Italian Underwater Exploration in Antarctica: Scientific Diving and ROV Operations

doi:10.3723/ut.29.087 International Journal of the Society for Underwater Technology, Vol 29, No 2, pp 87–93, 2010

Italian underwater exploration in Antarctica: scientific diving and ROV operations

Roberto Palozzi

Department of Biology, University of Rome ‘‘Tor Vergata’’ Technical Briefing Marino Vacchi ISPRA and MNA, University of Genova Riccardo Bono, Fabio Catalano and Alberto Della Rovere Programma Nazionale Ricerche in Antartide (PNRA) S.C.r.l.

Abstract The majority of the US Antarctic Program diving Italy established its first base in Antarctica in 1986 takes place at McMurdo Station Pollock (1993, at Terra Nova Bay (Ross Sea) and since 1987 1996) in the Ross Sea region with a more limited underwater activities have been undertaken, both amount of diving at Palmer Station on the Antarctic in ice-free waters and under the ice, mainly in Peninsula. New Zealand’s Antarctic diving program support of scientific research. Scuba diving and robotic is based at Scott Base, 4km from McMurdo Station, underwater explorations were undertaken following the and is restricted to the Ross Sea region. The sci- regulations and the guidelines settled by Programma entific diving activities of Germany and Argentina Nazionale Ricerche in Antartide (PNRA). This present are mainly concentrated at Jubany Station, on the account gives a brief history of the most important Antarctic Peninsula. The Italians undertake diving underwater activities led by the Italian Programme from Terra Nova Bay and the French dive at highlighting studies of macro benthic assemblages Dumont D’Urville, East Antarctica. Australian div- as well as the work needed to collect information ing, coordinated through the Australian Antarctic on biology, geology, glaciology, geodesy, geophysics, Division, was relocated from Davis Base to Casey in oceanography. A brief overview of the PNRA diving 1996 (Taylor, 2003; Muir et al., 2006). guidelines is given. Information from the Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs (COMNAP) 1999 Keywords: scientific diving, ROV, SCUBA, Antarctica, survey of NAP Diving Programs indicated that Italian Antarctic research Argentina, Australia, Canada, Chile, France, Ger- many, Italy (Taviani and Amato, 1989), Korea, 1. Introduction New Zealand, the United Kingdom and the United States operated diving programs in the Antarctic. The first dive beneath the Antarctic ice was believed Japan, Brazil and Spain were known to support to have been performed on 16 April 1902 by diving in Antarctica; however, very limited informa- Willy Heinrich who was a member of the Erich tion was available on their programs. Recreational von Drygalski’s Deutsche Südpolar Expedition from Antarctic diving has taken place for several decades 1901–1903 (Brueggeman, 2003). However, that was yet remains restricted to the Antarctic Peninsula. an isolated event, and diving for research has only taken place in earnest in the Antarctic region since 1946 (Edmonds, 1982; Lang and Robbins, 2007). 2. The Italian Antarctic diving programme American scientists began to use SCUBA in the early Italy established its first base in Antarctica, Mario 1950s to explore the Southern Ocean (Berkman, Zucchelli Station (MZS), in 1986 at Terra Nova 1985); the British Antarctic Survey started scientific Bay (TNB; Ross Sea, Victoria Land, 74◦ 410 4200 S– diving in December 1962 (White, 1995). Most 164◦ 070 2300 E) and has performed underwater scientific diving in Antarctica has either taken place activities, both in ice-free waters and under the or continues to be undertaken adjacent to the main ice, since 1986 in support of scientific research on research stations, particularly at South Georgia and behalf of the ‘‘Programma Nazionale di Ricerche in Signy on the sub-Antarctic Islands; Jubany, Palmer Antartide’’ (PNRA), the Italian Antarctic Research and Rothera on the Antarctic Peninsula; McMurdo, Programme (Taviani and Amato, 1989). MZS is Scott and Terra Nova Bay in the Ross Sea region; located in a region that possesses one of the and Casey and Davis in East Antarctica. highest biodiversity rates of all Antarctica and which

