An introduction to classical islamic philosophy pdf

Continue A philosophy that is characterized by the Islamic tradition of aristotle's medieval Arabic view of student learning. 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The two terms traditionally used in the Islamic world are sometimes translated as a philosophy - falzaf (literally: philosophy), which refers to both philosophy and logic, mathematics and physics; and Kalam (literally speech), which refers to a rationalist form of Islamic theology. Early Islamic philosophy began with al-Hindi in the 2nd century Islamic calendar (early 9th century AD) and ended with Averroes (Ibn Rashda) in the 6th century AD (late 12th century AD), which generally coincided with a period known as the Golden Age of Islam. Averroy's death is actually marked the end of a certain discipline of Islamic philosophy is commonly referred to as the Peripatetic Islamic School, and philosophical activity has declined significantly in Western Islamic countries such as Islamic Iberia and North Africa. Islamic philosophy persisted much longer in Muslim eastern countries, notably the Safavid Empire of Persia, the Ottoman Empire and the Mughal Great Men, where several philosophical schools continued to flourish: avicenism, averroism, illuminati philosophy, mystical philosophy, transcendent toosophy and Isfahan philosophy. Ibn Khaldun in his Mukaddim made an important contribution to the philosophy of history. Interest in Islamic philosophy was revived during the Nahda (The Awakening) movement in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and continues to this day. Islamic philosophy had a great influence in Christian Europe, where the translation of Arabic philosophical texts into Latin led to the transformation of almost all philosophical disciplines in the medieval Latin world, with the particular influence of Muslim philosophers felt in natural philosophy, psychology and metaphysics. The introduction of Islamic philosophy refers to a philosophy produced in Islamic society. Islamic philosophy is a general term that can be defined and used in different ways. In the broadest sense, this means the worldview of Islam, as it derives from Islamic texts relating to the creation of the universe and the will of the Creator. In another sense, this applies to any of the schools of thought that flourished under the Islamic Empire or in the shadow of Arab-Islamic culture and Islamic civilization. In the narrowest sense, it is The Translation of Falsaf, that is, those specific schools of thought that most reflect the influence of Greek systems of philosophy, such as neoplatonism and artistism. It is not necessarily related to religious issues and is not produced exclusively by Muslims. In addition, all schools of thought in Islam do not recognize the usefulness or legitimacy of philosophical research. Some argue that there is no indication that people's limited knowledge and experience can lead to truth. It is also important to note that while reason ('aql) is sometimes recognized as a source of Islamic law, it may have a very different meaning than reason in philosophy. The historiography of Islamic philosophy is characterized by debates about how the issue should be interpreted correctly. Some of the key issues relate to the comparative importance of Eastern intellectuals, such as Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Western thinkers such as Ibn Rashd, and whether it is possible to read the Islamic philosophy of a faded coin or be interpreted in an esoteric way. Proponents of the latter thesis, like Leo Strauss, claim that Islamic philosophers wrote to hide their true meaning to avoid religious persecution, but scholars such as Oliver I agree. The basic sources of classical or early Islamic philosophy are the very religion of Islam (especially ideas derived and interpreted from the Koran) and the Greek philosophy that early Muslims inherited as a result of conquests, along with pre-Islamic Indian philosophy and Persian philosophy. Many of the early philosophical debates focused on the reconciliation of religion and reason, as evidenced by Greek philosophy. Early Islamic Philosophy Home article: Early Islamic philosophy is an 13th-century Arabic manuscript depicting Socrates (Socrates) in conversation with his disciples In early Islamic thought, which refers to philosophy during the Islamic Golden Age, traditionally dated between the 8th and 12th centuries, two main currents can be identified. First, Kalam, who was mainly involved in Islamic theological issues, and the other - Falsaf, which was based on interpretations of aristotleism and neoplatonism. There were attempts by later theological philosophers to reconcile both trends, in particular Ibn is a philosophy that seeks Islamic theological (ﻋﻠﻢ اﻟﻜﻼم :Sina (Avicenna), who founded the Avicennism School, Ibn Rashda (Averroes), who founded the school of averroism, and others such as Ibn al-Haitham (Alhazen) and Aba Raihan al-Berani. The main article of Kalama: Kalam ʿIlm al-Kalam (Arabic means force, limitation) who believed in fatalism. In the 2nd century Hijri in the theological school of ﺟﺒﺮ) means Destiny) who affirmed free agency; and the Jabarites ﻗﺪر) principles through dialectic. In Arabic, the word literally means speech. One of the first debates was that between the Kadara guerrillas Basra, Iraq, a new movement emerged. Hassan Basra's pupil, Wasil ibn Ata, left the group when he disagreed with his teacher that a Muslim who had committed a major sin would annul his faith. He systematized the radical views of previous sects, especially the cadarits and Jabarites. This new school was called Mu'tazilite (from i'tazala to separate itself). The Mutazites looked towards strict rationalism, with which islamic doctrine can be interpreted. Their attempt was one of the first to continue rational theology in Islam. However, they were sharply criticized by other Islamic philosophers, both Maturidi and the Asharits. The great Asharit scholar Fahr al-Din al-Razi wrote the work of Al-Mutakalmin fi 'Ilm al-Kalam against the Mutazalites. In later times, Kalam was used to mean simply theology, i.e. the duties of the heart, as opposed to (or in combination with) fiqh (jurisprudence), the duties of the body. Falsaf Falsaf is a Greek credit word meaning philosophy (the philosophy of Greek pronunciation has become a falzaf). Since the 9th century, thanks to the caliph al-Mamoun and his successor, the ancient Greek philosophy has been among the Arabs and the Peripatetic School began to find capable representatives. Among them were Al-Hidey, Al-Farabi, Avicenna and Averroes. Another trend, presented by the Purity Brothers, used the Aristotelian language to present a fundamentally neoplatonic and neo-communist worldview. During the Abbasid Caliphate, a number of thinkers and scholars, some of whom were unorthodox Muslims or non-Muslims, played a role in conveying Greek, Hindu and other pre-Islamic knowledge to the Christian West. They contributed to aristotle's well-being in Christian Europe. The three speculative thinkers, Al-Farabi, Avicenna and Al-Kindi, combined aristotelianism and neoplatonism with other ideas introduced through Islam. The end of the classical period by the 12th century Kalam, attacked by both philosophers and Orthodox, died due to the lack of champions. At the same time, however, Falsaf came under serious critical scrutiny. The most devastating attack was carried out by al-Ghazali, whose work Tahafut al-Falasifa (The Inconsistency of Philosophers) attacked the main arguments of the Peripatetic School. Averroes, a contemporary of Maimonides, was one of the last Islamic peripatetics and intended to protect Falsaf's views from criticism of al-Ghazali. Ibn Rashd's theories are not fundamentally different from those of Ibn Badji and Ibn Tufail, who follow only the teachings of Avicenna and Al-Farabi. Like all Islamic peripatetics, Averroes recognizes the intellect hypothesis of spheres and the hypothesis of universal emanation, through which movement is transmitted from place to place in all parts of the universe to the higher world - hypotheses that, according to Arab philosophers, are reduced from the hands of dualism, participating in the doctrine of Aristotle on pure energy and eternal matter. But while Al-Farabi, Avicenna and other Persian and Muslim philosophers hurried, so to speak, on topics that had entrenched in traditional beliefs, Ibn Rashd was happy to dwell on them with complete peculiarity and stress. Thus, he says, The question is not only eternal, but also the form of the potentially inherent matter; otherwise, it was the creation of ex nihilo (Munch, Melange, page 444). Thus, according to this theory, the existence of this world is not only an opportunity, as Avicenna stated, but also a necessity. Logic Home article: Logic in Islamic philosophy In early Islamic philosophy, logic played an important role. Sharia (Islamic law) attached great importance to the formulation of standards of reasoning, which gave rise to a new approach to logic in Kalama, but later this approach was supplanted by ideas from Greek philosophy and Hellenistic philosophy with the rise of the philosophers mu'tazil, who highly valued Organon Aristotle. The works of Islamic philosophers under the influence of Hellenistic influence are crucial in the reception of aristotle logic in medieval Europe, with comments on Organon Averro. The works of al-Farabi, Avicenna, al-Ghazali and other Muslim logic, which often criticized and corrected Aristotle logic and introduced their own forms of logic, also played a central role in the subsequent development of European logic during the Renaissance. According to the Encyclopedia of Rutledge Philosophy: For Islamic philosophers, logic included not only the study of formal models of output and their authenticity, but also elements of language philosophy and even epistemology and metaphysics. Because of the territorial disputes with Arabic grammars, Islamic philosophers were very interested in developing a relationship between logic and language, and they devoted many discussions on the subject matter and the purpose of logic to reasoning and speech. In the field of formal logical analysis, they focused in detail on the theory of terms, sentences and sillogisms formulated in the categories of Aristotle, de interpretatione and Prior Analytics. In the spirit of Aristotle, they considered sillogism a form to which all rational arguments could be diminished, and they viewed silological theory as a focal point of logic. Even poetics was considered a sillogical art in some ways by the majority of major Islamic aristotelics. Important developments made by Muslim logic included the development of Avicenn logic as a substitute for aristotle logic. Avicerna's logic system was responsible for the introduction of hypothetical sillogism, temporal modal logic and inductive logic. Other important developments in early Islamic philosophy include the development of rigorous citation science, isnad or support, as well as the development of a method to refute claims, ijtihad, which usually applies to many types of issues. Logic in Islamic law and theology Early forms of analog reasoning, inductive reasoning and categorical sillogism were introduced in Fick (Islamic jurisprudence), sharia and kalama (Islamic theology) from the 7th century with the process of zias, to the Arab translations of Aristotle's works. Later, during the Islamic Golden Age, there was a debate among Islamic philosophers, logicists and theologians about whether the term referred to analog reasoning, inductive