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Iran's Nuclear Ambitions From IDENTITY AND LEGITIMACY: IRAN’S NUCLEAR AMBITIONS FROM NON- TRADITIONAL PERSPECTIVES Pupak Mohebali Doctor of Philosophy University of York Politics June 2017 Abstract This thesis examines the impact of Iranian elites’ conceptions of national identity on decisions affecting Iran's nuclear programme and the P5+1 nuclear negotiations. “Why has the development of an indigenous nuclear fuel cycle been portrayed as a unifying symbol of national identity in Iran, especially since 2002 following the revelation of clandestine nuclear activities”? This is the key research question that explores the Iranian political elites’ perspectives on nuclear policy actions. My main empirical data is elite interviews. Another valuable source of empirical data is a discourse analysis of Iranian leaders’ statements on various aspects of the nuclear programme. The major focus of the thesis is how the discourses of Iranian national identity have been influential in nuclear decision-making among the national elites. In this thesis, I examine Iranian national identity components, including Persian nationalism, Shia Islamic identity, Islamic Revolutionary ideology, and modernity and technological advancement. Traditional rationalist IR approaches, such as realism fail to explain how effective national identity is in the context of foreign policy decision-making. I thus discuss the connection between national identity, prestige and bargaining leverage using a social constructivist approach. According to constructivism, states’ cultures and identities are not established realities, but the outcomes of historical and social processes. The Iranian nuclear programme has a symbolic nature that mingles with socially constructed values. There is the need to look at Iran’s nuclear intentions not necessarily through the lens of a nuclear weapons programme, but rather through the regime’s overall nuclear aspirations. The Iranian government, military, and people broadly support the peaceful nuclear programme. However, neither the officials nor the people advocate acquiring a nuclear weapon capability, as they say, it is against Islamic rules. Iranian officials always support their claim of having a peaceful nuclear programme by a fatwā issued on 3 June 2008, by the Supreme Leader, Ayatollah Khamenei forbidding the development and use of nuclear weapons. The domestic reality about Iran’s nuclear programme is that the nuclear case is a national issue and thus, all political factions, parties, groups, and politicians with different perspectives agree on Iran’s right to a peaceful nuclear programme and a nuclear fuel cycle. 2 List of Contents Abstract ......................................................................................................................... 2 List of Contents ............................................................................................................ 3 List of Figures ............................................................................................................... 7 Figure 1: Iranian national identity components and their relationship with actors p. 191 Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................... 8 Declaration .................................................................................................................. 10 Chapter 1. Introduction – From Legitimation to Acceptance: What Makes the Iranian Nuclear Programme a Matter of National Identity? ................................ 11 1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 11 1.2 The Research Project ......................................................................................... 12 1.3 Literature Review ............................................................................................... 16 1.4 How the Argument Proceeds: Chapter Outline ................................................. 32 1.5 Originality of the Study ..................................................................................... 33 1.6 Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 34 1.7 Translation, Transliteration, and the Persian Calendar ...................................... 35 Chapter 2. Theorising Identity and Foreign Policy ................................................ 36 2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 36 2.2 Theoretical Framework ...................................................................................... 37 2.2.1 Social Construction of Identity in Foreign Policy ...................................... 37 2.2.2 Realism and its Shortcomings in Grappling with Identity Dynamics in Foreign Policy ...................................................................................................... 39 2.3 Why Does Social Constructivism Sufficiently Explain Identity Dynamics in Foreign Policy? ........................................................................................................ 42 2.3.1 Social Constructivism: Definition and Types ............................................. 42 2.3.2 Agent-Structure ........................................................................................... 44 2.3.3 Security: Material Forces ............................................................................ 45 2.3.4 Intersubjectivity .......................................................................................... 46 2.3.5 Interests ....................................................................................................... 49 3 2.3.6 Norms .......................................................................................................... 50 2.4 National Identity- Definitions and the Chosen Model ....................................... 51 2.4.1 Constructivism, Identity and Nationalism .................................................. 51 2.4.2 Iran’s Nuclear Programme: A Constructivist Standpoint ........................... 54 2.5 Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 57 Chapter 3. Methodology ............................................................................................ 59 3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 59 3.2 Concept of Identity ............................................................................................ 61 3.3 Qualitative Study ............................................................................................... 62 3.4 Discourse Analysis ............................................................................................. 63 3.5 Methods .............................................................................................................. 65 3.6 Data Collection Strategy and Data Analysis ...................................................... 67 3.7 Case Study Selection .......................................................................................... 69 3.8 Bias .................................................................................................................... 72 3.9 Limitations of the Study ..................................................................................... 73 3.10 Ethical Considerations ..................................................................................... 74 3.11 Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 74 Chapter 4. Historical Background of Iran’s Nuclear Programme ........................ 76 4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 76 4.2 The Islamic Republic of Iran’s Political Structure ............................................ 78 4.3 History of Iran’s Nuclear Activities ................................................................... 79 4.3.1 Pre-Revolution Period: 1953-1979 ............................................................. 79 4.3.2 Post-Revolutionary Period .......................................................................... 81 4.3.3 The Period 1979-2002 ................................................................................. 82 4.3.4 The Period 2003 to 2015 ............................................................................. 86 4.4 Possible Military Dimensions (PMD) of Iran’s Nuclear Programme .............. 104 4.5 Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 106 Chapter 5. National Identity Formation: Internal Determinants of Iran’s Nuclear Ambitions ................................................................................................... 109 5.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 109 5.2 Components of Iranian National Identity ........................................................ 111 5.2.1 Persian National Identity ........................................................................... 112 5.2.2 Shia Islamic Identity and Revolutionary Ideology ................................... 116 4 5.2.3 Modernity and Technological Advancement ............................................ 121 5.3 Conclusion ......................................................................................................
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