR, Demophon, DrJos, DrKiernan, Drpickem, G.-M. Cupertino, HansM, John of Reading, Rich Farmbrough, Ruby2010, 4 anonymous edits

Prince Albert of Prussia (1809–1872) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=569661138 Contributors: Adam Carr, Alai, Brad101AWB, Caponer, Charles, CharlotteWebb, Chl, Cladeal832, Codc, CommonsDelinker, Danbarnesdavies, Dimadick, DrKiernan, EstherLois, Favonian, G.-M. Cupertino, Grumpycraig, HansM, LarryJeff, Lembut, Meissen, Melchoir, Monegasque, Olessi, Peamm, Prsgoddess187, Renata3, Rich Farmbrough, RogDel, Ruby2010, Sketchglasses, Stemonitis, Surtsicna, The Emperor's New Spy, Tilla, Valentinian, 19 anonymous edits

Emma of Waldeck and Pyrmont Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=578449167 Contributors: 1ForTheMoney, Antientropic, Arrigo, BD2412, Binabik80, Caponer, Cladeal832, Classical geographer, Cosal, Cwoyte, D6, Danbarnesdavies, Danny, Demophon, Dimadick, Dmn, DrKiernan, ESkog, Empoor, Enredados, Eugene van der Pijll, Everyking, Filiep, Fry1989, G.-M. Cupertino, Gugganij, HansM, Iamthecheese44, Igno2, Ilse@, Indisciplined, Japanese Searobin, JdH, Jiang, Jibco, Karas [email protected], Keivan.f, Krinkle, Lec CRP1, Leonidaa, Marcus2, Mojo Hand, Monegasque, Mowens35, Mukmak, Nyttend, Oculi, Olessi, Ozewiezewoze, Paul Benjamin Austin, Polozooza, RFD, Rich Farmbrough, Roisterer, Scwlong, StAnselm, Surtsicna, Svencb, The Emperor's New Spy, The Phoenix, Todkvi5832, Welsh, Wikipeterproject, Woohookitty, 67 anonymous edits

William III of the Netherlands Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=572594674 Contributors: -The Bold Guy-, ATX-NL, Adam sk, Afasmit, Alex S, Andromeda, Apathor, ApprenticeFan, Art LaPella, Aumnamahashiva, Bastin, Bemoeial, Bill Thayer, Biruitorul, Bjh21, Bongwarrior, Cabiria, Caponer, ChrisGualtieri, Cladeal832, Coinman62, CommonsDelinker, Craigy144, Crowsnest, Crusoe8181, D6, Daanschr, DanMS, Darth Kalwejt, Demophon, Dimadick, Diodecimus, DrKiernan, EDT95, Editør, Espetkov, Filiep, Fredrik B, Frietjes, Fry1989, G.-M. Cupertino, Glatisant, GoodDay, Gryffindor, Haggawaga - Oegawagga, HangingCurve, HansM, HeartofaDog, Hede2000, Hereticus obstinatus, Hola Kotla, Ilse@, JHCC, JR08rec, Jeremy Harding, Jiang, John K, Joost 99, Joshmaul, KARL RAN, Kdebem, Keivan.f, Kimiko, Kummi, Känsterle, Le baron, Lec CRP1, Lightmouse, Lord Emsworth, Lucifero4, M'encarta, Mark J, Matjlav, Merbabu, Montrealais, Mowens35, Mvdleeuw, Mythic Writerlord, Nunh-huh, OwenBlacker, Ozewiezewoze, Pethan, Prsgoddess187, RandomCritic, Rbraunwa, Rich Farmbrough, Richard Keatinge, Rmhermen, Roisterer, Rrius, Rtol, Ruhrjung, Rysz, SchreiberBike, Scwlong, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Shyam, Sketchmoose, Smack, Snigbrook, Someone else, Squids and Chips, Ssilvers, Summer Song, Surtsicna, TGC55, Tachitsuteto, The Banner, The Emperor's New Spy, The Phoenix, The Quill, Thom977, Ton1974, Valentinian, Vlastimil Svoboda, Vriullop, Waacstats, Wiki Historian N OH, Wikipean, Woohookitty, ÄDA - DÄP, 90 anonymous edits

Sophie of Württemberg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=572105690 Contributors: Arnoutf, BertSen, Caleb D Phillips, Caponer, Charles, Cladeal832, CommonsDelinker, Cwoyte, Danbarnesdavies, Deb, Demophon, Deor, Dimadick, Doortmont, Empoor, Enredados, FactStraight, Fry1989, Fylbecatulous, G.-M. Cupertino, Gaius Cornelius, Jayjg, Lec CRP1, Lunar eyes, Marianne78, Mcstoopid8, Natuur12, Ohconfucius, Ozewiezewoze, Pkj2231, Pribramcz, ProperlyRaised, Quadell, Rich Farmbrough, Ruby2010, Scwlong, Summer Song, Surtsicna, Tbharding, The Emperor's New Spy, Todkvi5832, Tresckow, Wolbo, Woohookitty, 59 anonymous edits

Prince Alexander of the Netherlands Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=566656909 Contributors: ATX-NL, Bte99, Caponer, Cladeal832, Demophon, Fdewaele, FeanorStar7, G.-M. Cupertino, Jeff5102, Khazar, M'encarta, Mild Bill Hiccup, Moe Epsilon, Mvdleeuw, Mythic Writerlord, Niceguyedc, Paxsimius, Rich Farmbrough, Ruby2010, Tezz mission, Wavelength, 8 anonymous edits

Prince Henry of the Netherlands (governor) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=568560972 Contributors: ATX-NL, Allanraymond, Bastin, Caponer, Carioca, Cladeal832, CommonsDelinker, DBigXray, Demophon, Dimadick, DutchDevil, EDT95, Empoor, Filiep, G.-M. Cupertino, Gryffindor, Hhk1989, Ipigott, Kdebem, Känsterle, Lec CRP1, M'encarta, Mrlob, Neddyseagoon, Niceguyedc, Ozewiezewoze, Rich Farmbrough, RoyBoy, Surtsicna, Targaryen, The Emperor's New Spy, 46 anonymous edits

Princess Sophie of the Netherlands Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=570266064 Contributors: ATX-NL, Bonjour LaLaLa, Caponer, Cladeal832, DWC LR, Demophon, DrKiernan, EDT95, G.-M. Cupertino, Gaius Cornelius, I'm From England, Kdebem, Leo1919, LouisPhilippeCharles, Marika89, Mcferran, Ozewiezewoze, Rich Farmbrough, Ruby2010, Surtsicna, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, The Emperor's New Spy, Waacstats, 4 anonymous edits

Charles Alexander, Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=568913716 Contributors: Adam sk, Aldebaran69, Astorknlam, Athenchen, Attilios, Auntof6, Caponer, Cbrown1023, Charles, Cladeal832, CommonsDelinker, DWC LR, DrKiernan, EDT95, Easchiff, Favonian, FeanorStar7, Filiep, G.-M. Cupertino, HansM, Känsterle, Lec CRP1, Leonard^Bloom, LouisPhilippeCharles, Lucifero4, MaEr, Maproom, Margacst, Mariaflores1955, Morhange, Mulder1982, Neddyseagoon, Olessi, Ozewiezewoze, Prsgoddess187, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, Ruby2010, Scwlong, The Emperor's New Spy, Tookninth, Ulric1313, 22 anonymous edits

Louise of the Netherlands Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=580772555 Contributors: 777a, A2Kafir, Abberley2, Aciram, Afasmit, AnOddName, Caponer, Charles, Cladeal832, D6, Demophon, Discospinster, DrKiernan, Fdewaele, Filiep, FrinkMan, Fry1989, G.-M. Cupertino, Gaius Cornelius, Gugganij, HansM, Hedwig0407, Howcheng, Iamthecheese44, Inge, JoelleJ, John Quiggin, LA2, LarRan, Lightmouse, LilHelpa, Lilac Soul, Liselotte, Locketudor, LouisPhilippeCharles, Ludde23, MapsMan, Martinl, Metagraph, Mimich, Mukmak, Niceguyedc, Nigosh, Nostalgia swe, OP41, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, Rosenknospe, Ruby2010, Scwlong, SelfQ, SergeWoodzing, Summer Song, Surtsicna, Tabletop, The Emperor's New Spy, Thuresson, Tim1965, Txomin, Wikifarudericus, Yworo, ZIGBRYWG, 75 anonymous edits

