Notes

Introduction 1. Thomas S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 2nd ed. (Chicago: Univer- sity of Chicago Press, 1970). 2. Ralph Pettman, Human Behavior and World Politics: An Introduction to International Relations (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1975); Giandomenico Majone, Evidence, Argument, and Persuasion in the Policy Process (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989), 275– 76. 3. Bernard Lewis, “The Return of Islam,” Commentary, January 1976; Ofira Seliktar, The Politics of Intelligence and American Wars with Iraq (New York: Palgrave Mac- millan, 2008), 4. 4. Martin Kramer, Ivory Towers on Sand: The Failure of Middle Eastern Studies in Amer- ica (Washington, DC: Washington Institute for Near East Policy, 2000). 5. Bernard Lewis, “The Roots of Muslim Rage,” Atlantic Monthly, September, 1990; Samuel P. Huntington, “The Clash of Civilizations,” Foreign Affairs 72 (1993): 24– 49; Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of the World Order (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996).

Chapter 1 1. Quoted in Joshua Muravchik, The Uncertain Crusade: Jimmy Carter and the Dilemma of Human Rights (Lanham, MD: Hamilton Press, 1986), 11–12, 114–15, 133, 138– 39; Hedley Donovan, Roosevelt to Reagan: A Reporter’s Encounter with Nine Presidents (New York: Harper & Row, 1985), 165. 2. Charles D. Ameringer, U.S. Foreign Intelligence: The Secret Side of American History (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1990), 357; Peter Meyer, James Earl Carter: The Man and the Myth (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1978), 18; Michael A. Turner, “Issues in Evaluating U.S. Intelligence,” International Journal of Intelligence and Counterintelligence 5 (1991): 275– 86. 3. Abram Shulsky, Silent Warfare: Understanding the World’s Intelligence (Washington, DC: Brassey’s [US], 1993), 169; Robert M. Gates, From the Shadows: The Ultimate Insider’s Story of Five Presidents and How They Won the Cold War (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996), 136– 37. 4. Jimmy Carter, Keeping Faith: Memoirs of a President (Toronto: Bantam Books, 1982), 143; Jimmy Carter and Rosalynn Carter, Everything to Gain: Making the Most of the Rest of Your Life (New York: Random House, 1987), 7; Richard T. 182  Notes

Sale, “Carter and Iran: From Idealism to Disaster,” Washington Quarterly 3 (1980): 75–87; Barry Rubin, Paved with Good Intentions: The American Experience in Iran (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980), 196. 5. Christos Ionnides, America’s Iran: Injury and Catharsis (Lanham, MD: Univer- sity Press of America, 1984), 20; William H. Sullivan, Mission to Iran (New York: W. W. Norton, 1981), 161; Michael A. Ledeen and William H. Lewis, Debacle: The American Failure in Iran (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1981); Kamran Mofid, Development Planning in Iran: From Monarchy to Islamic Republic (Wiesbach, Cam- bridgeshire, England: Menas Press, 1987), 193. 6. Babak Ganji, The Politics of Confrontation: The Foreign Policy of the USA and Revo- lutionary Iran (London: I. B. Tauris, 2006), 24. 7. Ofira Seliktar, Failing the Crystal Ball Test: The Carter Administration and the Fun- damentalist Revolution in Iran (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2000). 8. Seliktar, Crystal Ball Test, 62. 9. Amir Taheri, Nest of Spies: America’s Journey to Disaster in Iran (New York: Pantheon Books, 1988), 90. 10. Ervand Abrahamian, Iran between Revolutions (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982), 182, 500; Houchang E. Chehabi, Iranian Politics and Religious Mod- ernism: The Liberation Movement of Iran under the Shah and Khomeini (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1990), 228; Ganji, Politics of Confrontation, 25. 11. Misagh Parsa, Social Origins of the Iranian Revolution (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1989), 142. 12. Seliktar, Crystal Ball Test, 67. 13. Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, The Shah’s Story (London: Michael Joseph), 221. 14. Ledeen and Lewis, Debacle, 144; Howard Teicher and Gayle Radley Teicher, Twin Pillars to Desert Storm: America’s Flawed Vision in the Middle East from Nixon to Bush (New York: William Morrow, 1993), 34; Documents from the U.S. Espionage Den, Muslim Students Following the Line of Imam (Tehran: Center for the Publica- tion of the U.S. Espionage Den’s Documents; Washington, DC: National Security Archive, 1980–99), vol. 8, 173–80; Charles-Phillipe David, Nancy Ann Carol, and Zachary A. Seldon, Foreign Policy Failure in the White House: Reappraising the Fall of the Shah and the Iran-Contra Affair (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1993), 52; Cyrus Ghani, Iran and the West: A Critical Bibliography (London: Rout- ledge & Kegan Paul, 1987), 418; James Bill, The Eagle and the Lion: The Tragedy of American- Iranian Relations (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1988), 247; Rubin, Paved with Good Intentions, 193; Sullivan, Mission to Iran, 21–23; Zbigniew Brzezinski, Power and Principle: Memoirs of the National Security Adviser (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1983), 526. 15. Dilip Hiro, Iran under the Ayatollahs (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1985), 158; Sussan Siavoshi, Liberal Nationalism in Iran: The Failure of a Movement (Boul- der, CO: Westview Press, 1990), M. M. J. Fischer, “Becoming Mullah: Reflections on Iranian Clerics in a Revolutionary Age,” Iranian Studies 13 (1980): 83– 117; Amir Taheri, The Spirit of Allah: Khomeini and the Islamic Revolution (Bethesda, MD: Adler & Adler, 1985), 174, 194– 95, 199– 213. 16. Taheri, Spirit of Allah, 194; Majid Tehranian, “Communication and Revolution in Iran: The Passing of a Paradigm,” Iranian Studies 13 (1980): 17. Notes  183

17. Siavoshi, Liberal Nationalism in Iran, 158; George Lenczowski, “The Arc of Crisis: Its Central Section,” Foreign Affairs 57 (1979): 796– 820; Lenczowski, “Iran: The Awful Truth behind the Shah’s Fall and the Mullah’s Rise,” American Spectator 12 (1979): 12– 15; Taheri, Spirit of Allah, 216– 17; Morris Mottale, The Political Sociol- ogy of the Islamic Revolution (Tel Aviv: Dayan Center for Middle Eastern Studies, 1987), 35. 18. Gary Sick, All Fall Down: America’s Tragic Encounter with Iran (London: J. B. Tau- ris, 1985), 33l; Richard C. Thornton, The Carter Years: Toward a New Global Order (New York: Paragon Press, 1991), 248; Robert E. Huyser, Mission to Tehran (New York: Harper & Row, 1986), 11; Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Answer to History (New York: Stein & Day, 1980), 27– 28; Anthony Parsons, The Pride and the Fall: Iran 1974– 1979 (London: Jonathan Cape, 1984), 144; William H. Sullivan, Obligato: Notes on a Foreign Service Career (New York: W. W. Norton, 1984), 94. 19. Ganji, Politics of Confrontation, 50–52; Fred Halliday, Iran: Dictatorship and Devel- opment (Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books, 1979); Timothy Naftali, The Blind Spot: The Secret History of American Counterterrorism (New York: Basic Books, 2005), 100– 101. 20. William H. Sullivan, “Dateline Iran: The Road Not Taken,” Foreign Policy 40 (1980): 177; Sale, “Carter and Iran”; Bill, Eagle and the Lion, 245; Scott Arm- strong, “Failing to Heed the Warning of Revolutionary Iran,” The Washington Post, October 26, 1980; Rubin, Paved with Good Intentions, 208. 21. Ronen Bergman, The Secret War with Iran: The Thirty-Year Clandestine Struggle against the World’s Most Dangerous Terrorist Power (New York: Free Press, 2008), 16; Seliktar, Crystal Ball Test, 84; Ganji, Politics of Confrontation, 60–61; Joseph J. Trento, Prelude to Terror: The Rogue CIA and the Legacy of America’s Private Intel- ligence Network (New York: Carroll & Graf, 2005), 110– 111; Sick, All Fall Down, 37– 41; Cyrus Vance, Hard Choices: Critical Years in American Foreign Policy (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1983), 324. 22. Chehabi, Iranian Politics, 238– 39; Ionnides, America’s Iran, 31– 32. 23. Farhad Kazemi, Poverty and Revolution in Iran: The Migrant Poor, Urban Marginal- ity, and Politics (New York: New York University Press, 1980), 86– 88; Rubin, Paved with Good Intentions, 206; Ganji, Politics of Confrontation, 70; Amir Taheri, The Unknown Life of the Shah (London: Hutchinson, 1991), 256. 24. Documents from the U.S. Espionage Den, Muslim Students, vol. 25, 72– 79; Sick, All Fall Down, 50; Karen L. Pilskin, “Camouflage, Conspiracy, and Collaborators: Rumors of the Revolution,” Iranian Studies 13 (1980): 51–81; Richard W. Cot- tam, Iran and the United States: A Cold War Case Study (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1988), 176. 25. Ledeen and Lewis, Debacle; Joseph Alpher, “The Khomeini International,” Wash- ington Quarterly 3 (1980): 54–74; Manucher Farmanfarmaian and Roxanne Farmanfarmaian, Blood and Oil: Memoirs of a Persian Prince (New York: Modern Library, 1997), xxiii. 26. Parsons, Pride and the Fall, 67; Farmanfarmaian and Farmanfarmaian, Blood and Oil, 445– 46. 27. Sick, All Fall Down, 41, 45; Chehabi, Iranian Politics, 277– 79. 184  Notes

28. Bill, Eagle and the Lion, 246; Sick, All Fall Down, 69; Brzezinski, Power and Prin- ciple, 355; Armstrong, “Revolutionary Iran”; John Prados, Keeper of the Keys: A History of the National Security Council from Truman to Bush (New York: William Morrow, 1991), 435– 36; Barry Rubin, Secrets of States: The State Department and the Struggle over U.S. Foreign Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 189– 90. 29. Ionnides, America’s Iran, 41–42; White Paper, 03564, 7–8; Bill, Eagle and the Lion, 254; Sick, All Fall Down, 92; Rhodri Jeffreys- Jones, The CIA and American Democ- racy (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989), 221. 30. Ledeen and Lewis, Debacle, 33, 124, 169; Sick, All Fall Down, 61; Meyer, James Earl Carter, 94; Gaddis Smith, Morality, Reason, and Power: American Diplomacy in the Carter Years (New York: Hill & Wang, 1986), 189. 31. Pahlavi, Shah’s Story, 185; Ahmad Ashraf and Ali Banuazizi, “The State, Classes and Modes or Mobilization in the Iranian Revolution,” State, Culture and Society 1 (1985): 12; Cynthia Helms, Ambassador’s Wife in Iran (New York: Dodd, Mead & Company, 1981), 204; William B. Quandt, “The Middle East Crisis,” Foreign Policy 58 (1980): 540– 62; Stansfield Turner, Terrorism and Democracy (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1991), 25; Brzezinski, Power and Principle, 371–72; Ganji, Politics of Confrontation, 72; Taheri, Unknown Life, 264– 65. 32. M. M. Salehi, Insurgency through Culture and Religion: The Islamic Revolution of Iran (New York: Praeger, 1988); Fahrad Kazemi, “Urban Migrants and the Revo- lution,” Iranian Studies 13 (1980): 257–77; Jerrold D. Green, Revolution in Iran: The Politics of Countermobilization (New York: Praeger, 1982), 143; Parsa, Social Origins, 157; Chehabi, Iranian Politics, 237. 33. Rubin, Paved with Good Intentions, 214; Robert Moss, “Who’s Meddling in Iran?” The New Republic, December 2, 1978, 15– 18; Huyser, Mission to Tehran, 107; Richard W. Cottam, “Inside Revolutionary Iran,” in Iran’s Revolution: The Search for Consensus, ed. R. K. Ramazani (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990). 34. Taheri, Spirit of Allah, 217; Hiro, Iran under the Ayatollah, 136– 37. 35. Fereydoun Hoveyda, The Fall of the Shah, trans. R. Liddle (New York: Wyndham Books, 1980), 63; Taheri, Spirit of Allah, 236– 38; Mottale, Political Sociology, 5. 36. Suroosh Irfani, Iran’s Islamic Revolution: Popular Liberation or Religious Dictator- ship (London: Zed Books, 1983), 141; Michael A. Ledeen and William H. Lewis, “Carter and the Fall of the Shah: The Inside Story,” Washington Quarterly 3 (1980): 3– 40; Chehabi, Iranian Politics, 245; Rubin, Paved with Good Intentions, 221. 37. Sick, All Fall Down, 56–58; Parsons, Pride and the Fall, 89; J. Kraft, “Letter from Iran,” New Yorker, December 18, 1978, 134; John D. Stempel, Inside the Iranian Revolution (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1981), 1135–36; Rubin, Paved with Good Intentions, 219; Sullivan, Obligato, 270; Pierre Salinger, America Held Hostage: The Secret Negotiations (Garden City, NJ: Doubleday, 1981), 71. 38. Parviz C. Radji, In the Service of the Peacock Throne: The Diaries of the Shah’s Last Ambassador to London (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1983), 180, 183, 280; Pahlavi, Shah’s Story, 163; Muravchik, Uncertain Crusade, 113; K. Pilskin, “Camouflage, Conspiracy and Collaborators.” Notes  185

39. Rubin, Paved with Good Intentions, 223; Sick, All Fall Down, 162; William Shaw- cross, The Shah’s Last Ride: The Fate of an Ally (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1988), 276. 40. Rubin, Paved with Good Intentions, 228; Sick, All Fall Down, 101. 41. Brzezinski, Power and Principle, 368; Scott Armstrong, “U.S. Urged ‘Crackdown on Opposition,’ ” Washington Post, October 28, 1980; Vance, Hard Choices, 328. 42. Scott Armstrong, “Carter Held Hope Even after Shah Had Lost His,” The Washing- ton Post, October 25, 1980; Armstrong, “Vance Deflects a Call for Toughness,” The Washington Post, October 27, 1980; Jonathan Aitken, Nixon: A Life (Washington, DC: Regnery Publishing, 1993), 352–53; Ledeen and Lewis, Debacle, 145; Russell Leigh Moses, Freeing the Hostages: Reexamining U.S.- Iranian Negotiations and Soviet Policy 1979– 81 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1996), x; Rubin, Paved with Good Intentions, 355; Seliktar, Crystal Ball Test, 104– 5; Documents, vol. 13, 9, 21– 23. 43. Moses, Freeing the Hostages, 89; Armstrong, “Vance Deflects”; Seliktar, Crystal Ball Test, 95. 44. Brzezinski, Power and Principle, 355, 368; Sick, All Fall Down, 69–70, 91; Docu- ment, vol. 13, 16– 18; quoted in Bill, Eagle and the Lion, 257. 45. Sick, All Fall Down, 71; Sullivan, Mission to Iran, 207; Robert Shaplen, “Profiles: Eye of the Storm—I,” The New Yorker, June 2, 1980; Shaplen, “Profiles: Eye of the Storm— II,” The New Yorker, June 9, 1980; Carter, Keeping Faith, 449; I. M. Destler, Leslie Gelb, and Anthony Lake, Our Own Worst Enemy: The Unmak- ing of American Foreign Policy (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1984), 223. 46. Vance, Hard Choices, 330; State Department, 0173; David, Carol, and Seldon, For- eign Policy Failure, 92–93; Ganji, Politics of Confrontation, 92; Sick, All Fall Down, 110; Leslie Gelb, “Why Not the State Department?” in Perspectives on American Foreign Policy, ed. Charles W. Kegley and Eugene R. Wittkopf (New York: St. Mar- tin’s Press, 1988), 237. 47. George W. Ball, The Past Has Another Pattern: Memoirs (New York: W. W. Nor- ton, 1982), 435, 454–55; White Paper, 03556; 9; Brzezinski, Power and Principle, 381– 82, 563– 64; Bill, Eagle and the Lion, 249; Destler, Gelb, and Lake, Our Own Worst Enemy, 222. 48. Brzezinski, Power and Principle, 373; Sick, All Fall Down, 118. 49. Rubin, Paved with Good Intentions, 235; John Ranelagh, The Agency: The Rise and Decline of the CIA, rev. ed. (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1987), 649. 50. Sullivan, Obligato, 270; quoted in Jerrel A. Rosati, The Carter Administration’s Quest for Global Community: Beliefs and Their Impact on Behavior (Columbia: Uni- versity of South Carolina Press, 1987), 77; Victor Lasky, Jimmy Carter: The Man and the Myth (New York: Richard Marek Publishers, 1979), 382. 51. Bergman, Secret War with Iran. 52. Abolhassan Bani Sadr, “The Present Economic System Spells Ruin for the Future: An Interview,” in Iran Erupts, ed. Ali Reza Nobari (Stanford, CA: Iran-American Documentation Group, 1978); Cheryl Benard and Zalmay Khalilzad, “The Gov- ernment of God” L Iran’s Islamic Republic (New York: Columbia University Press, 1984), 39; Taheri, Spirit of Allah, 229; Homa Katouzin, The Political Economy of Modern Iran: Despotism and Pseudo- Modernism (New York: New York University 186  Notes

Press, 1981), 355; James Bill, “Power and Religion in Revolutionary Iran,” Mid- dle East Journal 36 (1982): 22–47; Douglas Frantz and David McKean, Friends in High Places: The Rise and Fall of Clark Clifford (Boston: Little, Brown, 1995), 305– 7; Sick, All Fall Down, 111. 53. Rafizadeh, Witness, 263, 309– 10; Documents, vol. 26, 87– 88. 54. Sullivan, Obligato, 322; Bill, Eagle and the Lion, 263; Documents, vol. 20, 93–95; Carter, Keeping Faith, 446; Brzezinski, Power and Principle, 381; Armstrong, “Rev- olutionary Iran.” 55. Farmanfarmaian and Farmanfarmaian, Blood and Oil, 481; Helms, Ambassador’s Wife in Iran, 204. 56. Huyser, Mission to Tehran, 17; Parsons, Pride and the Fall, 121; Carter, Keeping Faith, 443; Brzezinski Power and Principle, 386. 57. Documents, vol. 18, 115–19; Ganji, Politics of Confrontation, 94, 96; Documents, vol. 24, 44–46; Jahangir Amuzegar, Iran: An Economic Profile (Washington, DC: Middle East Institute, 1977), 260; Sick, All Fall Down, 135; Seliktar, Crystal Ball Test, 12; Richard W. Cottam, Letter to the Editor, Washington Post, October 2, 1978; James Bill, “Iran and the Crisis of 1978,” Foreign Affairs 57 (1978/1979): 323– 42. 58. Sick, All Fall Down, 113. 59. David Frum and Richard Perle, An End to Evil: How to Win the War on Terror (New York: Random House, 2003); Ofira Seliktar, The Politics of Intelligence and American Wars with Iraq (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008), 16; Ledeen and Lewis, “Carter and the Fall”; Ledeen and Lewis, Debacle, 212; Michael Ledeen, The War against the Terror Masters: Why It Happened. Where We Are Now. How We’ll Win (New York: St. Martin’s Press/Truman Talley Books, 2002), 111; Donald S. Spencer, The Carter Implosion: Jimmy Carter and the Amateur Style of Diplomacy (University Park: Pennsylvania University Press, 1983), 96; Taheri, Spirit of Allah, 289; Stempel, Inside the Iranian Revolution, 291; Rubin, Secrets of State, 190.