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was declared an Antarctic Specially Protected Area (ASPA n◦ 161) in 2003. The first Italian scuba diving in Antarctica with scientific purpose dates back to January 1974 in the Antarctic Peninsula and was supported by the Argentine authorities (Cinelli et al., 1974). It was during the 3rd PNRA expedition to Antarctica in 1987–88 that Italian scientists led the first extensive scientific underwater program in the Victoria Land coastal waters, with dives carried out both from land and the oceanographic ship ‘‘Polar Queen’’ (which was equipped with its own hyperbaric chamber; Taviani and Amato, 1989). In 1993 (9th PNRA expedition) a new and bigger hyperbaric chamber was installed in an appropriate frame at the MZS base. Over the same time period, diving operations were complemented by the use of ROVs which, through a number of generations, were capable of surveying the seabed to depths of up to 500m. 2.1. Facilities at MZS MZS is accessed via New Zealand in the austral summer when the pack-ice in front of the base is Fig 1: The new dock and fixed crane at MZS used as a skyway for freight planes and also connects (Riccardo Bono/PNRA c ) to McMurdo Station (the USA base) by helicopters or small aircraft (Twin Otter or DC-3 Bassler). In addition to Terra Nova Bay, MZS has another small 2.1.4. Hyperbaric chamber bay, Tethys Bay, just behind it, which has almost Since 1993 (9th PNRA expedition) MZS has had permanent ice cover (about 2–3m thick). a hyperbaric chamber that is interconnected with the base’s small hospital, outfitted with a modern 2.1.1. Fish-huts operating theatre; two doctors are present at Positioned over strategically cut holes in the ice, the base and one of them (usually specialised ‘‘Fish-Huts’’ are equipped with their own power- in hyperbaric medicine and resuscitation) always unit (a motor generator) to provide electricity and participates in the underwater activities as safety heating. Inside, over the opening, there is tackle officer. with a steel cable for moving very heavy fittings (like ROVs or big underwater data survey stations) back 2.1.5. Ice-driller and forth from the water. All huts are supplied by An ice-driller machine, capable of making large a system of body harnesses that allows the surface holes in thick sea-ice, has been available at operators to work easily without risk of falling in the MZS since 1997 (12th PNRA expedition). This water. powerful machine is capable of drilling through 3m of sea-ice with a hole diameter of 130cm 2.1.2. Dock and crane (Figure 2). Ice-drillers were already in use by the On the TNB coast, a new, bigger and more efficient US Antarctic Program (USAP) in McMurdo Sound dock was built in 2007. In 2008 a fixed crane (Lang and Robbins, 2009). However, unlike the was installed on the new dock to facilitate both USAP machines, which drill the ice as a giant the loading and unloading operations from supply ‘‘corkscrew’’ producing crushed ice, the PNRA drill ships as well as providing a method of easily and quickly launching the two oceanographic vessels cores the frozen sea producing an ice cylinder. with which the Italian base is equipped (Figure 1). Although the PNRA ice-driller produces cleaner The crane is capable of lifting 40 tonnes in the holes with less power, it is limited in its drilling vertical plane and 13 tonnes with its arm completely depth. However, the driller made a significant stretched out (25m). advance in the number and types of location that could be explored underwater and significant 2.1.3. Oceanographic vessels findings on biological populations and ethology The two oceanographic vessels are ‘‘Malippo’’ and were made during periods of total ice cover (Ansell ‘‘Skua’’ (about 16m long, weighing 24 and 35 et al., 1998; Cattaneo-Vietti et al., 2000; Vacchi et al., tonnes, respectively). The second vessel (Skua) can 2000; La Mesa et al., 2004a). In addition, scientific support scuba diving activities in open sea. underwater activities at MZS increased considerably