Charles XV of Sweden Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=577549948 Contributors: Abut, Aciram, Adam sk, Afasmit, Ahoerstemeier, Aldo samulo, Allen3, Apau98, Ardric47, Astorknlam, AusTerrapin, Biruitorul, Bob Burkhardt, Boivie, Brandon97, Caponer, Carlossuarez46, Cavidaga, Chamika1990, Cladeal832, CommonsDelinker, Conscious, D6, Dahlis, Demophon, Dennislarsson93, Dimadick, DrKiernan, Dryho, Egil, Fred J, FrinkMan, G.-M. Cupertino, Gabbe, GoodDay, Grblomerth, Grenavitar, Guy Peters, Indisciplined, Inge, Itai, Jao, Jeltz, Joao Xavier, John, John Anderson, John K, Jyril, KGH SWE, LA2, Leifern, Liftarn, Lightmouse, Lord Emsworth, Louis88, Lucifero4, Lucky13pjn, Ludde23, Läraren, Léman, Martinl, Massimo Macconi, Mic, Micagi, Mintleaf, Monegasque, Montrealais, Nimetapoeg, OP41, RicJac, Rich Farmbrough, Richardmedders, Robertgreer, Roede, Royalcello, Ruby2010, Scwlong, SergeWoodzing, Shellwood, Slarre, Someone else, Summer Song, Surtsicna, The Emperor's New Spy, Thuresson, Tomas e, Urbourbo, Waacstats, Woohookitty, Zoe, 73 anonymous edits

Princess Marie of the Netherlands Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=562818345 Contributors: Caponer, ChrisGualtieri, HansM, Iamthecheese44, Jibco, Ruby2010, The Emperor's New Spy, WikHead, Wikix, 12 anonymous edits

William, Prince of Wied Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=574140516 Contributors: Chaumot, ChrisGualtieri, DWC LR, FactStraight, HansM, Iamthecheese44, Irvi Hyka, Jibco, Rich Farmbrough, Waacstats, 10 anonymous edits

William, Prince of Albania Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=560872916 Contributors: Ahoerstemeier, Andres, Andrwsc, Antidiskriminator, Arjunasbow, AusTerrapin, Ayanur1956, Biruitorul, BrainyBabe, CALR, Caponer, Charles, Choess, Craigy144, D6, DWC LR, Danny, Dimadick, Ding Chavez, EDT95, Getoar, Inglok, Irvi Hyka, Itai, Jfruh, Jnestorius, Joel7687, Jrnold, Kedadi, Laudesregiae, Leandrod, Lec CRP1, MarcoLittel, Mariaflores1955, Markussep, Marrtel, Molossia, Monarchist, Monegasque, Ning-ning, Nunh-huh, Olahus, Olessi, OwenBlacker, Paul Barlow, Pedant17, Piledhigheranddeeper, Polaert, RandomCritic, Rich Farmbrough, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Rjwilmsi, Rlquall, Rmhermen, RogDel, Scwlong, Sfan00 IMG, Sun Creator, TRAJAN 117, The Emperor's New Spy, Trip Tucker, Ulric1313, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Wavelength, Woohookitty, 72 anonymous edits Article Sources and Contributors 522

Wilhelmina of the Netherlands Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=579187713 Contributors: *Kat*, 900mill, A67, ATX-NL, Adam sk, Afasmit, Ahoerstemeier, Aldebaran69, AndreaMimi, Angela, Anthony Appleyard, Arsonal, Art LaPella, Asav, Astorknlam, Atlan, AusTerrapin, Barryfadams, Barryob, Bedwasboy, Bellhalla, Bemoeial, BenTels, Bill Thayer, Billinghurst, Bjh21, Bomkia, Bongwarrior, Bonjour LaLaLa, Borgatya, Bradeos Graphon, Brambo, Brandmeister (old), Brian0918, Camembert, Caponer, Charles, Cladeal832, Cmills924, CommonsDelinker, Computerjoe, Cooldoug111, Cooltalley123, Craigy144, Crowsnest, Cunningham, D6, Daanschr, Daniel Case, Davemck, Deb, Demophon, Dimadick, DrKiernan, Dralwik, Drs.j.a.antonides, Drunken Pirate, Durova, Dysprosia, Dziban303, Edwtie, Eezie, Ehrenkater, Emma8, Empoor, Enkyo2, Enredados, EoGuy, Erianna, ErrantX, Espetkov, FactStraight, Fat&Happy, Felix Folio Secundus, Filiep, Finneganw, Flix11, Fnorp, Frietjes, Fry1989, G.-M. Cupertino, G2bambino, Gallina3795, Garryq, Genie, Gidonb, GoodDay, Ground Zero, GusF, HPieter, Hadal, Hallmark, HangingCurve, HansM, Hebel, Hephaestos, Hola Kotla, Holtville, Hottentot, Howcheng, Huggins1308, IRelayer, Iacobus, Iamthecheese44, Iamwisesun, Iijjccoo, Ilja.nieuwland, Ilse@, Inge, Intelligent Mr Toad, Irredeemableblogger, Isalaflu, Isolani, JPbio, JackofOz, Jacoplane, Jake b, JasonB007, JdH, Jeff5102, Jennifercollins, Jiang, Job70, JoeKennedy1979, John, John K, John Paul Parks, JonRoma, Jonathanfu, Jonjames1986, Junes, KarlFrei, Kdebem, Keivan.f, Kitty Davis, KnightRider, Krich, Ksnow, Lanyardsnatcher, Lendu, Life of Riley, Lightmouse, Linnell, Lomn, Lonewolf BC, Lopez3486, Lord Emsworth, LouisPhilippeCharles, MacGyverMagic, Majalinno, Makemi, Manushand, MapsMan, Maristhian, Mark J, Mathiasrex, Matjlav, Mav, Mike Schwartz, Mike-Kerkhoven, Mikeroetto, Mild Bill Hiccup, MisfitToys, Mitrius, Montrealais, Morhange, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, Mowens35, Mukmak, Mvdleeuw, N5iln, NWill, Nantko, Niceguyedc, Nick Number, Night Gyr, O.Koslowski, Oaktree b, Ohconfucius, Oliphaunt, Ozewiezewoze, Paul Benjamin Austin, PeterSymonds, Pethan, Phoenix79, Pi zero, Piledhigheranddeeper, Plastikspork, Pmaas, Pmsyyz, Preslav, Pribramcz, Prsgoddess187, Puppydog94, R'n'B, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, Rmhermen, Robata, Robert K S, Rontrigger, Rrius, Rrostrom, Rtol, Rubenescio, Ruby2010, Rudy Knaap, RuudVisser, Rysz, Saga City, Sam Hocevar, Samwb123, Schusch, SeNeKa, Sesel, Shoemaker's Holiday, Skyring, Softballchick23, Ste1n, Steven J. Anderson, Surtsicna, Sus scrofa, Tagishsimon, Tdls, TeunSpaans, The Banner, The Emperor's New Spy, The Epopt, The Quill, Timc, Timrollpickering, TommyBoy, Tpbradbury, Twri, Ulflarsen, VIKING OISC, Van helsing, Vanluin, Verne Equinox, Vzbs34, Waacstats, Wijker, Wikibofh, Woohookitty, YUL89YYZ, YellowMonkey, Yukeldukel, ZenMondo, Ziggurat, Ziko, Zntrip, Zoe, 博, 291 anonymous edits

Duke Henry of Mecklenburg-Schwerin Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=569373250 Contributors: ATX-NL, Caponer, Chadoz, Charles, ChrisGualtieri, Computerjoe, D6, DWC LR, Demophon, Dimadick, DoorsAjar, DrKiernan, EDT95, Editør, Egel, Enredados, Faroeq, Favonian, Firstorm, G.-M. Cupertino, Gugganij, HansM, IRAQ IS KILLING USA, Ilse@, Jtdirl, K1590, Kmorozov, Känsterle, Lec CRP1, Little Cambridge, LittleFrog, Lockley, Mathiasrex, Mike-Kerkhoven, Mkdns20, Ohconfucius, PKT, R'n'B, Rich Farmbrough, Ruby2010, Ruhrjung, SHARU(ja), Schmiteye, SimonP, Slb nsk, Someone else, Suisui, Surtsicna, TFBCT1, Targaryen, Thayts, The Emperor's New Spy, Valentinian, Vriullop, Waacstats, Woohookitty, Worobiew, Zoe, 27 anonymous edits

William, Prince of Orange Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=570269305 Contributors: ATX-NL, Anthony Appleyard, Auntof6, B. Meijlink, BbBrox, Caponer, Cladeal832, Demophon, Deor, DrKiernan, Effeietsanders, Fredrik B, G.-M. Cupertino, GoodDay, Ilse@, Leandrod, Longwayround, Luwilt, M'encarta, Mark J, Mr pand, Mr. D. E. Mophon, Niceguyedc, Ozewiezewoze, Ralphwalters, Rbraunwa, Rex Germanus, Rrius, Scwlong, Skumarla, Surtsicna, TexieJ, The Banner, The Emperor's New Spy, Todkvi5832, Ton1974, Waacstats, Woohookitty, 60 anonymous edits

Prince Maurice of the Netherlands Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=570269379 Contributors: ATX-NL, Caponer, Demophon, Download, DrKiernan, G.-M. Cupertino, M'encarta, Niceguyedc, Ozewiezewoze, Rich Farmbrough, Ruby2010, Scwlong, Sfan00 IMG, Tatterfly, The Emperor's New Spy, Ton1974, 9 anonymous edits