Chapter 2 1. Ray Takeyh, Hidden Iran: Paradox and Power in the Islamic Republic (New York: Times Book/Holt, 2006), 36; Mohsen M. Milani, “Reform and Resistance in the Republic of Iran,” in Iran at the Crossroads, ed. John L. Esposito and R. K. Rama- zani (New York: Palgrave, 2001), 31. 2. Abolhassan Bani Sadr, My Turn to Speak: Iran, the Revolution and Secret Deals with the U.S., trans. W. Ford (New York: Brassey’s Macmillan, 1991), 56. 3. Hamid M. Ansari, Iran Today (New Delhi: Rupa, 2005), xi; Patrick Clawson and Michael Rubin, Eternal Iran: Continuity and Chaos (New York: Palgrave Macmil- lan, 2005), 93; Robert Baer, The Devil We Know: Dealing with the New Iranian Superpower (New York: Crown, 2008), 127. 4. Quoted in Gary Sick, All Fall Down: America’s Tragic Encounter with Iran (New York: Random House, 1985), 200; Amir Taheri, The Spirit of Allah: Khomeini and the Islamic Revolution (Bethesda, MD: Adler & Adler, 1985), 124. 5. Babak Ganji, Politics of Confrontation: The Foreign Policy of the USA and Revolution- ary Iran (London: I. B. Tauris, 2005), 103; Mir Ali Asghar Montazam, Life and Notes  187

Times of Ayatollah Khomeini: Historical Roots of the Struggle for Power between Iran’s Clericalists and National Political Leaders (London: Anglo-European, 1994), 228, 327–340; Ervand Abrahamian, Tortured Confessions: Prisoners and Public Recanta- tion in Modern Iran (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), 4– 6, 167–209, 211– 15; Edgar O’Ballance, Islamic Fundamentalist Terrorism, 1979– 95: The Iranian Connection (New York: New York University Press, 1997), 53; Andrew M. Hollin, “Dissident Watch: Mehdi Kazemi,” Middle East Quarterly, Fall 2008, http:// www .meforum .org/ article/ 2036; Nazila Ghanea, Human Rights, the U.N. and Baha’is in Iran (Oxford: George Ronald, 2002), 8. 6. Amir Taheri, Holy Terror: Inside the World of Islamic Terrorism (Bethesda, MD: Adler & Adler, 1987), 70, 167. 7. Shaul Bakhash, The Reign of the Ayatollahs: Iran and the Islamic Revolution (New York: Basic Books, 1984), 73. 8. Wilfried Buchta, Taking Stock of a Quarter Century of the Islamic Republic of Iran (Cambridge, MA: Islamic Legal Studies Program, 2005). 9. Daniel Brumberg, Rethinking Khomeini: The Struggle to Reform Iran (Chicago: Uni- versity of Chicago Press, 2001), 29; O’Ballance, Islamic Fundamentalist Terrorism, 44; Ronen Bergman, The Secret War with Iran: The 30-Year Clandestine Struggle against the World’s Most Dangerous Terrorist Power (New York: Free Press, 2008), 33; Buchta, Taking Stock. 10. Taheri, Holy Terror, 139. 11. Michael A. Ledeen and William H. Lewis, Debacle: The American Failure in Iran (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1981), 29, 130; Sick, All Fall Down, 218–19; Docu- ments from the US Espionage Den, Muslim Students Following the Line of the Imam (Tehran: Center for the Publication of the US Espionage Den’s Documents; Wash- ington, DC: National Security Archive, 1980–99), vol. 13, 56–57; vol. 27, 20–21, 24– 25, 49. 12. Richard Falk, “Trusting Khomeini,” The New York Times, February 16, 1979; Ervand Abrahamian, “The Crumbling Myth of the Good Shah,” The Progressive 43 (1979): 14– 16; Documents, vol. 14, 61– 63; M. M. J. Fischer, “Protests and Revolution in Iran,” Harvard International Review 1 (1979): 5–6; Foreign Policy, Spring 1979. 13. Sick, All Fall Down, 187–88; Ganji, Politics of Confrontation, 141–55; Robert Dreyfuss, The Devil’s Game: How the United States Helped Unleash Fundamentalist Islam (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2005), 222, 239. 14. Walter Isaacson, Kissinger: A Biography (New York: Simon & Schuster 1992), 715; Zbigniew Brzezinski, Power and Principle: Memoirs of the National Security Adviser (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1983), 474; Documents, vol. 7, 268– 69. 15. Documents, vol. 16, 70– 73; Ganji, Politics of Confrontation, 143; Ledeen and Lewis, Debacle, 223; Ofira Seliktar, Failing the Crystal Ball Test (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2000), 162– 63. 16. Documents, vol. 16, 129–33, 137–41, 144–45; Mansur Rafizadeh, Witness: From the Shah to the Secret Arms Deal (New York: William Morrow, 1987), 312. 17. Robert Shaplen, “Profiles: Eye of the Storm— II,” The New Yorker, June 9, 1980; Sick, All Fall Down, 185– 86; Brzezinski, Power and Principle, 478; Ronald Reagan, An American Life (New York, Simon & Schuster, 1990), 218– 19. 188  Notes

18. Documents, vol. 16, 156– 57, 161– 67; J. C. Miklos, The Iranian Revolution and Modernization: Way Stations to Anarchy (Washington, DC: National Defense Uni- versity Press, 1983), 57; Amir Taheri, Nest of Spies: American Journey to Disaster in Iran (New York: Pantheon Books, 1988), 122; Christos Ionnides, America’s Iran: Injury and Catharsis (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1984), 119–20; quoted in Ionnides, America’s Iran, 127. 19. Mohamed Heikal, The Return of the Ayatollah: The Iranian Revolution from Mos- sadeq to Khomeini (London: Andre Deutsch, 1981), 17. 20. Ganji, Politics of Confrontation, 160– 61. 21. Ibid., 163. 22. R. L. Moses, Freeing the Hostages: Reexamining U.S.- Iranian Negotiations and Soviet Policy 1979–1981 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1996), 199–200; Ganji, Politics of Confrontation, 164. 23. Ganji, Politics of Confrontation, 193– 94, 179. 24. Sepehr Zabih, Iran since the Revolution (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982), 55– 58; Ganji, Politics of Confrontation, 193; Sick, All Fall Down, 265; Ganji, Politics of Confrontation, 180– 81, 193– 94. 25. Nathan Gonzales, Engaging Iran: The Rise of a Middle Eastern Power House and America’s Strategic Choices (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2007), 53; Sick, All Fall Down, 206; Ganji, Politics of Confrontation, 157; Moses, Freeing the Hostages, 102– 3. 26. Hossein Alikhani, Sanctioning Iran: Anatomy of a Failed Policy (London: I. B. Tau- ris, 2000), 67; Zabih, Iran since the Revolution, 54–56; Ganji, Politics of Confronta- tion, 161, 164, 168. 27. Ganji, Politics of Confrontation, 176. 28. Richard C. Thornton, The Carter Years: Toward a New Global Order (New York: Paragon Press, 1991), 484; Jimmy Carter, Keeping Faith: Memoirs of a President (Toronto: Bantam Books, 1982), 480; Ganji, Politics of Confrontation, 178– 79. 29. Ganji, Politics of Confrontation, 165; The Washington Post, March 22, 1980. 30. Carter, Keeping Faith, 502; Ganji, Politics of Confrontation, 184–86; Sick, All Fall Down, 290; David Harris, The Crisis: The President, the Prophet, and the Shah: 1979 and the Coming of Militant Islam (New York: Little, Brown, 2004), 31; Ganji, Politics of Confrontation, 189. 31. Taheri, Holy Terror, 70; Sick, All Fall Down, 303– 4; Ganji, Politics of Confrontation, 190. 32. Ganji, Politics of Confrontation, 191–92, 202; N. Entessar, “The Military and Poli- tics in the Islamic Republic of Iran,” in Post- Revolutionary Iran, ed. H. Amirahmadi and M. Parvin (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1988), Joint Report, 38, 56, notes 154, 155. 33. Thornton, Carter Years, 452– 53; Ganji, Politics of Confrontation, 171; Kenneth M. Pollack, The Persian Puzzle: The Conflict between Iran and America (New York: Random House, 2004), 284. 34. Amir Taheri, “Radicals for Freedom,” New York Post, June 18, 2004; Ofira Seliktar, The Politics of Intelligence and American Wars with Iraq (New York: Palgrave Mac- millan, 2008), 30. 35. Ofira Seliktar, Doomed to Failure? The Politics and Intelligence of the Oslo Peace Process (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2009), 29; Ganji, Politics of Confrontation, 165; Howard Notes  189

Teicher and Gayle Radley Teicher, Twin Pillars to Desert Storm: America’s Flawed Vision in the Middle East from Nixon to Bush (New York: William Morrow, 1993), 68– 70; Ganji, Politics of Confrontation, 188– 89, 199– 200; Gary Sick, October Sur- prise: American Hostages in Iran and the Election of Ronald Reagan (New York: Times Books, 1991), 104; Ganji, Politics of Confrontation, 199; Bani Sadr, My Turn to Speak, 94. 36. Ganji, Politics of Confrontation, 199– 210, 209. 37. Ibid., 209. 38. Ibid., 207; Sick, October Surprise, 94– 95. 39. Ganji, Politics of Confrontation, 207. 40. Ganji, Politics of Confrontation, 216–17; Kenneth Timmerman, “Fanning the Flames: Guns, Greed and Geopolitics in the Gulf War,” The Iran Brief, 1988, http:// www .iran .org/ tib/ krt/ fanning .ch6 .htm. 41. Ganji, Politics of Confrontation, 217. 42. “Iran: Revolutionary Dynamics and Attitudes toward the U.S. Hostages,” http://www .faqs .org/ cia/ docs/ 39/ 0001238746/ IRAN -REVOLUTIONARY -DYNAMICS -AND -ATTITUDES -TOWARD -THE -US -HOSTAGES .htm; Timmerman, “Fan- ning the Flames.” 43. Ganji, Politics of Confrontation, 226. 44. Ibid., 233– 34. 45. Ibid., 235– 36. 46. Sick, October Surprise; Ganji, Politics of Confrontation, 219. 47. Bergman, Secret War with Iran, 35; Ganji, Politics of Confrontation, 189. 48. Ganji, Politics of Confrontation, 219– 20; Andrew and Leslie Cockburn, Dangerous Liaisons: The Inside Story of U.S.-Israeli Covert Relationship (New York: HarperCol- lins, 1991), 313.

Chapter 3 1. Abolhassan Bani Sadr, My Turn to Speak: Iran, the Revolution and Secret Deals with the U.S., trans. W. Ford (New York: Brassey’s Macmillan, 1991), 177; Daniel Pipes, The Rushdie Affair: The Novel, the Ayatollah, and the West (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 2003). 2. Bahman Baktiari, Parliamentary Politics in Revolutionary Iran (Gainesville: Univer- sity Press of Florida, 1996), 78; Bani Sadr, My Turn to Speak, 168; Edgar O’Ballance, Islamic Fundamentalist Terrorism, 1979–95 (New York: New York University Press, 1997), 127. 3. Mir Ali Asghar Montazam, The Life and Times of Ayatollah Khomeini: Historical Roots of the Struggle for Power between Iran’s Clericalists and National Political Leaders (London: Anglo-European, 1994), 420–23; Mazir Behrooz, Rebels without a Cause: The Failure of the Left in Iran (London: I. B. Tauris, 1999), 115; Ali Mirsepassi, “The Tragedy of the Iranian Left,” in Reformers and Revolutionaries in Modern Iran, ed. Stephanie Cronin (London: Routledge Curzon, 2004), 229; Richard Dowden, “In the Terror of Tehran: Iran under Khomeini,” The New York Review of Books, February 2, 1984. 190  Notes

4. Geneive Abdo and Jonathan Lyons, Answering Only to God: Faith and Freedom in Twenty- First- Century Iran (New York: Henry Holt, 2003), 59; Daniel Brumberg, Rethinking Khomeini: The Struggle to Reform Iran (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001), 127; Behrooz, Rebels without a Cause, 115; Baktiari, Parliamentary Politics, 81. 5. John Calabresi, Revolutionary Horizons: Regional Foreign Policy in Post- Khomeini Iran (New York: St. Martin’s, 1994), 149, 151; Baktiari, Parliamentary Politics, 106; Ronen Bergman, The Secret War with Iran: The 30- Year Clandestine Struggle against the World’s Most Dangerous Terrorist Power (New York: Free Press, 2008), 54, 59; Ervand Abrahamian, Iran between Revolutions (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982), 462; O’Ballance, Islamic Fundamentalist Terrorism, vii; Christopher Dickey, “Assad and His Allies: Irreconcilable Differences,” Foreign Affairs 66, no. 1 (1987): 58–76; Mohammad Mohaddessin, Enemies of the Ayatollah: The Iranian Opposition’s War on Islamic Fundamentalism (London: Zed Books, 2004), 122; Amir Taheri, Holy Terror: Inside the World of Islamic Terrorism (Bethesda, MD: Adler & Adler, 1987), 126, 139; Robin Wright, Sacred Rage: The Crusade of Militant Islam (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1985), 88–90; Ali Rahnema and Farhad Nomani, The Secular Miracle: Religion, Politics and Economic Policy in Iran (London: Zed Books, 1990), 347; Yonah Alexander and Milton Hoenig, The New Iranian Leader- ship: Ahmadinejad, Terrorism, Nuclear Ambitions, and the Middle East (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2008), 75. 6. Bergman, Secret War with Iran, 58– 59; Shaul Shay, The Axis of Evil: Iran, Hezbollah and Palestinian Terror (New Brunswick, NJ: Transactions Books, 2005), 67– 68. 7. Alireza Jafarzadeh, “The Ayatollah’s Suicide Bombers,” Fox News, September 5, 2008; “Radical Islam: Challenges and Responses,” May 25, 2006, BESA, Cen- ter for Strategic Studies, Bar Ilan University; Harry L. Myers, “The US Policy of Dual Containment toward Iran, in Theory and Practice” (master’s thesis, Air War College, Air University, Maxwell Air Force Base, 1997); Kenneth R. Timmerman, Countdown to Crisis: The Coming Nuclear Showdown (New York: Crown Forum, 2005), 287; Laurent Murawiec, The Mind of Jihad (Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- versity Press, 2008), 7; Doron Zimmerman, Tangled Skein or Gordian Knot? Iran and Syria as State Supporters of Political Violence Movements in Lebanon and in the Palestinian Territories (Zurich: Forschungsstelle für Sichereitspolitik, ETU Zurich, 2004), 71; Alexander and Hoenig, New Iranian Leadership, 47–48; O’Ballance, Islamic Fundamentalist Terrorism, 57. 8. Ahmad Nizar Hamzeh, In the Path of Hizbullah (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2004), 82– 84; Bergman, Secret War with Iran, 74– 75; Robert Baer, The Devil We Know: Dealing with the New Iranian Superpower (New York: Crown, 2008), 109. 9. Richard H. Shultz, “Iranian Covert Aggression: Support for Radical Political Islamists Conducting Internal Subversion against States in the Middle East/South- west Asia Region,” Terrorism and Political Violence 6, no. 3 (1994): 281– 302; Dilip Hiro, The Longest War: The Iran- Iraq Military Conflict (New York: Routledge, 1991), 115; S. M. A. Sayeed, Iran: Before and After Khomeini (Karachi: Royal Book, 1999), 221; “Message from Iran Triggers Bombing Spree in Kuwait,” Washington Notes  191

Post, February 3, 1984; Shay, Axis of Evil, 68; Christin Marschall, Iran’s Persian Gulf Policy: From Khomeini to Khatami (New York: Routledge, 2003), 31. 10. Bergman, Secret War with Iran, 95; Alireza Jafarzadeh, The Iran Threat: President Ahmadinejad and the Coming Nuclear Crisis (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), 67– 68. 11. Helen Chapin Metz, Iran: A Country Study (Washington, DC: Library of Congress, 1987), 223; Michael Rubin, “Tehran Is the Obstacle to U.S.- Iranian Talks,” Middle East Forum, November 25, 2008. 12. Arshin Adib- Moghaddam, Iran in World Politics: The Question of the Islamic Repub- lic (New York: Columbia University Press, 2008), 33; Baqer Moin, Khomeini: Life of the Ayatollah (New York: Thomas Dunne Books, 1999), 264; Samuel Segev, The Iranian Triangle: The Untold Story of Israel’s Role in the Iran- Contra Affair, trans. Haim Watzman (New York: Free Press, 1988), 131; Bergman, Secret War with Iran, 113; Timmerman, Countdown to Crisis, 58– 59. 13. Segev, Iranian Triangle, 129. 14. Ibid.; Hiro, Longest War, 118; Ofira Seliktar, Doomed to Failure? The Politics and Intelligence of the Oslo Peace Process (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2009), 32. 15. Peter Mantius, Shell Game: A True Story of Banking, Spies, Lie, Politics and the Arm- ing of Saddam Hussein (New York: St. Martin’s, 1995), 238; Bradley Graham, By His Own Rules: The Ambitions, Successes, and Ultimate Failures of Donald Rumsfeld (New York: Public Affairs, 2009), 159; Ofira Seliktar, The Politics of Intelligence and American War with Iraq (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008), 92– 93. 16. Michael A. Ledeen, Perilous Statecraft: An Insider’s Account of the Iran- Contra Affair (New York: Scribner, 1988), 12; Elaine Sciolino, The Outlaw State: Saddam Hus- sein’s Quest for Power and the Gulf Crisis (New York: Wiley, 1991); David Kimche, The Last Option: After Nasser, Arafat, and Saddam Hussein (New York: Scribner, 1991), 208; Herbert Parmet, George Bush: The Life of a Lone Star Yankee (New York: Scribner, 1997), 304; Joseph Persico, Casey: The Lives and Secrets of the William J. Casey; From the OSS to the CIA (New York: Viking, 1990), 444; Seliktar, Doomed to Failure?, 34. 17. Quoted in Hushang Dietl, “Iran and American Wars on Its Flanks,” in Iran Today: Twenty- Five Years after the Islamic Revolution, ed. Mohammad Hamid Ansari (New Delhi: Rupa, 2005), 251; Alan Friedman, Spider’s Web: The Secret History of How the White House Illegally Armed Iraq (New York: Bantam, 1993), 15; Ronald Rea- gan, An American Life (New York, Simon & Schuster, 1990), 462, 490; Segev, Iranian Triangle, 130, 143. 18. Bergman, Secret War with Iran, 41– 48. 19. Benjamin Beit- Hallahmi, The Israeli Connection: Who Israel Arms and Why (New York: Pantheon Books, 1987), 13. 20. Ledeen, Perilous Statecraft, 105– 6. 21. Rahnema and Nomani, Secular Miracle, 341; Timmerman, Countdown to Crisis, 278; Ann Wroe, Lives, Lies, and the Iran- Contra Affair (London: I. B. Tauris, 1992), 10; Segev, Iranian Triangle, 133. 22. Bergman, Secret War with Iran, 114; Segev, Iranian Triangle, 134; Ledeen, Perilous Statecraft, 100. 192  Notes