reasoning or categorical sillogism. Some Islamic scholars have claimed that zias refers to inductive reasoning. Ibn Hazm (994-1064) disagreed, arguing that zias was not about inductive reasoning, but of categorical silological reasoning in real sense and analog reasoning in a metaphorical sense. On the other hand, al-Ghazali (1058-1111; and in our time Abu Muhammad Asem al-Maqdisi) argued that zias refers to analog reasoning in a real sense and categorical sillogism in a metaphorical sense. Other Islamic at the time, however, he argued that the term zias refers to both analog reasoning and categorical sillogism in a real sense. Aristotle Logic The first original Arabic works by logic were prepared by al-Hindi (Alkindus) (805-873), who prepared a summary of earlier logic before his time. The first works of logic with non-aristelle elements were prepared by al-Farabi (Alfarabi) (873-950), who discussed the themes of future contingents, the number and link of categories, the relationship between logic and grammar, and non-Aristoleic forms of withdrawal. It is also credited with classifying logic into two separate groups, the first being idea and the second as evidence. Averroes (1126-1198), author of the most detailed comments on aristotle logic, was the last major logic from al-Andalus. The Avicenian logic of Avicenna (980-1037) developed its own system of logic, known as Avicennian logic, as an alternative to aristotle logic. By the 12th century, The Avicennia logic had replaced aristotle logic with the dominant system of logic in the Islamic world. The first criticisms of Aristotle logic were written by Avicena (980-1037), who produced independent treatises on logic rather than commentary. He criticized Baghdad's logical school for their devotion to Aristotle at the time. He researched the theory of definition and classification and the quantification of preicates of categorical sentences and developed an original theory about the temporal fashion of sillogism. Its premises included modifiers, such as at all times, in most cases and at some point. While Avicenna (980-1037) often relied on deductive reasoning in philosophy, he took a different approach in medicine. Ibn Sina made an inventive contribution to the development of inductive logic, which he used to pioneer the idea of the syndrome. In his medical writings, Avicienna was the first to describe the methods of consent, differences and accompanying changes that are crucial to inductive logic and scientific method. Ibn Hazm (994-1064) wrote The Field of Logic in which he stressed the importance of perceiving feelings as a source of knowledge. Al-Ghazali (Algazel) (1058-1111) had a significant influence on the use of logic in theology, using Avizanian logic in Kalama. Despite the logical sophistication of al- Ghazali, the rise of the Ashari school in the 12th century slowly smothered the original work of logic in much of the Islamic world, although logic continued to be studied in some Islamic regions, such as Persia and the Levant. Fahr al-Din al-Razi (b. 1149) criticized Aristotle's first figure and developed a form of inductive logic, foreshadowing the system of inductive logic developed by John Stuart Mill (1806-1873). The systematic rebuttals of Greek logic were written by the school of illumination, Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi (1155-1191), who developed the idea of a resolute necessity, an important innovation in the history of logical philosophical speculation, and in favor of inductive reasoning. Metaphysics Cosmological and Ontological Arguments Additional information: Proof of truthful and Kalam cosmological argument Avicenna proof of the existence of God was the first ontological argument that he proposed in the Metaphysics section of the Book of Healing. This was the first attempt to use a priori proof method that uses intuition and intelligence alone. Avisegna's proof of The Existence of God is unique in that it can be classified as a cosmological argument and ontological argument. This is ontological, because the necessary existence in intelligence is the first basis for arguments in support of the necessary existence. The proof is also cosmological, as most are taken with the claim that the contingent cannot stand alone and must end up in the necessary existing. The difference between the essence and the existence of Islamic philosophy, imbued with Islamic theology, more clearly distinguishes aristotleism from the difference between essence and existence. While existence is an area of contingent and random, the essence persists within being beyond the random. This was first described by Avicenna's work on metaphysics, which was influenced by al-Farabi himself. Some orientalists (or those particularly affected by the Thomist Scholarship) argued that Avicenna was the first to view existence (wujud) as a case that happens to the essence (mahiyya). However, this aspect of ontology is not at the heart of the distinction that Avicenna is created between essence and existence. It cannot therefore be argued that Avicenna was the initiator of the concept of essentialism per se, given that existence (al-wujud) when thoughts in terms of necessity would be ontologically translated into the concept of Must-existing-because-of-yourself (wajib al-wujud bi-dhatihi), which is without description or definition and, in particular, without quiddity or essence ( Hence, Thetology of Avicenna is existentialist when accounting for being-kwa-existence in terms of necessity (wujub), while essential in terms of thinking about whether , qua-existence in terms of unforeseen-kwa-opportunity (imkan or mumkin al-wujud, which means contingent of being). Some argue that Avicenna foresaw Frege and Bertrand Russell holding that existence was an accident and foresaw Alexius Meinong's view of non-existent objects. He also presented the early arguments for necessary existence as the cause of all other existing ones. The idea of essence precedes existence is a concept goes back to Avizern and his school, as well as to his school. School. al-Din Suhravardi and his philosophy of illumination. Existence precedes essence, the opposite (existentialist) concept, was developed in the works of Averroes and the transcendent that of Mullah Sadra. The resurrection of Ibn al-Nafis wrote Theologus Autodidactus as a defense of the system of Islam and the doctrines of Muslims about the missions of the prophets, religious laws, the resurrection of the body and the transit of the world. The book presents rational arguments in favor of bodily resurrection and immortality of the human soul, using as forms of evidence both demonstrative reasoning and material from the hadith corps. Later, Islamic scholars viewed this work as a response to Avicenna's metaphysical argument about spiritual resurrection (as opposed to bodily resurrection), which had previously been criticized by al-Ghazali. Soul and Spirit Muslim philosophers, Avicenna and Ibn al-Nafis, have developed their own theories about the soul. They both made a distinction between soul and spirit, and in particular the Avicenian doctrine of the nature of the soul was influential among scholastics. Some of Avicenna's soul-searching views included the idea that the immortality of the soul was a consequence of its nature, not the purpose of its fulfillment. In his theory of Ten Intellects he regarded the human soul as the tenth and last intellect. Avicienna generally supported Aristotle's idea of a soul arising from the heart, while Ibn al-Nafis, on the other hand, rejected the idea and instead argued that the soul was connected with fullness, not with one or more organs. He also criticized Aristotle's idea that every unique soul requires the existence of a unique source, in this case the heart. Ibn al-Nafis came to the conclusion that the soul is not primarily connected with the spirit and not with any organ, but with the whole question, whose temperament is ready to accept this soul, and he defined the soul as what man points to, saying I. Thought experiments Additional information: Avicenna and Thought Experiments While he was imprisoned at Fardajan Castle near Hamadan, Avicenna wrote his Floating Man thought experiment to demonstrate human self-awareness and the essentiality of the soul. He referred to the living human intelligence, especially the active intelligence, which, in his opinion, is the hypostasis by which God transmits truth to the human mind and gives nature order and intelligibility. His Floating Man thought experiment tells his readers to imagine themselves suspended in the air, isolated from all sensations, which involves no sensory contact even with their own body. He argues that in this scenario, one could still be self-aware. Thus, he concludes that the idea of me is logically independent of any physical thing, and that the soul not to be considered in relative terms, but as the main substance given. This argument was later refined and simplified by Rene Descartes in epistemic terms, when he declared, I can abstract from the assumption of all external things, but not from the assumption of my own consciousness. While ancient Greek philosophers believed that the universe has an infinite past without beginning, early medieval philosophers and theologians developed the concept of the universe, having a finical past with the beginning. This view was inspired by creationism shared by Judaism, Christianity and Islam. The Christian philosopher John Philopon presented a detailed argument against the ancient Greek concept of the infinite past. Muslim and Arab Jewish philosophers such as Al-Kidi, Saadiya Gaon and Al-Ghazali developed additional arguments, most of which fell into two broad categories: claims of impossibility of the existence of the real infinite and the impossibility of completing the actual infinite sequential addition. Truth in metaphysics, Avicenna (Ibn Sina) defined the truth as: What corresponds in the mind to what is beyond its borders. Avicenna elaborated on his definition of truth in his metaphysics: The Truth of Things is the property of being each of what has been established in it. In his Kuodlibet, Thomas Aquinski wrote a commentary on the definition of Avicenna's truth in his metaphysics and explained it as follows: the truth of every thing, as Avicenna says in his Metaphysics, is nothing more than a property of his being, which was established in it. So it is called true gold, which has duly a creature of gold and achieves established definitions of the nature of gold. Now, every thing has the right to be in some nature, because it stands under the full form, proper to this nature, in which life and species in this nature. Early Islamic political philosophy emphasized the inexorable link between science and religion and the ijtihad process to find the truth. Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen) reasoned that in order to learn the truth about nature, it is necessary to eliminate human opinion and errors, and to allow the universe to speak for itself. In his Apolias vs. Ptolemy Ibn al-Haitam further wrote the following comments to the truth: Truth is sought for itself, but truths, he warns, are steeped in uncertainty (and scientific authorities (such as Ptolemy, whom he greatly respected) are not immune from mistakes... Thus, the seeker of truth is not someone who studies the works of the ancients and, following his natural disposition, trusts them, but rather someone who suspects his faith in them and questions what he collects from them, the one who obeys arguments and demonstrations, and not the statements of a man whose nature is fraught with all sorts of shortcomings Deficit. Thus, it is the duty of a man who explores the writings of scholars, if the study of truth is his goal, is to make himself the enemy of everything he reads, and by applying his mind to the nucleus and the fields of its content, attack it from all sides. He must also suspect himself as he performs his critical review of it, so that he can avoid falling into prejudice or condescension. I was constantly looking for knowledge and truth, and it became my belief that there is no better way to gain access to effulgence and proximity to God than to seek truth and knowledge. The free will and predestination of the question of free will versus the question of predestination is one of the most controversial topics in classical Islamic thought. In accordance with the Islamic belief in predestination, or divine predestination (al-Kade wa'l-kadar), God has complete knowledge and control over everything that happens. This is explained in Koranic verses such as Say, Nothing will happen to us, except that Allah intended for us: He is our protector... For Muslims, everything in the world that happens, good or bad, has been predetermined, and nothing can happen if God is not allowed. According to Muslim theologians, although events are predetermined, a person possesses free agency in that he has a faculty to choose between right and wrong, and thus is responsible for his actions. According to Islamic tradition, everything that was published by God is written in the Saved Plaque by al-Loukh al- Mahfiz. Natural philosophy See also: Physics in the medieval atomism of Islam See also: Alchemy and chemistry in the medieval philosophy of Islam atomism found very early in Islamic philosophy, and represent the synthesis of Greek and Indian ideas. Like the Greek and Indian versions, Islamic atomism was a charged topic, which had the potential for conflict with prevailing religious orthodoxy. However, it was such a fertile and flexible idea that, as in Greece and India, it flourished in some schools of Islamic thought. The most successful form of Islamic atomism was the Asharit philosophical school, especially in the work of the philosopher al-Ghazali (1058-1111). In the atomism of the Ashariths, atoms are the only eternal, material things in existence, and everything else in the world is accidental, which means that it lasts only a moment. Nothing random can be the cause of anything other than perceiving how it exists for a moment. Conditional events are not subject to natural physical causes, but are a direct result of the constant intervention of God, without which nothing can happen. Thus, nature is totally dependent on God, who meshes with other Ideas of the Asharits Islamic about cause-and-effect communication, or lack thereof. Other traditions in Islam rejected and many Greek texts, especially Aristotle's texts. Active Active philosophers in Spain, including the famous commentator Averroes (1126-1198 AD) explicitly rejected the idea of al-Ghazali and turned to an extensive assessment of Aristotle's thought. Averroes commented in detail on most of Aristotle's works, and his comments did much to guide Aristotle's interpretation of later Jewish and Christian scholastic thought. Cosmology Main article: Astronomy in medieval Islam There are several cosmological verses in the Koran (610-632), which some modern writers interpreted as foreshadowing the expansion of the universe and perhaps even the Big Bang theory: Koran 21:30 (Translation of Yusuf Ali) We built the sky with the Moguhi, and we are who makes a huge scale (of them). Koran 51:47 (Translation of Pictall) Unlike the ancient Greek philosophers who believed that the universe has an infinite past without beginning, medieval philosophers and theologians have developed the concept of the universe, having a finite past with the beginning. This view was inspired by the myth of creation shared by three Abrahamic religions: Judaism, Christianity and Islam. The Christian philosopher John Philopon presented the first such argument against the ancient Greek concept of the infinite past. His reasoning was accepted by many, above all; Muslim philosopher Al-Hindi (Alqindus); Jewish philosopher Saadiya Gaon (Saadiya bin Joseph); and the Muslim theologian Al-Ghazali (Algazel). They used two logical arguments against the infinite past, the first of which was the argument about the impossibility of the existence of the real infinite, which states: Actual infinite cannot exist. The endless temporary regression of events is a real infinite. .•. There can be no infinite temporary regression of events. The second argument, the argument from the inability to complete the actual infinite with a consistent addition, states, The actual infinite cannot be completed by a consistent addition. .•. The timeline of past events cannot be infinite. Both arguments were accepted by later Christian philosophers and theologians, and the second argument, in particular, became known after it was adopted by Immanuil Kant in his thesis of the first antimonie regarding time. In the 10th century, the Purity Brothers published the Encyclopedia of the Brothers of Purity, in which a heliocentric view of the universe is expressed in the cosmology section: God has placed the Sun at the center of the universe just as the capital of the country is in its middle, and the palace of the ruler in the center of the city. Evolution Fight for the Existence of Mu'tazili the philosopher al-Jahiz (c. 776-869) was the first Muslim biologist and philosopher to develop an early theory of evolution. He speculated on the environmental impact on animals, considered the environmental impact on the likelihood that the animal would survive, and first described the struggle for existence, a precursor to natural selection. Al-Jahiz's ideas about the struggle for existence in the Book of Animals were summarized as follows: animals are involved in the struggle for existence; resources to avoid eating and multiplying. Environmental factors influence organisms to develop new characteristics for survival, thereby turning into new species. Animals that survive to reproduce can pass on their successful characteristics to offspring. In Chapter 47 of India, entitled On Vasudev and the Wars of Bharata, Abu Raihan Biruni tried to provide a naturalistic explanation of why the struggle described in Mahabharata should have taken place. He explains this through natural processes that include biological ideas related to evolution, which has led several scientists to compare their ideas with Darwinism and natural selection. This is due to the fact that Biruni describes the idea of artificial selection, and then applies it to nature: the agronomist chooses his corn, allowing to grow as much as it requires, and tearing out the rest. The forester leaves those branches, which he considers excellent, while he cuts off all the others. Bees kill those who only eat but do not work in the hive. Nature continues in a similar way; however, it does not differ for its action under all circumstances the same. This allows the leaves and fruits of the trees to perish, thus preventing them from realizing the result they are destined to produce in the economy of nature. It removes them to make room for others. In the 13th century, Nasir al-Din al-Tusi explains how the elements evolved into minerals, then plants, then animals and then humans. Tusi then explains how hereditary variability was an important factor in the biological evolution of living things: organisms that can get new opportunities more quickly are more variable. As a result, they gain advantages over other beings. [...] Bodies change as a result of internal and external interaction. Tusi talks about how organisms are able to adapt to the environment: They have everything they need for defense, protection and everyday life, including strengths, courage and appropriate tools (organs) Some of these organs are real weapons, such as horns-spears, teeth and claws-knife and needle, legs and hoof-baton. The spikes and needles of some animals are similar to arrows. [...] animals that do not have other protections (like gazelle and Protect yourself with flying and cunning. [...] Some, such as bees, ants and some bird species, have joined into communities to protect themselves and help each other. Tusi then explains how humans evolved from advanced animals: Such people (probably anthropoid monkeys) live in Western Sudan and other remote corners of the world. They are close to animals in their habits, actions and behavior. [...] Man has traits that distinguish him from other beings, but he has other traits that unite him with the animal world, the plant kingdom or even with inanimate bodies. The transmutation of the Ad-Dinawari species (828-896), considered the founder of Arabic botany for his Book of Plants, discussed the evolution of plants from his birth to his death, describing the phases of plant growth and the production of flowers and fruits. Al-Fawz al-Asghar by Ibn Miskawayh and the Encyclopedia of the Purity Brothers of Purity (Ihwan al-Safa's Message) developed theories of evolution that may have influenced Charles Darwin and his early Darwinism, but were once criticized as excessive. These books say that God created matter for the first time and put energy into it for development. Thus, matter took the form of steam, which at one time took the form of water. The next stage of development was mineral life. Different types of stones have evolved over time. Their highest form is the lay (coral). It is a stone that has branches in it, like a tree. After mineral life, vegetation develops. The evolution of vegetation culminates in a tree that carries the qualities of the animal. It's a date tree. It has a male and female gender. It won't wither if all its branches are crushed, but it dies when his head is cut off. Thus, the fi fi fie-palm is considered the highest among trees and resembles the lowest among animals. Then the lowest of the animals is born. She turns into a monkey. It's not Darwin's statement. This is what ibn Maskawayh states, and that is exactly what is written in the messages of Ihwan al-Safa. Muslim thinkers are thrust into a monkey turned into a lowly barbaric man. Then he became an excellent man. Man becomes a saint, a prophet. He turns into the highest step and becomes an angel. One above angels is really no one but God. It all starts with him, and everything comes back to him. English translations of the Encyclopedia of the Brothers of Purity have been available since 1812, while Arabic manuscripts by al- Fauz al-Asg and Ihwan al-Safa were also available at the University of Cambridge by the 19th century. These works probably influenced the 19th-century evolutionists and possibly Charles Darwin. (quote needed) In the 14th century Ibn Khaldun evolutionary ideas found in the Encyclopedia of the Purity Brothers. The following statements from his 1377 work, Muqaddimah, express evolutionary ideas: We explained there that all existence in (all) his simple and composite worlds are arranged in a natural order of ascent and descent, so that everything is a continuous continuum. Essences at the end of each particular stage of the worlds are by nature ready to be transformed into the essence adjacent to them, both above and below them. This is the case with simple material elements; this is the case with palm trees and vines, (which make up) the last stage of plants, in relation to snails and molluscs, (which make up) the (low) stage of animals. This also takes place with monkeys, creatures that combine intelligence and perception, in their