Alexander, Prince of Orange Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=570269466 Contributors: ATX-NL, Afasmit, Andrei Iosifovich, Caponer, CaptainCanada, Cladeal832, Conscious, DWC LR, Demophon, DrKiernan, G.-M. Cupertino, HansM, HenkvD, Ilse@, Jackyd101, M'encarta, Maggy Rond, MilborneOne, Moe Epsilon, Mr. D. E. Mophon, Mvdleeuw, Omegastar, Ozewiezewoze, PrinceRegentLuitpold, ProperlyRaised, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, Scwlong, Springyboy, Surtsicna, The Banner, The Emperor's New Spy, Ton1974, VIKING OISC, Yngvadottir, 30 anonymous edits

Juliana of the Netherlands Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=579187538 Contributors: *Kat*, ATX-NL, Adam sk, Aecis, Agateller, Albamhandae, Alex Middleton, Alistair1978, Andeverandever, Andre Engels, Andrei Iosifovich, Andries, Antón Francho, Aranel, ArieScheurwater, Arjayay, Asalrifai, Astorknlam, Atb 43, Atchernev, AusTerrapin, Avjoska, Bellhalla, Bill Thayer, Billinghurst, Bobo192, Bonjour LaLaLa, Boothy443, Brian1979, Bridgetfox, CSvBibra, Calieber, Camerong, Campdavid, Caponer, Charles, Chicheley, CommonsDelinker, Craigy144, Cwoyte, D6, DW, DWC LR, Daanschr, Daf, Dan100, David Newton, DePiep, Deb, Demophon, Dethme0w, Dimadick, Dissident, Dmn, DocWatson42, DoctorKubla, Docu, Dowew, Dqfn13, DrKiernan, Drachenfyre, Drs.j.a.antonides, Edwtie, Egeymi, Elf-friend, Embryomystic, Empoor, Endorf, Enredados, Eric-Wester, Erik Zachte, Ertz, Eugene van der Pijll, Everyking, FactStraight, Fages, Fayenatic london, Finneganw, Firsfron, Folks at 137, Francs2000, Frietjes, Fry1989, Funnyhat, G.-M. Cupertino, G2bambino, Gallina3795, Garion96, Gauss, Genealogisch, Gidonb, Girlwithgreeneyes, Goldom, Gonzaloluengo, Good Olfactory, GoodDay, Grafen, Graham87, Grm wnr, Grstain, Hadal, HangingCurve, HansM, Hebel, Hede2000, Heroeswithmetaphors, Hmains, Homagetocatalonia, Howcheng, Hv, Iamthecheese44, Ibagli, Ilse@, Inge, Ivo von Rosenqvist, J.delanoy, JBellis, JLaTondre, JWULTRABLIZZARD, JackofOz, JanDeFietser, JdH, Jennifercollins, Jfdwolff, Jiang, Jmabel, John K, Jor, Joyous!, Judenovara, Kai27, Kaihsu, Karas [email protected], Kate, Kdebem, Khazar2, Kingturtle, KrisK, Känsterle, Labattblueboy, Laurapr, Laurens, Legaleagle86, Leonidaa, Lindert, LindsayH, LittleWink, Lord Emsworth, LouisPhilippeCharles, Magioladitis, Manushand, Mark J, Mark83, Martinvl, Mathiasrex, Matjlav, Mav, Mdieke, Merbabu, Meursault2004, Mike-Kerkhoven, Milanprima, Mimich, Moe Epsilon, Mogism, Montrealais, Mowens35, Mvdleeuw, NWill, Naddy, Nietzsche 2, Nikkimaria, Nima Baghaei, Nunh-huh, Ondewelle, Open2universe, OwenX, Ozewiezewoze, Ozzythenutter, PGJB, Parafernalia, Patrick, Patries, Paul Benjamin Austin, Peloneous, Peregrine981, Pethan, Philip Stevens, Plastikspork, Pol098, Polylerus, Profoss, Pyrope, Quetzal bird 120, Qworty, R'n'B, RM21, Rich Farmbrough, Rmhermen, Robert Prummel, Rrius, Rrostrom, Rtol, Rubenescio, Rysz, SNIyer12, Sannse, SchnitzelMannGreek, Shizhao, Sigismund Payne Best, SimonP, Sodacan, Solitude, Splash, Sreejithk2000, StAnselm, Steggall, Surtsicna, T@nn, TRBlom, Targaryen, Tasc, Thayts, The Banner, The Emperor's New Spy, The Quill, Thismightbezach, TommyBoy, Touch Of Light, Unschool, UpDown, VIKING OISC, Vicki Rosenzweig, Vzbs34, Waacstats, Wik, Wikix, Woohookitty, Workman, YUL89YYZ, Zello, Zoe, Zombiesanonymous, ÄDA - DÄP, СЛУЖБА, 290 anonymous edits

Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=579775517 Contributors: ATX-NL, Acaeton, Adam sk, Afasmit, Aisteco, Alansohn, Andre Engels, Andries, Anthony Appleyard, Aranel, Argyll Lassie, Armona, Artisticidea, Asalrifai, Astorknlam, AusTerrapin, Badgerpatrol, Balcer, Bbsrock, Bct88, Bemoeial, BenTels, Bender235, Bennmorland, Berasategui, Bgwhite, Biffy, Big iron, Biggiesmartypants, BilCat, BillC, Billyshiverstick, Biruitorul, Bissinger, Brian1979, Bridgetfox, Cameron Scott, CanuckViking, Caponer, Cat-five, Charles, Chicago god, Cleared as filed, Cmills924, Codegrinder, Coemgenus, Comatose51, CommonsDelinker, Coreydragon, Craigy144, Crissov, Cwoyte, D6, DASonnenfeld, DWC LR, DabMachine, Dante Alighieri, DarkLordSeth, DePiep, Demophon, Descendall, Dethme0w, Dewritech, Dimadick, Diodecimus, Dirtypol, Dl2000, Dlouwers, Dougweller, DrKiernan, Dtremenak, Dumpar, DutchDevil, Education4earth, Edward, Edward321, Edwinstearns, Effeietsanders, Egeymi, Elf-friend, Enredados, Erik Zachte, Ernmuhl, Evil Maniac From Mars, FMephit, FactStraight, Faroeq, Favonian, Finn-Zoltan, Firstorm, Folks at 137, Formeruser-81, Fourthords, Fry1989, G.-M. Cupertino, Gadfium, Gaius Cornelius, Gareth E Kegg, Gerhard51, Gilliam, Good Olfactory, GoodDay, Graham87, Greenshed, Griot-de, HangingCurve, HansM, Hardicanute, Hebel, Hede2000, Hemanshu, Hmains, Hohum, Hoka Kimi, Hoops gza, Huangdi, Iamthecheese44, Iamwisesun, Ian Pitchford, Icairns, Ifny, Ilse@, Inge, JALockhart, Jack365, JanDeFietser, Japanese Searobin, Jeff5102, Jeronimo, Jguk 2, Jiang, Jmabel, John, John Nevard, John Paul Parks, Johnpacklambert, Jun Nijo, K1590, KARL RAN, Kai27, Kaikhosru, Kbdank71, Kdebem, Kepoui, Klemen Kocjancic, KramerNL, L1A1 FAL, Lec CRP1, LeeGer, Leoni2, Lightmouse, LilHelpa, LindsayH, Little Cambridge, Lowercase Sigma, Lpgeffen, MKar, Man vyi, Marcus2, Mark van der Waard, MaungSiliwangi, Mav, Mcferran, Meursault2004, Miesianiacal, Mike-Kerkhoven, Mikedelsol, Mimich, Mkhbgpa, Mkruijff, Mmeijeri, Modemac, Monty845, Morhange, Mowens35, Mrmuk, Nantko, NathanBeach, NellieBly, NellieBlyMobile, Neobas, Niels, Nikai, Oklah, Omegastar, Orangemarlin, Ozewiezewoze, PMLawrence, Paglaa, Palnatoke, Parafernalia, Patiwat, Patrick, Paul Benjamin Austin, Paulus Gun, Pearle, Pegship, Pethan, Pgvolff, PhilHibbs, Philiv2, PierreLarcin2, Poliocretes, Polylerus, Ponyo, Project140C, Qjim, Quintessential British Gentleman, Red Slash, RedWolf, Rednblu, RenamedUser01302013, Rex Germanus, Rich Farmbrough, Richard David Ramsey, Rillian, Rjwilmsi, Robert Paul Prummel, Robert Prummel, RodC, Roeptin, Roubert, Ruby2010, SE7, SP23675, Saforrest, Sajt, Sam Hocevar, SelfQ, Serhat, Shink X, Sietse Snel, Skuipers, Slash, Smith2006, Smjwalsh, Snader, Soetermans, Solitude, Sonance, Spellmaster, Spoonkymonkey, Sreejithk2000, Stephen Bain, Steve Pucci, Stijn Calle, Stone, Surtsicna, TGC55, TRBlom, Taketa, Tarquin, Tassedethe, Tbhotch, Textorus, The Emperor's New Spy, The Rhymesmith, Theo Assen, Thismightbezach, Thorwald, Thruxton, Tklink, Tom Morris, TommyBoy, Ulflarsen, Unionhawk, Viajero, Vriullop, Vzbs34, WVR, Waacstats, Wally, Wayne Miller, Wikipeterproject, Woohookitty, WouterVH, Zadcat, Zahid Abdassabur, Zanimum, Zmjezhd, Ævar Arnfjörð Bjarmason, 379 anonymous edits