23. Segev, Iranian Triangle, 139, 141, 154; George P. Shultz, Turmoil and Triumph: My Years as Secretary of State (New York: Scribner, 1993), 793. 24. Segev, Iranian Triangle, 141. 25. Ledeen, Perilous Statecraft, 113– 14; Segev, Iranian Triangle, 138, 161. 26. Segev Iranian Triangle, 154– 61. 27. Ibid., 164– 65. 28. Ibid., 169– 70. 29. Bergman, Secret War with Iran, 114– 15; Segev, Iranian Triangle, 185, 187– 88. 30. Segev, Iranian Triangle, 198– 211, 218. 31. Ibid., 232– 39, 246– 47. 32. Shultz, Turmoil and Triumph, 806. 33. Segev, Iranian Triangle, 233, 273, 279, 281; Yagil Weinberg, “The Iran-Contra Crisis and Its Impact on U.S.-Israeli Counterterrorism Operations,” in Beyond the Iran-Contra Crisis: The Shape of U.S. Anti-terrorism Policy in the Post-Reagan Era, ed. Neil C. Livingstone and Terrell E. Arnold (Lexington: MA: Lexington Books, 1988), 173– 89. 34. Segev, Iranian Triangle, 297; Ledeen, Perilous Statecraft, 236–37; Melissa Boyle Mahle, Deceit and Deception: An Insider’s View of the CIA (New York: Nation Books, 2006), 28. 35. Segev, Iranian Triangle, 303, 309, 311. 36. Avner Yaniv, ed., National Security and Democracy in Israel (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1993), x; Bergman, Secret War with Iran, 43. 37. Sasan Fayazmanesh, The United States and Iran: Sanctions, Wars and the Policy of Dual Containment (London: Routledge, 2008), 59; Bergman, Secret War with Iran, 115; Ledeen, Perilous Statecraft; Weinberg, “Iran-Contra Crisis.” 38. Ofira Seliktar, “Reading Tehran in Washington,” in Political Islam from Muham- mad to Ahmadinejad: Defenders, Detractors, and Definitions, ed. Joseph Morrison Skelly (Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger, 2010), 163– 81. 39. Bergman, Secret War with Iran, 117; Ran Edelist, The Man Who Rode the Tiger (Tel Aviv: Zmora Beitan, 1995), 154. 40. Stephen Green, Living by the Sword: America and Israel in the Middle East (Brat- telboro, VT: Amana Books, 1988), 215; Reagan, An American Life, 542; Bergman, Secret War with Iran, 128. 41. Ledeen, Perilous Statecraft, 258; Trita Parsi, Treacherous Alliances: The Secret Deal- ings of Israel, Iran and the United States (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2007), 121. 42. Bergman, Secret War with Iran, 125. 43. Metz, Iran. 44. Manouchehr Ganji, Defying the Iranian Revolution: From a Minister to the Shah to a Leader of Resistance (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2002), 126; Homa Omid, Islam and the Post- Revolutionary State in Iran (New York: St. Martin’s, 1994), 117– 21. 45. Moin, Khomeini, 264. 46. Charles Kurtzman, “Soft on Satan: Challenges for Iranian-U.S. Relations,” Middle East Policy 6 (June 1998): 63–72; Lally Weymouth, “Our Man in Tehran: An Inter- view with Iran’s Manucher Ghorbanifar,” The Washington Post, February 8, 1987; John Loftus and Mark Aarons, The Secret War against the Jews: How Western Espionage Notes  193

Betrayed the Jewish People (New York: St. Martin’s, 1994), 403; Ofira Seliktar, Poli- tics, Paradigms and Intelligence Failures: Why So Few Predicted the Collapse of the Soviet Union (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 2004), 135. 47. Baktiari, Parliamentary Politics, 134– 36; quoted in Taheri, Holy Terror, 4; Brum- berg, Rethinking Khomeini, 134. 48. Dickey, “Assad and His Allies,” 58– 76; Christopher de Bellaigue, “Who Rules Iran?” The New York Review of Books, June 27, 2002; BBC, February 1, 1984; BBC, December 16, 1986; Magnus Ranstrop, “Hezbollah’s Command Leadership: Its Structure, Decision Making, and Relationship with Iranian Clergy and Institu- tions,” Terrorism and Political Violence 6 (1994): 303–39. 49. Ihsan A. Hijazi, “Rift among Iran’s Leadership Appears to Widen,” The New York Times, November 7, 1986; Guardian, November 15, 1986; Rahnema and Nomani, Secular Miracle, 347– 48; Baktiari, Parliamentary Politics, 136; Rubin, “Tehran Is the Obstacle,” 2008; Omid, Post- Revolutionary State in Iran, 113. 50. Moin, Khomeini, 264; Claude van England, “Brutal Punishment Mark Daily Life in Iran,” Christian Science Monitor, October 8, 1982; Omid, Post- Revolutionary State in Iran, 146–47; de Bellaigue, “Who Rules Iran?”; Omid, Post- Revolutionary State in Iran, 114. 51. Angus Deming et.a. “Cloack and Danger,” Newsweek, November 17, 1986; Anthony Cordesman, The Iran-Iraq War and Western Security, 1984–87: Strategic Implications and Policy Options (London: Jane’s Publications, 1987), 159; William Miller, “The Possibilities of a New Iranian-United States Relationship,” in The Iranian Revolution and Islamic Republic, ed. Nikki R. Keddie and Eric Hooglund (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1986), 185; Hoosang Amirahmadi and Manoucher Parvin, eds., Post- Revolutionary Iran (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1985), 2; Shireen Hunter, “After the Ayatollah,” Foreign Affairs 66 (Spring 1987): 79, 93– 94; quoted in Elaine Sciolino, “Khomeini Deputies Differ in Outlook,” The New York Times, November 8, 1986; Gary Sick, “Iran’s Quest for Superpower Status,” Foreign Affairs 65, no. 4 (1987): 699, 701, 706, 708. 52. Harold Lee Wise, Inside the Danger Zone: The U.S. Military in the Persian Gulf, 1987– 1988 (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 2007), 79– 91, 113; Moin, Khomeini, 265– 67; Jubin M. Goodarzi, Syria and Iran: Diplomatic Alliance and Power Politics in the Middle East (London: Tauris Academic Studies, 2006), 220; Marschall, Iran’s Persian Gulf Policy, 52– 53. 53. Hamzeh, Path of Hizbullah, 101; BBC Summary, February 19, 1988; Ranstrop, “Hezbollah’s Command Leadership,” 317, 321–23; Martin Kramer, “The Oracle of Hizbullah: Sayyid Muhammed Husayan Fadlallah” in Spokesmen for the Despised: Fundamentalist Readers of the Middle East, ed. R. Scott Appleby (Chicago: Univer- sity of Chicago Press, 1997), 130– 31, 158. 54. Kenneth M. Pollack, The Persian Puzzle: The Conflict between Iran and America (New York: Random House, 2004), 229; Hiro, Longest War, 243; Montazam, Ayatol- lah Khomeini, 433; Yossi Melman and Meir Javedanfar, The Nuclear Sphinx of Teh- ran: Mahmoud Ahmadinejad and State of Iran (New York: Carroll & Graf, 2007), 98– 99. 55. Mehdi Moslem, Factional Politics in Post- Khomeini Iran (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2002), 77; Ranstrop, “Hezbollah’s Command Leadership,” 321. 194  Notes

56. Baktiari, Parliamentary Politics, 151; Moin, Khomeini, 269; Montazam, Ayatol- lah Khomeini, 433, Fayazmanesh, United States and Iran, 43; Richard A. Clarke, Against All Enemies: Inside America’s War on Terror (New York: Free Press, 2004), 101. 57. Steven R. Ward, The Immortals: A Military History of Iran and Its Armed Forces (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2009), 301; Ervand Abrahamian, Tortured Confessions: Prisoners and Public Recantation in Modern Iran (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), 209– 29; Jahanshah Rashidian, “Massacre of 1988 in Iran,” Iran Press Service, September 1, 2007. 58. Sandra Mackey, The Iranians: Persia, Islam, and the Soul of a Nation (New York: Plume, 1996), 353; Abdo and Lyons, Answering Only to God, 136– 37; Moin, Kho- meini, 280– 81, 287– 88; Omid, Post-Revolutionary State in Iran, 146–47; Anoushi- ravan Ehteshami, “The Politics of Economic Restructuring in Post- Khomeini Iran” (working paper, Centre for Middle Eastern and Islamic Studies, University of Dur- ham, 1995), 32; London Times, April 17, 1989; Abrahamian, Tortured Confessions, 210– 19; Brumberg, Rethinking Khomeini, 171. 59. Geoffrey Leslie Simons, Libya: The Struggle for Survival (Houndmills, Hampshire, England: Macmillan, 1993), 11–12; Bergman, Secret War with Iran, 129; Goodarzi, Syria and Iran, 150– 51. 60. Ehteshami, Post- Khomeini Iran, 31; Mackey, Iranians, 351; Abrahamian, Tortured Confessions, 218–19; Pipes, The Rushdie Affair, 27–31; Ganji, Defying the Iranian Revolution, 121– 22; Montazam, Ayatollah Khomeini, 431, 445; Moin, Khomeini, 282–84; Melman and Jafarzadeh, Nuclear Sphinx, 79; Adam Tarock, Iran’s Foreign Policy since 1990: Pragmatism Supersedes Islamic Ideology (Commack, NY: Nova Sci- ence, 1999); Houman A. Sadri, Revolutionary States, Leaders, and Foreign Relations: A Comparative Study of China, Cuba, and Iran (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1997), 107.

Chapter 4 1. Houman A. Sadri, Revolutionary States, Leaders and Foreign Relations: A Com- parative Study of China, Cuba, and Iran (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1997), 108– 9; George H. W. Bush and Brent Scowcroft, A World Transformed (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1998), 343; Robert Oakley, “International Terrorism,” Foreign Affairs 65, no. 3 (1987): 611– 30; 1986 Report of Vice President’s Task Force on Combating Terrorism; Richard A. Clarke, Against All Enemies: Inside America’s War on Terror (New York: Free Press, 2004), 73– 74. 2. Giandomenico Picco, Man without a Gun: One Diplomat’s Secret Struggle to Free the Hostages, Fight Terrorism, and End a War (New York: Times Books, 1999); Kenneth Pollack, The Persian Puzzle: The Conflict between Iran and America (New York: Random House, 2004), 245; Seymour M. Hersh, “Confusion Still Reigns in Iran- Contra Case,” New York Times, April 29, 1990; Roger Howard, Iran Oil: The New Middle East Challenge to America (London: I. B. Tauris, 2007), 11. 3. Robin Wright, The Last Great Revolution: Turmoil and Transformation in Iran (New York: Vintage Books, 2001), 21; Ziba Mir- Hosseini and Richard Tapper, Islam and Democracy in Iran: Eshkevari and the Quest for Reform (London: I. B. Tauris, 2006), 20; Karim Sadjadpour, Reading Khamenei: The World View of Iran’s Powerful Notes  195

Leader (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2008), 6– 8; Geneive Abdo and Jonathan Lyons, Answering Only to God: Faith and Freedom in Twenty- First- Century Iran (New York: Henry Holt, 2003), 112. 4. Mir Ali Asqhar Montazam, Islam in Iran: The Background to the Rule of Anarchy and Despotism in Iran’s Islamic Past and Present (London: Eurasia Press, 2003), 445; Daniel Brumberg, Rethinking Khomeini: The Struggle to Reform Iran (Chicago: Uni- versity of Chicago Press, 2001), 172. 5. Wilfried Buchta, Who Rules Iran? The Structure of Power in the Islamic Repub- lic (Washington, DC: Washington Institute for Near East Policy, 2000), 19; Ali Gheissari and Vali Nasr, Democracy in Iran: History and the Quest for Liberty (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), 215; Sadjadpour, Reading Khamenei, 6–8; Hooman Majd, The Ayatollah Begs to Differ: The Paradox of Modern Iran (New York: Doubleday, 2008), 46–47; Kasra Naji, Ahmadinejad: The Secret History of Iran’s Radical Leader (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008), 36. 6. Akbar Ganji, The Road to Democracy in Iran (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2008); Buchta, Who Rules Iran?, 66– 67; Robert D. Kaplan, The Ends of the Earth: A Jour- ney at the Dawn of the Twenty- First Century (New York: Random House, 1996). 7. Anoushiravan Ehteshami, “Iran and Its Immediate Neighborhood,” in Iran’s For- eign Policy: From Khatami to Ahmadinejad, ed. Anoushiravan Ehteshami and Mah- joob Zweiri (Reading, UK: Ithaca Press, 2008), 133; S. M. A. Sayeed, Iran: Before and After Khomeini (Karachi: Royal Book Company, 1999), 168, 228; Gheissari and Nasr, Democracy in Iran, 114; Ali Rahnema and Farhad Nomani, The Sec- ular Miracle: Religion, Politics and Economic Policy in Iran (London: Zed Books, 1990), 36. 8. John Calabresi, Revolutionary Horizons: Regional Foreign Policy in Post- Khomeini Iran (New York: St. Martin’s, 1994), 150; Magnus Ranstrop, “Hezbollah’s Com- mand Leadership: Its Structure, Decision Making, and Relationship with Iranian Clergy and Institutions,” Terrorism and Political Violence 6 (1994): 303–339; Ahmad Nizar Hamzeh, In the Path of Hizbullah (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse Univer- sity Press, 2004), 108– 11; Anoushiravan Ehteshami and Raymond A. Hinnebush, Syria and Iran: Middle Power in a Penetrated Regional System (London: Routledge, 1999), 136; Edgar O’Ballance, Islamic Fundamentalist Terrorism, 1979–95: The Ira- nian Connection (New York: New York University Press, 1997), 118. 9. David Frum and Richard Perle, An End to Evil: How to Win the War on Terror (New York: Random House, 2005), 105; Seyyed Hossein Mousavian, Iran Europe Rela- tions: Challenges and Opportunities (London: Routledge, 2008), 218– 26. 10. Mousavian, Iran Europe Relations, vii–viii; Yossi Melman and Meir Javedanfar, The Nuclear Sphinx of Tehran: Mahmoud Ahmadinejad and the State of Iran (New York: Carroll & Graf, 2007), 12; O’Ballance, Islamic Fundamentalist Terrorism, 155, 156, 159; Alireza Jafarzadeh, The Iran Threat: President Ahmadinejad and the Coming Nuclear Crisis (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), 62; Christopher C. Har- mon, Terrorism Today (London: Routledge, 2007), 119; Matthias V. Struve, The Policy of Critical Dialogue (Durham, UK: Centre for Middle Eastern and Islamic Studies, University of Durham, 1998), 52; Ronen Bergman, The Secret War with Iran: The Thirty- Year Clandestine Struggle against the World’s Most Dangerous Terror- ist Power (New York: Free Press, 2008), 141– 43. 196  Notes

11. Struve, Policy of Critical Dialogue, 1–2; Richard H. Shultz, “Iranian Covert Aggres- sion,” Terrorism and Political Violence 6, no. 3 (1994): 286; Gheissari and Nasr, Democracy in Iran, 102– 3. 12. Bergman, Secret War with Iran, 170– 71. 13. Peter Woodward, US Foreign Policy and the Horn of Africa (Burlington, VT: Ash- gate, 2006), 48; Shaul Shay, The Axis of Evil: Iran, Hezbollah and Palestinian Terror (New Brunswick, NJ: Transactions Books, 2005), 51; Mark Huband, Brutal Truth, Fragile Myths: Power Politics and Western Adventurism in the Arab World (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2004), 77– 78; J. Millard Burr and Robert O. Collins, Revo- lutionary Sudan: Hasan al-Turabi and the Islamic State, 1989–2000 (Leiden: Brill, 2003), 101. 14. Burr and Collins, Revolutionary Sudan, 126; Shaul Shay, The Red Sea Terror Tri- angle: Sudan, Somalia, Yemen, and Islamic Terrorism, trans. Rachel Lieberman (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 2007); Abbas Amanat, Apocalyptic Islam and Iranian Shi’ism (London: I. B. Tauris, 2009), 75– 76. 15. Quoted in Judith Miller, “A Voice with Broad Echoes: A Muslim Critic Hones the Fusing of Religion and Political,” The New York Times, May 17, 1992; quoted in Martin Kramer, Ivory Towers on Sand: The Failure of Middle Eastern Studies in America (Washington, DC: Washington Institute for Near East Studies, 2001), 50. 16. Judith Miller, “The Islamic Wave,” The New York Times, May 31, 1992; Wood- ward, Horn of Africa, 42; Burr and Collins, Revolutionary Sudan, 95– 98; Scott Peterson, “Sudan Cultivates Ties with Iran,” Christian Science Monitor, March 31, 1992; Herman J. Cohen, Intervening in Africa: Superpower Peacemaking in a Trou- bled Continent (New York: St. Martin’s, 2000), 65. 17. Ronald Kessler, The CIA at War: Inside the Secret Campaign against Terror (New York: St. Martin’s, 2004), 132; Richard A. Posner, Why America Slept: The Failure to Prevent 9/11 (New York: Random Books, 2003), 19, 21; Vincent Cannistraro, PBS Frontline; Target America, http:// www .pbs .org/ wghb/ pages/ frontline/ schows/ target/ interviews/ cannistraro .html; Melissa Boyle Mahle, Deceit and Deception: An Insider’s View of the CIA (New York: Nation Books, 2006), 83–84; Bergman, Secret War with Iran, 220. 18. George P. Shultz, Turmoil and Triumph: My Years as Secretary of State (New York: Scribner, 1993), 929; John Prados, Safe for Democracy: The Secret War of the CIA (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2006), 582– 85. 19. David Segal, “Atomic Ayatollahs,” The Washington Post, April 12, 1987; BBC, Jan- uary 4, 1980; BBC, December 21, 1981. 20. Gregory F. Giles, “The Islamic Republic of Iran and Nuclear, Biological and Chem- ical Weapons,” in Planning the Unthinkable: How New Powers Would Use Nuclear, Biological and Chemical Weapons, ed. Peter Lavoy, Scott D. Sagan, and James J. Wirtz (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2000), 82– 83; Jafarzadeh, Iran Threat, 123, 126– 28, 133– 34, 137– 38; Jafarzadeh, Fox News, November 13, 2007; Gor- don Corera, Shopping for the Bomb: Nuclear Proliferation, Global Insecurity, and the Rise and Fall of the A. Q. Khan Network (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), 63; Segal, “Atomic Ayatollahs”; Kenneth R. Timmerman, Weapons of Mass Destruction: The Cases of Iran, Syria, and Libya (Los Angeles: Simon Wiesenthal Center, 1992), 39– 43; Leonard S. Spector, Deterring Regional Threats from Nuclear Notes  197