attitude to man, a creature that has the ability to think and ponder. The willingness (to transform) that exists on both sides, at every stage of the worlds, is implied when (we talk about) their connection. Plants do not have the same subtlety and power as animals. Therefore, the sages rarely turned to them. Beasts are the last and final stage of three reshuffles. Minerals turn into plants and plants into animals, but animals can't turn into anything thinner than themselves. Many other Islamic scholars and scholars, including the polymats Ibn al-Haitham and Al-Khazini, discussed and developed these ideas. Translated into Latin, these works began to appear in the West after the Renaissance and may have influenced Western philosophy and science. Phenomenology of Vision See also: The book of optics Polimat Ibn al-Haitham (Alhacen) is considered a pioneer of phenomenology. He formulated a link between the physical and observable world and intuition, psychology and mental functions. His theories of knowledge and perception, which link the fields of science and religion, have led to a philosophy of existence based on direct observation of reality from the observer's point of view. Much of his thought about phenomenology was not further developed until the 20th century. Philosophy of Reason Main article: Psychology in medieval Islam The philosophy of the mind was studied in medieval Islamic psychological thought, which refers to the study of the Nafa (literally I or psyche in Arabic) in the Islamic world, especially in the Islamic Golden Age (8-15th century), as well as modernity (20-21 century), and is associated with psychology, psychiatry and neuroscience. The place and space of the Arab polymath al-Hasan ibn al-Haitham (Alhazen; died 1041) presented a thorough mathematical critique and refutation of Aristotle's concept of place (topos) in his Risale/Zavle fi'l makane (Treatise/Discourse on the spot). Aristotle's Physics (Book IV) Delta) stated that the location of something was a two-dimensional boundary of the contained body, which was in rest and was in contact with what it contained. Ibn al-Haitham disagreed with this definition and demonstrated that the place (al-Makan) is an imaginary (three-dimensional) void (al-hala al- mutahayaal) between the inner surfaces of the body. He showed that this place is akin to space, foreshadowing Descartes' idea of the place as a space qua Extensio or even of Leibniz's analysis. The mathematics of Ibn al-Haitham's place was based on several geometric demonstrations, including his study of sphere and other solids, which showed that the sphere (al-kura) is the largest (volume) in relation to other geometric solids that have equal surface areas. For example, a sphere that has an equal surface area of the cylinder will be larger in size than the cylinder; Therefore, the sphere occupies a larger place than the sphere occupied by the cylinder; unlike what aristotle's place entails: that this sphere and cylinder occupy places equal in size. Ibn al-Haitham rejected the philosophical concept of Aristotle's place for mathematical reasons. Later, the philosopher Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi (13th century) tried to defend the aristotle concept of place in a treatise called: Fi al-Radd 'ala Ibn al-Haytham fi al-makan (rebuttal of the place of Ibn al-Haitham), although his efforts were admirable from a philosophical point of view, it was unconvincing from a scientific and mathematical point of view. Ibn al- Haytham also discussed the perception of the cosmos and its epistemological effects in his Book of Optics (1021). His experimental evidence of the intromission of the vision model led to changes in how the visual perception of space was understood, contrary to the previous theory of vision radiation supported by Euclid and Ptolemy. By linking the visual perception of space with the previous bodily experience, Alhasen unequivocally rejected the intuitiveness of spatial perception and, therefore, the autonomy of vision. Without material notions of distance and size for correlation, vision can tell us next to nothing about such things. Philosophy of Education In the medieval Islamic world primary school was known as maktab, which dates back to at least the 10th century. Like madrassas (which refers to higher education), the maktab was often attached to the mosque. In the 11th century, Ibn Sina (known as Avicienna in the West) wrote a chapter on the maktab entitled The Role of The Teacher in Teaching and Raising Children in one of his books, as a guide for teachers working in Maktaba schools. He wrote that children can learn better if they teach in classrooms rather than individual learning from private tutors, and he gave a number of reasons why this is the case, the importance of competition and emulation among students, as well as the usefulness of group discussions and discussions. Ibn Sina detailed the curriculum of the Maktab school, describing the curriculum for the two stages of study at the Maktab school. Ibn Sina wrote that children should be sent to Maktab school from the age of 6 and enrolled in primary education until they reached the age of 14. During this time, he wrote that they should be taught the Koran, Islamic metaphysics, language, literature, Islamic ethics and manual skills (which may relate to different practical skills). Ibn Sina's secondary education refers to the secondary education phase of the maktab school as a period of specialization, when students must begin to acquire manual skills, regardless of their social status. He writes that children after the age of 14 should be given a choice in choosing and specializing in subjects they are interested in, be it reading, manual skills, literature, preaching, medicine, geometry, trade and commerce, skill, or any other subject or profession they would be interested in continuing a future career. He wrote that this was a transitional phase and that flexibility was needed in the age at which students graduated, as the student's emotional development and the subjects chosen needed to be taken into account. Philosophy of Science See also: Islamic Scientific Method Pioneer of the development of scientific method by the Arab polymath Ashari Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen) was an important contribution to the philosophy of science. In the Book of Optics (c. 1025 AD) his scientific method was very similar to the modern scientific method and consisted of the following procedures: The statement on the problem of Formulaan hypothesis testing hypothesis using experimental analysis of the results of The Interpretation of Data and the formulation of the conclusion Of the conclusion Publishing conclusions In the model of movements, Ibn al-Haitham also describes the early version of the Occam razor, where it uses only minimal hypotheses how he tries to eliminate from his planetary model cosmological hypotheses that cannot be observed from Earth. In Apolias vs. Ptolemy, Ibn al-Khaytham commented on the difficulties in obtaining scientific knowledge: Truth is sought for itself, but truths, he warns, are steeped in uncertainty, and scientific authorities (such as Ptolemy, whom he very much respected) are not immune from mistakes... He believes that the critique of the existing theories that dominated this book has a special place in the growth of scientific knowledge: Therefore, the seeker after the truth is not the one who studies the works of the ancients and, following its natural location, puts it in them, but rather one who suspects his faith in them and the questions that he collects from them, the one who submits to reasoning and demonstrations, rather than the statements of a man whose nature is fraught with all sorts of imperfections and deficits. Thus, it is the duty of a man who explores the writings of scholars, if the study of truth is his goal, is to make himself the enemy of everything he reads, and by applying his mind to the nucleus and the fields of its content, attack it from all sides. He must also suspect himself as he performs his critical review of it, so that he can avoid falling into prejudice or condescension. Ibn al-Haitham explained his experimental scientific method and scientific skepticism with his Islamic faith. He believed that people were inherently imperfect and that only God was perfect. He reasoned that in order to learn the truth about nature, it was necessary to eliminate human opinion and errors, and to allow the universe to speak for itself. In The Winding Motion, Ibn al-Haitham went on to write that faith should apply only to the prophets of Islam and not to any other authorities, in the following comparison between Islamic prophetic tradition and demonstrative sciences: it is clear from the statements of the noble sheikh that he believes in ptolemy's words in everything he says, not relying on demonstration or calling for proof. that's how experts in the prophetic tradition believe in prophets, let God's blessing be upon them. But mathematicians do not believe in experts in the field of demonstrative sciences. Ibn al-Haitham described his quest for truth and knowledge as a way to bring him closer to God: I was constantly searching for knowledge and truth, and I became my belief that to gain access to effulgence and proximity to God, there is no better way than the search for truth and knowledge. His contemporary Abe Raihan al-Berani also introduced the early scientific method in almost all the studies he studied. For example, in his treatise on mineralogy, Kitab al-Jamahir (The Book of Gems) is the most accurate of the experimental scientists, and in the introduction to his study India states that for the implementation of our project failed to follow the geometric method and develops comparative sociology as a scientific method in this area. He was also responsible for the introduction of the experimental method into mechanics, the first to conduct complex experiments related to astronomical phenomena, and a pioneer of experimental psychology. Unlike the scientific method of modern Avichenna, where general and universal issues were the first and led to experimental work, al-Biruni developed scientific methods where universality came out of practical, experimental work and are formulated after the discoveries. During the debate with Avicena about natural philosophy, al-Biruni made the first real distinction between scientist and philosopher, calling Avicerna a philosopher and considering himself a mathematician. Al-Biruni's scientific method was in many ways similar to the modern scientific method, in particular its emphasis on repeated experiments. Biruni was concerned about how to conceptualize and prevent both systematic errors and accidental errors, such as errors caused by small tools and errors made by observers. He argued that if tools produce random errors because of their imperfections or idiosyncratic qualities, then it is necessary to make several observations, qualitatively analyze and on this basis come to common sense for constant search, whether arithmetic average or reliable assessment. Experimental medicine Avicenna (Ibn Sina) is considered the father of modern medicine, for its introduction of experimental medicine and clinical trials, experimental use and testing of drugs, as well as an accurate guide to practical experiments in the process of detection and evidence of the effectiveness of medical substances, in its medical encyclopedia, Canon of Medicine (11th century), which was the first book dedicated to experimental medicine. It sets out the following rules and principles for testing the