Beatrix of the Netherlands Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=580748222 Contributors: *Kat*, *drew, 011mbarnes, 0lorenzo0, 1Veertje, 2001:610:308:602:0:0:0:8, 2001:981:311B:1:B88E:136D:87E7:69B6, 47gunther47, 777a, A bit iffy, ATX-NL, Abelljms, Abu badali, Adam sk, Adam850, Aecis, Aelfhere, Againme, Ajk8296529, Alandeus, Ale jrb, Aleichem, Alexanderpas, Alifazal, Amberrock, Amhantar, Amillar, Andre Engels, AndreaMimi, Andrias w, Angr, Animum, Anir1uph, Anthony Appleyard, Apteva, Arjayay, Armeria, Aroundthewayboy, Arpadkorossy, Asalrifai, Asrefaei, Astorknlam, Atlan, AusTerrapin, Avwettin, Backdoors, Barend, Bartfeenstra, Bas Hagreis, Baseballbaker23, Basemaniac, Baszoetekouw, Bazza 7, Bct88, Belg4mit, BenTels, Bertie, Bill Thayer, Billinghurst, Biruitorul, Blowdart, Blurtebus, Bo Basil, Bobblewik, Boerenfox, Boing! said Zebedee, Bonjour LaLaLa, Booksworm, Boston, Brenont, Brianboulton, Briandrewz, Bridgetfox, BrotherFlounder, Buho09, Burto88, C mon, CSvBibra, Callanecc, Cam, CambridgeBayWeather, Campdavid, Canley, Caoanroad4800, Caponer, Carlossuarez46, Catdango, Catfishstar9, Ceyockey, Charles, Chendy, Chicheley, Clairypolak, Classical geographer, Clbbct3, Cmills924, Colincbn, CommonsDelinker, Connormah, Conversion script, Corvus cornix, Craigy144, Crapnoggin, Crusader1089, Cst17, Curly Turkey, Cwoyte, D.M. from Ukraine, D6, DGtal, DH85868993, DVdm, DWC LR, Daanschr, Dacamp12, Dainomite, Dan rexx, Danbarnesdavies, Dancer, Dancingwombatsrule, Daniel, Dannnny sdfhjkjhgrc bghrdc5434657, Dantadd, Darkwind, Davehi1, David de Cooman, Davpronk, Davshul, Dayallswaggy, Demophon, Diarto, Dimadick, Diodecimus, Dl2000, DoorsAjar, Douglas the Comeback Kid, DougsTech, Dowew, Dowiha, Dqfn13, Dr.K., DrKiernan, Drachenfyre, DragonflySixtyseven, Drmies, Dudeness10, E Wing, EDT95, ES Vic, ESkog, EamonnPKeane, Editør, Eezie, Effeietsanders, Ehrenkater, El Cid, Elkhatebs, Ellsworth, Eluchil404, Empoor, Enredados, Entheta, Ephix, Equord, Erwin (SUL), Espetkov, Esrever, Eugene van der Pijll, Eugene-elgato, Eurodog, Eyesnore, Fbcnl, Fdewaele, FkT, Florentino floro, Folks at 137, Framedrop, Francs2000, Fresheneesz, Frietjes, Fry1989, Fthobe, Fuzzbox, G.-M. Cupertino, G2bambino, Gaius Cornelius, Gareth E Kegg, Garryq, Ged UK, Geertv, GenQuest, George The Dragon, GeorgeWReeves, GiantSnowman, Gidonb, Gigano, Gilliam, Gilligan Skipper, Ginkgo100, Glynhughes, Gogobera, GoingBatty, Goldom, Golf Bravo, Good Olfactory, GoodDay, Graham87, Grandmaster e, Grey Fox-9589, Gritchka, Gsandi, Gugganij, Gurch, H-Man Havoc, HalfShadow, Hammersfan, Hammersoft, HangingCurve, HansM, Hansiewansie, Hazhk, Hbdragon88, Heathencourt, Hebel, Heimstern, Hekerui, HenkvD, Hephaestos, Herman Wicker, Hibou8, Hlodynn, Hmains, Husky, Hyacinth, IMNOTAVANDALK7, IRelayer, Iamvered, Iamwisesun, Ibagli, Ilse@, Imladros, Inge, Iridescent, IronGargoyle, Ivo von Rosenqvist, JCO312, JForget, JMvanDijk, JRGregory, JWULTRABLIZZARD, JaGa, JackofOz, Jacobiman, Jacoplane, Jane doe10, Article Sources and Contributors 523

Jannizz, Jarcje, JasonB007, Jeronimo, Jerry, Jeulina, Jiang, Jmranger, JoanneB, Job70, Joefromrandb, John, John K, John ralph free, Johnchiu, Johngiul, Jon Harald Søby, Jonjames1986, Joost 99, Jorge Alejandro Luiz, JoukeTromp, Joyous!, Jtdirl, Juandjuand, Junuxx, Justasking88, K1590, Kai27, Kaiser matias, Kajmal, Kanuk, KarlFrei, Katherine, Kathryn NicDhàna, Keakealani, Keivan.f, Kenryo, Kingpin13, Koekjesencaramel, Kpjas, Känsterle, Lac231165, Lacrimosus, LanthanumK, Larix, Layla Mary, Leaky caldron, Leifern, Lesothoman2005, Lettonica, Levin, Lmvdamme, Lokimaros, Lord Emsworth, Lottorose, Louis88, Lucyin, LukeSurl, MRM0923, MZMcBride, Ma'ame Michu, Maashatra11, Manop, Marc Kupper, Mark J, Markewilliams, Marnixstraat370, Martinvl, Materialscientist, Mathiasrex, Matjlav, Maurice Carbonaro, Maurice27, Medeis, MelbourneStar, Mentatus, Mhardcastle, Mightyalexa, Mike-Kerkhoven, Mimich, MisfitToys, Mistakefinder, MisterBee1966, Mitrius, Modulatum, Moncrief, Montrealais, Morel, Morhange, Mr. D. E. Mophon, Mr.Z-man, Mrhalohunter24, Msl5046, Mukmak, Mvdleeuw, Mym-uk, Mystman666, Naval Scene, Neddyseagoon, Nepenthes, Neun-x, Neutral bias, Newnoise, Ngio, NickCT, Nickst, Nikkimaria, Nkontrimas, Noommos, Notapotato, Nunh-huh, Nuno Tavares, Nyttend, O.Koslowski, Oden, Ohconfucius, Ohnoitsjamie, Opie, OrangeTacos3t, Ozdaren, PL290, Palaeozoic99, Palnatoke, Parafernalia, Parsonscat, Parure, Patrick, Paul Benjamin Austin, Paul K., Pedro, Peeperman, Peking Duck, Peter Isotalo, PeterPan1, Pethan, Petrb, Phgao, Philip Stevens, Philthecow, Piledhigheranddeeper, Plastikspork, Pol098, Poor Me! I have Hemorrhoids!, Profoss, Proteus, Prsgoddess187, PureRED, Pwt898, Qais13, Quibik, Qwfp, R'n'B, RFBailey, Raamin, Rabidsmily, RadManCF, Radagast, Radioflux, RainbowOfLight, Random user 8384993, Random86, Raymondwinn, Red-eyed demon, Redalert2fan, Redlady1, Relyk, Remes, Reywas92, Rich Farmbrough, Richard David Ramsey, Richard0612, Rigadoun, Right Honrable, Rjwilmsi, Rmhermen, Robertsduney, Rocastelo, Rockhopper10r, Rothorpe, Roux, Rpvdk, Rrius, Rtol, Rubenescio, Ruittenb, Rye1967, Rysz, Ryubread, SNIyer12, Salion, Sango123, SarahStierch, Schalkcity, Searchme, Secfan, Shai-kun, Shanes, ShhhhhhhitttttttttttingNipples, ShiiitingDickNipples, ShittingNipples, Shot info, Sigismund Payne Best, Silverhorse, Simson, Skookum1, Skuipers, Slgrandson, SlickRickVick, Slipperyweasel, Sminthopsis84, Sneltrekker, Snocrates, Sodacan, Solitude, Southof40, Sparrowhawk64, Spliffy, Springyboy, Ssolbergj, Stefan Kruithof, Stifle, Surtsicna, Sven Manguard, Synchronism, T@nn, TRAJAN 117, TaalVerbeteraar, Tabletop, Tamfang, Tauanafz, Tdls, TevaKN, Textorus, Tfoxworth, Thane, Thayts, The Banner, The Emperor's New Spy, The Quill, The Rhymesmith, The Singing Badger, TheGoofyGolfer, Theda, Themoodyblue, Therequiembellishere, Thue, Thumperward, Tins128, Tktru, Todkvi5832, Tokiohotelover, TomCat4680, TomGreen, Ton1974, Topher385, Totie, Trebor, Trident13, Truthanado, Tsja, Ulric1313, Unyoyega, UpDown, Urbansiberia, User332572385, Utcursch, VI, VIKING OISC, Valdonega, Valentinian, Van helsing, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Vanluin, Varro, VegaDark, Velella, Vernoeming, Versus22, Vicki Rosenzweig, Vidarfe, Vlaascho, Vzbs34, Waacstats, Wai Hong, Webclient101, Weirdtheory, Wenckheim, Werty78, Whouk, Wickethewok, WikHead, WikiHaquinator, WikiLaurent, Wikipelli, Wildhartlivie, Wilfried Derksen, William Avery, Winternest, Wizzy, Wknight94, Wmahan, WoodElf, Woodsstock, Woohookitty, Xanderer, YUL89YYZ, Yintan, Yk Yk Yk, Zanetar, Zoe, Zscout370, Zzuuzz, Романов, СЛУЖБА, ༆, 813 anonymous edits

