march 2010 . Vol 3 . Issue 3 garments, typically under a waistcoat so families of the bombers rejoice over the it is properly concealed. The orange color martyrdom mission, and some mothers Iran’s Ambiguous Role in detonation cord connects the explosives wear new black dresses to greet local Afghanistan vest or jacket to the striker sleeve, women after the death of their son. One which is adhered to the bomber’s left- bomber, however, explained that while By Sajjan M. Gohel hand wrist with duct tape. On reaching the mother of the bomber is typically the target, the ring of the striker sleeve sad, they cannot overtly express their iran is playing a pivotal role in is pulled with the right hand and the true feelings due to threats from the Afghanistan’s post-Taliban development. blast occurs. There is no evidence of any Taliban. It is a large source of foreign direct intoxicant administered to the suicide investment, and provides assistance bombers before the attack. Also, contrary to the general public’s in critical national infrastructure, perception, the Taliban do not regularly road construction, distribution of Since suicide bombers often either abort pay compensation to the families of energy supplies, and agricultural and their missions or are arrested before suicide bombers after an attack.47 Any communications development. Iran they can detonate their explosives, they posthumous compensation package is also shares ethnic, linguistic and have been able to narrate their pre- largely a myth. In some cases, when religious links with millions of Afghan attack emotions. The bombers’ felt no the parents of a bomber are extremely Shi`a. This is particularly true with fear of death or consequence before the destitute, they are given a small amount Afghanistan’s Shi`a-minority Hazara attack. Some bombers, however, were of financial assistance. community, which resides in the central anxious about missing the target, such and northern regions of the country. As as detonating their explosives early or Conclusion a result of these positive connections, too late (for example, after a convoy has The suicide bomber training camps in Iran has been viewed as a potential already passed). Before the attack, they South Waziristan have been shuttered stabilizing force in Afghanistan, with would feel pride that Allah had chosen as a result of Pakistan’s October 2009 its interests largely aligned with those them for such a great mission. Thoughts military operation. Yet insight into of the Western mission: concern about of their family did not enter their mind. how the Waziristan camps functioned the Taliban insurgency, resistance to al- They experienced no abnormal physical helps to provide context for how and Qa`ida and weakening the opium trade reactions such as sweating, dry mouth, why individuals choose to use their restlessness, heart palpitations, or body as an explosive device. Moreover, Paradoxically, Iranian-made armaments abnormal movements of the body. although the South Waziristan camps have been discovered in the hands of Breathing remained normal. There were have been closed, they may have been Afghan Taliban fighters, raising concern no speech abnormalities, nor did they relocated elsewhere. Continuing to deny and questions about Tehran’s overall appear to be in a hurry.44 militants safe haven to train and plan strategy in Afghanistan. An August for attacks is essential to reducing their 2009 report authored by General Post-Mission Activities operational capabilities in Pakistan and Stanley A. McChrystal, the commander At the completion of a successful in the region. of U.S. forces in Afghanistan, cited mission, the Taliban leaders do not Iran’s “ambiguous role” in the country, always inform the other trainees about Dr. S.H. Tajik completed his master’s stating that Iran is providing aid to the the real location of the suicide blast. degree in criminal justice administration Afghan government while at the same They also sometimes give them false and criminology from the London School time allowing weapons to pass into information about where the attack of Economics and Political Science. He the hands of the Taliban.1 U.S. Defense occurred.45 When an attack occurs has also received diplomas in Crisis Secretary Robert Gates has also accused in Afghanistan, however, the