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What Is NP?-Interpretation of a Chinese Paradox" White Horse Is
What is NP ? - Interpretation of a Chinese paradox white horse is not horse Yu LI (1) MIS, Universit´ede Picardie Jules Verne, 33 rue Saint-Leu, 80090 Amiens, France (2) Institut of computational theory and application, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China Abstract The notion of nondeterminism has disappeared from the current definition of NP , which has led to ambiguities in understanding NP , and caused fundamental difficulties in studying the relation P versus NP. In this paper, we question the equivalence of the two definitions of NP , the one defining NP as the class of problems solvable by a nondeterministic Turing machine in polynomial time, and the other defining NP as the class of problems verifiable by a deterministic Turing machine in polynomial time, and reveal cognitive biases in this equivalence. Inspired from a famous Chinese paradox white horse is not horse, we further analyze these cognitive biases. The work shows that these cognitive biases arise from the confusion between different levels of nondeterminism and determinism, due to the lack of understanding about the essence of nondeterminism. Therefore, we argue that fundamental difficulties in understanding P versus NP lie firstly at cognition level, then logic level. Keywords: recognition of problem; P versus NP ; nondeterminism; determinism; polynomial time verifiability; nondeterministic Turing machine; deterministic Turing machine; white horse is not horse 1 Introduction arXiv:1501.01906v1 [cs.CC] 8 Jan 2015 One of the main issues in the theory of NP -completeness is to study whether a NP problem can be efficiently solved by an algorithm, i.e., the existence of a polynomial time algorithm to solve a NP problem. -
Augustine on Knowledge
Augustine on Knowledge Divine Illumination as an Argument Against Scepticism ANITA VAN DER BOS RMA: RELIGION & CULTURE Rijksuniversiteit Groningen Research Master Thesis s2217473, April 2017 FIRST SUPERVISOR: dr. M. Van Dijk SECOND SUPERVISOR: dr. dr. F.L. Roig Lanzillotta 1 2 Content Augustine on Knowledge ........................................................................................................................ 1 Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................................ 4 Preface .................................................................................................................................................... 5 Abstract ................................................................................................................................................... 6 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 7 The life of Saint Augustine ................................................................................................................... 9 The influence of the Contra Academicos .......................................................................................... 13 Note on the quotations ........................................................................................................................ 14 1. Scepticism ........................................................................................................................................ -
Classical Age”
THE CULTURE OF DIVERSITY AND MUTUAL UNDERSTANDING IN ARAB ISLAMIC THOUGHT DURING THE “CLASSICAL AGE” Said Bensaid al Alaoui I – Introduction he “Classical Age” – in the sense that we use the term – refers to the period between the birth Tof Arab Islamic culture and the stage when it reached the pinnacle of its power and prosperity. Today we usually describe it as the “Arab Islamic heritage”. When we consider that heritage, we find that – regardless of how dynamic and productive it has been at certain times during the course of its existence – we are unable to place it in a particular historical period. For example, while we can say that “’Asr al Tadris” (the “Age of Scholarship”) saw the birth and burgeoning of numerous branches of Islamic knowledge – all of them related to the Holy Qur’an and the Sunnah of the Prophet (particularly Hadith) – it would also be true to say that numerous other sciences associated with the Islamic heritage did not reach their zenith until later, when they began to emerge fully fledged in various parts of the Islamic world. Academic from Morocco. 35 THE CULTURE OF DIVERSITY AND MUTUAL UNDERSTANDING IN ARAB ISLAMIC It would also be wrong to tie the heritage exclusively to “’Asr al Tadwin” (the “Age of Literary Output”), since this would ignore the numerous Islamic sciences that saw the light of day during the fourth and fifth centuries AH, as well as the previously unrecognized centres of learning – such as Cairo, Cordoba and Fez (to name but a few) – in which those sciences came to fruition. -
3 Arcesilaus and Carneades