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Fig 2: The Italian Ice Driller (Roberto Palozzi/PNRA c ) Fig 3: ROV ‘‘Romeo’’ (Riccardo Bono/PNRA c ) in the years that followed the introduction of the ice-driller machine with up to a maximum of 110 During the 13th to 21st PNRA, the ROV Romeo dives (mainly performed through pack-ice holes) in was employed specifically in support of a range the 1998–99 season alone (Table 1). of science-based operations (Caccia et al., 2008; Figure 3). It had a typical open frame architecture 2.1.6. Remotely operated vehicles with an upper buoyancy body, a central container Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROVs) have been hosting the control devices, and motors, batteries, used by the Italian research programme since the and instruments fastened to an external frame. establishment of MZS. In 1987, the 3rd PNRA Romeo has eight electrical thrusters (four horizontal expedition, marine biologists employed Pluto, a and four vertical) permitting it to move on three commercial vehicle produced by Gaymarine, to spatial axes. The power supply was hybrid: batteries carry out surveys of the sea bed in the neigh- and 220V AC voltage provided by the umbilical bourhood of the Italian base at TNB. Pluto was a doubling as a battery charger. The umbilical closed-hull ROV, equipped with sonar and video cable contained some copper wire for energy cameras to acquire and send sea-bed images in transportation and an optical fibre (redundant real time. The current version is fitted with five for backup reasons) through which four video electrical thrusters, two horizontal, two vertical and signals, an Ethernet connection and eight serial one transversal; it can reach a maximum depth lines were conveyed by means of a specific mixer. of one thousand metres. In 1987–88 visual surveys The cable was 16mm thick and was connected to of the sea bottom were conducted to depths of a dedicated motorised winch. The main container 170m, providing the first scientific characterisation (35cm diameter and 130cm length) housed all of deep-water benthic environments of TNB, until the vehicle control equipment: a Motorola 68000 then unexplored below the depth of 40m (PNRA, computing system (VME bus) provided with analog 1988). In total, 10 dives were performed with a and digital I/O; the motor controllers; the optical cumulative exploration period of 24h. mixer system; and the power supplies. Roby was a hybrid ROV employed during the The vehicle was provided with depth sensors and 9th PNRA in 1993–94. Mainly closed hull, Roby a fluxgate compass unit. It could be integrated possessed four thrusters (two horizontal and two in an acoustic positioning system (SIMRAD), both arranged in a vertical and inclined position), an in long baseline (LBL) and ultra short baseline autonomous power supply, two video cameras, (USBL) mode, to permit georeferencing of position a lighting system, an analog still camera, sonar, and trajectory. The basic sensorial packet was altimeter and multiparametric CTD probe to completed with two color video cameras dedicated acquire chemical and physical water data. During to navigation (wide angle lens) and environmental eighteen underwater missions Roby surveyed the survey (the operator can control zoom, iris and marine area surrounding the Italian base from focus), respectively; a digital still camera was also Gerlache Inlet to Adelie Cove to a depth of carried. A six-spotlight mechanism and two flash 150m, explored the underwater ice surface of units provided camera illumination. the Campbell and Drygalski glacier ice tongues The vehicle was controlled by a surface station and provided visual inspections of submerged that controlled the vehicle by top level commands. research structures like sediment traps and fouling Romeo can be driven in various operating modes, measurement frames (PNRA, 1994). with different degrees of autonomy: direct thruster