effectiveness of new drugs or medicines that still form the basis of modern clinical trials: The drug must be free of any foreign random quality. It should be used on a simple, not composite, disease. The drug should be tested with two opposite types of diseases, because sometimes the drug treats one disease according to its necessary qualities, and the other its random. The quality of the drug should correspond to the strength of the disease. For example, there are some drugs whose heat is less cold than some diseases, so they won't have any effect on them. The duration of the action must be respected so that the essence and the randomness are not confused. The effect of the drug must be seen to occur constantly or in many cases, because if it did not happen, it was a random effect. Experiments must be done with the human body, to test the drug on a lion or horse can not prove anything about its effect on the human. Peer review The first documented description of the review process is in the ethics of a doctor, written by Ishak bin Ali al-Rahwi (854-931) of al-Raha, Syria, which describes the first medical process to review. His work, as well as later Arabic medical manuals, states that a visiting doctor must always duplicate the patient's condition at every visit. When the patient was cured or died, the doctor's notes were examined medical advice from other physicians, which will review the practitioner's notes to decide whether his/her results met the required standards of care. If their feedback was negative, the practitioner may face a lawsuit for patient abuse. The most influential theory of Avichamology in epistemology is his theory of knowledge, in which he developed the concept of tabula Ras. He argued that human intelligence at birth is more like a tabula race, a pure potential that is actualized through education and learning and that knowledge is achieved through empirical familiarity with objects in this world from which universal concepts are abstracted, which are developed through a forceful method of reasoning; observations lead to preposition statements, which, when exacerbated, lead to further abstract concepts. In the 12th century, Ibn Tufail further developed the concept of tabula race in his Arabic novel Hai ibn Yaqzan, in which he depicted the development of the wild child's mind from tabula race to adult, in complete isolation from society on a desert island. A Latin translation of his work, entitled Philosophus Autodidactus, published by Edward Pocock the Younger in 1671, influenced John Locke's formulation of the tabula Race in an essay on human understanding. The main article of eschatology: Islamic eschatology of Islamic eschatology is connected with ziyama (end of the world; Court) and the final decision of mankind. Eschatology is one of six articles of the faith (akida) of Islam. Like other Abrahamic religions, Islam teaches the bodily resurrection of the dead, the fulfillment of the divine plan of creation, and the immortality of the human soul (although Jews do not necessarily view the soul as eternal); righteous are rewarded with the pleasures of Gianna (Heaven), while the unrighteous are punished in Jahannam (Hell). A significant portion (one-third, in fact) of the Koran deals with these beliefs, with many hadiths devoted in detail to themes and details. Islamic apocalyptic literature describing Armageddon is often known as Finn (test) and Malahim (or gaiba in Shia tradition). Ibn al-Nafis dealt with Islamic eschatology in some depth in his Autodidactus Theologian, where he rationalized the Islamic view of eschatology, using reason and science to explain the events that would take place in accordance with refers to the body of ( َﺷﺮِﻳﻌَ ٌﺔ) Islamic eschatology. He presented his rational and scientific arguments in the form of Arabic fiction, so his Theologus Autodidactus can be considered the earliest work of science fiction. The basic philosophy of the legal philosophy of the main articles: Fickh and Sharia Sharia Islamic law. The term means path or path; it is a legal framework within which public and some private aspects life is regulated for those who live in a legal system based on Islamic jurisprudence. Fiqh is a term for Islamic jurisprudence, composed of rulings by Islamic lawyers. One component of Islamic research, Fiqh lays out a methodology by which Islamic law is derived from primary and secondary sources. Basic Islam distinguishes fiqh, which means understanding the details and conclusions drawn by scientists from sharia, which refers to the principles that underlie fiqh. Scientists hope that the fiction and sharia are in harmony in any particular case, but they can't be sure. Philosophical novels Islamic philosophers, Ibn Tufail (Abubacer) and Ibn al-Nafis, were pioneers of philosophical novel. Ibn Tufhail wrote the first fictional Arabic novel, Hay ibn Yakddactus, in response to al-Ghazali's Inconsistency of Philosophers, and then Ibn al-Nafis also wrote the fictional novel The Theologian Autodidactus in response to Ibn Tufhail's Philosophy. Both of these novels were protagonists (Hayy in the philosophy of Autodidactus and Camille in Theologus Autodidactus), who were autodidactic persons spontaneously born in a cave and living in solitude on a desert island, both are the earliest examples of the history of the uninhabited island. However, while Hay lives alone on a desert island for most of history in the philosophy of Autodidactus, Camila's story transcends the uninhabited island setting in Theologus Autodidactus, developing into the first example of a sci-fi novel. Ibn al-Nafis described his book The Theologian Autodidactus as defending the system of Islam and the doctrines of Muslims about the missions of the prophets, religious laws, the resurrection of the body, and the transit of the world. He presents rational arguments for bodily resurrection and immortality of the human soul, using both demonstrative reasoning and material from the hadith corps to prove his rightness. Later, Islamic scholars viewed this work as a response to the metaphysical assertion by Avicenna and Ibn Tufail that bodily resurrection cannot be proven by reason, an opinion that was previously criticized by al-Ghazali. The Latin translation of The Philosopher of Autodidactus was published in 1671, produced by Edward Pocock the Younger. Simon Oakley's first English translation was published in 1708, and German and Dutch translations were published at the time. The philosophy of Autodidactus continued to have a significant impact on European literature, and became an influential bestseller throughout Western Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries. These translations later inspired Daniel Defoe to write Robinson Crusoe, who also featured a story about a desert island and was considered the first novel in English. The philosophy of Autodidactus also had a profound influence on the modern Western It became one of the most important books heralded by the scientific revolution and the European Enlightenment, and the thoughts expressed in the novel can be found in different variations and to varying degrees in the books of Thomas Hobbs, John Locke, Isaac Newton and Immanuel Kant. The novel inspired the concept of tabula race developed in Essay on Human Understanding (1690) by Locke, who was Pocock's apprentice. The philosophy of Autodidactus has also developed themes of empiricism, herd race, nature versus upbringing, condition of opportunity, materialism, Molyneux problem. The novel also inspired Robert Boyle, another friend of Pocock's, to write his own philosophical novel set on the island, The Aspiring Naturalist. Other European scholars influenced by the philosopher Autodidactus include Gottfried Leibniz, Melhisedech Thieveno, John Wallis, Christian Guygens, George Keith, Robert Barclay, quakers and Samuel Hartleyb. The political philosophy of early Islamic political philosophy emphasized the inexorable link between science and religion, and the ijtihad process to find the truth - in fact, the whole philosophy was political because it had real consequences for governance. This view was challenged by the philosophers of Mutazit, who took a more secular position and were supported by a secular aristocracy that sought freedom of action regardless of the caliphate. The only Greek political treatise known to medieval Muslims at the time was the Plato Republic. By the end of the Islamic Golden Age, however, the Ascharite view of Islam as a whole prevailed. Islamic political philosophy is indeed rooted in the very sources of Islam, i.e. the Koran and the Sunne, the words and practices of Muhammad. However, in Western thought it is generally accepted that this was a special area peculiar only to the great philosophers of Islam: al-Hiddi (Alkindus), al-Farabi (Alfarabi), Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Ibn Baja (Avempas), Ibn Rashd (Averroes) and Ibn Khaldun. Political concepts of Islam, such as kudra, sultan, umma, Semaa and even the basic terms of the Koran, i.e. ibada, din, slave and silt, are taken as the basis of analysis. Thus, not only the ideas of Muslim political philosophers, but also many other lawyers and ulema represented political ideas and theories. For example, the ideas of The Hawarj in the early years of Islamic history in Khilafah and Ummah, or the ideas of Shiite Islam about the concept of the Imam, are considered proof of political thought. The clashes between El-e-Sunn and the Shiites in the 7th and 8th centuries were of a genuine political nature. The 14th century Arab scholar Ibn Khaldun is considered one of the greatest political theorists. The British philosopher-anthropologist Ernest Gellner considered the definition of the government of Ibn Khaldun an institution, injustice, apart from the likes of him committing himself, is the best in the history of political theory. The philosophy of history The first detailed studies on historiography and the first criticisms of historical methods appeared in the works of the Arabic polymath Ashari ibn Khaldun (1332-1406), who is considered the father of historiography, cultural history and philosophy of history, especially for his his historiographical works in Mukaddim (Latin as Prolegomena) and Kitab al-Ibar (Advisory Book). His Muqaddima also laid the groundwork for overseeing the role of the state, communication, propaganda and systematic bias in history, and he discussed the rise and fall of civilizations. Franz Rosenthal wrote in the history of Muslim historiography: Muslim historiography has always been united by the closest ties with the general development of science in Islam, and the position of historical knowledge in The Musian education has had a decisive impact on the intellectual level of historical writing... Muslims have made some progress, going beyond the previous historical writing in the sociological understanding of history and the systematization of historiography. The development of modern historical writing seems to have increased significantly in speed and content through the use of Muslim literature, which has allowed Western historians, from the 17th century, to see much of the world through foreign eyes. Muslim historiography indirectly and modestly contributed to the formation of modern historical thinking. Philosophy of Religion There is an important question about the connection between religion and philosophy, reason and faith and so on. On the one hand, religion in Islamic civilization is of the utmost importance, and on the other hand, they have created certain doctrines regarding reason and religion. Social Philosophy Social Philosopher