Proliferation, Strategic Studies Institute, U.S. Army War College (Carlilse, PA: U.S. War College, 1992). 21. Mark D. Skootsky, “U.S. Nuclear Policy toward Iran,” Nonproliferation Analysis 1, no. 1 (July 1995): 10; Corera, Shopping for the Bomb, 63, 73; Ofira Seliktar, Doomed to Failure? The Politics and Intelligence of the Oslo Peace Process (Westport, CT: Prae- ger, 2009), 97; Jafarzadeh, Iran Threat, 134– 35; Kenneth R. Timmerman, Count- down to Crisis: The Coming Nuclear Showdown (New York: Crown Forum, 2005), 39; Amos Harel, “How Israel’s War with Iran will be Fought,” Haaretz, June 11, 2009; David Albright and Corey Hinderstein, “Iran: Player or Rogue?” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists (September/October, 2003). 22. BBC, October 21, 1988; Giles, “Islamic Republic,” 84; Timmerman, Countdown to Crisis, 44– 45. 23. Timmerman, Countdown to Crisis, 44– 45. 24. Ibid., 100, 106. 25. Michael Smith, Killer Elite: The Inside Story of America’s Most Secret Special Opera- tions Unit (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2008), 153; Manouchehr Ganji, Defying the Iranian Revolution: From a Minister to the Shah to a Leader of Resistance (West- port, CT: Praeger, 2002), 199; Timmerman, Countdown to Crisis, 110. 26. William Langewiesche, “The Point of No Return,” Atlantic Monthly, January– February 2006; BBC, March 4, 1987. 27. Yossef Bodansky and Vaughn S. Forrest, “Addendum: The Moallem Kalayeh Epi- sode,” House Task Force on Terrorism and Unconventional Warfare, February 8, 1992; Timmerman, Countdown to Crisis, 112–13; David Albright and Mark Hibbs, “Spotlight Shifts to Iran,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, March 1992. 28. Sasan Fayazmanesh, The United States and Iran: Sanctions, Wars and the Policy of Dual Containment (London: Routledge, 2008), 131. 29. Timmerman, Countdown to Crisis, 108– 9; Gareth Porter, “Politics— US: Is Gates Undermining Another Opening to Iran?” IPS, January 27, 2008, http:// www .ipsnews .net/ news .asp?idnews =45577; Skootsky, “U.S. Nuclear Policy.” 30. Pollack, Persian Puzzle, 248, 253. 31. Steven Emerson, “Don’t Appease Iran,” The New York Times, August 9, 1992; The Washington Post, January 31, 1992; Pollack, Persian Puzzle, 248; “Iranian Foreign Policy,” June 1, 1990, http:// www .faqs .org/ cia/ docs/ 14/ 0000602680/. 32. Timmerman, Countdown to Crisis; Kenneth Timmerman, “Fanning the Flames: Guns, Greed and Geopolitics in the Gulf War,” The Iran Brief, 1988, http:// www .iran .org/ tib/ krt/ fanning .ch6 .htm; Clarke, Against All Enemies, 67. 33. Ian Anthony, Arms Export Regulation (Stockholm: SIPRI, 1991), 187; Timmer- man, Countdown to Crisis, 127. 34. Quoted in Hossein Alikhani, Sanctioning Iran: Anatomy of a Failed Policy (London: I. B. Tauris, 2000), 163. 35. Alikhani, Sanctioning Iran, 118, 164; Timmerman, Countdown to Crisis, 164. 36. Fayazmanesh, United States and Iran, 63. 198  Notes

Chapter 5 1. Quoted in Jonathan Haslam, No Virtue Like Necessity: Realist Thoughts in Interna- tional Relations since Machiavelli (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2002), 243; Joseph S. Nye, Bound to Lead: The Changing Nature of American Power (New York: Basic Books, 1990), 31; James Mann, The Rise of the Vulcans: The History of Bush’s War Cabinet (New York: Viking, 2004), 100– 101. 2. Ali M. Ansari, Iran, Islam and Democracy: The Politics of Managing Change (Lon- don: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 2000), 84; Ali Mohammadi, Iran Encountering Globalization: Problems and Prospects (London: Routledge Curzon, 2003), 216; Ervand Abrahamian, Tortured Confessions: Prisons and Public Recanta- tions in Modern Iran (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), 274; Reza Aslan, No God but God: The Origins, Evolution, and Future of Islam (New York: Random House, 2005), 253. 3. Robert Litwak, Rogue States and U.S. Foreign Policy: Containment after the Cold War (Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center, 2000), 180; John Simpson and Tira Shubart, Lifting the Veil: Life in Revolutionary Iran (London: Coronet Books, 1995), 198; Daniel Brumberg, Rethinking Khomeini: The Struggle to Reform Iran (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001), 163; Edgar O’Ballance, Islamic Fun- damentalist Terrorism, 1979–95: The Iranian Connection (New York: New York University Press, 1997), 141. 4. Jean- Daniel Lafond and Fred A. Reed, Conversations in Tehran (Vancouver, BC: Talonbooks, 2006), 101; Wilfried Buchta, Who Rules Iran? The Structure of Power in the Islamic Republic (Washington, DC: Washington Institute for Near East Pol- icy, 2000), 66–67; Kenneth R. Timmerman, Countdown to Crisis: Coming Nuclear Showdown with Iran (New York: Crown Forum, 2005), 173, 183; Anoushiravan Ehteshami, The Politics of Economic Restructuring in Post- Khomeini Iran (Durham, England: Centre for Middle Eastern and Islamic Studies, 1995), 5– 9. 5. Iran Report, October 9, 2000, http:// www .global security.org/wmd/library/news/ iran/2000/38-091000.html; Mehdi Moslem, Factional Politics in Post-Khomeini Iran (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2002), 54; Kasra Naji, Ahmadinejad: The Secret History of Iran’s Radical Leader (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008), 98, 1078. 6. Ali Alfoneh, “All Ahmadinejad’s Men,” Middle East Quarterly Spring 2011; Naji, Ahmadinejad, 32– 35. 7. Olivier Roy and Antoine Sfeir, eds., The Columbia World Dictionary of Islamism (New York: Columbia University Press, 2007), 152; Buchta, Who Rules Iran?, 18; Bill Sammi, “Iran: A Rising Star in Iran Politics,” Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, November 7, 2005; Farideh Farhi, “The Antinomies of Iran’s War Generation,” in Iran, Iraq and the Legacies of War, ed. Lawrence G. Potter and Gary G. Sick (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), 101– 40; Walter Posch, “Prospects for Iran’s 2009 Presidential Elections,” Middle East Institute, June 2009. 8. Edward G. Shirley, “Is Iran’s Present Algeria’s Future?,” Foreign Affairs 74, no. 3 (1995), 36. 9. Shaul Shay, The Red Sea Terror Triangle: Sudan, Somalia, Yemen, and Islamic Terror (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 2007); 83– 84. Notes  199

10. “Usama bin Laden: American Soldiers Are Paper Tigers,” Middle East Quarterly 5, no.4 (1998), 73– 79. 11. Manouchehr Ganji, Defying the Iranian Revolution: From a Minister to the Shah to a Leader of Resistance (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2002); Kenneth R. Timmerman, Shadow Warriors: The Untold Story of Traitors, Saboteurs, and the Party of Surrender (New York: Crown Forum, 2007), 314; Yaakov Katz and Khalid Abu Toameh, “The Fox Was Linked to Regev Goldwasser Abduction,” The Jerusalem Post, Febru- ary 14, 2008. 12. Ronen Bergman, The Secret War with Iran: The 30- Year Clandestine Struggle against the World’s Most Dangerous Terrorist Power (New York: Free Press, 2008), 221; Mar- tin Indyk, Innocent Abroad: An Inside Account of American Peace Diplomacy in the Middle East (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2009), 53. 13. Bergman, Secret War with Iran, 220– 24. 14. Louis J. Freeh, “Khobar Towers,” Opinion Journal, June 25, 2006, http://www .opinionjournal .com/ ?id+111008563; Thomas Kean, Lee H. Hamilton, Richard Ben-Veniste, et al., The 9/11 Commission Report (New York: St. Martin’s, 2004), 60; Timmerman, Countdown to Crisis, 183, 175–76; Alireza Jafarzadeh, The Iran Threat: President Ahmadinejad and the Coming Nuclear Crisis (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), 72–73; Jerome R. Corsi, Atomic Bomb: How the Terrorist Regime Bought the Bomb and American Politicians (Nashville, TN: Cumberland House, 2006), 136; Thomas Friedman, “Stay Tuned,” The New York Times, June 25, 1997. 15. Barbara Slavin, “Iran Helped Overthrow Taliban, Candidate Says,” USA Today, June 9, 2005; Richard Miniter, Losing bin Laden: How Bill Clinton’s Failures Unleashed Global Terror (Washington, DC: Regnery, 2003), 151– 56; Thomas R. Mattair, Global Security Watch— Iran: Reference Book (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2008), 4. 16. Shahram Chubin, Whither Iran? Reform, Domestic Politics and National Security (Oxford: Oxford University for the International Institute for Strategic Studies, 2002), 88; Bergman, Secret War with Iran, 220; Jonathan Schanzer, “The Iranian Gambit in Gaza,” Commentary, February 2009; O’Ballance, Islamic Fundamental- ist Terrorism, 167; John Calabresi, Revolutionary Horizons: Regional Foreign Policy in Post- Khomeini Iran (New York: St. Martin’s, 1994), 154; Robert Baer, The Devil We Know: Dealing with the New Iranian Superpower (New York: Crown, 2008), 172– 75. 17. Anoushiravan Ehteshami and Raymond A. Hinnebusch, Syria and Iran: Middle Powers in a Penetrated Regional System (London: Routledge, 1999), 188– 89; Ken- neth Timmerman, “Clinton Shields Iran from U.S. Justice,” Western Journalism Center, September 28, 2000; Indyk, Innocent Abroad, 174; “Mullahs with Torches,” http:// vwt .dsg .com: 8081/2006 03/the_other_bad_guy.htm; Chubin, Whither Iran?, 88. 18. O’Ballance, Islamic Fundamentalist Terrorism, 177; Schanzer, “Iranian Gambit in Gaza”; Hossein Alikhani, Sanctioning Iran: Anatomy of a Failed Policy (London: I. B. Tauris, 2000), 405; Bergman, Secret War with Iran, 221; Jonathan Schanzer, Hamas vs. Fatah: The Struggle for Palestine (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008), 42; Indyk, Innocent Abroad, 174. 200  Notes

19. Kean et al., 9/11 Commission Report, 139; Ofira Seliktar, Doomed to Failure? The Politics and Intelligence of the Oslo Peace Process (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2009), 65. 20. Editorial, The New York Times, June 10, 1990; Madeleine Albright, Mighty and Almighty (New York: HarperCollins, 2006), 8. 21. Lisa Haar, “Institute Professor John Deutch Heads CIA: What Next?” Thistle, 1995; Ronald Kessler, The CIA at War: Inside the Secret Campaign against Terror (New York: St. Martin’s, 2004), 145; Frederick P. Hitz, “The Future of American Espionage,” International Journal of Intelligence and Counterintelligence 13 (2000): 1– 20; Rich Lowry, Legacy: Paying the Price for the Clinton Years (Washington, DC: Regnery, 2003), 305; Melissa Boyle Mahle, Denial and Deception: An Insider’s View of the CIA (New York: Nation Books, 2006), 172– 76. 22. Duane Clarridge, A Spy for All Seasons: My Life in the CIA (New York; Scribner, 1997), 152. 23. Edward Shirley, Know Thy Enemy: A Spy’s Journey into Revolutionary Iran (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1997), 57. 24. James A. Bill, “The United States and Iran: Mutual Mythologies,” Middle East Policy Journal 2, no. 3 (1993): 98–107; Richard A. Clarke, Against All Enemies: Inside America’s War on Terror (New York: Free Press, 2004), 87– 88. 25. J. Millard Burr and Robert O. Collins, Revolutionary Sudan: Hasan al- Turabi and the Islamic State, 1989– 2000 (Leiden: Brill, 2003), 123– 29; Thomas Joscelyn, Iran’s Proxy War against America (Clermont, CA: The Clermont Institute, 2007), 19. 26. Clarke, Against All Enemies, 96; Burr and Collins, Revolutionary Sudan, 129. 27. Ann M. Lesch, “Osama bin Laden: Embedded in the Middle East,” Middle East Journal 9 (June 2002): 82–91; Mahle, Denial and Deception, 189; Miniter, Los- ing bin Laden, 97; George Tenet, At the Center of the Storm: My Years at the CIA (New York: HarperCollins, 2007), 100– 102, http:// www .fas .org/ irp/ news/ 1998/ 11indict1 .pdf, p. 6. 28. Kenneth Timmerman, “Clinton Offers Iran a Frank Dialogue,” The Washington Times, June 24, 1996; James Risen, State of War: The Secret History of the CIA and the Bush Administration (New York: Free Press, 2006), 212, 214; Freeh, “Khobar Towers”; Madeleine Albright, Madam Secretary: A Memoir (New York: Miramax Books, 2003), 223– 24; Clarke, Against All Enemies, 112; Dick Morris, Off with Their Heads: Traitors, Crooks & Obstructionists in American Politics, Media & Busi- ness (New York: Regan Books, 2003), 125–26; Mahle, Denial and Deception, 196; Kenneth Pollack, The Persian Puzzle: The Conflict between Iran and America (New York: Random House, 2004), 284– 85. 29. Albright, Madam Secretary, 223– 24; Carol D. Leoning, “Iran Held Liable in Kho- bar Attack,” The Washington Post, December 23, 2006; Clarke, Against All Enemies, 120; Barbara Slavin “Officials: U.S. ‘Outed Iran’s Spies in 1997,’ ” USA Today, March 29, 2004; Daniel Byman, Deadly Connections: States That Sponsor Terrorism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 106; Pollack, Persian Puzzle, 291; Mahle, Denial and Deception, 196. 30. Greg J. Gerardi and Maryam Aharinejad, “An Assessment of Iran’s Nuclear Facili- ties” (report, Center for Nonproliferation Studies, Monterey Institute of Interna- tional Studies, Monterey, 1995); http:// cns .miis .edu/ npr/ pdfs/ ahavin23 .pdf. Notes  201

31. Timmerman, Countdown to Crisis, 154; Chaim Braun and Christopher F. Chyba, “Proliferation Rings,” International Security 29, no. 2 (2004): 18; Gordon Corera, Shopping for Bombs: Nuclear Proliferation, Global Insecurity, and the Rise and Fall of the A. Q. Khan Network (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 70. 32. CRS Report for Congress: Steven A. Hildreth, “Iran’s Ballistic Missile Program: An Overview,” July 21, 2008; Steve Fetter, “Ballistic Missiles and Weapons of Mass Destruction,” International Security 16 (Summer 1991), 5– 42. 33. Timmerman, Countdown to Crisis, 120– 22; globalsecurity.org. http:// www .global security.org/wmd/world/Iran/laviza.htm. 34. BBC Monitoring Service Middle East, February 11, 1995; quoted in Mattair, Global Security Watch— Iran, 47; Naji, Ahmadinejad, 118; The Washington Post, February 1, 1993. 35. Corera, Shopping for Bombs, 70; Jafarzadeh, Iran Threat, 143, 161– 63; Michael Rubin, “Iran’s Burgeoning WMD Program,” Middle East Intelligence Bulletin, March/April 2002,; Reuters, July 2, 1995; BBC Monitoring Service Middle East March 17, 1995. 36. Ashton Carter and William J. Perry, Preventive Defense: A New Security Strategy for America (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 1999), 65–67; Al J. Ven- ter, “Atoms for Allah,” Soldier of Fortune, July 2001, 40–43, 88–89; Jeffrey Richel- son, Defusing Armageddon: Inside NEST, America’s Secret Nuclear Bomb Squad (New York: Norton, 2009), 162. 37. New York Times, October 25, 1993; USA Today, January 4, 1994. 38. Ibid. 39. David Albright, “An Iranian Bomb,” The Bulletin of Atomic Scientists, January 1995; Associated Press, January 5, 1995, and January 24, 1995; Timmerman, Countdown to Crisis, 154. 40. Executive News Service, February 29, 1996; Office of the Secretary of Defense, Pro- liferation: Threats and Responses, Washington, April 1996; Independent, March 28, 1996. 41. Anthony Lake, “Confronting Backlash States,” Foreign Affairs 73, no. 2 (March– April 1994): 45– 55; Janne E. Nolan, An Elusive Consensus: Nuclear Weapons and American Security after the Cold War (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 1999), 72; Indyk, Innocent Abroad, 39– 40. 42. Albright, Madame Secretary, 325; Henning Riecke, “US Non-Proliferation Cam- paigns and Their Impact on Institutional Change,” in Imperfect Unions: Security Institutions over Time and Space, ed. Helga Haftendorn, Robert Owen Keo- hane, and Celeste A. Wallander (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 268. 43. Riecke, “US Non- Proliferation Campaigns,” 268– 69; Counter Proliferation Initia- tive PDD 18, http:// ftp .fas .irp .offdocs/ pdd .18 .htm. 44. http:// nukestrat .com .us/ reviews/ npr1994/ htm; Nolan, Elusive Consensus, 63–65. 45. Uzi Arad, “Russian and Iran’s Nuclear Program,” Jerusalem Issue Brief, April 28, 2003; David Menashri, Iran after Khomeini: Revolutionary Ideology vs. National Interest (Tel Aviv: Tami Steinmetz Center for Peace Research, 1999), 177; Timmer- man, Countdown to Crisis, 163– 65, 197. 202  Notes

46. Roger Howard, Iran Oil: The New Middle East Challenge to America (London: I. B. Tauris, 2007), 11– 12; Sasan Fayazmanesh, The United States and Iran: Sanc- tions, Wars and the Policy of Dual Containment (London: Routledge, 2008), 85; Zbigniew Brzezinski and Brent Scowcroft, Differentiated Containment: U.S. Policy toward Iran and Iraq (Washington, DC: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1997); Leona Foerstal, “U.S. and NATO Goals in the Balkans,” http:// www .iacenter .org/ warcrime/ lfoerst ./ htm. 47. Gary Sick, “Iran Is Ripe for a Peaceful Overture,” The Los Angeles Times, May 2, 1995; Sick, “A Sensible Policy toward Iran,” Middle East Insight, 11 (July–August, 1995): 21. Sick, “US Can Exploit Peaceful Revolution,” Newsday, June 11, 1997; Ahmed Hashim, The Crisis of the Iranian State: Domestic, Foreign and Security Poli- tics in Post-Khomeini Iran (Oxford: IISS/Oxford University Press, 1995); William Quandt, “Islam and Democracy,” Foreign Affairs 75, no. 5 (1996), 164–65; Ste- phen Walt, Origins of Alliances (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994); Eric Laipson, Gary Sick, and Richard Cottam, “Symposium. U.S. Policy toward Iran: From Containment to Relentless Pursuit,” Middle East Policy 4, nos. 1–2 (Septem- ber 1995): 1– 12; Richard N. Haass, “Sanction Madness,” Foreign Affairs 76, no. 6 (1997): 74–85; Sick, “Time to Talk,” Online Forum, January 26, 1998; Sick, “The Clouded Mirror: The United States and Iran,” in Iran at the Crossroads, ed. John L. Esposito and R. K. Ramazani (New York: Palgrave, 2001), 191– 210. 48. Timmerman, Countdown to Crisis, 164–65; Anastasia Th. Drenou, “Iran Caught between European Union– United States Rivalry?” in Iran’s Foreign Policy from Khatami to Ahmadinejad (Reading, UK: Ithaca Press, 2008), 73–87; Pollack, Per- sian Puzzle, 287. 49. Pollack, Persian Puzzle, 293.

