International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS) |Volume IV, Issue X, October 2020|ISSN 2454-6186

Evaluation of Strategies Used to Reduce Inter-Clan Conflicts in Mumias East Sub-County, Kenya

Samson Busalire, Lilian Machariah, and Robert Aengwony Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology, Department of Peace and Conflict Studies P.O BOX 150 KAKAMEGA, Kenya

Abstract: Inter-clan conflicts are widely spread in the world, and weakening of state institutions, a parallel economy, and Africa leading in such cases. Conflict management and peace Periodic life-threatening situations for some population building in Kenya continues to face challenges in the current groups. Schafer (2002), signposted that a review of national and regional environments. Clans in Mumias East Sub- livelihoods approaches identified a need to better understand County have been in conflict from time immemorial. Strategic the problems faced by populations in conflicts, and the coordination amongst key actors has been seemingly lacking in conflict management and peace building. The objective of this constraints they face in maintaining their livelihoods, and study was to evaluate the strategies put in place to reduce inter- finding ways to support livelihoods. clan conflicts in Mumias East Sub-County, Kenya. The study According to UNDP (2011) Somalia‟s central regions findings reveal that mediation (56%) was the highest in ranking maintain a long history of inter-clan clashes, which have been as a strategy put in place to reduce Inter-clan conflicts in Mumias East Sub-County followed by negotiation, litigation and exacerbated by the civil war, absence of a government, and arbitration. Public participation (48.2%) was ranked as the best limited availability of resources and livelihoods. The extended among other strategies employed to reduce inter-clan conflicts history of violent conflict within and between clans has led to followed by formation of social groups, improvement of social lack of trust that protracts cycles of conflict between Somali amenities and intermarriages. Inter-clan conflicts have clans and sub-clans. According to Varisco (2009) lack of significant influence on disruption of learning, destruction of attention to addressing and adequately resolving the root property, stalling of development and disruption of livelihoods in causes of conflict, while also establishing mechanisms for the study area. There is a significant influence by the following; conflict prevention, has left the central regions of Somalia in gender, age, occupation, marital status and level of education on what seems like perpetual conflict. inter-clan conflicts in the study area. The study recommends that relevant institutions such as National Council of Churches of Some inter-clan conflicts are associated with continuous Kenya (NCCK) work more closely with the community to threats to lives, for example, those in Demographic Republic understand the factors that lead to recurrence of conflicts to of Congo and Angola (Le & Bakker, 2002). In Somalia, enhance sustainable peace in the area of study. Also public participation should be encouraged to bring all people on board between the early and late 1990s, political violence, food in development projects in the area of study to avoid stagnation insecurity and diseases gave way to depletion of household of development due to conflicts of interest. asset bases, lack of social services and poor terms of trade (Sage & Majid, 2002). However, conflict is not just a Key Words: Inter-clan conflicts, Conflict resolution, Conflict sociological problem, but also an unfavorable condition for Resolution Strategies community development in the society. Consequently, places I. INTRODUCTION that are prevalent to armed conflicts tend to be destabilized in terms of their level of development to an extent that they 1.1 Background to the Study become poorer than when there was no conflict. Similarly, nter-clan conflict is any conflict that occurs among clans or Tatiana (2009) indicates that the magnitude and incidences of I between members of different clans. Coser (2007) indicated conflicts in the society is rampant and manifests in various that Conflicts within and between groups and nations is parts of the world differently. Africa with about 11% of the currently one of the global crises that threaten human survival. world population represents the greatest extent of conflicts. After the Second World War and with the creation of the According to Ashgate (2008), the UN Security Council for League of Nations which was changed to United Nations, the instance, observed that it spends not less than 75% of its time assumption by the nations of the world was that countries and money on conflicts and performing humanitarian duties in would not witness another face of conflicts among and within Africa than other parts of the world. nations (UNDP, 2008). However, conflicts have continued Varisco (2009) states that Deefow village in Africa is located exist in various manifestations. Further, inter-clan conflict is about 40km north east of Belet Weyne town along the an inevitable feature in current societies. Javaid & Hashmi Shabelle River. The land around Deefow has huge potential (2010) denoted that these conflicts may appear as a dispute on for agricultural activities, is irrigable and is a vast grazing area important social, political, economic, cultural, religious, for livestock. Competition for this land between residents of territorial, or lingual issues. Conflicts are linked to violence, Deefow and Dom-Caday villages led to inter-clan conflict.

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International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS) |Volume IV, Issue X, October 2020|ISSN 2454-6186