leaders Management from the Swedish National Tehran of playing a “double game” in inform the recruits of this fact. Defence College, and Risk, Crisis & Disaster Afghanistan.2 This “ambiguous” role Management from Leicester University. has created confusion over Iran’s true After an attack takes place, the amir of Dr. Tajik has 14 years of law enforcement intentions toward its neighbor. the Pakistani Taliban and the amir of experience on three continents: Europe the training camp visit the family of (Kosovo), Africa (Rwanda and Liberia) 1 Stanley A. McChrystal, “COMISAF’S Initial Assess- the suicide bomber, provided that the and Asia (Pakistan). He has worked with ment, Secretary of Defense Memorandum June 2009, 46 family is in Waziristan or accessible. the United Nations for more than five years Initial United States Forces – Afghanistan (USFOR-A) Although the other trainees at the in various conflict zones. He is currently Assessment,” Headquarters, International Security As- camp feel loss for their former friend, completing a book on suicide terrorism in sistance Force, Afghanistan, August 30, 2009. General they are consoled by the notion that Pakistan. McChrystal’s exact words were, “Iran plays an ambigu- the bomber has reached paradise. No ous role in Afghanistan, providing developmental assis- specific funeral rituals or celebrations tance and political support to GIRoA while the Iranian are offered at the camp for those who Qods Force is reportedly training fighters for certain go on suicide missions. They are, Taliban groups and providing other forms of military as- however, remembered in prayers. The sistance to insurgents. Iran’s current policies and actions do not pose a short-term threat to the mission, but Iran 44 Ibid. has the capability to threaten the mission in the future.” 45 Mir Janan, September 2008. 2 Mark Thompson, “U.S. Forces Get New Protection in 46 Abid Mehsud, July 2008. 47 Ishaq Mehsud, June 2008. Afghanistan,” Time Magazine, October 28, 2009.

13 march 2010 . Vol 3 . Issue 3

This article attempts to explain did not dominate the Hazarjat region in The Taliban regime in Afghanistan Iran’s paradoxical relationship with central Afghanistan, the stronghold of was highly antagonistic to Iran, and Afghanistan by providing the history the Shi`a community and where Iran’s Tehran viewed it as a security threat. of Iran’s pre-9/11 relations with the leverage was highest.5 In August 1998, the Taliban captured country, examining its actions after the Mazar-i-Sharif, the interim capital of fall of the Taliban in 2001, and assessing In 1992, following the Soviet withdrawal the Northern Alliance. In addition to Iran’s overall goals in Afghanistan. It from Afghanistan, the United Nations killing hundreds of Shi`a Muslims, the finds that while the theocratic Shi`a sponsored a conference for a political Taliban stormed the Iranian Consulate Muslim state of Iran should have little in resolution to transfer power to Afghan in the city and killed eight Iranian common with the Sunni fundamentalist Interim Government (AIG) President diplomats and an Iranian journalist, Taliban militia, elements within the Sebghatullah Mojaddadi and his and held 50 other Iranian nationals Iranian military or government may successor Burhanuddin Rabbani of captive. Tehran was incensed by the be willing to assist Taliban fighters Jamaat-i-Islami.6 To consolidate his killings and dispatched 200,000 for a number of short-term interests. power base, however, Rabbani, an troops to the border as the government Although Iran does not want a hostile ethnic Tajik, resorted to pitting one decided whether or not to invade. War Sunni regime to take power on its eastern ethnic group against the other including was averted when the Taliban, after the border, elements within its security the Shi`a political faction Hizb-i- threat from Iran and under pressure forces may want to retain the capability Wahdat (Party of Unity), led by Abdul from the United Nations, returned the to escalate tensions in Afghanistan Ali Mazari.7 Interestingly, the Iranian bodies of the murdered diplomats and in response to Western pressure on clerical leadership supported Rabbani sent the remaining Iranian captives either Iran’s ongoing nuclear program against the Shi`a Hizb-i-Wahdat and home. The killings and the capture