C:/ITOOLS/WMS/CUP/552750/WORKINGFOLDER/BCP/9780521874762C03.3D 58 [58–80] 24.9.2009 7:15AM harald thorsrud 3 Arcesilaus and Carneades Arcesilaus initiated a sceptical phase in the Academy after taking over in c. 268 BCE. He was motivated in part by an innovative reading of Plato’s dialogues. Where his predecessors found positive doctrines to be systematically developed, he found a dialectical method of arguing and the sceptical view that nothing can be known (akatalêpsia, De Or. 3.67,seeDL4.28, 4.32). He also advanced this conclusion in opposition to the ambitious system of the Stoics, claiming further that the appropriate response to the pervasive uncertainty generated by his method is the suspension of judgement (epochê). Arcesilaus’ dialectical method was practiced without significant modification in the Academy until Carneades, who became head sometime before 155 BCE.1 Carneades both continued and strength- ened Arcesilaus’ method (ND 1.11, Acad. 2.16, see also Acad. 1.46, and Eusebius, Praep. evang. 14.7.15). Sextus marks the change by referring to Plato’s Academy as Old, Arcesilaus’ as Middle, and Carneades’ as New (PH 1.220). Since the main interpretative issues regarding both Arcesilaus and Carneades depend on the concepts of akatalêpsia and epochê,we must try to determine what they mean, how they are related, and what attitude the Academics take towards them – i.e. in what sense, if any, are these their sceptical doctrines? iarcesilaus The view that Arcesilaus derived from Plato’s dialogues might have taken one of two very different forms. He might have discovered some arguments that show knowledge is not possible. -
Qualitative Freedom
Claus Dierksmeier Qualitative Freedom - Autonomy in Cosmopolitan Responsibility Translated by Richard Fincham Qualitative Freedom - Autonomy in Cosmopolitan Responsibility Claus Dierksmeier Qualitative Freedom - Autonomy in Cosmopolitan Responsibility Claus Dierksmeier Institute of Political Science University of Tübingen Tübingen, Baden-Württemberg, Germany Translated by Richard Fincham American University in Cairo New Cairo, Egypt Published in German by Published by Transcript Qualitative Freiheit – Selbstbestimmung in weltbürgerlicher Verantwortung, 2016. ISBN 978-3-030-04722-1 ISBN 978-3-030-04723-8 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04723-8 Library of Congress Control Number: 2018964905 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2019. This book is an open access publication. Open Access This book is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this book are included in the book’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the book’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. -
An Introduction to Classical Islamic Philosophy Pdf
An introduction to classical islamic philosophy pdf Continue A philosophy that is characterized by the Islamic tradition of aristotle's medieval Arabic view of student learning. Part of the series onIslame Beliefs Of God's Corooling Of the Prophets revealed the Books of Angels Day Resurrection Predestination Practices Of the Practice Of Faith Prayer Of The Alms giving Fasting Pilgrimage Texts and Science koran Sunna (Hadith, Syrah) Akida (credo) Tafsir (exegesis) Fiqh (law) Sharia (law) History Timeline Of Muhammad Ahl al-Bayt Sahab Rashidun Caliphate Imamat Spreading Islam Continuity Muhammad Culture and Society Of Academics Animal Calendar Children's Demographic Circumcision Economics Education Education Exorcism Feminism Festivals Finances LGBT Madras Islame Criticism of Islam Muhammad Koran Hadith Islam and other religions Islam Islamism and violence terrorism war Islamophobia Jihad Jihadism Glossary Islam portalvte Part series onPhilosophyPlatoKantNietzcheBuddhaConfuciusAverroes Branches Aesthetics Epistemology Ethics Legal Philosophy Metaphysics Philosophy Of the Mind Philosophy Political Philosophy Social Philosophy Periods Ancient Pre-Socratic Hellenistic Medieval Modern Modern Modern Tradition Analytical Non-Physivism Ordinary Language Continental Existentialism Phenomenonology Pragmatism Skepticism Skepticism The tradition of the region of African East Chinese Indians middle East Egyptian Western School tradition Aristotle Augustine Averroist Avicennist Hegelian Kantian Okkam Platonist Neoplatic Scottish Tomic Traditions of Religion -
Iran's Nuclear Ambitions From