Chapter 6 1. Kenneth M. Pollack, The Persian Puzzle (New York: Random House, 2004), 293. 2. Mohsen Milani, “Reform and Resistance in the Republic of Iran,” in Iran at the Crossroads, ed. John L. Esposito and R. K. Ramazani (New York: Palgrave, 2001), 28; Jahangir Amuzegar, “Iran’s Crumbling Revolution,” Foreign Affairs 82, no. 1 (2003): 1– 57. 3. Wilfried Buchta, Who Rules Iran? The Structure of Power in the Islamic Republic (Washington, DC: Washington Institute for Near East Policy, 2000). 4. Behzad Yaghmaian, Social Change in Iran: An Eyewitness Account of Dissent, Defi- ance, and New Movements for Rights (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2002), 9; Mark Downes, Iran’s Unresolved Revolution (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2002), 134; Ali Gheissari and Vali Nasr, “The Conservative Consolidation in Iran,” Survival 47, no. 2 (2005): 177. 5. Ibid. 6. Ibid. 7. Ziba Mir- Hosseini and Richard Tapper, Islam and Democracy in Iran: Eshkevari and the Quest for Reform (New York: I. B. Tauris, 2006), 32; Saïd Amir Arjomand, “The Rise and Fall of President Khatami and the Reform Movement in Iran,” Constellations 12, no. 4 (2005): 502–520; Arjomand, After Khomeini: Iran under Notes  203

His Successors (New York: Oxford University Press), 263; Kenneth R. Timmerman, Countdown to Crisis: The Coming Nuclear Showdown with Iran (New York: Crown Forum, 2005), 214; Geneive Abdo and Jonathan Lyons, Answering Only to God: Faith and Freedom in Twenty-First Century Iran (New York: Henry Holt, 2003), 179; Farhang Rajaee, Islamism and Modernism: The Changing Discourse in Iran (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2007), 174; Ray Takeyh, Hidden Iran: Paradox and Power in the Islamic Republic (New York: Times Book/Holt, 2006), 192; Vali Nasr, The Shia Revival: How Conflict with Iran Will Shape the Future (New York: W. W. Norton, 2006), 216. 8. Abdo and Lyons, Answering Only to God, 179, 220– 21; Asef Bayat, Making Islam Democratic: Social Movements and the Post- Islamist Turn (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2007), 116–17; Robin B. Wright, The Last Great Revolution: Tur- moil and Transformation in Iran (New York: Vintage Books, 2001), 73– 75, 105; Iran Report, October 9, 2000, http:// www .globalsecurity .org/ wmd/ library/ news/ iran/ 2000/ 38 -091000 .html; Yaghmaian, Social Change in Iran, 76; Anoushiravan Ehteshami and Mahjoob Zweiri, eds., Iran’s Foreign Policy: From Khatami to Ahma- dinejad (Reading, UK: Ithaca Press, 2008), 10, 19. 9. Mir- Hosseini and Tapper, Islam and Democracy, 32. 10. Milani, “Reform and Resistance,” 46, 48; Bayat, Making Islam Democratic, 116– 17; Takeyh, Hidden Iran, 52. 11. Karim Sadjadpour, Reading Khamenei: The World View of Iran’s Powerful Leader (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2008), 17; Tim- merman, Countdown to Crisis, 215– 17; Takeyh, Hidden Iran, 193. 12. George H. Wittman, “Iran’s Revolutionary S.S.,” American Spectator, October 4, 2007; Ed Blanche, “Mercenary Economics,” Trend Magazine, http:// www .trends magazine .net/ article -focus .php?/ cle+3; Reese Erlich, The Iran Agenda: The Real Story of U.S. Policy and the Middle East Crisis (Sausalito, CA: PoliPoint Press, 2007), 79; Frederick Wehrey, Jerrold Green, Brian Nichiporuk, Alireza Nader, Lydia Hansell, and Rasool Nafisi, The Rise of the Pasdaran: Assessing the Domes- tic Role of Iran’s Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps (Santa Monica: Rand, 2009), 88; Susan Maloney, “Agents or Obstacles: Parastatal Foundations and Challenges for Iranian Development,” in The Economy of Iran, ed. Parvin Alizadeh (London: I. B. Tauris, 2000), 145–177. 13. Rajaee, Islamism and Modernism, 173; Mehdi Khalaji, Apocalyptic Politics: On the Rationality of Iranian Policy (Washington, DC: Washington Institute for Near East Policy, 2008), 1; Timmerman, Countdown to Crisis, 221; Yaghmaian, Social Change in Iran, 79; Stephen C. Poulson, Social Movements in Twentieth- Century Iran: Cul- ture, Ideology and Mobilizing Frameworks (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2005), 262; Kasra Naji, Ahmadinejad: The Secret History of Iran’s Radical Leader (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008), 188– 89. 14. Manouchehr Ganji, Defining the Iranian Revolution (Westport, CT: Praeger 2002), 121– 22; Brief on Iran, February 13, 1997, http:// www .iran .e -azad -org/ english/ boi/ 05930213 .97. 15. Shimon Shapira, “The Nexus between Iranian National Banks and International Terrorist Financing,” Jerusalem Issue Brief, February 14, 2008; Eyal Zisser, Com- manding Syria: Bashar al- Asad and the First Years in Power (London: I. B. Tauris, 204  Notes

2006); http:// www .fas .org/ irp/ world/ Iran/ qods; Michael Eisenstadt, “Iran under Khatami,” May 14, 1998, http:// www .fas .org/ spp/ starwars/ Congress/ 1998_h/s980 514-eisen.htm. 16. Beverley Milton- Edwards, Contemporary Politics in the Middle East (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2006). 17. Alireza Jafarzadeh, The Iran Threat: President Ahmadinejad and the Coming Nuclear Crisis (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), 141; Kaveh Afarsiabi, Iran’s Nuclear Program: Debating Facts versus Fiction (Charleston, SC: BookSurge, 2006), 8; Gor- don Corera, Shopping for the Bomb: Nuclear Proliferation, Global Insecurity, and the Rise and Fall of the A. Q. Khan Network (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), 70– 72; Yossi Melman and Meir Javedanfar, The Nuclear Sphinx of Tehran (New York: Carroll & Graf, 2007), 144. 18. Melman and Javedanfar, Nuclear Sphinx of Tehran, 133, 144; http:// www .globalsecurity .org/ wmd/ world/ iran/ arack .htm; Iran Missile Update, Risk Report (January–February 1999, Wisconsin Project On Nuclear Arms Control); Timmer- man, Countdown to Crisis, 239. 19. http:// www .fas .org/ spp/ starwars/ office/ nie 9519.htm; Corera, Shopping for the Bomb; Timmerman, Countdown to Crisis, 204–6; NTI, January 17, 2000, April 12, 2000, September 20, 2000; http://www .cia .gov/ new =information/ speeches -testimony/2000/ schindler _WMD _092200 .htm. 20. Bradley Graham, By His Own Rules: The Ambitions, Successes, and Ultimate Failures of Donald Rumsfeld (New York: Public Affairs, 2009), 185– 94; Michael Eisenstadt, “Living with a Nuclear Iran,” Survival 41, no. 3 (1999): 124– 48. 21. Sasan Fayazmanesh, The United States and Iran: Sanctions, Wars and the Policy of Dual Containment (London: Routledge, 2008), 87–88; http://www .dfr .org/ publications .html?id+54. 22. Martin Indyk, Innocent Abroad: An Intimate Account of American Peace Diplomacy in the Middle East (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2009), 214, 219, 223; Fay- azmanesh, United States and Iran, 31. 23. http:// www .armscontrol .org/ print/ 249; Ben Kaspit, “Too Many Questions,” Haaretz November 7, 1997; Kenneth Timmerman, “The Russian Missiles We Could Have Stopped,” Testimony to Congress, October 6, 1999, http://iran .org/ tib/ krt/ hirc99 1006 .htm. 24. Fayazmanesh, United States and Iran, 92; Madeleine Albright, Madam Secretary: A Memoir (New York: Miramax Books, 2003), 223– 24. 25. Robin Wright, “Iran’s New Revolution,” Foreign Affairs 79, no. 1 (2000): 133– 45; Dariush Zahedi, The Iranian Revolution Then and Now: Indicators of Regime Insta- bility (Boulder: Westview Press, 2000), 8; Ali M. Ansari, Iran, Islam and Democ- racy (London: Chatham House, 2000), 219; Richard Falk, Unlocking the Middle East (Northampton, MA: 2003), 14; Puneet Talwar, “Iran in the Balance,” Foreign Affairs 80, no. 4 (July/August 2001): 58–71; “Intelligence Challenges for the Next Generation,” http:// www .cia .gov/ news -information/ speeches -testimony/ 1998/ nic _speech _060598 -html); Indyk, Innocent Abroad, 214, 223, 227. 26. Ibid. Notes  205

27. Indyk, Innocent Abroad, 228; Albright, Madame Secretary, 320, 323; Timmerman, Countdown to Crisis, 228; Bill Gertz, “North Korea Sells Iran Missile Engines: Con- tinues to Move Data, Equipment,” The Washington Times, February 9, 2000. 28. Timmerman, Countdown to Crisis, 237, 239; James Risen and Judith Miller, “CIA Tells Clinton an Iranian A- bomb Can’t Be Ruled Out,” The New York Times, Janu- ary 17, 2000; NTI: Iran Chronology (February 2000); Timmerman, Countdown to Crisis. 29. Albright, Madame Secretary, 323. 30. NTI: 22 August 1999, September 17, 2000, March 23, 2000, May 17, 2000. 31. Timmerman, Countdown to Crisis, 232; quoted in Indyk, Innocent Abroad, 228; Naji, Ahmadinejad, 189; Fayazmanesh, United States and Iran, 94. 32. Aviation Weekly and Space Technology, September 25, 2000; James Risen, State of War: The Secret History of the CIA and the Bush Administration (New York: Free Press, 2006), 213. 33. Albright, Madame Secretary, 230; Risen and Miller, “CIA Tells Clinton”; NTI: Iran Chronology, February 2000; Timmerman, Countdown to Crisis, 229. 34. Quoted in John Mearsheimer and Stephen Walt, The Israel Lobby and U.S. Foreign Policy (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2007), 291; Risen, State of War, 213; Timmerman, Countdown to Crisis, 237.

Chapter 7 1. “An Opening on Iran,” The Washington Post, May 11, 2001; The New York Times, June 10, 2001; Barbara Slavin, Bitter Friends, Bosom Enemies: Iran and the U.S., and the Twisted Path to Confrontation (New York: St. Martin’s, 2007), 196. 2. NIAC, April 25, 2007; Sasan Fayazmanesh, The United States and Iran: Sanctions, Wars and the Policy of Dual Containment (London: Routledge, 2008), 94. 3. Ray Takeyh, “Islamism: R.I. P.,” National Interest, Spring 2001, 97–102; Daniel L. Byman, Shahram Chubin, Anoushiravan Ehteshami, and Jerrold Green, Iran’s Security Policy in the Post- Revolutionary Era (Santa Monica, CA: Rand, 2001), 16; Robert S. Litwak, Rogue States and U.S. Foreign Policy: Containment after the Cold War (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000), 36, 61, 163. 4. BBC, February 22, 2001; Independent, May 24, 2001. 5. http:// www .marxist .org/ archive/ hekmat -mansoor/ 2000/ 03/ khatami .html; Emile Sahliyeh, “The Reformist Election in Iran 2000–2001,” Electoral Studies 21, no. 3 (2002): 526–33. 6. BBC Monitoring, July 13, 2001; Kasra Naji, Ahmadinejad: The Secret History of Iran’s Radical Leader (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008), 45; Ahmad Siddiqi, “Khatami and the Search for Reform in Iran,” Stanford Journal of Inter- national Relations 6 no. 1 (Winter 2005); Asghar Montazam, Islam in Iran: The Background to the Rule of Anarchy and Despotism in the Country’s Past and Present (London: Eurasia Press, 2003), 462. 7. Alireza Asgharzadeh, Iran and the Challenge of Diversity: Islamic Fundamentalism, Aryanist Racism, and Democratic Struggles (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), 108; Hamid Dabashi, Iran: A People Interrupted (New York: New Press, 2007), 206  Notes

204, 223; Dore Gold, The Rise of Nuclear Iran: How Tehran Defies the West (Wash- ington, DC: Regnery, 2009), 145. 8. Martin Indyk, Innocent Abroad: An Intimate Account of American Peace Diplomacy in the Middle East (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2009), 58. 9. Haaretz, July 17, 2001; Daily Telegraph, July 10, 2001; Doron Zimmerman, Ta n- gled Skein or Gordian Knot? Iran and Syria as State Supporters of Political Violence Movements in Lebanon and in the Palestinian Territories (Zurich: Forschungsstelle für Sichereitspolitik. ETU Zurich, 2004), 39, 58; Mark Katz, “Russian-Iranian Relations in the Ahmadinejad Era,” Middle East Journal 62, no. 2 (2008): 202– 16; Haaretz, January 29, 2010. 10. Economist, May 26, 2001; BBC Monitoring, April 26, 2001; 9/11 Commission Report, 60, 241, 468, http:// govinfolibrary .unt .edu/ 911/ report/ 911Report .pdf; Timmerman, Countdown to Crisis: The Coming Nuclear Showdown with Iran (New York: Crown Forum, 2005), 252–53; Alireza Jafarzadeh, The Iran Threat: Presi- dent Ahmadinejad and the Coming Nuclear Crisis (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), 77–78. 11. Gordon Corera, Shopping for the Bomb: Nuclear Proliferation, Global Insecurity, and the Rise and Fall of the A. Q. Khan Network (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), 81; Jerusalem Post, February 21, 2001; Maariv, August 24, 2001. 12. Ibid. 13. “Khobar Towers Indictment Returned,” CNN.com Law Center, June 21, 2001, http:// archives .cnn .com/ 2001/ law/ 06/ 21/ khobar .indicments/. 14. Paul R. Pillar, Terrorism and U.S. Foreign Policy (Washington, DC: Brookings Insti- tution Press, 2001), vii, 4–8, 50, 53, 56, 114, 122, 206, 224; Thomas Powers, Intelligence Wars: American Secret History from Hitler to Al- Qaeda (New York: New York Review of Books, 2002); Timmerman, Countdown to Crisis, 252; 9/11 Com- mission Report, www .9–11commission .gov/ info .library .report/ 911 Report.pdf. 15. Al J. Venter, “Atoms for Allah,” Soldier of Fortune, July 2001, 40–43, 88–89; NTI, March 4, 2001; George J. Tenet, “DCI’s Worldwide Threat Briefing,” Febru- ary 7, 2001, http:// www .cia .gov/ news -information /speeches-testimony/2001/ UNCLASWWT/-2072001.htm. 16. Christian Science Monitor, June 11, 2001, June 20, 2001; The Washington Times, June 15, 2001; Newsweek, June 20, 2001; WINEP, June 12, 2001; Geneive Abdo, “The Tenacious Hold of Repression in Iran,” The New York Times, June 12, 2001. 17. Farideh Farhi, “The Have or Not to Have: Iran’s Domestic Debate on Nuclear Options,” in Iran’s Nuclear Weapons Options: Issues and Analysis, ed. Geoffrey Kemp (Washington, DC: Nixon Center, 2001), 37, 41, 53; Shahram Chubin, “Iran’s Strategic Environment and Nuclear Weapons,” in Kemp, Iran’s Nuclear Weapons, 17– 34; Paula DeSutter, Denial and Jeopardy: Deterring Iranian Use of NBC Weapons (Washington, DC: National Defense University, 1998); Michael Eisenstadt, “The Armed Forces of the Islamic Republic of Iran: An Assessment,” Middle East Review of International Affairs 5, no. 1 (March 2001): 13– 30. 18. Washington Post, June 9, 2001; quoted in USA Today June 1, 2001; http://banking .senate .gov/ 01 -062801/ schumer .htm. 19. Ibid. Notes  207

20. Fayazmanesh, United States and Iran, 104–6; Michael Ledeen, Accomplice to Evil: Iran and the War against the West (New York: Truman Talley, 2009), 155; The New York Times, January 10, 2002; BBC Monitoring, December 21, 2001; The Washing- ton Post, December 31, 2001. 21. Pamela Constable, “Iran Is Said to Assist Forces Opposing Kabul Government,” The Washington Post, January 24, 2002; Ahmed Rashid, Descent into Chaos: The U.S. and the Disaster in Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Central Asia (New York: Viking, 2009), 124–26; Joseph Felter and Brian Fishman, Iranian Strategy in Iraq: Politics and “Other Means” (West Point, NY: Combating Terrorism Center, West Point, 2008), 17– 18; Jeff Stein, “Qassam Suleimani: Iran’s Top Terror Honcho,” Israel News, April 12, 2008, http:// news .zionism -israeli .com/ 2008/ 04/ qassem _suleimani .irans -top -terror .html. 22. Barbara Slavin, Bitter Friends, Bosom Enemies, 298; The Independent, December 5, 2001; Daniel Benjamin and Steven Simon, The Next Attack: The Failure of the War on Terror and the Strategy of Getting It Right (New York: Henry Holt, 2005), 25; George Friedman, America’s Secret War: Inside the Hidden Worldwide Struggle between America and Its Enemies (New York: Doubleday, 2004), 210; Thomas Jos- celyn, Iran’s Proxy War against America (Clermont, CA: The Clermont Institute, 2007), 54; George Tenet, At the Center of the Storm: My Years at the CIA (New York: HarperCollins, 2007), 273. 23. Tenet, Center of the Storm, 244, 275; Peter Finn, “Al Qaeda Deputies Harbored in Iran,” The Washington Post, August 28, 2002; Finn, “Key Al Qaeda Leaders Take Refuge in Iran,” Toronto Star, August 28, 2002. 24. Courier Mail, March 15, 2002; Disarmament Diplomacy, no. 63, March–April, 2002; Ledeen, Accomplice to Evil, 155; Slavin, Bitter Friends, Bosom Enemies, 200; http:// www .pbs .org/ wgbh/ pages/ frontline/ shows/ Tehran/ axis/ axis .htm. 25. Kenneth R. Timmerman, Shadow Warriors: The Untold Story of Traitors, Saboteurs, and the Party of Surrender (New York: Crown Forum, 2007), 153– 54; Michael Dobbs, “Pressure Builds on the Presidents to Declare Strategy on Iran,” The Wash- ington Post, June 15, 2003; Barton Gellman and Dafna Linzer, “Unprecedented Peril Forces Tough Calls,” The Washington Post, October 26, 2004; Laura Rozen and Jason Vest, “Cloak and Swagger,” American Prospect, November 1, 2004. 26. Gold, Rise of Nuclear Iran, 168; Ledeen, Accomplice to Evil, 155. 27. Slavin, Bitter Friends, Bosom Enemies. Annex 1 in the book. 28. Slavin, Bitter Friends, Bosom Enemies, 206; Matthew Levitt, “Heart of the Axis,” National Review Online, May 29, 2003; CBS News, “Iran as a Safe Haven for Al Qaeda,” http:// cbsnews .com/ stories/ 2003/ 05/ 18/ word/ main 554415.shtml. 29. Felter and Fishman, Iranian Strategy in Iraq, 17, 29; Summer Basri, “Iran- Iraq: Can We Handle a Menace?” NewsBlaze, April 25, 2009, 9. 30. Patrick Cockburn, Muqtada: Muqtada Al- Sadr, the Shia Revival, and the Struggle for Iraq (New York: Scribner, 2008); 133–34; Bill Roggio, “Iran’s Ramazan Corps and the Ratlines into Iraq,” Long War Journal, December 5, 2007, http:// www .longwarjournal .org/ archives/ 2007/ 12/ irans _ramazan _corps .php; Felter and Fish- man, Iranian Strategy in Iraq, 29–30. 31. Basri, “Iran- Iraq”; Michael War, “Iran’s Man in Iraq,” Time April 12, 2006; Fel- ter and Fishman, Iranian Strategy in Iraq, 34, 38; Timmerman, Shadow Warriors, 208  Notes