Prince Claus of the Netherlands Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=579994571 Contributors: 16pedia2, ATX-NL, AndreaMimi, Andrei Iosifovich, Anne-Sophie Ofrim, Ap, ApprenticeFan, Arvindn, Astorknlam, AusTerrapin, Avsa, Bct88, Beetstra, BenTels, Billinghurst, Boerenfox, CORTEZ-MEDINA, Caponer, Chicheley, Chris 73, Clausule, Comovnhuting, Connormah, D6, DWC LR, Danbarnesdavies, Demophon, DerbyCountyinNZ, Diderot, Dimadick, Dimitris, Diodecimus, DocendoDiscimus, Docu, Donnog, DrKiernan, Ecjmartin, Egeymi, Ellsworth, Empoor, Enredados, Equord, Erik Zachte, Espetkov, Everyking, Faroeq, Favonian, Fdewaele, Firstorm, Flénu, FokkeJapiks, Fry1989, G.-M. Cupertino, Gai831, Gerhard51, Gidonb, Gilliam, GreenPen, Gryffindor, HangingCurve, HansM, Hephaestos, Ian Pitchford, Ilse@, Inge, Iohannes Animosus, JCO312, James Blond, Jammydodger, JanDeFietser, Jarkeld, JeLuF, Jmlinsa, Joshmaul, Joy, Kelisi, Kernel Saunters, Kiteinthewind, Kittybrewster, Komusou, KremlinGirl1964, Känsterle, Leithp, Liftarn, Little Cambridge, Lockley, Lucky13pjn, Maartenvdbent, Macuxi, Malcolma, Manushand, Mcferran, MereCM, Michael David, Mike-Kerkhoven, Mimich, MisterBee1966, Monegasque, Morhange, Motyka, Mr. D. E. Mophon, Mwanner, Nijhof, Noclador, Nufy8, Oden, Olessi, Optakeover, PKM, Parafernalia, Parsecboy, Patrick, Paul Benjamin Austin, Pethan, PigFlu Oink, Quadell, RM21, Remes, Rich Farmbrough, Rubenescio, SNIyer12, SandyDancer, Savidan, SelfQ, Sigismund Payne Best, Silverhorse, Someone else, Stan Shebs, Supparluca, Surtsicna, TRBlom, Textorus, The Emperor's New Spy, The Minister of War, The Rhymesmith, The wub, Timeineurope, Toby Bartels, Tsja, Uppland, Vzbs34, Wapcaplet, Woohookitty, СЛУЖБА, 하늘모래, 120 anonymous edits

Princess Irene of the Netherlands Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=577191173 Contributors: 0704monochrome, Afasmit, Againme, Almedina22, Aquila89, Asalrifai, Astorknlam, Baldrick90, BenTels, Bender235, BertSen, Boerenfox, Boston, Briandrewz, Bridgetfox, C mon, Caponer, Chanza, Charles, CommonsDelinker, Craigy144, Crisco 1492, D6, DWC LR, DWiki2, Dancingwombatsrule, Demophon, Dimadick, Diodecimus, Doortmont, Doremo, Egeymi, Ekrenor, Elainebloom, Enredados, Epimetreus, Error, FiatLovers, G.-M. Cupertino, George Ponderevo, Gerald Farinas, Graham87, Gryffindor, Hammersfan, HansM, Henrik, Iawas, Ishtar456, JeLuF, Jess Cully, Jmabel, Jtdirl, Jun Nijo, Jvhertum, Kevyn, Kingstowngalway, Kleinzach, Kmorozov, LHOON, Lec CRP1, LouisPhilippeCharles, Magioladitis, MiguelJoseErnst, Mimich, Mkruijff, Mktv2000, Morhange, Nantko, Nathanwg, Ohconfucius, Ozewiezewoze, Paliano, Paul Magnussen, Pethan, Prsgoddess187, Random86, Rich Farmbrough, Richardb43, Rjwilmsi, Ruby2010, Sodacan, Someone else, Sun Creator, Surtsicna, Tabletop, The Emperor's New Spy, The Quill, Thorwald, TimothyRias, Vanished user 19794758563875, Waacstats, We hope, Whytecypress, Wik, Wikix, 101 anonymous edits

Princess Margriet of the Netherlands Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=577592651 Contributors: Aazeez, Andries, Anklefear, Ariadne55, Asalrifai, Astorknlam, AusTerrapin, Bahamut Star, BenTels, BesselDekker, Boerenfox, BoomerAB, Boris Kaiser, Briandrewz, Bridgetfox, Canadiana, Caponer, Carbonix, CarolSpears, Cladeal832, Clarityfiend, Cornellrockey, D6, DWC LR, Dancingwombatsrule, Demophon, Dimadick, Diodecimus, Dirac66, DrKiernan, Dylanlad, Ebear422, Egeymi, Enredados, Eugene van der Pijll, Fentener van Vlissingen, Folks at 137, Formeruser0910, Francs2000, G.-M. Cupertino, Gene Nygaard, Gryffindor, Hammersfan, HansM, Happy138, Hmwith, Iamthecheese44, Iamunknown, IdreamofJeanie, Inge, Jacoplane, John Paul Parks, Jonjames1986, Junes, K7L, KAVEBEAR, Kingstonjr, Kmorozov, Markussep, Mdieke, Melissac18, Mimich, Montrealais, Morhange, Mpeisenbr, NorthernThunder, Oden, Ohconfucius, Patrick, Pethan, Pieter Kuiper, Prsgoddess187, RFBailey, Radagast, Raellerby, Redf0x, Rich Farmbrough, Rillian, Rupertslander, Skuipers, Spinboy, Surtsicna, The Quill, Themepark, Timeineurope, Twiin, VanBuren, Varlaam, Worm That Turned, Zoe, 114 anonymous edits

Pieter van Vollenhoven Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=572343700 Contributors: ATX-NL, Afasmit, Angela, Ariadne55, Asalrifai, Astorknlam, BenTels, Branko, Bridgetfox, Chris the speller, ChrisGualtieri, D6, Decathlete, Demophon, Dimadick, DrKiernan, Empoor, Enno, Enredados, Eugene van der Pijll, Folks at 137, G.-M. Cupertino, Gidonb, Greenshed, Hammersfan, Iamunknown, IndyetObi, Klemen Kocjancic, Magere Hein, Magioladitis, Mimich, Morhange, Mr. D. E. Mophon, MrData1054, Nantko, Nunh-huh, Oden, Omegastar, Pethan, Rich Farmbrough, Sixtus, Someone else, The Emperor's New Spy, The Quill, Timeineurope, WhisperToMe, Wikipeterproject, Wikix, Woohookitty, 21 anonymous edits

Princess Christina of the Netherlands Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=577977919 Contributors: Antandrus, Astorknlam, Awulgi, BenTels, Blue5732, Boerenfox, Brian1979, Briandrewz, Caponer, D6, DWC LR, Demophon, Derek Ross, Dimadick, Egeymi, Enredados, G.-M. Cupertino, Gareth E Kegg, Gidonb, HansM, Iamthecheese44, Joe Decker, Kleinzach, Mimich, Morhange, Mr. D. E. Mophon, Nantko, Niceguyedc, Ohconfucius, Pethan, Pjahr, Prsgoddess187, Rich Farmbrough, Surtsicna, Targaryen, The Quill, The Thing That Should Not Be, TommyBoy, Vanished user 19794758563875, Саша из Киева, 47 anonymous edits

Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=580750559 Contributors: 's-Gravenhage, (, 16pedia2, 2001:558:1404:0:0:5EFE:A15:22B6, 900mill, A bit iffy, A.amitkumar, AGK, ATX-NL, Aecis, Aetheling1125, Aight 2009, Aldo samulo, Aleichem, Alexeinikolayevichromanov, All Hallow's Wraith, Allard, Amakuru, Anderson Rawls, Andre Engels, AndreaMimi, Andrei Iosifovich, Andrias w, Andries, Anna Lincoln, Arctic Kangaroo, Arnoutf, Arwel Parry, Asdflk;asjf;, Astorknlam, Astynax, Atlan, AtomicGagou, AusTerrapin, Azz86, Bailo26, Baszoetekouw, Bct88, Bearian, BenTels, Berek, Bilsonius, Bobnorwal, Boerenfox, Briandrewz, Brickie, Bridgetfox, C mon, CORTEZ-MEDINA, Calmer Waters, Canuckian89, Caponer, Carlossuarez46, Cbradshaw, Charles01, Chevalier3, Chicheley, Chris the speller, Click15, Cmc0, Cmills924, Coemgenus, Coenie1, CommonsDelinker, CopperSquare, Cotillards, Craigy144, D.M. from Ukraine, D6, DaanAlberga, Dale Arnett, Danbarnesdavies, Dancingwombatsrule, Dancter, Dantadd, Dawnseeker2000, Debresser, Demophon, Dfddtdt, Dfgkj, Diannaa, Dimadick, Diodecimus, Discospinster, Doops, Dotx3, DrKiernan, Drachenfyre, Drmies, Duffman, EamonnPKeane, Eboracum, Editør, Edwtie, Egeymi, Ehrenkater, Elendil's Heir, Ellanor2, Empoor, Enredados, Erictorres-2002, Erik Zachte, Espetkov, Eugene van der Pijll, Evoluon, Fdewaele, Fitnr, Folks at 137, Fourthords, Francs2000, FrankEldonDixon, Frietjes, Frochtrup, Fry1989, Furor Teutonicus, G.-M. Cupertino, G2bambino, Gai831, Gap9551, Garryq, Gidonb, Gilliam, Glenmeister, GoodDay, Gothamscholar, Grafen, Grinky7872, Gryffindor, Gsmgm, Gunsnroses15, Hammersfan, HandsomeFella, HangingCurve, HansM, Hanskarlperez, Happytravels, Hazhk, Hebel, Hede2000, Heralder, Hottentot, Hshhh, I´m not really here, Hulzenga, Hvn0413, Iamthecheese44, Ilse@, Imladros, Inge, Intangible, Intelligent Mr Toad, Isolani, Isthmus of Kra, J S Ayer, JEH, JHunterJ, JMvanDijk, JWULTRABLIZZARD, JackofOz, James Blond, JamesBrownIsDead, Jamesofur, Jandalhandler, Jao, Jarkeld, Jayron32, Jaywubba1887, Jerryftwayne, JimmyTheWig, Joaquin008, Joefromrandb, John Paul Parks, Joshmaul, Jredmond, Jtdirl, Jusdafax, Jóna Þórunn, Kaiser matias, Kariton00, KathrynLybarger, Kdebem, Kenryo, Koekebien, KramerNL, KuatofKDY, KyraVixen, Känsterle, LarryJeff, Leandrogfcdutra, Leffe00, Leifern, Lerdsuwa, Lerdthenerd, Lexusuns, Liaxar, LightPhoenix, Loganseabrook2011, Looploper, Louis88, Lowellian, LtNOWIS, Ltwin, M'encarta, MZMcBride, Marauder40, Marek69, Martinvl, Marxjj0, Materialscientist, MatjesNL, Matjlav, Mbch331, Mdieke, MedeaMelana, MelbourneStar, Mfhulskemper, Micnl, Mike Rosoft, Mike-Kerkhoven, Mikedelsol, Mimich, Miyagawa, Mmeijeri, Moe Epsilon, Mogism, Montrealais, Morhange, Mr. Absurd, Mr. D. E. Mophon, Mrlopez2681, Mtcv, Mtiedemann, Mvdleeuw, Mythic Writerlord, NJackKaren, Neilc, NellieBlyMobile, Niels V, Niels van der Salm, Nikkimaria, Norden1990, Ntsimp, Nv8200p, Nyttend, Oden, Ohconfucius, Ohnoitsjamie, Oliphaunt, Outback the koala, Parafernalia, Pascal, Patrick, Paul Magnussen, Pdfpdf, Pepijn Schmitz, Petecollier, Pethan, Picapica, Piledhigheranddeeper, Pinethicket, Plastikspork, Plek, Pol098, Postdlf, Prsgoddess187, Pwt898, Q300r bc2, Quidam65, Qwerty Binary, Ramitmahajan, RandomCritic, RaphaelQS, Renzoy16, Revolución, Reywas92, Rich Farmbrough, Richard David Ramsey, RichardMills65, Rjwilmsi, Rmhermen, Robert McClenon, Rogerd, Rothorpe, Rpvdk, Rrius, Rtol, Rubenescio, Saberwyn, Salgueiro, Sander.v.Ginkel, Saskia89, Scanlan, Schwarzbichler, Seaphoto, Seeaxid, Sigma 7, SimonLyall, SkyWalker, Skysmurf, Smonoco, Sodacan, Springyboy, StAnselm, StefSom, Stephen Day, Superp, Surtsicna, T@nn, Tasc, Tdevries, Tedernst, Tewapack, Tfoxworth, Thayts, The Banner, The Emperor's New Spy, The Minister of War, The Quill, The Rhymesmith, TheDJ, Themoodyblue, Therequiembellishere, Thorin, Timeineurope, Timrollpickering, Tktru, Tokiohotelover, TomasMFC, TommyBoy, Tony johnsong, Totie, Toyokuni3, TudorQueen6, Uhai, VIKING OISC, Vamhendriks, Vanasan, Varro, Velocitas, Viajero, Vipinhari, Vlaascho, Vlad2000Plus, Vzbs34, Weather72787, Webclient101, Wik, Wildhartlivie, Winternest, Woohookitty, Writtenright, Yintan, Yoenit, Zoe, СЛУЖБА, ชลธิศ เข้มแข็ง, 403 anonymous edits

Prince of Orange Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=579712356 Contributors: *Kat*, 1812ahill, 900mill, AbercrombieClub, AladdinSE, Andrei Iosifovich, Auntof6, BD2412, Bazonka, BertSen, BoBo, Briancollette, Charles, Chl, Chnou, Chris93, CommonsDelinker, Cryptic, D.M. from Ukraine, D6, Deadstar, Demophon, Dhartung, Diodecimus, Editør, Effeietsanders, EoGuy, Erwin (SUL), Eugene van der Pijll, FactStraight, Falcon8765, Filiep, Fredrik B, GagHalfrunt, Gerrit Oopje, Gillean666, Gryffindor, Gurumoorthy Poochandhai, HansM, Hebel, Hmains, Ilovemybesties123, J S Ayer, JMvanDijk, Jeff843, John K, John of Reading, Kuru, Kusma, L Kensington, Lamro, Lapsed Pacifist, LouisPhilippeCharles, Ludde23, Maarten1963, Man vyi, Mcapdevila, Mike Rosoft, Mikechen, Mild Bill Hiccup, Mitrius, Mr. D. E. Mophon, Mvdleeuw, Mym-uk, Naddy, NawlinWiki, Niceguyedc, Nick Number, Noah price2001, OISC 89, ObRoy, Odejea, Olivier, Pagetools, Pepicek, Phils, PhnomPencil, Phoe, Puffin, Rich Farmbrough, Ricotijsen, Rmhermen, RuudVisser, Salvo46, Sashal, SchreiberBike, Setanta747 (locked), Sfan00 IMG, Silverhelm, Sleigh, Sodacan, Sonett72, Stijn Calle, Str1977, Surtsicna, Tbharding, The Emperor's New Spy, The Quill, TheUnforgiven, Thylacoleo, Tktru, Uncle Dick, VIKING OISC, Velfr, Article Sources and Contributors 524