IDENTITY AND LEGITIMACY: IRAN’S NUCLEAR AMBITIONS FROM NON- TRADITIONAL PERSPECTIVES Pupak Mohebali Doctor of Philosophy University of York Politics June 2017 Abstract This thesis examines the impact of Iranian elites’ conceptions of national identity on decisions affecting Iran's nuclear programme and the P5+1 nuclear negotiations. “Why has the development of an indigenous nuclear fuel cycle been portrayed as a unifying symbol of national identity in Iran, especially since 2002 following the revelation of clandestine nuclear activities”? This is the key research question that explores the Iranian political elites’ perspectives on nuclear policy actions. My main empirical data is elite interviews. Another valuable source of empirical data is a discourse analysis of Iranian leaders’ statements on various aspects of the nuclear programme. The major focus of the thesis is how the discourses of Iranian national identity have been influential in nuclear decision-making among the national elites. In this thesis, I examine Iranian national identity components, including Persian nationalism, Shia Islamic identity, Islamic Revolutionary ideology, and modernity and technological advancement. Traditional rationalist IR approaches, such as realism fail to explain how effective national identity is in the context of foreign policy decision-making. I thus discuss the connection between national identity, prestige and bargaining leverage using a social constructivist approach. According to constructivism, states’ cultures and identities are not established realities, but the outcomes of historical and social processes. The Iranian nuclear programme has a symbolic nature that mingles with socially constructed values. There is the need to look at Iran’s nuclear intentions not necessarily through the lens of a nuclear weapons programme, but rather through the regime’s overall nuclear aspirations. -
The Agent Intellect As" Form for Us" and Averroes's. Critique of Al-Farabi
Tópicos, Revista de Filosofía ISSN: 0188-6649 [email protected] Universidad Panamericana México Taylor, Richard C. The Agent Intellect as "form for us" and Averroes's. Critique of al-Farabi Tópicos, Revista de Filosofía, núm. 29, 2005, pp. 29-51 Universidad Panamericana Distrito Federal, México Available in: http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=323027318003 How to cite Complete issue Scientific Information System More information about this article Network of Scientific Journals from Latin America, the Caribbean, Spain and Portugal Journal's homepage in redalyc.org Non-profit academic project, developed under the open access initiative The Agent Intellect as "form for us" and Averroes's Critique of al-FarabT Richard C. Taylor Marquette University This article explicates Averroes's understanding of human knowing and abstraction in this three commentaries on Aristotle's De Anima. While Averroes's views on the nature of the human material intellect changes through the three commentaries until he reaches is famous view of the unity of the material intellect as one for all human beings, his view of the agent intellect as 'form for us' is sustained throughout these works. In his Long Commentary on the De Anima he reveals his dependence on al-Farabi for this notion and provides a detailed critique of the Farabian notion that the agent intellect is 'form for us' only as agent cause, not as our true formal cause. Although Averroes argues that the agent intellect must somehow be intrinsic to us as our form since humans 2tieper se rational and undertake acts of knowing by will, his view is shown to rest on an equivocal use of the notion of formal cause. -
Characteristics and Function of the Ideal Prince in Farabi and Ferdowsi's Thought
Characteristics and Function of the Ideal Prince in Farabi and Ferdowsi's Thought Yousef Bina1 Abdollah Radmard2 Mohammad Jafar Yahaghi 3 Mahdi Najafzadeh4 Extended abstract 1. Introduction A large part of Ferdowsi's Shahnameh is about the kings of ancient Iran, and its central idea can also be clearly considered political. If we compare Ferdowsi's political philosophy in Shahnameh with that of Iranian thinkers, Farabi will be the best one. Because of his philosophy about Utopia, Farabi is a pioneer. Formulating his theory, he had been influenced by Plato and Aristotle's philosophy, Islamic and Shiite theories, as well as the political thoughts of ancient Iran. However, what Farabi wrote about politics is "political philosophy" and what we found about politics in Shahnameh is "political thought" and as the word "thought" contains philosophy and beliefs, in this paper, the expression "political thought" also includes Farabi's political philosophy as well as Shahnameh's political views. It is because the political discussions talked more about the "king" and what attributes he should have and how he should govern in the ancient texts. 1. PhD candidate, Department of Persian Language and Literature, Ferdowsi University Of Mashhad (FUM), Mashhad ,Iran. Email: [email protected] 2. Associate Professor, Department of Persian Language and Literature, Ferdowsi University Of Mashhad (FUM), Mashhad ,Iran. Email: [email protected] 3. Professor, Department of Persian Language and Literature, Ferdowsi University Of Mashhad (FUM), Mashhad, Iran. Email: [email protected] 4. Associate Professor, Department of of Law and Political Science, Ferdowsi University Of Mashhad (FUM), Mashhad ,Iran. -
Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy. Volume 31, Winter 2006