72; http:// newsblaze .com/ story/ 20080425143247summ .nb/ topsotry .html; Cock- burn, Muqtada, 168–69; Michael Ware, “Inside Iran’s Secret War for Iraq,” Time, August 22, 2005. 32. Rumsfeld, quoted in John Wobensmith, “Getting Smart on Iran,” in Taking On Tehran: Strategies for Confronting the Islamic Republic, ed. Ilan Berman (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2007), 7; quoted in Fayazmanesh, United States and Iran, 150; http:// www .state .gov/ documents/ organization/ 31912pdf. 33. Middle East Intelligence Bulletin, NTI, March 2002; NTI, March 18, 2002; May 15, 2002; June 16, 2002; NTI, July 24, 2002. 34. Timmerman, Countdown to Crisis, 258; Yossi Melman and Meir Javedanfar, The Nuclear Sphinx of Tehran: Mahmoud Ahmadinejad & State of Iran (New York: Car- roll & Graf, 2007), 119; Seyyed Hossein Mousavian, Iran Europe Relations: Chal- lenges and Opportunities (London: Routledge, 2008), 147; Gellman and Linzer, “Unprecedented Peril”; Scott Ritter, Target Iran: The Truth about the White House’s Plan for Regime Change (New York: Nation Books, 2007), 59. 35. Kalaye Electric Company, GlobalSecurity.org, http:// www.globalsecurity .org/ wmd/ world/ iran/ tehran -kalaye .htm; Jafarzadeh, Iran Threat, 144. 36. Ritter, Target Iran, 70– 71, 85. 37. Ibid., 88– 91. 38. Ibid., 101; John R. Bolton, Surrender Is Not an Option: Defending America at the United Nations (New York: Threshold Editions, 2007), 135– 151, 317. 39. Gold, Rise of Nuclear Iran, 41; Jafarzadeh, Iran Threat, 144; William Langewiesche, “The Point of No Return,” Atlantic, January/February 2006; Gellman and Linzer, “Unprecedented Peril.” 40. NTI http:// www .nti .org/ e _research/ e3 _48a.html; http:// www .iaea .org/ NewsCentral/ focus/ iaealraneu _14112004 .shtml; quoted in Gold, Rise of Nuclear Iran, 42. 41. Gold, Rise of Nuclear Iran, 44. 42. Jafarzadeh, Iran Threat, 176– 78; EU3/Political and Security Working Group, Arms Control Association History of Official Proposal on the Iranian Nuclear Issue, http:// www .armscontrol .org/ factsheets/ Iran _nuclear _proposal; Ritter, Target Iran, 159. 43. Ray Takeyh and Nikolas K. Gvosdev, The Receding Shadow of the Prophet: The Rise and Fall of Radical Political Islam (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2004), 36; Ali M. Ansari, “Con- tinue Regime Change from Within,” Washington Quarterly 26, no. 4 (2003): 67; Shaul Bakhash, “The Troubled Relationship: Iran and Iraq, 1930– 80,” in Iran, Iraq, and the Legacies of War, ed. Lawrence G. Potter and Gary Sick (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), 29; http://www .brookings .edu/ fp/ saban/ events/ 2004 1123.pdf.

Chapter 8 1. Karl Vick, “Iran’s President-Elect Calls for Moderation,” The Washington Post, June 27, 2005. 2. Vick, “Iran’s President Elect”; Sami, n.d.; Walter Posch, “Prospects for Iran’s 2009 Presidential Elections,” Middle East Institute Policy Brief No. 24, June 2009. 3. Mohammed Sahimi, “The Man in the Shadow: Mojtaba Khamenei,” Frontline, July 16, 2009, http:// www .pbs .org/ wgbh/ pages/ frontline/ tehranbureau/ 2009/ 07/ the -man -in -the -shadow -mojtaba -khamenei .htm. Notes  209

4. Ray Takeyh, “Iran’s Municipal Elections: A Turning Point for the Reform Move- ment,” WINPAC, March 6, 2003; Ali M. Ansari, Iran under Ahmadinejad: The Politics of Confrontation (London: Rutledge for the Institute of Strategic Studies, 2007), 27–28; Yossi Melman and Meir Javedanfar, The Nuclear Sphinx of Tehran: Mahmoud Ahmadinejad and the State of Iran (New York: Carroll & Graf, 2007), 14–16; Kasra Naji, Ahmadinejad: The Secret History of Iran’s Radical Leader (Berke- ley: University of California Press, 2008), 48; Ansari, Iran under Ahmadinejad, 14; Alireza Jafarzadeh, The Iran Threat: President Ahmadinejad and the Coming Nuclear Crisis (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), 22. 5. Naji, Ahmadinejad, 53– 54; Trita Parsi, Treacherous Alliance: The Secret Deal- ings of Israel, Iran and the United States (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2007), 245; Ed Blanche, “Mercenary Economics,” Trend Magazine, http://www .trendsmagazine .net/ article _focus .php?/ cle =3 _30k. 6. Ervand Abrahamian, A History of Modern Iran (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 193; Robin Wright, Dreams and Shadows: The Future of the Middle East (New York: Penguin, 2008), 311; BBC Summary, February 23, 2004; Farhad Khosrowkhawar, “The New Conservatives Take a Turn,” Middle East Report 233 (Winter 2004): 24– 27; Kamal Nazer Yasin, “Iranian Neo- Cons Make Power Play in Tehran,” Euroasianet.org, September 30, 2004; Akbar Ganji, The Road to Democ- racy in Iran (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2008). 7. Shahram Chubin, “Understanding Iran’s Nuclear Ambition,” in Double Trouble: Iran and North Korea as Challenges to International Security, ed. Patrick Cronin (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2008), 50, 52–54; Jafarzadeh, Iran Threat, 139; Yonah Alexander and Milton Hoenig, The New Iranian Leadership: Ahmadinejad, Terror- ism, Nuclear Ambitions, and the Middle East (Westport, CT: Praeger 2008), 112; George Perkovich, “Iran’s Nuclear Program after the 2005 Elections,” in Iran’s Nuclear Program: Realities and Repercussions, ed. Emirates Center for Strategic Stud- ies and Research (Abu Dhabi: Emirates Center for Strategic Studies and Research, 2006), 44– 45; Barbara Slavin, Bitter Friends, Bosom Enemies: Iran, the U.S., and the Twisted Path to Confrontation (New York: St. Martin’s, 2007); Arshin Adib- Moghaddam, Iran in World Politics: The Question of the Islamic Republic (New York: Columbia University Press, 2008), 75– 76. 8. Bill Sami, “A Rising Star in Party Politics,” Radio Free Europe, November 7, 2005; “Rivalries Heat Up among Iran’s Conservatives,” Radio Free Liberty, April 28, 2006; Naji, Ahmadinejad, 88. 9. Jafarzadeh, Iran Threat, 29– 30; Naji, Ahmadinejad, 75–77; Wright, Dreams and Shadows, 317; Sahimi, “Man in the Shadow”; “A Hardliner’s Hardliner: General Mohammad Ali Jafari,” Iran Almanac, June 2, 2010. 10. US & World News, August 15, 2005. 11. Howard, Roger, Iran Oil: The New Middle East Challenge to America (London: I. B. Tauris, 2007), 137– 38; Bill Sami, “Paramilitary Forces Prepare for Urban Unrest,” Radio Free Europe, September 4, 2005; George H. Wittman, “Iran’s Revolutionary SS,” American Spectator, April 10, 2007; Matthew M. Frick, “Iran’s Islamic Revolu- tionary Guard Corps,” Joint Forces Quarterly, 49 no. 2 (2008): 121–27. 12. Michael Ledeen, Accomplice to Evil: Iran and the War against the West (New York: Truman Talley, 2009); Michael Rubin, “Iran’s Faltering Economy,” Middle East 210  Notes

Forum, http:// www .meforum .org/ article/ 1978; Reese Erlich, The Iran Agenda: The Real Story of U.S. Policy and the Middle East Crisis (Sausalito, CA: PoliPoint Press, 2007), 78; Nagmeh Sohrabi, “Conservatives, Neoconservatives and Reformist: Iran after the Election of Mahmud Ahmadinejad” (Middle East Brief Crown Cen- ter, Brandeis University, April 2006); Naji, Ahmadinejad, 232; Eva Patricia Rakel, Power, Islam and the Political Elite in Iran: The Story of the Iranian Political Elite from Khomeini to Ahmadinejad (Leiden, Brill, 2008) 61–62, 93. 13. Emanuele Ottolenghi, Under a Mushroom Cloud: Europe, Iran and the Bomb (New York: Profile Books, 2009), 91– 92; Masoud Kazemzadeh, “Ahmadinejad’s Foreign Policy,” Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 27, no. 2 (2007): 423– 49; Naji, Ahmadinejad, 176; Dan Morrison, “Persian Populist Wins Arab Embrace,” Christian Science Monitor, June 21, 2006. 14. Yaakov Katz, “Who Was Imad Mughniyeh?” Jerusalem Post, February 15, 2008; Steve Schippert, “Hezbollah Operation Leader with Ahmadinejad in Damas- cus?” Threat Watch, January 26, 2006, http:// threatswatch .org/ inbrief/ 2006/ 01/ hezbollah -operation -leader -wit/ ; Dore Gold, The Rise of Nuclear Iran: How Tehran Defies the West (Washington, DC: Regnery, 2009), 242–43. 15. Gold, Rise of Nuclear Iran, 243; Yaakov Katz, “Iran Appoints Successor to Mughni- yeh,” Jerusalem Post, October 10, 2008, http:// usraeknatzav .blogspot .com/ 2008/ 10/ iran -appoints -successor -to -mugniyeh .html; Yaakov Katz and Yoaz Hendel, Israel vs. Iran: The Shadow of War (Tel Aviv: Kinnerth, Zmora Bitan, Dvir, 2011), 64. 16. Marie Colvin, “Hamas Wages Iran’s Proxy War on Israel,” London Times, March 9, 2008; Jonathan Schanzer, “The Iranian Gambit in Gaza,” Commentary, February 28, 2009; Reuel Marc Gerecht, “Iran’s Hamas Strategy,” Wall Street Journal, January 7, 2009; Gold, Rise of Nuclear Iran, 235, 245– 46, 248– 49; Intelligence and Ter- rorism Center at the Israeli Commemoration Center, http:// www.terrorism -info.org .il/ malam _multimedia/ English/ eng _n/ pdf/ hamas _080408 .pdf; Con Coughlin, “Israel’s Gaza Offensive Confronts Iran,” Daily Telegraph, January 10, 2009; Avi Issacharoff, “Hamas Dismisses Commanders on Iran Order,” Haaretz, June 4, 2009. 17. Bruce Riedel and Bilal Y. Saab, “Al Qaeda Third Front: Saudi Arabia,” Washington Quarterly 31 (Spring 2008): 33– 46; Con Coughlin, “Iranian Training Qaeda Ter- rorists to Attack Our GIs,” The New York Sun, November 14, 2006; Con Coughlin and George Jones, “Iran Plotting to Groom bin Laden’s Successor,” Daily Telegraph, November 14, 2006; Abdul Rahman Al- Rashed, “Is Al Qaeda Iranian?” Asharq Al- Awsat, May, 20, 2009, http:// www .asharq -e .com/ news .asp?section =1&id =18225. 18. David Rhodes, “Iran Is Seeking Greater Influence in Afghanistan,” The New York Times, December 27, 2006; Miles Amoore, “Taliban Fighters Being Taught at Secret Camps along the Border,” London Times, March 21, 2010; Kate Cark, “Taliban Claim Weapons Supplied by Iran,” Daily Telegraph, September 14, 2008; Robin Wright, “Iranian Arms Destined for Taliban Seized in Afghanistan, Officials Say,” The Washington Post, September 16, 2007. 19. Therese Delpech, Iran and the Bomb: The Abdication of International Responsibil- ity, trans. Ros Schwartz (New York: Columbia University Press, 2007), 7; Marisa Cochrane, “Special Groups Regenerate,” Iraq Report, Institute for the Study of War, September 2, 2008; Reza Shafa, “Who Is Brigadier Ahmed Forouzandeh?” NCRI Notes  211

Foreign Affairs Committee, January 9, 2008, http:// www .ncr -iran .org/ content/ view/ 4610/ 1531; Helene Cooper and Mark Manzetti, “To Counter Iran’s Role in Iraq, Bush Moves beyond Diplomacy,” The New York Times, January 11, 2007. 20. Naji, Ahmadinejad, 198; Cooper and Manzetti, “To Counter Iran’s Role”; Joseph Felter and Brian Fishman, Islamic Strategy in Iraq: Politics and “Other Means” (West Point, NY: Combating Terrorism Center, West Point, 2008), 47. 21. Guardian, July 28, 2011; Marisa Cochrane, Asaib Ahl al Haq, and the Khazali Network, No. 38, Institute for the Study of War January 13, 2008, “Special Groups Regenerate,” Iraq Report No. 11, Institute for the Study of War, September, 2008. 22. Emerson Vermaat, “Iran and Hezbollah Increasingly Active in Latin America and Africa,” Militant Islam Monitor, July 16, 2008, http:// www.militanislammonitor .org/ article/ id/ 3537. 23. Rafizadeh 2008, 189; Naji, Ahmadinejad, 12–13; 212, 223– 24; Perkovich, “Iran’s Nuclear Program,” 47; David E. Sanger, The Inheritance: The World Obama Con- fronts and the Challenges to American Power (New York: Crown, 2009), xi. 24. Melman and Javedanfar, Nuclear Sphinx of Tehran, 50, 149; Michael A. Ledeen, The Iranian Time Bomb: The Mullah Zealot’s Quest for Destruction (New York: St. Martin’s, 2007), 141; Hooman Majd, The Ayatollah Begs to Differ: The Paradox of Modern Iran (New York: Doubleday, 2008), 49; Naji, Ahmadinejad, 227. 25. Slavin, Bitter Friends, Bosom Enemies, 71– 72; Bill Sami, “New Foreign Policy Council Could Curtail Ahmadinejad,” Radio Free Europe, June 29, 2006; Eliot Hen- Tov, “Understanding Iran’s New Authoritarianism,” Washington Quarterly 30, no. 1 (2006– 7): 163– 79. 26. Seymour M. Hersh, “The Next Act,” The New Yorker, November 20, 2006; Den- nis Ross, Statecraft: And How to Restore America’s Standing in the World (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux 2007), 11; Slavin Bitter Friends, Bosom Enemies, 213. 27. Ilan Berman, “The Economics of Confronting Iran,” in Taking on Tehran: Strategies for Confronting the Islamic Republic, ed. Ilan Berman, Tom Ridge, Stephen J. Blank, and the Honorable Sam Brownback (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2007), 43; Ansari, Iran under Ahmadinejad, 47. 28. Sasan Fayazmanesh, The United States and Iran: Sanctions, Wars and the Policy of Dual Containment (London: Routledge, 2008), 178; Adrian Levy and Catherine Scott- Clark, Deception: Pakistan, the United States, and the Secret Trade in Nuclear Weapons (New York: Walker & Co. 2007), 411. 29. Gareth Stevens, “It’s Not Too Late to Stop Iran,” International Herald Tribune, February 16, 2007; Security Council Resolution 1747, March 2007, http:// www .un .org/ news/ press/ docs/ 2007/ sc89800 .htm; Security Council Resolution 1737 http:// www .un .org/ news/ press/ docs/ 2006/ sc8928 .doc .htm. 30. “UN Chief Expresses Concern about anti- Iran Rhetoric from the US,” Interna- tional Herald Tribune, October 28, 2007. 31. John R. Bolton, Surrender Is Not an Option: Defending America at the United Nations (New York: Threshold Editions, 2007), 318– 19, 329, 442, 447– 48; Douglas Waller and Timothy J. Burger, “How a New Iraq Report Could Hurt the White House,” Times, August 4, 2006; Douglas Jehl, “Released E-mail Exchanges Reveal More Bolton Bat- tles,” The New York Times, April 24, 2005; Jon Ward, “U.S., Russia Still at Odds about Iran,” The Washington Times, December 27, 2007; Bill Gertz, Failure Factory: How 212  Notes

Unelected Bureaucrats, Liberal Democrats, and Big Government Republicans Are Under- mining American Security and Leading Us to War (New York: Crown Forum), 18– 19. 32. Dafna Linzer, “Iran Is Judged 10 Years from Nuclear Bomb,” The Washington Post, August 2, 2005; Melman and Javedanfar, Nuclear Sphinx of Tehran, 141, 148; Gareth Porter, “Iran Nuke Laptop Data Came from Terror Group,” Antiwar. com, March 1, 2008; Dafna Linzer, “Strong Leads and Dead Ends in Nuclear Case Against Iran,” The Washington Post, February 8, 2006. 33. Seymour Hersh, “The Iran Plans,” The New Yorker, April 17, 2006; Joseph Cirin- cione, “Fool Me Twice,” Foreign Policy, 2006; Hersh, “The Coming Wars,” The New Yorker January 24, 2005; Michael Scheuer, Imperial Hubris: Why the West Is Losing the War on Terror (Washington, DC: Brassey’s, 2004), 227; Scott Horton, “Who Is Behind Coming War with Iran?” Antiwar.com, August 5, 2005; George W. Bush, Decision Points (New York: Crown, 2010), 416. 34. http:// intelligince .house .gov/ meida/ PDFS/ IranReport082206v2 .pdf; Kenneth R. Timmerman, Shadow Warriors: The Untold Story of Traitors, Saboteurs, and the Party of Surrender (New York: Crown Forum, 2007), 229–30; Dan Balz, “Reid Seeks More Clarity in Nuclear Intelligence on Iran,” The Washington Post, June 11, 2006; Ken Rit- ter, “Reid Calls for More Intelligence Oversight,” The Washington Post, June 11, 2006. 35. Sanger, Inheritance, 16; Charlie Rose, “Mike McConnell’s Personal Opinion on Iran,” Current Affairs, January 29, 2009, http:// www .charlierose .com/ view/ clip/ 9; quoted in Gertz, Failure Factory, 8. 36. Sanger, Inheritance, 20–22; National Intelligence Estimate, “Iran: Nuclear Inten- tions and Capabilities,” November 2007, http:// www .dni .gov/ press _release/ 2007203/ release .pdf. 37. Evan MacAskill, “Intelligence Experts Who Rewrote the Book on Iran,” Guard- ian, December 8, 2007; Craig Unger, “A Failure of Intelligence,” Huffington Post, December 9, 2007; Ariel Cohen, “Making History,” The Washington Times, December 10, 2007; Thomas P. M. Barnett, “The Man between War and Peace,” Esquire, March 11, 2008; Bush, Decision Points, 338. 38. Gertz, Failure Factory, 9, 13; Michael Rubin, “Unintelligence on Iranian Nukes,” Weekly Standard, February 25, 2008; Kenneth R. Timmerman, “Skepticism Mounts over NIE Findings,” NewsMax.com, December 6, 2007; David Frum, “No Nukes, No War,” National Post, December 12, 2007. 39. Jon Ward, “Agency Defends Estimate on Iran,” The Washington Times, December 8, 2007; Tim Shipman, Philip Sherwell, and Carolynne Wheeler, “Iran Hoodwinked CIA over Nuclear Plans,” Sunday Telegraph, December 9, 2007. 40. Annual Threat Assessment of the Intelligence Community for the Senate Armed Services Committee, 27 February, 2008, http:// armed -services .senate .gov/ statement/ 2008/ Feburary/ McConell%2002 -27 -08 pdf. 41. Shipman et al., “Iran Hoodwinked CIA,”; Sanger, Inheritance, 91; Alexei G. Arbatov, “The Inexorable Momentum of Escalation,” in Cronin, Double Trouble, 62– 76; Delpech, Iran and the Bomb, 48. 42. Nazila Fathi, “Former Iranian President Publicly Assails Ahmadinejad,” New York Times, December 12, 2007; BBC Monitoring Middle East, February 26, 2008; Tim Shipman and Kay Biouki, “Bellicose Iran Purges Voices of Moderation,” Sunday Telegraph, October 28, 2007. Notes  213