or its clandestine activities in Iraq and provided Rabbani’s government with of Iranians were seen in Tehran as a Lebanon. Moreover, Iran appears most food and resources. Tehran’s apparent national humiliation and perhaps a clear interested in carving out influence in logic was that by supporting Rabbani, its reminder of Tehran’s failed policies in Afghanistan’s western Herat Province strategic interests in newly independent Afghanistan.13 at the expense of heightened Taliban Central Asian states would be protected violence elsewhere in the country. by a Tajik-dominated government in Post-Taliban Afghanistan Kabul.8 During the period of reformist Iranian Tehran’s Pre-9/11 Afghan Dynamics President Mohammad Khatami, To understand Iran’s role in Afghanistan A three-year war with Rabbani’s Iranian opposition to the Taliban today, it is necessary to examine government exhausted Hizb-i-Wahdat’s and its al-Qa`ida ally was such that its actions during the 1979 Soviet military strength and resources.9 As Tehran cooperated with Washington invasion and subsequent occupation a result of Tehran’s failure to support during Operation Enduring Freedom of Afghanistan. The Soviet invasion his party, Mazari made a fatal move by providing vital intelligence created a conundrum for Iran’s supreme by agreeing to a peace deal with the support to the U.S. war effort.14 That leader, Ayatollah Khomeini. Khomeini emerging Taliban.10 As a consequence, level of cooperation, however, has was obligated to speak against the the Taliban forced Hizb-i-Wahdat to somewhat dissipated and become more invasion of an Islamic country by surrender its arms and relinquish its antagonistic. “godless communists,” yet he could territory to members of the Taliban. not afford to directly antagonize the Mazari and several members of Hizb-i- Although the Iranian government Soviet Union. The start of the invasion Wahdat’s leadership were taken hostage has positive ties with Kabul and has coincided with the U.S. Embassy hostage and murdered in March 1995.11 In 1996, supported a number of economic crisis in Tehran that irreversibly the Taliban eventually overthrew the projects in the country, it appears damaged U.S.-Iran relations.3 As Iran Rabbani government.12 This enabled the to be maintaining leverage over the became increasingly isolated during the Taliban to gain a foothold within central direction of the country by offering hostage crisis, it began to tilt in favor of Afghanistan, which they would not some support to the Afghan Taliban. the Soviet Union to counter the growing relinquish until the U.S.-led invasion in Evidence has emerged that the Iranian U.S. influence with the Arab-Afghan 2001. Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC), mujahidin. As a result, although Tehran through its special Quds Force, has condemned the Soviet occupation 5 Sayed Askar Mousavi, The Hazaras of Afghanistan: An provided weapons, explosives, roadside and demanded it withdraw its forces, Historical, Cultural, Economic and Political Study (New bombs, and other forms of support the clerical regime was careful not to York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997). to elements of the Afghan Taliban. allow its policy to damage its otherwise 6 Hafizullah Emadi, “The Hazaras and Their Role in The Through 2009, British military forces 4 amiable relations with Moscow. At the Process of Political Transformation in Afghanistan,” have intercepted shipments of Iranian- same time, the Soviet occupying forces Central Asian Survey 16:3 (1997): p. 381. made arms in Helmand Province, which 7 Ibid. have included Russian-made SA-14 3 Mohsen Milani, “The Hostage Crisis,” in Encyclopae- 8 Ibid. “Gremlin” man-portable, low-altitude 15 dia Iranica, Vol. VII (New York: Columbia University, 9 Ibid., p. 383. surface-to-air missiles. Iranian-made 2004), pp. 525-535. 10 Ibid. 4 Adam Tarock, “The Politics of the Pipeline: The Iran 11 Ibid., pp. 383-384. 13 Tarock, p. 801. and Afghanistan Conflict,” Third World Quarterly 20:4 12 Mohsen Milani, “Iran’s Policy Towards Afghanistan,” 14 “Iran and the West: After 9/11,” BBC, August 3, 2009. (1999): p. 805. Middle East Journal 60:2 (2006): pp. 242-243. 15 Michael Smith, “Missile Threat to British Troops,”