and Polymath Ashari Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406) was the last major Islamic philosopher from Tunisia, North Africa. In his Mukaddima he developed the earliest theories of social philosophy, formulating theories of social cohesion and social conflicts. His Muqaddima was also an introduction to a seven-volume analysis of universal history. Ibn Khaldun is considered the father of sociology, the father of historiography and the father of the philosophy of history by some, ostensibly the first to discuss the topics of sociology, historiography and philosophy of history in detail. Judeo-Islamic Philosophy Main Article: Judeo-Islamic Philosophy (800-1400) Islamic Philosophy has found an audience with Jews who have the honor of passing it on to the Christian world. A number of prominent people, such as Ibn Tibbons, Narboni, Gersonides, have joined the translation of Arab philosophical works into Hebrew and on them. Ibn Rushd's works were particularly the subject of their study, largely thanks to maimonids, who, in a letter addressed to his disciple Joseph bin Judea, spoke highly of Ibn Rashd's commentary. The oldest Jewish religious-philosophical work preserved in Arabic is the work of Saadiya Gaon (892-942), Emuno Ve-Deot, book of beliefs and opinions. In this work, Saadiya examines issues that interested Mutakallamin, such as the creation of matter, the unity of God, divine attributes, the soul, etc. For Saadiya there were no problems with creation: God created the world ex nihilo, just as the Bible testifies; and he challenges Mutakallamine's theory of atoms, whose theory, he says, is as contrary to reason and religion as the theory of philosophers professing the eternity of matter. To prove the unity of God, Saadiya uses Mutakallamin demonstrations. Only the attributes of the essence (the al-fatia sifat) can be attributed to God, but not the attributes of action (sifat-al-fi'aliya). The soul is a matter more delicate than even the celestial spheres. Here Saadiya controverts Mutakallamin, who considered the soul an accident arad (compare the Guide to the bewilderment of i. 74), and uses the following from his premises to justify his position: Only matter can be a substrate of an accident (i.e., the inconsequential properties of things). Saadiya states, If the soul is an accident, it cannot in itself have such accidents as wisdom, joy, love etc. and if at times it deviates from its doctrines, it is due to his religious views. Since no idea or literary or philosophical movement ever sprouted on Persian or Arab soil without leaving an impression on the Jews, Al Ghazali found a copycat in the person of Judas Ha-Levy. This poet also took it upon himself to free his religion from what he saw as the shackles of speculative philosophy, and to that end wrote Kuzari, in which he sought to discredit all schools of philosophy alike. He conveys a stern condemnation of Mutakillmun for his desire to support religion with philosophy. He says, I believe that he has achieved a supreme degree of perfection, which is convinced of religious truths without carefully studying them and reasoning them (Kuzari, v.). He then shortened Mutakallamine's main sentences to prove the unity of God to ten in number, describing them in length, and concluding in these terms, Does Kalam give us more information about God and His qualities than the Prophet? (Ib. iii. and iv.) Aristotleism does not find favour in the eyes of Judas ha-Levi, for it is no less given to detail and criticism; Neoplatonism only suited him somewhat, because of his call to his Temperament. A similar reaction in favor of the more severe Aristotelianism, as found in the Averroes, had its Jewish counterpart in the work Of Maimonides. Later, Jewish philosophers such as Gersonides and Elijah Delmedigo followed the Avero school and played a role in conveying the averroistic thought of medieval Europe. In Spain and Italy, Jewish translators such as Abraham de Balmes and Jakob Mantino translated Arabic philosophical literature into Hebrew and Latin, contributing to the development of modern European philosophy. Later, the Islamic philosophy of Death of Ibn Rashd (Averro) actually marks the end of a certain discipline of Islamic philosophy, commonly called the Peripatetic Arab School, and philosophical activity has declined significantly in Western Islamic countries, namely Islamic Spain and North Africa, although it has persisted much longer in eastern countries, particularly in Iran and India. Contrary to popular belief, Dimitri Gutas and the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy consider the period between the 11th and 14th centuries to be the true golden age of Arab and Islamic philosophy, initiated by the successful integration of al-Ghazali logic into the Madrasa curriculum and the subsequent rise of Avisennism. After the change of political power in Western Europe (Spain and Portugal) from Muslim to Christian control Muslims naturally did not profess philosophy in Western Europe. It also led to some loss of contact between the west and the east of the Islamic world. Muslims in the east continued to make a philosophy, as evidenced by the work of Ottoman scholars and especially those living in Muslim kingdoms in the territories of present-day Iran and India, such as Shah Waliullah and Ahmad Sirhindi. This fact escaped most before modern historians of Islamic (or Arab) philosophy. In addition, logic continues to be taught in religious seminaries until our time. After Ibn Rashd, there were many later schools of Islamic philosophy. Only a few of them can be mentioned, such as those founded by Ibn Arabi and the Shiite Mullah Sadra. These new schools are of particular importance because they are still active in the Islamic world. The most important of these are: School of Lighting (Hikmat al-Ishrak) Transcendental theosophy (Hikmat Mutaalia) Sufi Philosophy Traditionalist School Avicennism (Hikmat Sinawi) Illuminati School Main article: The illuminator of philosophy philosophy was the school of Islamic philosophy founded by Shah adab-Din.. This school is a combination of the philosophy of Avicenna and ancient Iranian philosophy, with many new innovative ideas Suhrawardi. He is often described as being influenced by neoplatonism. In the logic of Islamic philosophy, systematic refutations of Greek logic were written by the School of Illuminatiists, founded al-Din Suhravardi (1155-1191), who developed the idea of decisive necessity, an important innovation in the history of logical philosophical speculation. The main article of the Transcendental School: Transcendental Tozophy is a school of Islamic philosophy founded by Mullah Sadra in the 17th century. His philosophy and ontology are considered as important to Islamic philosophy as Martin Heidegger's philosophy was later for Western philosophy in the 20th century. Mullah Sadr bought a new philosophical understanding in the fight against the nature of reality and created a major transition from fundamentalism to existentialism in Islamic philosophy, several centuries before that occurred in Western philosophy. The idea of essence precedes existence is a concept that dates back to Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and his school of Avicennism, as well as Shahab al-Din Suhravardi and his philosophy of the Illuminati. The opposite idea of Existence precedes the essence was thus developed in the works of Averroes and Mullah Sadra as a reaction to this idea and is a key fundamental concept of existentialism. According to Mullah Sadra, existence precedes the essence and thus is a principle, because something must exist first and then have an essence. This is primarily the argument that underlies Mullah Sadra's Transcendental Theofy. Sayyid Jalal Ashtiani later summed up Mullah Sadra's concept as follows: A non-existent being that has an essence must also be caused by an existence that is a pure existence ... is therefore a necessary being. More cautious approaches are needed in terms of thinking about philosophers (and theologians) in Islam in terms of phenomenological methods of research in ontology (or theology), or by comparisons that are made with Heidegger's thought and his criticism of the history of metaphysics. Contemporary Islamic Philosophy Main article: The Modern Islamic Philosophy of Alam Muhammad Iqbal (1877-1938) Muslim philosopher, poet and scholar from Pakistan (then British India). The tradition of Islamic philosophy is still very much alive today, especially among the followers of Hikmat al-Ishraq Suhravardi (lighting philosophy) and Hikmat-e-Motaalie of Mullah Sadra (Transcendental theosophy). Another figure is Muhammad Iqbal, who changed and revived Islamic philosophy among Muslims in the Indian subcontinent in the early 20th century. His reconstruction of religious thought in Islam is an important milestone in the modern political philosophy of Islam. In modern Islamic regions, the teachings of Hikmat or Hikma continue to flourish. Ruhollah Khomeini, founder of the Islamic Republic of Iran, was a lecturer at the Hikmat-ul-Mutalia School of Philosophy. Before the Islamic Revolution, he was one of the few who formally taught philosophy in Seminary in Kuma. Abdollah Javadi-Amoli, Grand Ayatollah, Iranian, 12-year-old Shia Marya. He is a conservative Iranian politician and one of the prominent Islamic scholars of Hawza (seminary) in Kuma. Ahmad Milad Karimi, Afghan philosopher of religion and professor of Islamic philosophy at the University of Munster in Germany. Mohammad-Taki Mesbah-Yazdi, Grand Ayatollah, Iranian 12th Shiite cleric. Defender of Islamic philosophy, in particular Hikmat Mutalia. Heydar Jemal, Russian Islamic philosopher, author of Orientation - North. The founding ideologist of Islamic Marxism. Muhammad Hussein Tabatabai, Grand Ayatollah, Iranian 12-year-old Shiite cleric (Allah Tabatabai), author of Hamka or Haji Abdul Malik Karim Amirullah was a prominent Indonesian author, ulema politician, philosophical thinker and author of Tafir al-Azhar. He was the head of the Mufti Council of Indonesia (MUI). He resigned .