43. Nader Entessar, “Iran Security Challenges,” Muslim World, 94 (October 2004): 543; Vahid Sepehri, “Iran: New Commander Takes Over Revolutionary Guards,” Radio Free Europe, September 4, 2007; Barry Rubin, “Who Owns the Palestine Card,” Gloria, February 19, 2008; Ali Afloneh, “Iran’s Suicide Brigades,” Middle East Quarterly, 14 (Winter 2007): 37– 44; Alireza Jafarzadeh, “The Ayatollah’s Sui- cide Bombers,” Fox News, September 5, 2008, http://www .foxnews .com/ story/ 0,2933,41736,00htm; Naji, Ahmadinejad, 192–94. 44. Steven Edwards, “Iran Gloats over U.S. Nuclear Report,” Financial Post, December 6, 2007; BBC Monitoring Middle East, January 14, 2008. 45. Steven A. Hildreth, “Iran’s Ballistic Missile Program: An Overview,” Congressio- nal Research Service, February 4, 2009, http:// www .fas .org/ sgp/ crs/ nukes/ RS22758 .pdf; David Blair, “Iran Threatens Missile Attacks on US Targets,” Daily Telegraph, September 18, 2007. 46. IRNA, Islamic Republic News Agency, October 8, 2008; “Russia Won’t Meet U.S. on Iranian Nuclear Program,” The New York Times, September 23, 2008.

Chapter 9 1. Ben Smith, “Documents Detail Iran Engagement Campaign,” Politico, Novem- ber 13, 2009; Jim Walsh and Thomas R. Pickering, “A Solution for the US-Iran Nuclear Standoff,” The New York Review of Books, March 20, 2008. 2. Flynt Leverett, “The Gulf between Us,” The New York Times, January 24, 2006; “The Race for Iran,” The New York Times, June 20, 2006; quoted in Dore Gold, The Rise of Nuclear Iran: How Tehran Defies the West (Washington, DC: Regnery, 2009), 16; Kamal Nazer Yasin, “Bush Administration Guilty of Strategic Malprac- tices on Iran- Expert,” Eurasianet.org, November 15, 2006, http:// wwweurasianet .org/ department/insight/ articles/ eav111606a .shtml; Gareth Porter, “Iran Proposal to U.S. Offered Peace with Israel,” Institute for Policy Studies, May 24, 2006, http:// ipsnews .net/ news .asp? .idnews =33348. 3. Trita Parsi, Treacherous Alliance: The Secret Dealings of Israel, Iran and United States (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2007), 242–43, 341, 248, 251; John Mearsheimer and Stephen Walt, The Israel Lobby and U.S. Foreign Policy (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2007), 291, 294; quoted in David Menashri, “Iran and the Middle East,” Israel Affairs 12 (January 2006): 107– 12. 4. Editorial, “Teheran’s Peace Offensive,” The Washington Times, May 9, 2006; Nathan Thrall, “Treacherous Alliance,” Commentary, March 2008, 68– 72; Michael Rubin, “The Guldiman Memorandum: The Iranian ‘Roadmap’ Was Not a Roadmap and Was Not Iranian,” Weekly Standard, October 22, 2007; “Tehran Is the Obstacle to U.S.-Iranian Talks,” Middle East Forum, November 25, 2008; quoted in Thrall, “Treacherous Alliance,” 72; Leslie H. Gelb, Power Rules: How Common Sense Can Rescue American Foreign Policy (New York: Harper, 2009), 180; quoted in Gold, Rise of Nuclear Iran, 173; Thomas Mattair, Global Security Watch—Iran: Reference Book (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2008), 79; Adrian Levy and Catherine Scott-Clark, Deception: Pakistan, the United States and the Secret Trade in Nuclear Weapons (New York: Walker & Co., 2007). 5. Gary Sick, “Iran Thirty Years On,” Chatham House, February 12, 2009, http:// www .chathamhouse .org .uk/ files/ 13926 _120209 _sick .k; Arshin Adib -Moghaddam, 214  Notes

Iran in World Politics: The Question of the Islamic Republic (New York: Columbia University Press, 2008), 133, 637, 641; Flynt Leverett and Hillary Man Leverett, “Opportunity Knocked,” National Interest, July 23, 2008; Mark Fitzpatrick, “Is Iran’s Nuclear Capability Inevitable?” in Double Trouble: Iran and North Korea as Challenges to International Security, ed. Patrick Cronin (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2008), 29–30. 6. Jeff Zeleny, “As Candidate, Obama Carves Antiwar Stance,” The New York Times, February 26, 2007; David Brooks, “Obama Gospel and Verse,” The New York Times, April 26, 2007; Editorial, “A Difference on Iran?,” The Washington Post, October 21, 2007; Michael McAuliff and Michael Saul, “Bam Still in Talk Mood,” New York Daily News, September 25, 2007; Mark Brzezinski, “Obama’s Global Approach: Engagement and Partnership,” The Washington Times, October 26, 2007; Michael R. Gordon and Jeff Zeleny, “Obama Envisions New Relationship with Iran,” The New York Times, November 2, 2007. 7. ABC News, January 12, 2009; Helen Cooper and Mark Landler, “Obama’s Iran Plan, Talk and Some Tough Action,” The New York Times, February 4, 2009. 8. Roger Cohen, “The Making of an Iran Policy,” The New York Times, August 2, 2009; Trudy Rubin, “Iran Struggles with Obama’s Extended Hand,” The Philadel- phia Inquirer, February 8, 2009. 9. Terror Free Tomorrow and the New American Foundation, Results of a New Nationwide Public Opinion Poll Survey of Iran before the June 12, 2009, Presidential Election, http:// terrorfreetomorrow.org/ upimagesttft/ TFT%20Iran%Survey%20Report%20069 .pdf. 10. Rasool Nafisi, “Iran’s Majlis Election: The Hidden Dynamics,” Open Democracy, April 11, 2008; Farideh Farhi, Iran’s 2008 Majlis Elections: The Game of Elite Com- petition, Middle East Brief No. 29 (Waltham, MA: Brandeis University Crown Center for Middle Eastern Studies, 2008), http:// www .opendemocracy .net/ article/ democracy _power _iran/ majils _election _signal _of _change 11. Nafisi, “Iran’s Majlis Election.” 12. BBC Monitoring Middle East, August 27, 2008; BBC Monitoring Middle East, August 24, 2008; Nazila Fathi, “Ahmadinejad Loses Favor with Khamenei,” Inter- national Herald Tribune, January 7, 2008. 13. Nazila Fathi, “Minister’s Dismissal Is Setback for Iranian President,” The New York Times, November 4, 2008; Shahir Shahidsaless, “The IRGC Shakes Its Iron First,” Asia Times Online, June 19, 2009; Shahidsaless, “Ahmadinejad Really Is the Man in Charge,” World Affairs Board, March 10, 2009, http:// www .worldaffairsboard .com/ iranian -question/ 50134 -ahmadinejad -really -man -charge .html; Shahidsaless, “IRGC Shakes Its Iron First”; Shahidsaless, “Ahmadinejad.” 14. Laura Secor, “The Iranian Vote,” The New Yorker, June 13, 2009; Bill Keller, “Rever- sal: A Door Slams on Hope of Change,” The New York Times, June 13, 2009; Ali Ansari, Daniel Berman, and Thomas Rintoul, “Preliminary Analysis of the Elec- tions,” Chatham House and Institute of Iranian Studies, University of St. Andrews, June, 21, 2009, http:// www .chathamhouse .org .uk/ files/ 14234iranelection0 609. pdf; Walter, R. Mebane, “Note on the Presidential Election in Iran, June 2009,” June 18, 2009, http:// www .umich .edu/ ~wmebane/ note18june2009 .pdf. 15. Mark Landler, “U.S. Sanctions Eight Iran Officials for Crackdown,” The New York Times, September 29, 2010. Notes  215

16. “Iran’s New Spymaster,” Iran Focus, June, 20, 2010, http:// iranfocus .com/ end/ index .php?+com _context&view+article&id+20815:irnas _new _spymaster; Hossein Aryan, “Iran’s Green Movement in the Doldrums,” Radio Free Europe, April 27, 2010, http:// www .payvand .com/ news/ 10/ apr/ 1258 .html. 17. Amir Taheri, “Iran’s Clarifying Election,” The Wall Street Journal, June 15, 2009; Ramin Jahanbegloo, “A Military Coup and an Aggressive Foreign Policy,” Bitter- lemmons.org, January 28, 2010. 18. Nicholas Kraler, “Clinton Urged Obama to Talk Tougher on Iran,” The Washington Times, July 1, 2009; “Say Sorry for Protest,” Daily News, June 26, 2009; Cohen, “An Iran Policy”; Richard Haass, “Enough Is Enough,” Newsweek, February 1, 2010; “Iran’s Clenched Fist: Should the United States Still Extend Its Hand?” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, July 23, 2009, http://carnagieedonmwnet .org/ files/ 0723 _transcrpit _iran _election _next1 .pdf. 19. Flynt Leverett, “Ahmadinejad Won: Get Over It,” Politico, June 15, 2009; Kenneth Ballen and Patrick Doherty, “Ahmadinejad Is Who Iranians Want,” Guardian, June 15, 2009; Flynt Leverett and Hillary Mann Leverett, “Another Iranian Revolution? Not Likely,” The New York Times, January 5, 2010; Michael Crowley, “Iran Con- trarians,” New Republic, February 26, 2010; Janet Doerflinger, “Embracing Iran,” American Thinker, May 9, 2010. 20. Laura Logan, “Cooperation Rises between Iran and Taliban,” CBS News, October 7, 2009; Miles Amoore, “Taliban Fighters Being Taught at Secret Camps in Afghanistan,” London Times, March 21, 2010; Gold, Rise of Nuclear Iran, 286; Bill Roggio, “Iranian Quds Force Commander Linked to Taliban: US Treasury,” Long War Journal, August 6, 2010; “U.S. Says Weapons from Iran Sent to Afghanistan,” March 31, 2010, http:// www.reuters .com/ article, id USTREG62 U33L20100331; Mohsen Milani, “Tehran’s Take: Understanding Iran’s U.S. Policy,” Foreign Affairs, July/August 2009. 21. Andrew McCarthy, “Obama Frees Terrorist,” National Review Online, July 13, 2009; Timothy Williams, “Where Iraq Meets Iran Guards See Shifting Lines,” The New York Times, May 2010; Michael Knights, “Iran Influence in Iraq; Game, Set, but Not Match to Tehran,” Guardian, October 18, 2010. 22. “US Does Not Rule Out Iranian Revolutionary Guard’s Role in Hariri’s Murder,” YaLibnan, August 23, 2010; “Treasury Announces New Sanctions against Iran’s Islamic Revolution Guard Corps—Quds Force Leadership,” August 3, 2010, http:// www .ustreas .gov/ press/ release’tg810 .htm; Alia Ibrahim and Joel Greenberg, “In Speech in Lebanese Border Town, Ahmadinejad’s Fairy Rhetoric Targets Israel,” The Washington Post, October 14, 2010. 23. Barry Rubin, “White House Ignores Iran’s Help to al Qaeda,” Gloria, March 25, 2010; Barak A. Salmoni, Bryce Loidolt, and Madeleine Wells, Regime and Periphery in Northern Yemen: The Houthi Phenomenon (Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corpora- tion, 2010); Jane Novak, “Comparative Counterinsurgency in Yemen,” MERIA Journal 14 (September 2010): 12– 28. 24. “The Gaza Strip as a Regional Exporter of Terrorism,” Meir Amit Intelligence and Terrorism Center, August 19, 2010, http:// terrorism .info/ il/ malam _multimedia/ English/ engnhtmo/ ipce 116.htm. 25. Tally Helfont, “Hamas Divided: Time for a New Policy,” Foreign Policy Research Institute, e- Notes, October 19, 2010. 216  Notes

26. Massimo Calabresi, “Somalia’s al-Shabab Wants to Join Terror’s Big League,” Time, July 14, 2010. 27. Reuters, July 17, 2009, NTI: Research Library; Country Profiles: Iran Nuclear Chronology, http:// nuclearthreatintiative .org/ e _research/ profiles/ Iran/ Nuclear/ chronology _2009 .html; Bobby Ghosh, “CIA Knew about Iran’s Secret Nuclear Plant,” Time, October 7, 2009; Yossi Melman, “CIA: Israel Helped Expose Covert Iran Nuclear Facility,” Haaretz, October 8, 2009. 28. Catherine Philip, Francis Elliot, and Giles Whittle, “How Secrecy over Iran’s Qom Nuclear Facility Was Finally Blown Away,” Sunday Times, September 26, 2009. 29. “A History of Iran’s Defiance of Nuclear Negotiations,” World Security Network; Har- old Rhode, The Sources of Iranian Negotiating Behavior (Jerusalem: Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs, 2010); International Herald Tribune, September 28, 2009. 30. Kim Zetter, “How Digital Detective Deciphered the Most Menacing Malworm in History,” Wired Magazine, July 11, 2011; Yaacov Katz and Yoaz Hendel, Israel vs. Iran (Tel Aviv: Kinnert-Zmora-Bitan-Dvir, 2011), 144 (Hebrew); David Key, “As the Worm Turns,” National Interest, October 1, 2010; John Markoff and David E. Sanger, “In a Computer Worm a Possible Biblical Clue,” The New York Times, September 29, 2010. 31. Fred Fleitz, “America’s Intelligence Denial on Iran,” The Wall Street Journal, July 19, 2011; David Sanger and William J. Broad, “Survivor of Attacks Leads Nuclear Effort in Iran,” New York Times, July 23, 2011; J. E. Dyer, “New NIE on Iran: International Pressure Still Working,” Commentary, February 18, 2011. Graham Roberts, “New Evidence on Iran’s Nuclear Aspiration,” The New York Times, May 30, 2011; Edito- rial, “What the Inspector Says,” The New York Times, June 12, 2011. 32. Seymour M. Hersh, “Iran and the Bomb: How Real Is the Threat,” The New Yorker, June 6, 2011; Ofira Seliktar, “The Eye of the Beholder Problem,” Journal of Middle East and Africa Studies, 2 (Fall 2011). 33. Farhad Rezaei, “Iran’s Nuclear Program, 1979– 2015: A Study in Proliferation and Rollback” (Ph.D. diss., University of Malaya, Malaysia, 2015), 208. 34. Ibid., 212. 35. IAEA Report, Report of the Director General on August 28, 2013: Implementa- tion of the NPT Safeguards Agreement and relevant Provisions of Security Coun- cil resolutions in the Islamic Republic of Iran, GOV/2013/40, Washington, DC: International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), August 28, 2013. 36. IAEA Report, Report of the Director General on November 10, 2003: Imple- mentation of the NPT Safeguards Agreement in the Islamic Republic of Iran, GOV/2003/75, Washington, DC: International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), November 10, 2003; IAEA Report, Report of the Director General on May 22, 2013: Implementation of the NPT Safeguards Agreement and relevant Provisions of Security Council resolutions in the Islamic Republic of Iran, GOV/2013/21, Washington, DC: International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), May 22, 2013. 37. JCPOA, “Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action,” July 14, 2015, https://www.just security.org/wp- content/uploads/2015/07/271545626-Iran- Deal- Text.pdf. 38. Eric Bradner, “Huckabee: Obama Marching Israel to the ‘Door of the Oven,’” CNN Politics, July 26, 2015, http://www.cnn.com/2015/07/26/politics/huckabee- obama - israel- oven- door/. Index

Abadgaran, 139, 156, 163, 178 al- Qaeda, 75, 77, 124– 26, 131– 32, Majlis election (2004), 141 145– 46, 160 municipal elections (2003), 140 Afghanistan, presence in, 124– 25 presidential election (2009), 165 Iran, ties to, 125– 26, 129, 131 Abbasi, Hassan, 50, 147, 157, 172 Sudan, presence in, 75, 77, 83, AEOI (Atomic Energy Organization of 90, 95 Iran), 78– 81, 96, 125, 133, 150, USS Cole bombing, 125 172 al- Qaeda- Iran, 132, 146, 169, 179 Afghanistan, 91, 124– 25, 128, 167, al- Sadr, Muqtada, 131, 146– 47 169 al- Turabi, Hassan, 74– 76, 88– 91, 94 Iranian support of al- Qaeda in, al- Zawahiri, Ayman, 74– 76, 88– 90, 128 124– 25 Ahgazadehs, 109– 10 Aman, 44, 77, 82, 101, 110 Ahmadinejad, Mahmoud, 87, 139– 41, American Israeli Public Affairs 143– 44, 157– 59, 161– 64, Committee. See AIPAC 173– 74 AMIA (Asociacion Mutual Israelita creation of Third Republic, 142 Argentina), Buenos Aires founding member of Isargaran, 87 1994 bombing, 148, 167 Hamas, ties to, 144 Amuzegar, Jamshid, 9, 12– 14 Hezbollah, ties to, 145 Arab Spring, 173– 74 Holocaust denial, 142, 144 Arafat, Yasser Mahdi, belief in, 140, 148 Iran’s opposition to, 91– 92, 111, mayor of Tehran, 140 116 nuclear program, 148, 150– 51, 157, Arak, Iran 170 nuclear facility, 98, 111, 132– 33, 136 presidential election (2005), 137, arc of crisis theory, 39 142 Asociacion Mutual Israelita Argentina. presidential election (2009), 164– 65 See AMIA Revolutionary Guard, patronage of, Assad, Hafez, 49, 52, 72, 174 143, 165 Assembly of Experts, 27, 64, 66, 70 AIPAC (American Israeli Public Affairs Association of Combatant Clergy (JRM), Committee), 84, 115, 118, 122, 72, 86, 105 127 asymmetrical warfare, 50, 91, 157, 172 al- Adel, Saif, 129, 131, 145– 46 Atomic Energy Organization of Iran Albright, Madeleine, 93, 96, 100, (AEOI), 78– 81, 96, 125, 133, 150, 113– 14, 116– 18 172 al- Dawa, 39, 49, 51, 59, 146 Axis of Evil (phrase), 129, 132 218  Index

