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Development of a Holistic Wellness Model for Managers in Tertiary Institutions

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Development of a Holistic Wellness Model for Managers in Tertiary Institutions DEVELOPMENT OF A HOLISTIC WELLNESS MODEL FOR MANAGERS IN TERTIARY INSTITUTIONS By PETRUS ALBERTUS BOTHA Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree PHILOSOPHIAE DOCTOR With specialisation in Organisational Behaviour in the THE FACULTY OF ECONOMIC AND MANAGEMENT SCIENCES At the UNIVERSITY OF PRETORIA PRETORIA SEPTEMBER 2007 ii DECLARATION I hereby declare that the “DEVELOPMENT OF A HOLISTIC WELLNESS MODEL FOR MANAGERS IN TERTIARY INSTITUTIONS” is my own work and that all the sources that I used or quoted were indicated with complete references and acknowledgements. ________________ SIGNATURE PETRUS ALBERTUS BOTHA iii SUMMARY DEVELOPMENT OF A HOLISTIC WELLNESS MODEL FOR MANAGERS IN TERTIARY INSTITUTIONS By PETRUS ALBERTUS BOTHA PROMOTER: PROF HEIN BRAND DEGREE: PHILOSOPHIAE DOCTOR (Organisational Behaviour) Research into wellness literature identified the existence of various wellness models consisting of multiple dimensions, and found different relationships between these dimensions. In an attempt to expand on the theory of wellness, this study determined the wellness behaviour and health risk profile of managers at two South African higher education institutions. A sample of 89 managers from two South African universities, a traditional academic university and a technology university, was used in the study. The sample comprised 40.45% respondents from the academic university and 59.55% from the technology university. Females accounted for 31.5% of the sample, while males accounted for 68.5%. The Pearson product moment correlation coefficient was used to determine the relationship between the wellness behaviour levels and the health risk scores of managers. The results suggested that there were no significant correlations between the mean physical fitness and nutrition, medical self-care, safety, environmental wellness, social awareness, intellectual wellness, spirituality and values sub- dimensions and the health risk scores of managers. However, there was a significant negative relationship between sexuality and emotional awareness and the health risk scores. The negative correlation indicated that, with an increase in the sexuality and emotional awareness level, there would be a decrease in the health risk. There was a small negative relationship between emotional management and the health risk score. The low negative correlation indicated that with an increase in the emotional management level, there would be a decrease in the health risk. There was also a negative relationship between occupational wellness and the health risk score. The low negative correlation indicated that with an increase in the occupational wellness levels, there would be a decrease in the health risk. T-tests were used to determine the relationship between the mean wellness behaviour levels and mean health risk scores of managers at the academic university and technology university, heads of academic departments and directors of support services, female and male managers, post-graduate and PhD graduate managers.The results indicated that there were no significant differences in the mean wellness behaviour levels and mean health risk scores of managers at the iv academic university and technology university, heads of academic departments and directors of support services, female and male managers, post-graduate and PhD graduate managers. Thus, the null hypotheses postulating that there is no significant difference between the mean wellness behaviour levels and mean health risk scores of managers at the academic university and technology university, heads of academic departments and directors of support services, female and male managers, post-graduate and PhD graduate managers, could not be rejected. A one-way analysis (ANOVA) was conducted to determine the difference between the wellness behaviour levels and the mean health risk scores of the three age groups used in this study. The results indicated that the means of the three age groups did not differ significantly. A wellness prediction model could not be used to measure wellness against the eleven independent variables.The data was of such a nature that a linear regression model could not be used, as the variables were not normally distributed. Therefore, the null hypothesis postulating that it is not possible to use a wellness prediction model as a holistic dependent variable, to measure wellness against all possible variables, could not be rejected. The combined average wellness behaviour levels of managers at the academic university and technology university were 76.8% and the risk scores were 19.36%. These indicated high wellness behaviour levels and low health risk levels. The wellness behaviour and health risk model proposed in this study, may serve as a theoretical framework for future scientific wellness behaviour and health promotion surveys and data analysis to devise tailor-made interventions. The model postulates that wellness, as a dependent variable, is determined by eleven independent variables. These eleven independent variables are physical fitness and nutrition, medical self-care, safety, environmental wellness, social awareness, sexuality and emotional awareness, emotional management, intellectual wellness, occupational wellness, spirituality and values and the health risk score. This study identified the physical fitness and nutrition, and medical self-care wellness behaviour levels as weaknesses in managers at the two sample universities that necessitate interventions. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I want to thank my Father and Creator for His grace and love and for granting me the ability and insight to have started and completed this journey. To my study promoter, Professor Hein Brand, thank you for your guidance and mentorship. To my wife Ann-marie and my two sons, Jacques and Albert, thank you for your support, sacrifices and patience. Thanks to Cecil Friedenthal for your proficient and professional design of the wellness model used in this study. Rita Olwagen, thank you for your expert advice, helpfulness and patience during the statistics stage of my study. Thank you, Professor Nettie Cloete for the language editing and Stephanie Dippenaar for your advice on environmental wellness. To all my valued colleagues and friends, especially Ilze Swarts and Herman (Kiwi) Van Zyl, thank you for your support and friendship. Many thanks to my loving parents for your support. Lastly, thank you to the respondents, without your contribution, this study would not have been possible. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE TITLE i DECLARATION ii SUMMARY iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v TABLE OF CONTENTS vi LIST OF FIGURES ix LIST OF TABLES x CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW, RATIONALE AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES 1 1.1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.2 BACKGROUND, MOTIVATION AND AIM 2 1.3 PRELIMINARY LITERATURE REVIEW 5 1.3.1 Health and wellness 5 1.3.2 Health risk assessment 18 1.4 PROBLEM STATEMENT AND HYPOTHESES 22 1.5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 24 1.5.1 Research approach 24 1.5.2 Research design 24 1.5.3 Sampling 25 1.5.4 Data analysis 25 1.6 FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 26 1.7 CHAPTER OUTLINE 26 1.8 CLARIFICATION OF CONCEPTS 27 1.8.1 Health 27 1.8.2 Wellness 27 1.8.2.1 Emotional wellness 28 1.8.2.2 Intellectual wellness 28 1.8.2.3 Spiritual wellness 28 1.8.2.4 Occupational wellness 28 1.8.2.5 Social wellness 29 18.2.6 Physical wellness 29 1.8.3 Organisational health promotion 29 1.8.4 Wellness programme 29 1.8.5 Health risk appraisal 29 1.9 SUMMARY 30 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 31 2.1 INTRODUCTION 31 2.2 PHYSICAL WELLNESS 31 2.2.1 PHYSICAL FITNESS AND NUTRITION 31 2.2.1.1 WELLNESS BEHAVIOUR RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH A SEDENTARY LIFESTYLE AND OBESITY 35 2.2.1.2 PHYSICAL FITNESS AND NUTRITIONAL INTERVENTIONS 36 2.2.2 MEDICAL SELF-CARE 41 2.2.2.1 WELLNESS BEHAVIOUR RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH INADEQUATE MEDICAL SELF-CARE 48 2.2.2.2 MEDICAL SELF-CARE INTERVENTIONS 56 2.2.3 SAFETY AND LIFESTYLE 69 2.2.3.1 RISKS OF DRIVING UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF ALCOHOL vii AND DRUGS 70 2.2.3.2 INTERVENTIONS TO REDUCE ALCOHOL AND DRUG IMPAIRED DRIVING 72 2.3 SOCIAL WELLNESS 74 2.3.1 ENVIRONMENTAL WELLNESS 75 2.3.1.1 ADVERSE IMPACTS OF POLLUTION AND GLOBAL WARMING ON HEALTH AND WELLNESS 79 2.3.1.2 POLLUTION AND GLOBAL WARMING INTERVENTIONS 83 2.3.2 SOCIAL AWARENESS 86 2.3.2.1 WELLNESS BEHAVIOUR AND HEALTH RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH LOW LEVELS OF SOCIAL CAPITAL 88 2.3.2.2 SOCIAL CAPITAL HEALTH INTERVENTIONS 89 2.4 EMOTIONAL WELLNESS 91 2.4.1 EMOTIONAL MANAGEMENT 92 2.4.1.1 EMOTIONAL MANAGEMENT BEHAVIOUR RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH STRESS, BURNOUT, DEPRESSION AND ANXIETY 96 2.4.1.2 EMOTIONAL MANAGEMENT INTERVENTIONS 99 2.4.2 EMOTIONAL AWARENESS AND SEXUALITY 102 2.4.2.1 WELLNESS BEHAVIOUR RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES 110 2.4.2.2 RISK REDUCTION INTERVENTIONS FOR SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES 112 2.5 INTELLECTUAL WELLNESS 114 2.5.1 WELLNESS BEHAVIOUR PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH THE LACK OF INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT 117 2.5.2 INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTIONS 119 2.6 OCCUPATIONAL WELLNESS 122 2.6.1 WELLNESS BEHAVIOUR RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH WORK- LIFE IMBALANCES 132 2.6.2 WORK-LIFE BALANCE INTERVENTIONS 133 2.7 SPIRITUALITY AND VALUES 135 2.7.1 WELLNESS BEHAVIOUR RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH A LACK OF SPIRITUALITY AND VALUES 137 2.7.2 SPIRITUAL WELLNESS INTERVENTIONS 139 2.8 SUMMARY 141 CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 144 3.1 INTRODUCTION 144 3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN 144 3.3 PARTICIPANTS 145 3.3.1 The sample 145 3.3.2 Respondents’ characteristics 146 3.4 MEASURING INSTRUMENT 148 3.5 PROCEDURES FOR DATA COLLECTION 150 3.5.1 Questionnaire administration
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