14 march 2010 . Vol 3 . Issue 3 rocket-propelled grenades have been that the explosive force is concentrated conducted by British, American and found by U.S. troops in villages where in the direction of the designated target Afghan forces.28 Afghanistan is the the Taliban sought sanctuary, carrying rather than blasting in all directions world’s largest producer of opium, and markings such as “82 mm h-e lot 02 and therefore weakening the impact.21 Helmand is where much of the country’s slash 87.”16 Although these markings Unlike ordinary mines that can cause poppy crop is grown; the proceeds from are copies of U.S. military ordinances, minor damage to military vehicles, a the drug trade help bankroll the Taliban, the lot numbers are fabricated and do Dragon can completely destroy it. The especially when it comes to purchasing not exist in the United States.17 Taliban have credited Iranian-supplied weapons and explosive materials.29 weapons as being responsible for It is conceivable that much of the successful attacks against NATO forces While identifying the alleged role of the weaponry smuggled across the Iran- in southern Afghanistan.22 Quds Force in supporting elements of Afghanistan border to the Taliban has the Taliban insurgency, McChrystal’s been primarily through arms dealers and Connections between Iran and the report also mentioned that Tehran’s other criminal elements seeking profit or Taliban are also drawn from discoveries strategy and actions do not adversely opium. Individuals within the Taliban, made by the Afghan authorities. harm the U.S.-led coalition’s Afghan however, have themselves identified In March 2009, Afghan security assignment in the short-term.30 two routes for their access to Iranian forces found a cache of Iranian-made McChrystal does believe, however, weaponry, which has been corroborated explosives near the Bakhshabad Dam in that Iran is capable of threatening the by British officials. First, there are Farah Province, a $2.2 million coalition- mission in the long-term.31 Ironically, Iranian businessmen who sell arms to sponsored project set to boost power and just as Tehran ignored the situation to the Taliban, and then smuggle them into water supply in the area.23 Mohammad its own detriment in the 1990s, it stands Afghanistan. Second, there are those Yunus Rassouli, the deputy governor of to lose a great deal again if there were within Tehran’s state apparatus who Farah Province, alleged, “Our reports a resurrection of a Taliban-led order in allegedly “donate” weapons.18 In regard indicate that the Iranian government is Afghanistan. to the latter, it is not clear whether this trying to prevent the construction of the is a directive from the central leadership Bakhshabad Dam. They will do whatever Reasons Behind Iran’s Policy in Tehran or instead decisions made is necessary.”24 In September 2009, If it is true that elements within the by certain elements within the IRGC. Afghan police found explosives-packed Iranian government are providing Regardless, Iranian-made weapons are jerrycans—which they thought came weapons to Taliban fighters, then in high demand among Taliban fighters. from Iran—during a search of Taliban Tehran is playing a dangerous double A Kalashnikov rifle made in Iran, for fighters traveling on the Bagram-Kabul game in Afghanistan. By covertly example, costs $200-300 more than one highway.25 assisting the Taliban, they are hoping made in another country because the to achieve two strategic objectives. Iranian models are also capable of firing Furthermore, Afghan border police grenades up to 300 meters.19 have intercepted consignments of anti- First, by providing the Taliban weapons tank mines and mortars bound for to battle NATO troops, Tehran is Another concern in Afghanistan has Afghan Taliban fighting NATO forces.26 presuming that with the Taliban been the discovery of AK-47s, C4 plastic More alarming is that Iranian weapons preoccupied, it will leave Herat alone explosives, mortars and advanced are being discovered in provinces such and not disturb the “economic sphere” armor piercing explosives, known as as Helmand, which is seen as the key that Iran is developing in the province. Explosively-Formed Penetrators (EFPs), battleground between the Taliban and One of Iran’s main objectives is to create a shaped charge used with deadly NATO forces. In May 2009, following 20 effect by insurgents in