(اﻟﻤﻴﺰان) numerous works including the 27-volume Koranic commentary of al-Mizan when his fatwa against The Muslim Christmas Celebration was condemned by the Suharto regime. Highly regarded in his country, it is also highly regarded in Malaysia and Singapore. Murtaza Motahahari, the best disciple of Allama Tabatabai, a martyr of the 1979 Iranian Revolution and the author of numerous books (an incomplete collection of his works consists of 25 volumes). He, like his teachers Allama Tabatabay and Ayatollah Khomeini, belong to the Ikmat-ul-Mutaliya philosophical schools of Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi, who is credited with creating modern Islamist political thought in the 20th century, was the founder of Jamaat-e-Islami and has spent his life trying to revive the Islamic intellectual tradition. Israr Ahmed (1932-2010) was a Pakistani Islamic theologian, followed, among others, in South Asia, as well as among the South Asian diaspora in the Middle East, Western Europe and North America. Founder of Tanzeem-e-islami, an offshoot of Jamaat-e-Islami, he was a significant scholar of Islam and the Koran. Muhammad Hamidullah (1908-2002) belonged to a family of scholars, lawyers, writers and Sufis. He was a world-renowned scholar of Islam and international law from India who was known for his contributions to the study of hadith history, translations of the Koran, the promotion of the golden age of Islamic learning, and the spread of Islamic teachings in the Western world. Fazlur Rahman was a professor of Islamic thought at the University of Chicago. Wahid Hasim is Indonesia's first Minister for Religious Affairs. Former head of Indonesian Nahdwatul Ulema, and founder of Islamic State universities in Indonesia. He is best known for reforming the Madras curriculum. Seyed Hossein, professor of Islamic studies at the University of Iran at George Washington University. Javed Ahmad Hamidi is a well-known Pakistani Islamic scholar and a teacher. A former member of Jamaat-e-Islami who extended the work of his mentor Amin Ahsan Islahi. In Malaysia, Syed Muhammad Naqib al-Aty is an outstanding metaphysical thinker. Ali Shariati is an Iranian revolutionary thinker and sociologist who focused on Marxism and Islam. Abu Abd al-Rahman ibn Aqeal al-Sahiri (born 1942) is a Political Prisoner of Saudi Arabia focused on reconciliation of reason and revelation. Mohammad Baqir al-Sadr (died 1980) is a Shiite grand ayatollah and one of the most influential Islamic philosophers of the 20th century. His two most important contributions to philosophy are his books Our Philosophy and the Logical Foundations of Induction. He is also widely known for his work on economics, including Our Economy and the Non-Rostov Banking System, which are two of the most influential jobs in the modern Islamic economy. The philosophy of criticism was not without criticism among Muslims, both modern and past. Imam Ahmad ibn Khanbal, for whom the Khanbali School of Thought is named, rebuked the philosophical debate, once telling his supporters that he was safe in his religion, but that they were in doubt, so go to the doubters and argue with him (instead). Today, Islamic philosophical thought has also been criticized by scholars of the modern Salafist movement. There would be many Islamic thinkers who were not thrilled with its potential, but it would be wrong to assume that they oppose philosophy simply because it is a foreign science. Oliver Liman, an expert on Islamic philosophy, notes that the objections of famous theologians are rarely directed at philosophy itself, but rather at the conclusions reached by philosophers. Even 11th-century al-Ghazali, known for his inconsistency with philosophers, was himself an expert in philosophy and logic. His criticism is that they have come to theologically erroneous conclusions. In his opinion, the three most serious of them were to believe in the co-eternity of the universe with God, denying the bodily resurrection, and claiming that God has only the knowledge of abstract universals, not specific things, although not all philosophers have subscribed to these same views. In recent studies of modern Muslim thinkers that aim to renew the impulse of philosophical thinking in Islam, the philosopher and theorist Nader El-Bizri offers a critical analysis of the conventions that dominate basic academic and epistemical approaches in the study of Islamic philosophy. These approaches, methodology and historiography, examined from an archival point of view in Eastern and Medialistic studies, do not recognize the fact that philosophy in Islam can still be a living intellectual tradition. He claims that his renewal requires radical reform in ontology and epistemology Islamic thought. Interpretations of El-Bizri Avichenna (Ibn Sina) in terms of Heidegger's critique of the history of metaphysics, and in particular against the background of the disclosure of the essence of technology, the goal is to find new ways in ontology, which are not just Avicennian, nor Heideggerian, although El Bizri's approach in reimagining falsafa is Neo-Avincenism, which carries resonances with new modern El-Bizri deals with contemporary issues in philosophy through the fundamental critical analytical evolution of key concepts in the history of ontology and epistemology. Nader El-Bizri is a modernist in his worldview, as he seeks to bring a new one to the tradition, rather than just reproduce it or be in a break with it. Opposition to philosophy Some Muslims oppose the idea of philosophy as un-Islamic. The popular Salafist website IslamQA.info (led by Sheikh Muhammad Saalih al-Munajid of Saudi Arabia) declares the philosophy of alien essence: the terminology of Islamic philosophy has not become a branch of knowledge that is taught in the curriculum of Islamic studies until it was introduced by Sheikh Mustafa Abd al-Raziq- Sheikh al-Azhar - as a reaction to Western attacks on Islam, which is not based on the idea of Western attacks. But the fact is that philosophy is an alien essence in the body of Islam. The fatwa claims that most fuhaha experts in fiqh stated that it is haram to study philosophy, and lists some of them: Ibn Nujaim (Hanafi) writing in al-Ashbaa wa'l-Nazaaim; Al-Dardir (Maaliki) said in al-Sharh al-Kabir; Al-Dasoki in Haashia (2/174); zakaria al-Ansari (Shaafai) in Asna al-Mataalib (4/182); Al-Bahouti (Hanbali) said in Kashshaaf al-Sinaia (3/34); Islamwa quotes al-Ghazali as saying that of the four branches of philosophy (geometry and mathematics, logic, theology and science), some natural sciences go against sharia, Islam and truth and that, apart from medicine, there is no need to study nature. Maani Hammad al- Juhani, (member of the Advisory Board and Director-General of the World Assembly of Muslim Youth) states that since philosophy does not follow the moral principles of Sunna, philosophy, as defined by philosophers, is one of the most dangerous lies and most perverse in the fight against faith and religion on the basis of logic, which is very easy to use to confuse people in the name of reason, interpretation and metaphors. Ibn Abi al-Izz, commentator of Al-Tahaawiya, denounces philosophers as those who most deny the Last Day and its events. In their view, Paradise and Hell are nothing more than parables for to understand, but they have no reality beyond the minds of people. See also the Islamic portal Philosophy portal Al-'aql al-fa'al Modern Islamic Philosophy Early Islamic Philosophy Of Islam and Modernity Islamic Ethics Islamic Islamic Age Islamic Age Islamic Science List of Islamic Scholars List of Muslim Philosophers Islamic Literature Councils Islamic Literature Citations - Hassan, Hassan (2013). Don't blame him on al-Ghazali. qantara.de. Received on 5 June 2017. Doug Nikolaus Hasse (2014). The influence of Arab and Islamic philosophy on the Latin West. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archive from the original 2017-10-20. Received 2017-07-31. Oliver Liman, Encyclopedia of Rutledge Philosophy. Cm. Henry Corbyn, History of Islamic Philosophy - Oliver Liman (2002). Introduction to classical Islamic philosophy (2 ed.). Cambridge University Press. 211-12. ISBN 0521793432. Simon van den Berg, in his commentary on the inconsistency of inconsistency of inconsistency, argues that Kalam was influenced by Greek stoicism and that the term mutakillmun (those who speak to each other, i.e. dialectic) comes from the description of stoics as dialektikoi. Wolfson, Harry Austin (1976). Kalam's philosophy. Harvard University Press. 3-4. ISBN 978-0-674-66580-4. Received on May 28, 2011. Liman, 25, 27. In this book (The Intentions of Philosophers) he seeks to clearly articulate the views of his opponents before demolishing them, in the subsequent inconsistency of philosophers. - Wael B. Hallak (1993), Ibn Taihiya vs. Greek Logic, page 48. Oxford University Publishing House, ISBN 0-19-824043-0. b History of Logic: Arabic Logic, Encyclopedia britannica. I. M. Bochenski (1961), On the history of the history of logic, History of formal logic, page 4-10. Translated by I. Thomas, Notre Dame, Indiana University Press. (cf. Ancient Islamic (Arabic and Persian) Logic and Ontology) - Lenn Evan Goodman (2003), Islamic Humanism, page 155, Oxford University Publishing House, ISBN 0-19-513580-6. Science and Muslim Scholars Archive 2007-10-20 on Wayback Machine, Islam Herald. Another systematic refutation of Greek logic was written by Ibn Taimya (1263-1328), Ar-Rudd 'ala al-Mantikiyin (Refutation of Greek Logic), where he opposed the usefulness, though not authenticity, of sillogism See page 253-54 streets, Tony (2005), Logic in Peterson; Richard K. Taylor (eds.), Cambridge Companion to Arabic Philosophy, Cambridge University Press, p. 247-65, ISBN 978-0-521-52069-0 - Steve A. Johnson (1984), Ibn Sina's Fourth Ontological Argument for the Existence of God, Muslim World 74 (3-4), 161-71. Morvedge,. (1970), Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Malcolm and Ontological Argument, Monist, 54 (2): 234-49, doi:10.5840/monist197054212, (2001), Burhan al-Siddikin Ibn Sina, Journal of Islamic Studies, Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies, Oxford Journals, Oxford University Press, 12 (1): 18-39, doi:10.1093/jis/12.1.18 - For recent discussions on the subject, see Nader El Bizri, Avicenna and Basics, Metphysics Review, Vol. 54 (June 2001), page 753-78. Alejandro, Herrera Ibanez (1990), La distinci'n entre esencia y existencia en Avicena, Revista Latinoamericana de Filosof'a, 16: 183-95, extracted 2008-01-29 - Fadlo, Hourani George (1972), Ibn Sina on necessity and possible existence, Philosophical Forum, 4: 74-86 extracted, 2008-01-29 Cause of Averroy: A medieval tale of Christianity and Islam. Philosopher. LXXXX (2). a b Razavi (1997), p. 129 harvp error: no purpose: CITEREFRazavi1997 (help) p. 42, 60 - Nahyan A.G. Fantasi (2006), Pulmonary Transit and Corporal Resurrection: Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn Al-Nafis (d. 1288), p. 209-10 (Electronic Dissertations and Dissertations, University of Notre Dame). a b Seyed Hossein Nasr and Oliver Liman (1996), History of Islamic Philosophy, page 315, Routledge, ISBN 0-415-13159-6. b c d Craig, William Lane (June 1979), Whitrow and Popper on the impossibility of the infinite past, British Journal of Philosophy of Science, 30 (2): 165-70 (165-66), doi:10.1093/bjps/30.2.165 - Osman Amin (2007), Influence of Muslim Philosophy in the West, Monthly Renaissance 17 (11). a b Jan A. Aertsen (1988), Nature and substance: The Way of Thought by Foma Aquinas, page 152. BRILL, ISBN 90-04-08451-7. a b c Bradley Steffens (2006). Ibn al-Haitham: First Scientist, Morgan Reynolds Publishing, ISBN 1-59935-024-6. (cf. Bradley Steffens, Who Was the First Scientist?, Ezine Articles.) a b c d Sabra (2003). Ibn al-Haitham: The Brief Life of Arabic Mathematics Archive 2007-09-27 at Wayback Machine, Harvard Magazine, October-December 2003. B. Plott (2000), Global History Philosophy: The Period of Scholasticism, Pt. II, p. 465. ISBN 81-208-0551-8, Motilal Banarsidass Publ. Free agency and predestination of Islamic thought: theoretical compromises in the works of Avicenna, al-Ghazali and Ibn Arabi. ISBN 9781317937043. Koran 9:51 Cohen-Mor (2001, p. 4) harvtxt error: no purpose: CITEREFCohen-Mor2001 (help): The idea of predestination is reinforced by the frequent mention of events 'to be written' or 'to be in the book' before they happen: Nothing will happen to us, except that Allah issued a decree for us ... Ahmet T. Karamustafa. Fate. Encyclopedia of the Koran's main online.CS1: ref'harv (link): the verb qadara literally means measure, define. Here it is used to mean that God measures and orders his creation. Farah (2003, page 119-22) Error: No Purpose: CITEREFFarah2003 (Help) Patton (1900, p. 130) harvtxt error: no purpose: CITEREFPatton1900 (help) - L. Gardet (2001), djuz, in the Encyclopedia of Islam, CD-ROM Edition, Art 1.1, Leiden: Brill a. Abd-Allah. Koran, knowledge and science. University of Southern California. Archive from the original 2008-11-28. Received 2008-01-22. Nasr (1993), page 77 harvp error: No purpose: CITEREFNasr1993 (help) - Conway Sierkle (1941). Natural selection before species origins, Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 84 (1), p. 71-123. Mehmet Bayrakdar (Third quarter, 1983). Al-Jahiz and the rise of biological evolutionism, Islamic quarter. London. Ehsan Masood, Evolutionary Heritage of Islam, The Guardian and Jan S. Wilczynski (December 1959), about The Alleged Darwinism of Alberuni eight hundred years before Darwin, Isis, 50 (4): 459-66 (459-61), doi:10.1086/348801 - b c Faridperov (summer 2010). 