Badr Brigades, 131 Bushehr, Iran Baker, James, 82, 84, 101, 121 nuclear facility, 78– 80, 84, 96, 98– 99, Bakhtiar, Shapour, 10, 24, 29, 39– 40, 111, 156 73, 83 Bani Sadr, Abolhassan, 23, 28, 34, Carter, James Earl, 6– 11, 20– 22, 24– 25, 36– 39, 41– 43, 47– 48 32, 34, 36– 45 fall from power, 48 CIA, restructuring by, 7 Iran hostage crisis and, 37– 39, human rights emphasis, 6 42– 43 Iran, incoherent policy toward, Iran- Iraq War and, 41 16, 21 presidency of Iran (1980– 81), Iran hostage crisis, 34, 41– 42 36– 38 moralpolitk and, 6– 9, 13, 15– 17, Basij (paramilitary militia), 71, 87, 20– 21, 31 107– 8, 111, 140, 142– 43 New Internationalist foreign policy bazaaris, 5, 10, 12, 14, 28 team, 6 Beirut October Surprise theory, 43– 45 suicide bombings (1983– 84), 50 Precht doctrine, support of, 32 TWA airplane hijacking (1985), 52 Casey, William Bin Laden, Osama, 74– 77, 88– 91, Irangate, 54– 56, 58, 61 94– 95, 125– 26, 128 October Surprise, alleged participation Clinton Administration dismissal of, in, 44, 47 94– 95 Castro, Fidel, 37 Justice Department indictment of Chamran, Mostafa, 9, 30– 31, 37, 49 (1998), 95 Cheney, Dick, 83, 101, 122, 154, 160 Khobar Towers attack, 90 China Pillar’s dismissal of, 126 Iranian missile program and, 97 Somalia and, 88– 89 Iran’s nuclear program and, 80, 83, 96, Sudan and, 75– 77 99, 148, 150– 51 Black Friday (Iranian massacre), 14, “Six- Plus- Two” coalition, 130 16– 17 Christopher, Warren, 6, 11, 16, 40– 41, Bolton, John, 126, 134– 36, 85, 95 150– 53 CIA, 37, 53, 93– 94, 112– 14, 135– 37, bonyads (Iranian foundations), 28, 47, 152– 55 71, 105, 109– 10, 177 Bin Laden and, 94– 95 Brzezinski, Zbigniew, 6– 9, 11, 15– 17, Ghorbanifar, Manoucher and, 20– 22, 33– 35, 37– 41 55– 56, 59 Bush, George H. W., 68– 69, 72, 75, 82, Hashemi brothers and, 37 177 Iran’s nuclear program and, 81– 83, October Surprise, alleged involvement 98– 100, 112– 14, 116, 135– 37, in, 44 170 trade with Iran under, 84 Khomeini and, 26 Bush, George W., 121– 22, 126, 130, October Surprise and, 44 132– 33, 135, 152– 55 Operation Autumn Leaves and, 67 “Axis of Evil” speech, 129– 30 restructuring under Carter, 7 neoconservatives and, 121– 22, 132, restructuring under Clinton (“Deutch 155, 160– 61 scrub”), 93 Index  219

restructuring under Reagan, 77 Ghotbzadeh, Sadegh, 18, 34, 38, 48 Shah of Iran and, 13, 17, 20, 22 grand bargain (concept), 116, 130, civilizations 160– 61, 167, 171 clash of (concept), 4 Green Revolution, 165– 67, 174, 178 dialogue of (concept), 106, 110, 114, Guldimann, Tim 123– 24 Guldimann memorandum on US- Iraq Clinton, William, 85, 95, 99– 101, relations (2003), 130, 159– 60 114– 18 “Black Hawk Down” incident and, 89 Hamas, 91– 92, 124, 127, 144– 45, “Deutch scrub” of CIA, 93 168– 69 Liberal Internationalism and, 85, Hashemi, Cyrus, 37, 39, 52, 56 92– 93, 100, 103, 113 Hashemi, Mehdi, 30, 49, 52, 62– 64 Council of Guardians, 27, 92, 123, Hezbollah, 50– 51, 62– 63, 65– 66, 124, 141– 42, 164– 65 144– 47, 168– 70 critical dialogue (European policy), 73, Hezbollah Brigades, 131 134 Hezbollah Cultural Front, 107 Hezbollahis, 29– 30, 36, 86– 87, 107– 8, Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA), 20, 123, 140 99, 153, 167 Huntington, Samuel, 4, 93 democratic clock, 158, 161, 163, 166, Hussein, Saddam, 15, 39– 40, 53, 62– 63, 175 130, 153 Democratic Party of Iranian Kurdistan. invasion of Iran, 40 See KDPI Department of Defense (US), 40, IAEA (International Atomic Energy 99– 100, 122, 127, 149 Agency), 80– 83, 98, 125– 26, DIA. See Defense Intelligence Agency 133– 37, 148, 170– 74 discursive community, 3– 4, 167, 171 IAEO (Iranian Atomic Energy Organization), 111, 134 Egyptian Islamic Jihad (EIJ), 74, 89, 91 ElBaradei, Mohamed, 117, 133– 35, 137, IDF (Israel Defense Forces), 50, 110, 145 150– 52, 154 IMF (International Monetary Fund), Esposito, John, 3, 76, 126 72, 86 European Union, 73, 134– 36, 149– 50, Institute for Political Studies (IPS), 174– 75, 178 6– 7, 77 Institute of Science and International Fatah, 145 Security (ISIS), 99, 133, 136 FBI, 53, 95– 96, 126 Iran FEI (Fedayeen- e Islam), 18, 30 Afghan civil war and, 91, 125 Feith, Douglas, 122, 130, 153 hostage crisis (1979– 81), 35– 45 FEK (Fedayeen- e Khalq), 9, 12, 14, 17, nuclear program, 77– 83, 132– 37, 28, 30 143– 45, 148– 52 Forouhar, Dariush, 10, 19, 107 Iran Air Airbus downing (1988), 66 Gates, Robert, 7, 44, 77, 82, 98, 149 Irangate, 54, 60– 62, 65, 69 Gaza, 145, 147, 169 Iranian Atomic Energy Organization. See Ghorbanifar, Manucher, 55– 59, 61– 63 IAEO 220  Index

Iran- Iraq War, 39– 40, 47, 52– 53, 56, KDPI (Democratic Party of Iranian 62– 63, 69, 78 Kurdistan), 73 Iran- Libya Sanctions Act (ILSA), 103, Khamenei, Ayatollah Ali, 66– 68, 70– 71, 113– 14, 122, 127 85– 87, 106– 9, 142– 43, 163– 64 Iran lobby, 101, 113, 127, 159 Khan, Abdul Qadir, 79– 81, 96– 97, 111, Iraq, 44, 60– 61, 81, 83, 168– 69 136 Iran- Iraq War, 39– 42, 52– 53, 56, 63, Kharrazi, Kamal, 106, 110– 11, 117– 18, 65, 78 128, 130, 149 Kurdish minority, 147 Khashoggi, Adnan, 54– 56 Shulhan Aruch operation, 44 Khatami, Ayatollah Muhammad, Iraq War (2003– 2011) 105– 18, 123– 25, 127– 28, 130, Iranian involvement, 130– 32, 146– 47, 139– 41, 177– 78 153– 54, 159, 168– 69 Khobar, Saudi Arabia IRP (Islamic Republican Party), 28– 31, Khobar Towers bombing, 90, 95– 96, 34– 36, 41– 43, 47– 48, 62, 70 100, 116, 126– 27 Isargaran, 87, 139 Khomeini, Ayatollah Ruhollah, 9– 12, ISI (Inter- Service Intelligence; 17– 18, 25– 27, 38– 39, 48– 49, Pakistan), 91 61– 62 ISIS. See Institute of Science and Bani Sadr and, 41 International Security Iran’s nuclear program and, 78 Islamic Jihad, 49, 59, 89, 92, 169 “Reign of Terror,” 48 Islamic Republican Party. See IRP US attitudes toward, 26, 32 Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps. Kissinger, Henry, 5, 20, 40, 54, 59 See Revolutionary Guard Kuhn, Thomas, 2 Islamic Union for the Liberation of Afghanistan, 91 Larijani, Ali, 141– 42, 144, 149– 51, Israel 156– 58, 163– 64, 166 destruction of Osirak nuclear facility Lavizan, Iran (1981), 53 nuclear facility, 80, 97, 133, 136 invasion of Lebanon (1982), 49 Lebanon Irangate, role in, 60 hostage- taking, 51– 52, 59, 65, 70 Israel Defense Forces. See IDF Iran and, 144, 147, 168– 70 Israel lobby, 160 Ledeen, Michael, 54– 55, 57 Israel response to Iranian revolution, 44 Leverett, Flynt, 130, 159, 163, 167 Lewis, Bernard, 3– 4, 26 Jafari, Mohammed Ali, 50, 157– 58, 166, Liberal Internationalism, 85, 92– 93, 100, 168, 174 103, 113, 159 Jafarzadeh, Alireza, 132– 33 Liberation Movement of Iran. See LMI Jamma al Islamiya (JI), 74, 89 Libya Jewish lobby, 102, 118, 126, 153, 162 Pan Am bombing and, 67, 103 jihad, 50, 74, 118 LMI (Liberation Movement of Iran), 9, 15– 16, 18, 24 Kalaye Electric Company (nuclear facility), 82, 98, 111, 133 Mahdi (religious figure), 48– 49, 71, 87, Karroubi, Mehdi, 30– 31, 44, 56, 66– 67, 140, 148 142, 164– 66 Mahdi Army, 131, 146 Index  221 maktabis, 48– 49, 62– 63, 66– 67, 72 National Security Council (NSC), 32, Martyrs Brigades, 157 38– 41, 53– 54, 107, 116, 126 Martyrs Foundation, 28, 44, 55, 62 NCRI (National Council of Resistance of Mearsheimer, John, 160 Iran), 73, 81– 82, 132– 34, 136– 37, Mecca 152 hajj riots (1986– 87), 62, 65– 66 negotiated political order, 27, 34, 36, 41, MEK (Mujahedeen- e Khalq), 9, 12, 61– 62, 177– 78 17– 18, 35– 36, 48, 73 Negroponte, John, 152– 54 Mogadishu, Battle of (“Black Hawk New Internationalism, 6– 7, 9– 10, Down” incident), 89, 94 16– 17, 22, 27, 85 Mohtashemi- Pur, Ayatollah Ali Akbar, NIAC (National Iranian American 30, 49– 50, 52, 62– 63, 65– 67, 72 Council), 101, 122, 126, 159 MOIS (Ministry of Intelligence and Nir, Amiram, 58– 59, 61 Security), 29, 73, 86– 88, 90– 91, Non- Proliferation Treaty (NPT). See 107– 8, 124– 25 NPT Montazeri, Ayatollah Hussein Ali North, Oliver, 58– 61 (“Ayatollah Ringo”), 17, 30, 34, North Korea, 81, 96– 97, 99– 100, 111, 62– 65, 67, 70 113, 134 Moslehi, Heyder, 142, 166, 173 NPT (Non- Proliferation Treaty), 78– 81, 116– 17, 125, 134– 35, 141, 148 Mossad, 11, 13, 44, 55, 61, 90 NSA. See National Security Mossadegh, Mohammad, 22, 117 Administration Mousavi, Mir- Hossein, 48, 56– 59, 62, 67, 72, 164– 65 Obama, Barack, 158, 161– 62, 166– 68, Mousavi- Khoeiniha, Hojjatoleslam 170, 172– 74, 178 Mohammad, 30– 31, 34– 35, 38, Iran Outreach Project and, 161, 170 51– 52, 65 Iran’s nuclear program and, 172– 74 MTCR (Missile Technology Control Liberal Internationalism and, 159 Regime), 114 October Surprise, 41, 43– 45, 61 Mubarak, Hosni, 53, 75, 90, 94 Operation Cappuccino, 57 Mughniyeh, Imad, 50– 52, 59, 74– 75, Operation Cast Lead, 145 89, 124– 25, 144– 45 Operation Eagle Claw, 45 Mujahedeen- e Khalq. See MEK Operation Recovery, 58 Muskie, Edmund, 39– 43 Operation Seashell, 54 Operation Sig va Siah, 90 Natanz, Iran Operation Staunch, 53– 55, 57 nuclear facility, 98, 111, 125, 132– 35, orientalists, 4, 26, 32 150– 51 Oslo Peace Process, 91– 92, 100, 116, National Council of Resistance of Iran. 124, 126, 179 See NCRI Oveissi, Gholam Ali, 18– 19, 22, 24, 40 National Front (NF), 8– 10, 12– 13, 15, 18, 22, 24 Pahlavi, Shah Mohammad Reza, 5, 9, National Iranian American Council. See 19, 23 NIAC asylum in Egypt, 38 National Security Administration (NSA), hospitalization in America, 33 131, 133 Washington, state visit to, 9 222  Index

Pahlavi dynasty, 1, 5, 9, 14– 15, 28, 31 Revolutionary Guard and, 28 PAIC (Popular Arab and Islamic Second Republic and, 70– 72, 85– 87 Conference), 74, 88, 91 Sudan, state visit to, 75 Palestine Liberation Organization. See Rahman, Sheikh Omar Abdul, 74, 89 PLO Reagan, Ronald, 34, 41– 45, 47, 52– 54, Palestinian Authority, 124, 129, 145 57– 58, 61 Palestinians, 40, 92, 102, 110– 11, 124, appointment of Webster as CIA 143– 45 director, 77 paradigms, 2– 4, 7, 124, 177, 179 Beirut, withdrawal of troops from, 53 Parsi, Trita, 61, 122, 159– 60 Irangate, 54, 57– 58, 61, 63 Peres, Shimon, 55, 57– 58, 60– 61, 92 Iran- Iraq War, 53– 54 Perle, Richard, 26, 53, 153 Revolutionary Guard, 28– 31, 49– 50, PFLP- GC. See Popular Front for the 64– 67, 106– 11, 124– 28, 164– 69 Liberation of Palestine- General Reyshahri, Mohammad, 56, 63– 64, 71, Council 87, 110 Pickering, Thomas, 114, 159, 173 Rezai, Mohsen, 36, 56, 66, 80, 86, 97 PLO (Palestine Liberation Organization), Rice, Condoleezza, 122, 130, 149– 51 51, 91– 92 Rumsfeld, Donald, 53, 113, 122, 128, Popular Arab and Islamic Conference. 132, 160 See PAIC Rushdie, Salman, 67– 68, 73, 110 Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine- General Command Said, Edward (PFLP- GC), 67 orientalism, 3 Pour- Mohammadi, Mustafa, 107, 164 SAVAK, 8– 9, 11– 12, 14– 15, 23– 24, Powell, Colin, 121– 22, 127– 28, 130, 34– 35, 67 132, 154, 160 SAVAMA, 29, 34, 41 Precht, Henry, 15– 16, 20– 21, 23, 25– 26, SCC (Special Coordinating Committee), 31– 34, 37 20, 22, 33, 36– 38 Principalists, 87, 141, 163– 64 SCIRI (Supreme Council for Islamic Revolution in Iraq), 39, 131, Quds Force, 52, 75– 76, 88, 131– 32, 146– 47 144– 47, 168 Scowcroft, Brent, 82– 83, 101, 121– 22, 126– 27 Rabin, Yitzhak, 57, 60– 61, 92, 99 SDI (Strategic Defense Initiative), 113 Rafiqdoost, Mohsen, 49, 71, 79 Second Khordad (movement), 105 Rafsanjani, Ali- Akbar Hashemi, 55– 60, Second Lebanon War, 145 62– 67, 69– 75, 78– 80, 84– 87, Security Council (UN), 134– 36, 150– 51, 141– 43 158, 162, 171 assassinations and, 73 Servants of Construction (political party), international terrorism and, 73– 74, 105, 141 148 SFLI (Students Following the Line of Iran’s nuclear program and, 78– 80, Imam), 31, 34– 35, 38, 42, 45, 51 97– 98 Shah of Iran presidential candidacy (2005), Washington, state visit to, 9 141– 42 Sharifi, Ahmed, 90, 95, 123 presidential election (1989), 69 Shiite Islam, 5, 131, 147, 169, 174 Index  223

Shiite Muslims Tenet, George, 95, 112, 128 collaboration with Sunnis, 76– 77, 95 Tudeh, 5, 9– 10, 12, 17, 35, 52 Shulhan Aruch (Mossad operation), 44 Turner, Stansfield, 7, 12– 13, 16– 17, Shultz, George, 54– 58, 61, 77 20– 22, 77, 179 Sick, Gary, 13, 15, 21, 64, 101– 2, Tyre, Lebanon 118– 19 IDF headquarters bombing, 1982, 50 Somalia, 75– 76, 88– 89, 170 Iranian involvement in, 88 United Nations, 37, 40– 41, 43, 66, 73, South Lebanon, 49, 59, 110, 144, 168 75– 76 Soviet Union, 37– 38, 47, 52– 55, 59, 74– 75, 108– 9 Vahidi, Ahmed, 75, 89, 123– 24, 148, Straw, Jack, 128, 130, 134 167 Stuxnet malworm, 172 Vance, Cyrus, 6, 8– 9, 13, 20– 22, 33, Sudan, 74– 77, 83, 90– 91, 94– 95, 140, 37– 39 170 velayat- e faqih, 9, 26, 62, 87 Iranian involvement in, 75– 76, 95 Velayati, Ali Akbar, 49, 52, 62– 63, suicide bombings, 50– 51, 74, 89, 91– 92, 72– 73, 91, 107 146, 168 American Embassy Annex attack Walt, Stephen M., 160 (1984), 50 Washington Institute for Near East Policy asymmetrical conflict, form of, 50 (WINEP), 84, 100, 113, 127, 162 French barracks attack (1983), 50 Webster, William Jafari’s defense of, 50 CIA, appointment as director of, 77 Tyre, IDF Headquarters attack Weinberger, Casper, 53– 54, 56– 58, 61 (1982), 50 WikiLeaks, 168, 173, 179 US Marine compound attack WINEP. See Washington Institute for (1983), 50 Near East Policy Suleimani, Qassam, 128, 131, 145, 147 Wolfowitz, Paul, 40, 53, 122, 153 Sullivan, William, 9– 11, 13, 15, 17– 18, World Trade Organization (WTO), 123, 20– 25, 30– 31 136– 37 WTO. See World Trade Organization takiya, 23, 178 Talbott, Strobridge “Strobe,” 113– 16 Yemen Taliban, 91, 124– 25, 128, 146, 167– 68 USS Cole bombing, 125