LIVING IN DOUBT: CARNEADES’ PITHANON RECONSIDERED SUZANNE OBDRZALEK I though the interpretation of ancient texts is inevitably di¶cult, Carneades presents what one might call a worst-case scenario. In the first place, he wrote nothing. To complicate matters, Carneades’ views were so obscure that his faithful disciple Clitomachus con- fessed that he could never figure out what Carneades actually be- lieved (Cic. Acad. 2. 139). Showing remarkable fortitude in the face of such an obstacle, Clitomachus, attempting to play Plato to Carneades’ Socrates, reportedly recorded Carneades’ teachings in 400 books (D.L. 4. 67). Not one remains. None the less, Clito- machus’ attempt to make a philosophy of Carneades’ anti-theoreti- cal stance was not a complete failure; Carneades had a tremendous influence on the later Academy as well as the Stoa, and his views (or lack thereof) have been handed down to us by both Sextus Em- piricus and Cicero. These sources are, however, problematic. As a Pyrrhonist, Sextus was critical of the Academy and may have ex- aggerated what he took to be Carneades’ dogmatism. Cicero, on the other hand, a student of Philo, was undoubtedly influenced in his interpretation of Carneades by his teacher’s dogmatic scepti- cism. Carneades is perhaps best known for proposing the pithan»e phantasia (probable impression) as a criterion for life. However, the status of his theory of the pithanon (probable) is completely unclear.1 Was it merely a dialectical move against the Stoic charge of apraxia (inaction)? Was it a theory that Carneades himself en- ã Suzanne Obdrzalek 2006 I would like to thank Alan Code, Tony Long, Julius Moravcsik, and David Sedley for their comments on this paper. -
Neoplatonism: the Last Ten Years
The International Journal The International Journal of the of the Platonic Tradition 9 (2015) 205-220 Platonic Tradition brill.com/jpt Critical Notice ∵ Neoplatonism: The Last Ten Years The past decade or so has been an exciting time for scholarship on Neo platonism. I ought to know, because during my stint as the author of the “Book Notes” on Neoplatonism for the journal Phronesis, I read most of what was published in the field during this time. Having just handed the Book Notes over to George BoysStones, I thought it might be worthwhile to set down my overall impressions of the state of research into Neoplatonism. I cannot claim to have read all the books published on this topic in the last ten years, and I am here going to talk about certain themes and developments in the field rather than trying to list everything that has appeared. So if you are an admirer, or indeed author, of a book that goes unmentioned, please do not be affronted by this silence—it does not necessarily imply a negative judgment on my part. I hope that the survey will nonetheless be wideranging and comprehensive enough to be useful. I’ll start with an observation made by Richard Goulet,1 which I have been repeating to students ever since I read it. Goulet conducted a statistical analy sis of the philosophical literature preserved in the original Greek, and discov ered that almost threequarters of it (71%) was written by Neoplatonists and commentators on Aristotle. In a sense this should come as no surprise. -
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See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329572822 Interpretation in Muslim Philosophy Book · January 2012 CITATIONS READS 0 323 1 author: Abduljaleel Alwali United Arab Emirates University 3 PUBLICATIONS 0 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE All content following this page was uploaded by Abduljaleel Alwali on 11 December 2018. The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. Interpretation in Muslim Philosophy By Prof. Abdul Jaleel Kadhim Al Wali Philosophy Department Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences United Arab Emirates University Al Ain Abu Dhabi UAE Phone: +971-50-663-6703 [email protected] Abstract Muslim philosophers had been preoccupied with the question of interpretation since the Islamic Philosophy was first developed by its founder Al Kindi till its interpretative maturity by Ibn Rushd who represents the maturity of rationalism in Islamic Arab philosophy. Rational option was the most suitable for Arab Muslim civilization as it expresses the vitality of civilization and its ability to interact with other contemporary civilizations and trends. Islamic philosophy interpretation themes are various as they adopted the following terms: 1. Interpreting the approval of the Greek philosophy in Muslim culture. 2. Interpreting the relationship between religion and philosophy. 3. Interpreting the relationship between Mind and Mind ( Plato and Aristotle ) 4. Interpreting the relationship between nature and Metaphysics. The goals of interpretation for Muslim philosophers are different as Al Kind pointed that they are oriented towards the Greek philosophy in general and towards religion and philosophy in particular while Al Farabi pointed that they are oriented towards the Greek philosophy in general and towards Plato and Aristotle.