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Queen Máxima of the Netherlands Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=579858617 Contributors: 's-Gravenhage, 16pedia2, 2001:981:524D:1:BDED:21DC:92EB:4B71, A bit iffy, ATX-NL, Abu badali, Acalamari, Alex0832003, AlexTiefling, Allard, Aly3895, AndreaMimi, Andres, Anoniem0503, Anonima, ApprenticeFan, Ariadne55, Arnoutf, Astorknlam, Atlan, Babygirl32843, Barryob, Bct88, BenTels, Billtheking, Black1Night, Boerenfox, Bridgetfox, C mon, CARLMART, Callelinea, CambridgeBayWeather, CanuckViking, Canuckian89, Charles, Charlotten, Charmaria, Chino, Chip123456, Choster, Circeus, Cmills924, Cnyborg, ColonelHenry, Colonies Chris, CommonsDelinker, ContiAWB, Coolhawks88, Coreydragon, Cotillards, Courcelles, Craigy144, CrazyPhunk, Cristian Cappiello, Crodriguezn, Cugel, Cutepsychokitty, D6, DMG413, DR22P, DWC LR, DaanAlberga, DagosNavy, Dancingwombatsrule, Dancter, Dantadd, Davpronk, Deb, Debresser, Delaraha, Demophon, Denny eR Ge, Dev920, Dfgkj, Diderot, Dimadick, Diodecimus, Docu, Doortmont, DrJos, Dvdgaag, Ebyabe, Echuck215, Editør, Egeymi, Ehrenkater, Ekeltje, Eliza Parry, Ellanor2, Enredados, EoGuy, Erik Zachte, Espetkov, Evil saltine, Excirial, FactStraight, Factsstraight, Felixkunc, FokkeJapiks, Fourthords, Francs2000, Fry1989, G.-M. Cupertino, GL, Garion96, Gclaassen, Gene Nygaard, Gentgeen, GerardM, Gidonb, Gilliam, Gryffindor, Guat6, Gugganij, GyaroMaguus, Hammersfan, HangingCurve, Hanskarlperez, Hebel, Hectorian, Hu12, Hvmaanen, Iamthecheese44, Icemanofbarcelona101, Ikkemye, Ilse@, Intangible, Iselilja, JEH, JackofOz, Jacoplane, Jahoe, James Blond, JayHenry, Jeffpw, Jkk2, Joseph Solis in Australia, Joshua, Jusdafax, Juvarra, KNTRO, Keeshu, Keivan.f, Kgrad, Klemen Kocjancic, Kmorozov, Korrawit, Känsterle, LadyofShalott, Le fantome de l'opera, LeoDavid, Little Professor, Lolliapaulina51, Lomedae, Luxorr, MadIce, Magioladitis, MaliCeChris, Marianocecowski, Master Jay, Mathsci, Matjlav, Mdieke, Mikep2008a, Mimich, Mitrius, Moline670, Montrealais, Moondyne, Morhange, Moz&rob, Mr. D. E. Mophon, Mtiedemann, MussoMusso, Mxcatania, Nat91, Niels Brons, Noel baran, Nv8200p, Nycpucollege, OS2Warp, Oden, Olagnu, Oleg Alexandrov, Oleg-ch, Oliphaunt, Ondewelle, Originalbigj, Ousgfh, OwenBlacker, Paradissi, Pascal, Patrick, Pdfpdf, Peronista, Pethan, Ponyo, Postmoderntrucker, Prino, Prsgoddess187, Pwt898, Q300r bc2, Quidam65, R'n'B, ROxBo, RainbowOfLight, Raymond Cruise, Redlady1, Rgroen, Rich Farmbrough, Ruby2010, Ryan Norton, SFK2, Sandman, Sarahj2107, Save the Bialys, Scafloc, Sean729, Sebastiankessel, Sigma 7, Silverhorse, Sir Paul, SkyLined, SkyWalker, SmokeyJoe, SnowFire, Sodacan, Sofffie7, Sohambanerjee1998, Sookoll, Stemonitis, Stephenpace, Stevenscollege, Surtsicna, TRAJAN 117, Tamarenda, Tat Meng, Tazmaniacs, Thayts, The Banner, The Emperor's New Spy, The Quill, TheDJ, TheJJJunk, Themoodyblue, Thorin, Timeineurope, Tktru, TommyBoy, Tonymec, Trampikey, Trijnstel, Tsemii, Tzartzam, Unfitlouie, Vespuccia, Viajero, Vilartatim, Vizcarra, Vlad, Vorlon19, Weather72787, Wernher, Wik, Wikimandia, Wikipeterproject, Wildhartlivie, Yopie, 450 anonymous edits

Prince Friso of Orange-Nassau Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=580070080 Contributors: (, 100110100, 15turnsm, 2001:558:1404:0:0:5EFE:A15:22B6, 2602:306:BD61:E0F0:CCA3:13F7:698D:70FE, A.amitkumar, ATX-NL, Aecis, Alphaboi867, AndreaMimi, Anthony Appleyard, Arwel Parry, Astorknlam, AxelBoldt, BabbaQ, Baszoetekouw, Bct88, Bemoeial, BenTels, Bobo192, Boerenfox, Boris Crépeau, Brenont, Briandrewz, Bridgetfox, Btouburg, CAWylie, Caponer, Caudex Rax, Chase me ladies, I'm the Cavalry, Chris the speller, Coemgenus, Colonies Chris, Connormah, CopperSquare, Cotillards, Craigy144, D6, DGG, Dancingwombatsrule, Dancter, David Newton, Deb, Demophon, Devil's Revenge, Dick van Aggelen, Dimadick, Diodecimus, Dpv, Ecofica public, Editør, Egeymi, Ejectgoose, Ellywa, Enredados, Espetkov, Esszet, FabrizioMarana, FactStraight, Florentino floro, Fry1989, G.-M. Cupertino, Gidonb, Girlwithgreeneyes, Graceious, Hadal, Hammersfan, HandsomeFella, HansM, Happytravels, HeartofaDog, Hebel, Henk Obee, HenkvD, Henkwvanasten, Hvmaanen, Hvn0413, Idh0854, JackofOz, JanDeFietser, Jfkjaya, John of Reading, Jonjames1986, Josvl, Jtdirl, Jwkozak91, KAS69, Kaashji, Kdebem, Keivan.f, Killuminator, Kintetsubuffalo, Kitchawan, Kiwipat, Klilidiplomus, L.tak, Le fantome de l'opera, LexXxus180, Lightlowemon, Little Professor, Lizzie Nonesuch, Lucius Winslow, LukeSurl, M'encarta, Man vyi, Martinvl, Masterknighted, Mdd, Mdieke, MelbourneStar, Miesianiacal, Mimich, Mitrius, Modest Genius, MonaScabra, Montrealais, Morhange, Mortense, Mr. D. E. Mophon, MrDolomite, Mtcv, Mym-uk, Mythic Writerlord, Nunh-huh, Oden, Oliphaunt, Ondewelle, Optimist on the run, OwenBlacker, Oxymoron83, Patrick, Patries, Paul K., Pe1pbu, Pethan, Petri Krohn, Presidentman, Prsgoddess187, Racklever, Radzinski, Rich Farmbrough, Rillian, Roentgenium111, Ruby2010, SDC, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Shamrockman455, Silverhorse, Sir Statler, Skarioffszky, Skysmurf, Smalljim, Someone else, StAnselm, Stefanomione, Stijn Calle, Surtsicna, TBloemink, TaalVerbeteraar, Targaryen, Textorus, The Banner, The Emperor's New Spy, The Quill, The Rambling Man, Thedocjd, Timeineurope, Tktru, Todkvi5832, Trident13, Trigaranus, Trusilver, Uniposter, Viajero, Waacstats, Wames, Wik, Wikix, Wizardman, Yellowdesk, ZeaForUs, 191 anonymous edits

Prince Constantijn of the Netherlands Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=579810407 Contributors: ATX-NL, Adam Carr, Aleichem, AndreaMimi, Astorknlam, Bct88, BeerBellyBob, Bemoeial, BenTels, Boerenfox, Briandrewz, Bridgetfox, Caponer, ClamDip, Craigy144, D6, DWC LR, Dancingwombatsrule, Deb, Demophon, Denny eR Ge, Dewritech, Dimadick, Diodecimus, Dr31, DrKiernan, Effeietsanders, Egeymi, Ellanor2, Enredados, Espetkov, Francs2000, Fry1989, G.-M. Cupertino, GoodDay, Hammersfan, HansM, HenkvD, Iamthecheese44, Icairns, Ivo von Rosenqvist, JLCA, Japanese Searobin, Jonjames1986, Jtdirl, KAVEBEAR, M'encarta, MECU, Martinvl, Mdieke, Mimich, Morhange, Mr. D. E. Mophon, Mtcv, Mym-uk, Nunh-huh, Oden, Ohconfucius, Oliphaunt, Patrick, Pdfpdf, Pethan, Prsgoddess187, Pwt898, Quadell, Radagast, Rich Farmbrough, RockMFR, Rubenescio, Sc147, Sixtus, Sodacan, Sparkleyone, Surtsicna, TRAJAN 117, The Emperor's New Spy, The Quill, Timeineurope, Todkvi5832, TommyBoy, Trident13, Updatehelper, Wai Hong, Xeno, Yuyudevil, СЛУЖБА, 58 anonymous edits