Iraq. EFPs, an operation to clear Taliban fighters 28 Operation Moshtarak is designed to clear central Hel- which appear to come from Iran, have from the town of Marja, coalition mand of the Taliban and set the conditions for the Af- earned the nickname in Afghanistan as forces found 44 bricks of Iranian-made ghan government to introduce increased security, stabil- “Dragons” because they are shaped so explosives and dozens of Iranian-made ity, development, rule of law, freedom of movement and 27 mortars. Marja developed international reconstruction in the area. Moshtarak means “together” Times, March 1, 2009; Alastair Leithead, “Iranian Influ- significance in 2010 following the in Dari. The name is designed to signal that the Afghan ence in Afghanistan,” BBC, June 11, 2007. initiation of “Operation Moshtarak,” army is now playing an equal role in fighting the Tali- 16 Lara Logan, “Cooperation Rises Between Iran and a counterinsurgency operation jointly ban. The assault on the town of Marja is the biggest test Taliban,” CBS News, October 7, 2009. so far for Afghan forces. The town’s population is about 17 Ibid. 21 Clark, “Assignment.” 80,000 people, of whom up to 2,000 are thought to be 18 Kate Clark, “Taliban Claim Weapons Supplied by 22 Clark, “Taliban Claim Weapons Supplied by Iran.” Taliban. For details, see “Operation MOSHTARAK Be- Iran,” Daily Telegraph, September 14, 2008; Kate Clark, 23 “Tehran Accused of Complicity in Growing Weapons gins,” British Ministry of Defense, February 13, 2010. “Assignment,” BBC, September 18, 2008. Trade,” Institute for War and Peace Reporting, April 20, 29 “Crime and Insurgency: The Transnational Threat 19 Ibid. 2009. of Afghan Opium,” United Nations Office on Drugs and 20 Significantly, the appearance of EFPs in Iraq has also 24 Ibid. Crime (UNODC), October 2009. been blamed on Iran. For details on the EFPs in Afghani- 25 Chris Zambelis, “Is Iran Supporting the Insurgency in 30 According to McChrystal, “Iran’s current policies and stan, see David Hambling, “‘Deliberate Slip’ Reveals Afghanistan?” Terrorism Monitor 7:33 (2009). actions do not pose a short-term threat to the mission, Afghan Superbombs,” Wired, January 28, 2009; Greg 26 Ben Farmer, “Iranian Weapons Getting Through to but Iran has the capability to threaten the mission in the Bruno, “Iran and the Future of Afghanistan,” Council on Taliban,” Daily Telegraph, June 8, 2009. future.” Foreign Relations, March 30, 2009. 27 Ibid. 31 Ibid.

15 march 2010 . Vol 3 . Issue 3 an economic sphere of influence in Karzai made Ismail Khan minister of Kabul, which has become increasingly Afghanistan, with the ultimate goal of water and energy.38 A small industrial dependent on Iranian aid and becoming a powerful strategic focal point city has been reconstructed, making it infrastructure development, is reluctant for the transport and shipment of goods the industrial heartland of the country.39 to openly criticize elements within Iran and services linking the Persian Gulf, Following the completion of a highway on allegations of supplying the Taliban Central Asia and the Far East.32 Iran from its border with Afghanistan, with weapons, especially considering also projects influence in Afghanistan Tehran financed an extension linking that corrupt elements within the Afghan through economic initiatives and various Herat to Afghanistan’s remote northern government itself have been doing the religious programs. The bulk of Iranian provinces. In 2009, a plethora of same for economic gain.43 investment is in the Herat region and Iranian-built schools, health clinics involves infrastructure projects, road and business centers around Herat Iranian influence in Afghanistan is and bridge construction, education, were connected to the Iranian interior inevitable and some of it is constructive. agriculture, power generation, and due to an $80 million railroad project.40 Yet it is also duplicitous, paradoxical telecommunications projects. Iran has Herat’s bazaars are filled with Iranian and potentially destabilizing to the helped rebuild Afghanistan’s radio products, and the presence of the IRGC region. As a consequence, Tehran is in and television infrastructure, and has through the Iranian Consulate is openly danger of conceding reverse strategic increased its own radio and television visible.41 In