13th century Darwin? Tusi's views on evolution, Azerbaijan International 9 (2). Fahd, Tufic, Botany and Agriculture, page 815., in Morelon and Rashed (1996) harvp error: no purpose: CITEREFMorelonRashed1996 (help) - Footnote 27a to Chapter 6, Part 5 in Haldon, Ibn, Mukaddima, Franz Rosenthal (trans.) - Muhammad Hamidullah and Afzal Iqbal (1993), The Emergence of Islam: Lectures on the Development of Islamic Worldview, Intellectual Traditions and Politics, 143-44. Islamic Research Institute, Islamabad. Ihwan al-Safa and their Rasail: A critical overview of A.L. Thibavi's century-and-a-half studies, published in Volume 2 of the Islamic quarter in 1955; page 28-46 - Mukaddima, Chapter 6, Part 5 - Mukaddima, Chapter 6, Part 29 - Nader El-Bizri, Philosophical Perspective of Alhazen Optics, Arab Sciences and Philosophy 15 (2005), 189-218; Nader El Bizri, La Perception de la profondeur: Alhazen, Berkeley, et Merlot Ponti, Oriens-Oxquidons: Cahiers du centre d'histoire des sciences et des philosophies arabes et m'de'vales, CNRS. 5 (2004), 171–184; and see a short essay by Valerie Gonzalez, Universal and Modernity, Ismaili United Kingdom, December 2002, p. 50-53. Nader El-Bizri, In Defense of Sovereignty Philosophy: Al-Baghdadi Criticism of the Geometry Of the Place Ibn al-Haitham, Arab Science and Philosophy (Cambridge University Press), Volume 17, Issue 1 (2007): 57-80. El Bizri (2007) and the handouts of El-Bizri lectures at the Department of History and Philosophy of Science, University of Cambridge, Smith, A. Mark (2005), Alhachen Account of Spatial Perception and Its Epistemological Effects, Arab Science and Philosophy, Cambridge University Press, 15 (2): 219-40, doi:10.1017/S0957423905000184 ISBN 81-208-1596-3 - M.S. Asimov, Clifford Edmund Bosworth (1999), Age of Achievement: Volume 4, Motylal Banarsidas, p. 34-35, ISBN 81-208-1596-3 - Rosdi Rashed (2007). Heavenly Kinematics Ibn al- Haitham, Arab Science and Philosophy 17, p. 7-55 (35-36). Cambridge University Press. Rashed (2007), page 11. a b Sardar, Siauddin (1998), Science in Islamic Philosophy, Islamic Philosophy, Reutov Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Extracted 2008-02-03 - Mariam Rozhanskaya and I.S. Levinova (1996), Istika, in Rosdi Rashed, Red., Encyclopedia of the History of Arab Science, Tom. 2, page 614-42,642, Routledge, London and New York , Dr. A. Sahur (1997), Abu Raihan Muhammad al-Biruni Archive 2008-06-26 at Wayback Machine, Hasanuddin University. Iqbal, Muhammad (1930), Spirit of Muslim Culture, Reconstruction of religious thought in Islam, extracted 2008-01-25 - Dallal, Ahmad (2001-2002), Interaction of Science and Theology in the fourteenth century Kalam, From medieval to modern in the Islamic world, TheOyer Workshop at the University of Chicago, extracted 2008-02-02 - Glick, Lives and Wallis (2005), page 89-90 harvp error: no purpose: CITEREFGlickLiveseyWallis20005 (help) - Cas LekLekk (1980). The father of medicine, Avicenna, in our science and culture: Abu Ali ibn Sina (980-1037), Becca J. 119 (1), page 17-23. a b David W. Tsants, MSPH, PhD (August 2003). Arab Roots of European Medicine, Heart Views 4 (2). Toby E. Huff (2003), Uprising of Early Modern Science: Islam, China and the West, page 218. Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-52994-8. Ray Speyer (2002), History Process Review, Trends in Biotechnology 20 (8), p. 357-58. - Sajjad H. Rizvi (2006), Avicenna/Ibn Sina (circa 980-1037), Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy and b Russell (1994), p. 224-62 - b Dr. Abu Shadi al-Rubi (1982), Ibn al-Nafis as Philosopher, Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis, Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait (Cr. Ibn al-Nafis as Philosopher Archive 2008-02-06 in Wayback Machine, Encyclopedia of the Islamic World). About Islamic Law and Practice, IsSN 0748-0814 Souaiaia 2005 vol: 20 iss:1 p:123 - John McGinnis, Classical Arabic Philosophy: Anthology Sources, page 284, Hackett Publishing Company, ISBN 0- 87220-871-0. Muhsin Mahdi (1974), Theological Autodadatus Ibn Al-Nafis Max Meyerhof, Joseph Mine, Journal of the American Oriental Society 94 (2), p. 232-34. Nahyan A. G. Fawty (2006), Pulmonary Transit and Body Resurrection: Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn Al-Nafis (died 1288), p. 95-101, Electronic Dissertation and Dissertation, University of Notre Dame. Nahyan A. G. Fantasi (2006), Pulmonary Transit and Resurrection: Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the works of Ibn al-Nafis (d. 1288), page 42, 60, Electronic Thesis and Thesis, University of Notre Dame. Toomer (1996), page 220-21, b c Martin Wainwright, Desert Island Scenarios, The Guardian, March 22, 2003. Russell (1994), page 228. Nawal Muhammad Hassan (1980), Hai bin Yaqzan and Robinson Crusoe: Exploring early Arab influence on English literature, House for the Publication of Al-Rashid. Cyril Glass (2001), New Encyclopedia of Islam, page 202, Rowman Altamira, ISBN 0-7591-0190-6. Amber Hack (2004), Psychology from an Islamic point of view: the contributions of early Muslim scholars and challenges to modern Muslim psychologists, Journal of Religion and Health 43 (4): 357-77 (369). Tooher (1996), page 218 - Samar Attar, the life roots of the European Enlightenment: The Influence of Ibn Tufail on Modern Western Thought, Lexington Books, ISBN 0-7391-1989-3. Russell (1994), page 224-39 - Toomer (1996), page 221-22 - Dominique Urvoy, Rationality of everyday life: Andalusian tradition? (Aropos of Hay's First Experience), in Lawrence E. Conrad's film (1996), Ibn Tufayla's World: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on the qi ibn Yaqẓān, page 38-46, Brill Publishers, ISBN 90-04-09300-1. Muhammad ibn Abd al-Malik ibn Tufail and Leon Gaultier (1981), Risanat Hai ibn Yaqzan, p. 5, Editions de la Mediterrane. a b Toomer (1996), p. 222 - Russell (1994), page 227 - Russell (1994), page 247 - Ernest Gellner, Plough, Sword and The Book (1988), p. 239 - Mohamad Abdallah (summer 2007). Ibn Khaldun on the fate of Islamic science after the 11th century, :Islam and Science 5 (1), page 61-70. S. Ahmed (1999). Dictionary of Muslim names. K. Hurst and Co. Publishers. ISBN 1-85065-356-9. H. Maulana (2001). Information in the Arab World, South Journal 1. Historiography. Islamic scholar. Akbaryan،Resa et al., page 109 harvnb error: no goal SITEREFAAkbarian،Reza2008Alhekmah__Winter_2008_Number_1The_Relationship_Between_Religion_And_Philosophy_In_The_History_Of_Islamic_Thought (help) - Ali, Wardy (June 1, 1950). Sociological analysis of Ibn Khaldun's theory: a study of the sociology of knowledge. The magazine requires the magazine (help) Tony Street (July 23, 2008). The Arab and Islamic philosophy of language and logic. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Received 2008-12-05. Science and Muslim Scholars Archive 2007-10-20 on Wayback Machines, Islam Herald and Kamal, Muhammad (2006). Mullah Sadra's transcendental philosophy. Ashgate Publishing, LLC 9, 39. ISBN 0-7546-5271-8. Razavi (1997), page 130 harvp error: no purpose: CITEREFRazavi1997 (help) - Razavi (1997), page 129-30 harvp error: no purpose: CITEREFRazavi1997 (help) - For recent studies that participate in this line of research with caution and thoughtful See: Nader El-Bizri, phenomenological quest between Avicena and Heidegger (Binghamton, New York: Global Publications SUNY, 2000); and Nader El-Bizri, Avicenna and Basics, Metaphysics Review 54 (2001), 753-78; and Nader El-Bizri, 'Avicenna's De Anima between Aristotle and Hussorl', in the Passions of the Soul in The Metamorphosis of Becoming, ed. Anna-Teresa Tymenecka (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2003), 67-89 - Alam Muhammad Iqbal Reconstruction of religious thought in Islam. Al-Hila (6/324) - Liman, O. (1999). A brief introduction to the Islamic philosophy of Polity Press. p 21. Nader El-Bizri, Maze of Philosophy in Islam, in Comparative Philosophy 1.2 (2010): 3-23. Refer also to his article: Nader El Bizri, Le renouvellement de la falsafa?, Les Cahiers de l'Islam I (2014): 17-38. See also the links above in this footnote section to some of Nader El-Bizri's other related earlier studies. a b d Sheikh Saalih al-Munajid, Muhammad (General Comptroller) (2006-12-06). 88184: Philosophy Board. What is the decision to study philosophy? Please note that studying it is a must for us in Algeria. Islam is a question and an answer. Received on November 27, 2016. Al-Ghaza'hali Ihya 'ulum al-Din, Revival of Religious Sciences (1/22) - Blankenhorn, David (2005). Debate on Islam/West: Documents from the Global Debate on Terrorism, USA Rowman and Littlefield. page 79. ISBN 9780742550070. - Al-Mausu'ah al-Muyassara fi'l-Adyan al- Madhaib wa'l-Ahzaab al-Muasira 1/419-423 Adamson Bibliography, Peter; Taylor, Richard K., eds. (2005). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-81743-1.CS1 maint: ref'harv (link) Butterworth, Charles E.; Kessel, Blake Andre, eds. Introduction of Arabic philosophy to Europe. Studien und Texte zur Geistesgeschichte des Mittelalters. 39. Leiden: Brill Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-09842-8.CS1 maint: ref'harv (link) Corbyn, Henry (2014) History of Islamic Philosophy. Translated by Liadine Sherrard; Philip Sherrard. Abingdon, Oxford: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-710-30416-2.CS1 maint: ref'harv (link) Rescher, Nicholas (1968). Exploring Arabic philosophy. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.CS1 maint: ref'harv (link) Russell, GA (1994). The interest of Arabica natural philosophers in seventeenth-century England. Leiden: Brill Publishers. ISBN 90-04-09459-8.CS1 maint: ref'harv (link) Toomer, G. J. (1996). Eastern wise study and training: learning Arabic in seventeenth-century England. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-820291-1.CS1 maint: ref'harv (link) History of Islamic Philosophy (Routledge History of World Philosophy) Seyed Hossein Nasr and Oliver Liman (eds.) History of Islamic Philosophy by Majid Fahri. The Islamic philosophy of Oliver Liman. Ibrahim Bayumi Madcourt's study of Islamic philosophy. Falsafatuna (Our Philosophy) by Muhammad Bakir al-Sadr. McGinnis, John and Reisman, David K. (eds.), Classical Arabic Philosophy. Anthology Sources, Indianapolis: Hackett, 2007. Shuon, Fritjof. Islam and long-standing philosophy. Trans. J.Peter Hobson; ed. Daphne Buckmaster. World of Islam Festival Publishing Co., 1976, policeman 1975. xii, 217 p. ISBN 0-905035-22-4 pbk External links Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica article Arab Philosophy. Andreas Lammer's online dictionary of Arabic philosophical terms. Philosophy at Oxford Islamic Studies Internet islamic ethics and philosophy dictionary of Islamic philosophy Online History of Philosophy in Islam by TJ De Boer (1903). Exploring the Islamic philosophy of Islamic philosophy from the Reutov Encyclopedia of Philosophy. History of Islamic philosophy (part I) by Henry Corbyn. International Journal of Islamic Thoughts (IIITs) extracted from an introduction to classical islamic philosophy pdf

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