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Table 1: Scuba diving activity in Terra Nova Bay, 1987–2009 National Number Names Number of dives Depth range (m) Antartic of divers from pack from boat total expedition 1987–88 3 Amato, Taviani, Scammacca 28 28 15–35 1988–89 1989–90 4 Gambi, Casazza, Lonardi, 1 15 16 0–30 Cattaneo 1990–91 3 Nigro, Patruno, Gatti 6 6 0–25 1991–92 2 Nigro, Gatti 1 13 14 0–30 1992–93 1993–94 3 Catra, Mazella, Gatti 14 14 ? 1994–95 3 Nigro, Buia, Tuso 26 26 0–26 1995–96 3 Nigro, Regoli, Bufano 31 19 50 0–36 1996–97 1 unknown 5 5 ? 1997–98 3 Nigro, Otgianu, Maccioni 30 30 20–30 Ice-Driller 1998–99 6 Berkman, Gaton, Cerrano, 88 22 110 5–37 Ice-Driller Regoli, Bufano, Marongiu, Nigro 1999–00 4 Mollo, Cerrano, Patania, 40 0–40 Ice-Driller Maccioni 2000–01 3 Micaletto, Alessandro, 23 6–15 Ice-Driller Cosenza 2001–02 5 Nigro, Regoli, Schiaparelli, 73 0–40 Ice-Driller Andreis, Nuzzello 2002–03 7 Schimmenti, Patania, Rizzo, 93 0–30 Carriero, Piraino, Zocchi, Zamaro 2003–04 2 Monaldi, Alessandro 21 2004–05 2 Doz, Zamaro 5 ? WS attack 2005–06 3 Nuzzello, Vacca, Schiaparelli 21 2006–07 2007–08 2 Alessandro, Riga 5 shallow water 2008–09 2 Patania, Palozzi 14 14 16–30 Ice-Driller Total 61 594

control (manual speed/manual force); intermedi- fishing system was deployed by divers who first ate behaviours (automatic depth, altitude, head- place a guide-rope underneath the ice pack cover ing and more); more complex operating modes; between two holes that could be hundred of metres and/or the operator defines a mission trajectory apart. An additional hole is dug between the two and a task list that the vehicle must execute principal openings for safety reasons (Figure 4a). autonomously. Examples of the different scientific When the guide-rope was fixed to the second hole, missions supported by Romeo were: the measure- the head of the trammel net was attached to the far ment of plankton distribution using an installed end of the guide rope (Figure 4b). Then the net is Microness sampler; the measurement of light quan- brought into the water and is opened by the lateral tity available to plankton in a water column under traction of the guide-rope working as a pendulum the pack-ice canopy by means of mounted optical (Figure 4c). multi-frequency sensors; the indirect measurement of the organic elements in the sea water using 2.2. PNRA scientific diving operations a LIDAR fluorosensor (Fantoni et al., 2004); and Italian scientific diving operations are regulated the deployment and recovery of benthic chambers. by the ‘‘PNRA Diving Operational Manual’’. The Romeo was connected to the Internet using three fourth edition of the manual (Della Rovere et al., contemporary Inmarsat satellite links (hi-speed) so in press) includes improved and updated diving that it could be maneuvered by scientific operators guidance in order to improve scientific delivery connected from several worldwide sites (Bruzzone within a framework of safe operating procedures. et al., 2002). 2.2.1. Manpower and qualifications 2.1.7. Trammel nets The PNRA underwater activities are undertaken During the 18th PNRA expedition in Antarctica within an operational structure made up of (2002–03) a system to sample fish by trammel nets a Diving Officer, a Diving Technician (logistic placed under the sea-ice was developed. This new diver), two surface assistants, a doctor and two

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Diving Technician: as above but PNRA also requires Hole B Hole C (safety) Hole A Sea-ice previous experience of polar diving, both under the ice and in open water. Guide rope The minimum diving configurations supported and authorized by PNRA are based on a team composed of no less than two divers in the (a) Diver setting the guide rope under ice water. This can be achieved through the following arrangements: two scientific divers in the water and one logistic diver on stand-by or supervising in-water; one scientific diver in the water with one logistic diver in-water for supervision; or two logistic

Ground divers in the water. It is usual for one of the divers (usually the logistic one) to be tethered to the surface during good visibility dives. Hole B Hole A Sea-ice Trammel net 2.2.2. PNRA dive definitions Guide rope When an underwater project is approved by PNRA, Ballast divers of both logistical and scientific teams are allowed to perform dives that conform to the (b) Starting of trammel net setting following limitations: they must be shallower than 30m; must not exceed the no decompression limits; must last no longer than 45min when only one dive is planned in a 24h period; must last no longer than 35min for each immersion when two or three dives are planned in a 24h period; Ground must use compressed air; and must be performed using the equipment provided by PNRA. Dives adhering to these limitations would be defined as Hole B Hole A ‘‘standard’’ by PNRA and would not require any Sea-ice other authorisation by the Diving Officer. If a diver or a team had a justifiable operational requirement to perform dives that exceeded one