addition, hundreds of trucks depth to the same forces it occasionally programs in Dari.33 cross from Iran to Herat and vice-versa and tacitly assists. Yet, until the clerical on a daily basis.42 regime accepts that support by elements It is in the Herat region that Iran’s of the IRGC toward the Taliban will influence in Afghanistan is most visible. Second, it is plausible that the clerical have a detrimental impact on Iran itself, Until 1857, Herat was considered an regime wants to retain the capability its “ambiguous” policy will continue in “integral part” of Iran and served as the to weaken stability in Afghanistan in the foreseeable future. capital of the Persian Empire in the early reaction to Western pressure on its 15th century.34 When the British repelled nuclear program or its clandestine Dr. Sajjan Gohel is Director for Iranian advances toward Herat, Iran and activities in Iraq and Lebanon. International Security at the Asia-Pacific the United Kingdom signed the Treaty of Moreover, while Tehran wants a stable, Foundation, an independent intelligence Paris in 1857. Although Iran abandoned friendly Afghanistan, it clearly wants to and security think-tank. He received his its historic claim on Herat, it reserved limit U.S. influence in the country. To Ph.D. in International History from the the right, under Article VII of the treaty, achieve these aims, Iran may be covertly London School of Economics and Political to send forces into Afghanistan “if its providing weapons and explosives to the Science (LSE). His doctoral thesis, entitled frontier is violated.”35 Since then, Iran Afghan Taliban to ensure that the West “The Evolution of Egyptian Radical has occasionally sought to keep Herat becomes preoccupied on other fronts. Ideological Thought from Hasan al-Banna as a buffer zone. For a few years, Ismail to Ayman al-Zawahiri,” is in the process Khan, the Tajik governor of Herat, Assessment of being published. Dr. Gohel’s primary helped Iran realize that goal.36 Today, strategic cooperation between research interests include: the security Iran and the West should be theoretically challenges in South Asia, the Middle East Today, Herat is one of the most possible because they have converging and the Horn of Africa and the connection stable and prosperous regions in interests and common aversions in with the West; radical ideological thought Afghanistan.37 It also benefited from Afghanistan, such as the re-emergence both present and historical; and the role the fact that Afghan President Hamid of al-Qa`ida fighters, the Taliban and that New Media plays in transnational narco-traffickers. Indeed, Western terrorism. 32 Milani, “Iran’s Policy Towards Afghanistan.” capitals and Tehran could coalesce 33 “Iran Exports $10m to Afghanistan,” BBC Monitoring around stabilizing Afghanistan. Service, October 1, 2002. Nevertheless, Tehran is seeking to 34 Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani, Amir Kabir Ya Ghahra- influence Afghanistan’s domestic and man-e Mobareze Ba Astemar (Tehran: Farahnai Press, foreign policy while at the same time 1927), p. 377. limiting the role Western states play in 35 J.C. Hurewitz ed., The Middle East and North Africa in the region. World Politics: European Expansion, 1535-1914 (New Ha- ven, CT: Yale University Press, 1975), pp. 341-343. 36 In September 1995, Ismail Khan fled to Mashhad, 38 Abubakar Siddique, “Proposed Afghan Cabinet Iran, after the fall of Herat to the Taliban, but he returned Stocked With Familiar Faces,” Radio Free Europe, De- with rearmed fighters within a few months. In 1997, he cember 21, 2009. was captured and imprisoned by the Taliban in one of 39 Motlagh. the clashes. After spending three years in captivity, he es- 40 Ibid. caped and fled a third time to Iran. Since then, Khan, who 41 Personal interview, Afghan diplomat, November 27, is now minister of water and energy in Afghanistan, has 2009. developed and built upon close relations with the clerical 42 Gulshan Dietl, “War, Peace and the Warlords: The regime in Tehran. Case of Ismail Khan of Herat in Afghanistan,” Alter- 37 Jason Motlagh, “Iran’s Spending Spree in Afghani- natives: Turkish Journal of International Relations 3:2-3 stan,” Time Magazine, May 20, 2009. (2004): p. 52. 43 Clark, “Assignment.”

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