Princess Laurentien of the Netherlands Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=576187656 Contributors: 2001:558:1404:0:0:5EFE:A15:22B6, Afasmit, AndreaMimi, Artist In Flight, Astorknlam, Bct88, BenTels, Boerenfox, Boston9, Bridgetfox, Caponer, D6, Dancingwombatsrule, Dancter, Deb, Demophon, Dimadick, Diodecimus, DrKiernan, Drmies, Eddyspeeder, Ellanor2, Enredados, FactStraight, Fry1989, G.-M. Cupertino, Gaius Cornelius, GreatWhiteNortherner, Gryffindor, Hammersfan, Hathawayc, Iamthecheese44, Iamunknown, Ilse@, Jtdirl, KAVEBEAR, Mdieke, Melchoir, Mimich, Morhange, Mvdleeuw, Oden, Oliphaunt, Pethan, Prsgoddess187, Rabrams20, Rich Farmbrough, Siguroardottir, Solitude, Surtsicna, TRAJAN 117, Template namespace initialisation script, The Quill, The Rhymesmith, Timrollpickering, Trialsanderrors, U-Two, Unesco-unld, Wilfried Derksen, Zoicon5, 45 anonymous edits

Catharina-Amalia, Princess of Orange Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=577983504 Contributors: 16pedia2, A bit iffy, ATX-NL, Adavidb, Adelbrecht, Aec is away, Aecis, Ahzaj, Aldo samulo, Aleichem, Andrei Iosifovich, Andres, Angusmclellan, Atlan, AtomicGagou, Avjoska, BasFey, Boerenfox, Bogey-master, Bridgetfox, C mon, CARLMART, CORTEZ-MEDINA, Canuckian89, Caponer, Carlossuarez46, CarolusFride, Chicheley, Chino, Cladeal832, Cmills924, Coolhawks88, Courcelles, Craigy144, D6, DaanAlberga, Daaviiid, Danbarnesdavies, Dancingwombatsrule, Dancter, DarthYotho, Demophon, Diderot, Dimadick, Disinclination, Editør, Effeietsanders, Egeymi, Elf-friend, Empoor, Enredados, Ericl, FactStraight, For An Angel, FoxyOrange, Francs2000, Frietjes, G.-M. Cupertino, Gabal, Gemertp, GerardM, Gidonb, Gimmetoo, GoodDay, Gryffindor, Gugganij, Hammersfan, HangingCurve, Hans Adler, Hdw, Hektor, Iamthecheese44, Imladros, Ivo von Rosenqvist, Jack O'Lantern, JackofOz, Japanese Searobin, Jonjames1986, Kaihsu, Kdebem, Keivan.f, Kleinzach, Kmorozov, KuyumcuS, La goutte de pluie, Lavaboy900, Le fantome de l'opera, LeoDavid, LightPhoenix, MTracy2011, Magioladitis, Marianocecowski, Martinvl, Mathonius, Matjlav, Mdieke, Merovingian, Metheglyn, Mimich, Mitrius, Morhange, Mr. D. E. Mophon, Mtcv, Mvdleeuw, Naval Scene, Nunh-huh, Oden, Ohconfucius, Papa November, Papageno92, Patrick, Peterwill, Pethan, Pigsonthewing, PrincessAlice13, Prsgoddess187, Puffin, Queen Fabiola, RedWolf, Rich Farmbrough, Richf in mo, Rrius, Sander.v.Ginkel, Sandrofantora, Silverhorse, Sodacan, Sofffie7, Spellinggirl, Surtsicna, Sverdrup, Swid, Targaryen, Thatjeopardygirl, Thayts, The Emperor's New Spy, The Quill, TheDJ, Timeineurope, Todkvi5832, Verdia25, Weather72787, Wikigirl 2, Wimvandorst, Wjddbsals, Woohookitty, Xenophon777, СЛУЖБА, 250 anonymous edits

Princess Alexia of the Netherlands Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=578126237 Contributors: 16pedia2, A bit iffy, ATX-NL, Aecis, Aldo samulo, Aleichem, Andres, Ascathon, AtomicGagou, Avjoska, BasFey, Boerenfox, Bridgetfox, C mon, CARLMART, Canuckian89, Caponer, Chochopk, Cmills924, Coolhawks88, Craigy144, D6, DaanAlberga, Dancingwombatsrule, Dancter, Demophon, Dimadick, Diodecimus, Discworldian, Dynasticheirsforyounow, Enredados, Epinheiro, FactStraight, Francs2000, G.-M. Cupertino, Gidonb, GoodDay, Grumpycraig, Gryffindor, Hercule, Iamthecheese44, Japanese Searobin, JayHenry, JesseW, Joe Decker, Jonjames1986, Kaihsu, Kdebem, Kmorozov, Kostja, Le fantome de l'opera, LightPhoenix, MacGyverMagic, Magioladitis, Martinvl, Mathonius, Matjlav, Mimich, Morhange, Oden, Ohconfucius, Ohnoitsjamie, Papa November, PrincessAlice13, Prsgoddess187, Qtoktok, RexNL, Rfsmit, Rich Farmbrough, SMasters, Sander.v.Ginkel, Sigma 7, Sodacan, Super Mario, Surtsicna, Surveyor13, Swid, The Emperor's New Spy, The Quill, TheDJ, Timeineurope, Todkvi5832, TommyBoy, Weather72787, Wjddbsals, Zyxw, Zzuuzz, 122 anonymous edits

Princess Ariane of the Netherlands Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=579816384 Contributors: A bit iffy, ATX-NL, Aecis, Aldo samulo, Aleichem, Allens, Andres, Andrew Gray, AnnekeBart, AtomicGagou, Avjoska, Baconsizzler, BasFey, Bookworm857158367, CARLMART, Canuckian89, Caponer, Charlotten, Cmills924, Coolhawks88, Dancingwombatsrule, Dancter, Demophon, Dgw, Diodecimus, Edwtie, Egeymi, Enredados, FactStraight, Fhoorntje, G.-M. Cupertino, Gabbe, Galoubet, Garion96, Hercule, Iamthecheese44, Ilse@, JayHenry, Jkk2, JoanneB, Joefromrandb, Kbh3rd, Kdebem, LightPhoenix, Magioladitis, MarkM, Martinvl, Mathonius, Mimich, Morhange, Movedgood, Nyttend, Oliphaunt, Optimist on the run, Phil Bridger, PrincessAlice13, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, SMasters, Sander.v.Ginkel, SkyWalker, Sodacan, Surtsicna, Tat Meng, The Emperor's New Spy, The Quill, TheDJ, Timeineurope, Todkvi5832, Vitum, Weather72787, 89 anonymous edits

Countess Eloise of Orange-Nassau van Amsberg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=572855642 Contributors: Aecis, Alphaboi867, AndreaMimi, Boerenfox, Bridgetfox, Caponer, D6, Dancingwombatsrule, Deb, Demophon, Dimadick, Diodecimus, Enredados, FloNight, For An Angel, G.-M. Cupertino, Gaius Cornelius, Gidonb, Iamthecheese44, JRSK, Jonjames1986, KAVEBEAR, Kdebem, Lrshevy, Martinvl, Matjlav, Mdieke, Metheglyn, Morhange, Mr. D. E. Mophon, Ohconfucius, Paul MacDermott, Phil Bridger, Prsgoddess187, Rich Farmbrough, Sixtus, Stephen, Surtsicna, The Rhymesmith, Timeineurope, Todkvi5832, Trevor MacInnis, Valentinian, Wizardman, Xeno, 40 anonymous edits

Count Claus-Casimir of Orange-Nassau van Amsberg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=573980394 Contributors: Aecis, Aldo samulo, Astorknlam, Boerenfox, Bridgetfox, Caponer, Dancingwombatsrule, Demophon, Dimadick, Diodecimus, DrKiernan, Drmies, Enredados, FactStraight, For An Angel, G.-M. Cupertino, Gidonb, Iamthecheese44, Jonjames1986, KAVEBEAR, Kdebem, Lightmouse, Magioladitis, Martinvl, Matjlav, Mdieke, Midas02, Mjasfca, Morhange, Mr. D. E. Mophon, Ohconfucius, Patrick, Pdfpdf, Prsgoddess187, Regencypanther, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, Rubenescio, Runcorn, Sixtus, Surtsicna, The Rhymesmith, Todkvi5832, Toyokuni3, Werldwayd, 36 anonymous edits

Countess Leonore of Orange-Nassau van Amsberg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=572855952 Contributors: Aldo samulo, Beautee94, Bobblewik, Bridgetfox, Caponer, Daaviiid, Dancingwombatsrule, Dangherous, Demophon, Diodecimus, DrKiernan, Enredados, Everyking, G.-M. Cupertino, Iamthecheese44, Isotope23, Jonjames1986, KAVEBEAR, Kdebem, Martinvl, Mellowish, Morhange, Mr. D. E. Mophon, Ohconfucius, Ozewiezewoze, Rich Farmbrough, Sixtus, Stephen, Surtsicna, The Rhymesmith, Todkvi5832, Tomer T, TommyBoy, WOSlinker, Xeno, 25 anonymous edits Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 525 Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

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