Ballast or more of the above-cited limitations, they would Guide rope have to obtain the expedition leader’s formal autho-

Trammel net risation based on the Diving Officer’s recommen- dations. These dives (specifically authorised in the (c) Ending of trammel net setting field) are defined as ‘‘non-standard’’ by PNRA and Ballast are divided into the categories of ‘‘challenging’’, when only one limitation of a standard dive is Ground exceeded, or ‘‘very challenging’’, when two or more limitations of a standard dive are exceeded. Fig 4: Trammel net positioning c (Marino Vacchi/PNRA ) 2.2.3. Training Before any expedition, candidates without Antarc- or more scientific/logistic divers. The minimum tic underwater experience must attend a two-day theoretical and practical training course in Italy to requirements to register as a PNRA diver are: be instructed on the protocols, procedures and use Scientific Diver: a CMAS 2 Star or equivalent certifi- of the PNRA underwater programme equipment. cate with specialisations for navigation, underwater Candidates must be passed as being competent in rescue and deep diving (40m). PNRA also requires extreme cold-water diving before being permitted self-certification on previous experience of dry suit to join the PNRA underwater programme. use. Logistics Diver: as listed by Governmental Authority 2.2.4. PNRA medical clearance (usually Italian Navy and Army); or a Scuba Prior to a medical examination applicants must Instructor CMAS 2 Star (or equivalent) certificate declare if they have any of the following disorders: with proven experience in cold water diving and dry a history of neurological disorders such as seizure, suit use. amnesia, epilepsy, fainting; psychological disorders;

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alcohol or drug abuse; malignancies unless treated Sea, in the waters off TNB (Kurtz and Bromwich, and without recurrence for at least five years; 1985; La Mesa et al., 2004b). This important cardiac abnormalities (e.g., pathological heart anniversary provides an opportunity to examine block, valvular or coronary artery disease, angina the deliverables and progress of Italian underwater pectoris, arrhythmia, intraventricular conduction activities in Antarctica. However, it also marks the defects other than isolated right bundle branch starting point of the PNRA’s renewed interest in un- block); Severe arterial hypertension; lung disease derwater frontiers of Antarctic scientific research. (like obstructive or restrictive disease, cystic or cav- In nearly 600 logged dives there has only been itary disease, history of pneumothorax); conditions one incident of note (a diver becoming trapped requiring continuous medication for control (an- with a Weddell seal in the same ice-hole in 2003). tihistamines, steroids, barbiturates, mood-altering The eleven ROV exploratory campaigns have been drugs, or insulin); conditions affecting ear, nose without incident. It was these records that formed and throat (i.e. inability to equalise sinus and/or the basis upon which the new PNRA policy of middle ear pressure, Meniere’s disease, vestibular underwater activities was conceived with the aim of pathologies); and/or blood disorders including providing a more qualified and thorough support anemia, hemoglobinopathies, leucocytosis, high to Antarctic scientific diving. values of hematocrit. The medical examination for the PNRA diver candidates includes assessments of: Body Mass Acknowledgements Index (BMI); general appearance (the colour of We thank ‘‘Programma Nazionale di Ricerche in the skin, the lips or the hands can suggest the Antartide – PNRA’’ and Christine Scott for the presence of a disease that needs to be verified; manuscript review. the lack of a limb disqualifies the candidate; a surgical scar will induce questions about the References kind of intervention, its date, the outcome); the status of the spine, upper and lower extremities, Ansell AD, Cattaneo-Vietti R and Chiantore M. (1998). range of movement of each joint; the chest and Swimming in the Antarctic scallop Adamussium colbecki: lungs, including X-rays and spirometry at rest analysis of in situ video recordings. Antarctic Science 10: 369–375. time and after effort; the heart (cardiac pulse, Berkman PA. (1985). Diving in Antarctica. 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