The fighting between Dir and Hawadle clans has been Currently, the country is still puzzled by the several killings ongoing since 2013 and has led to lose of live at least 100 and destructions of property in Lamu County. people and several injured. This inter-clan fighting has also Simiyu (2008) stated that the conflict in Mount Elgon District led to displacement of about 90 per cent of people from can be traced back to the colonial policy of alienating African Deefow, Kabxanle and Dom-Caday villages into Belet land to create room for white settler farms. In the case of the Weyne. Those who arrive in Belet Weyne normally settle Sabaot community, their ancestral grazing land on the among their friends and relatives to avoid tracking them as extensive plains of what is now Trans-Nzoia District was noted by (Warigia, 2005). The three villages are now reported taken away from them in the early 1930s without to be deserted after residents sought refuge elsewhere in fear compensation. Weatherby (1962) noted that Mount Elgon has of attacks. Previous efforts by the local clan leaders and a long history of conflict and inter-tribal warfare, manifested government authorities to reconcile the warring clans have mainly as cattle rustling (involving the Sabaot and their Sebei failed. Simala (2010) indicates that the first fight in the area cousins from Uganda, the Pokot and the Karamojong). Indeed, broke out in end of December 2013 when Kabxanley village accounts indicate that warfare has historically been imbedded was completely burned down but before that, there were a in the landscape and cultural structure of the Sabaot series of conflicts between the two clans over ownership of community and that the territorial military organization was the farmland. just as important an integrating factor of the community as According to Prasad (2010), the latest conflict began on were other sociological features like the tribal age-sets and the 3rdJune, 2015 when militia from both sides clashed, leading to clans. The Mount Elgon clashes have overtime conformed to a the involvement of Liyu police from Ethiopia. On 22nd June, general pattern of ethnic cleansing, or ethnic clashes` that 2015 militias from the Dir clan reportedly burnt down eight occurred throughout the country, in areas such as Molo, houses in Guri Caddo village about 28km Northeast of Belet Olenguruone, Burnt forest and Likoni. Weyne, Hiraan region leading to more displacements. Since Simiyu (2008) also noted that the Sabaot of Mt Elgon also the Conflict between Dir and Hawadle clans began in 2010, it wanted to reclaim their land from migrants by evicting them. is reportedly expanding to the surrounding locations and Many non-Sabaot, in particular Bukusu, had moved into Mt. across the Ethiopian border. Werner (2010) reports indicate Elgon in search of fertile agricultural land, which they that the Ethiopian Liyu police of Zone 5 are involved in the purchased from the Sabaot, while others came from the conflict by supporting the Dir clan. The Dir clan burnt eight neighboring Trans-Nzoia District and purchased land there or houses in Guri Caddo village (28 km North East of Belet settled illegally along forest fringes. The first clashes between Weyne) following the fighting of 22nd June 2015. The affected the Bukusu and the Sabaot occurred in 1991. Human Rights were from the Hawaadle clan, who had been early displaced Watch (1993) indicated that by early 1993 Sabaot warriors, from other villages. According to local estimates, about 1500 helped by their Sebei cousins hired from across the border in HHs (7000 – 9000 people) of Hawaadle clan have been Uganda, had carried out several attacks against Bukusu, displaced to various areas especially from the villages of Guri including torching their houses, taking over their land, killing Caddo, Bacaad, BiyoQurun, Dusmo and Gasle and Burjada. over 24 people and injuring many more, and displacing over 2 However, these numbers have not been verified as partners 000 people. Kenya Human Rights Commission (1996) have not been able to access the area. The conflict has also indicated that in areas where the Bukusu dominated they isolated the neighboring minority Bantu villages of Jeerey, reciprocated with revenge attacks against the Sabaot. By mid- Tawakal, Luuqdhere, BuuloRaaxo and Qarsooni which are 1995, 6 500 families comprising an estimated 40 000 around Deefow. members had been displaced. In Kenya, there has been various incidences of inter and intra- The clans in Mumias East Sub-County are prone to inter-clan clan conflicts especially along the north-eastern rift valley and conflicts because of different clans among the Abawanga Sub- Coastal regions of the country, which host majority of the Ethnic group and other Sub-Ethnic groups. However the pastoralist communities in Kenya as indicated by (KNCHR, Abawanga is the dominant Sub-Ethnic group in the Sub- 2012). Kimenju (2004) indicated that these are also regions County. The Abashitsetse and Abakolwe clans are the that lie along the polarized international borders through perpetrators of the conflicts (Ogot, 1978). The following are which small arms and light weapons from the conflicting the clans (Tsihanga) of Abawanga Sub-Ethnic group with the neighboring nations like Somali, Ethiopia and Sudan find reference to female given in brackets: 1. Abashitsetse themselves in the hands of the pastoralist residents. KNCHR (Bwibo); 2. Abakolwe (Nabakolwe); 3. Abaleka (Nabaleka); (2012) indicated that because of the cattle raids, inter and 4. Abachero (Njero); 5. Abashikawa (Nashikawa); 6. intra-clan conflicts over the use and access to resources and Abamurono (Oronda); 7. Abanashieni (Shieni); 8. Abamwima cross-border attacks, the gun is one of the favorite weapon in (Namwima); 9. Abamuniafu (Ngakhwa); 10. Abambatsa this area. Tana delta killings that left over 200 people dead in (Luleti); 11. Abashibe (Nashibe); 12. Ababere (Nebere); 13. 2012 and several villages brought to ashes through inter- Abamwende (Luchimbo); 14. Abakhami (Nabakhami); 15. ethnic feuds is a typical case of violent conflicts in Kenya. Abakulubi (Akwanyi); 16. Abang’ale (Namang’ale); 17. Ababonwe (Nabonwe); 18. Abatsoye (Nabatsoye); 19.

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Abakalibo (Namwasi); 20. Abang’ayo (Nang’ayo); 21. uneven distribution of resources and management Ababule (Nabule); 22. Abamulembwa (Namulembwa) (Ogot, opportunities in terms of development projects. The efforts of 1978). Other Sub-Ethnic groups comprise Abanyala having the clan elders and administrators seem to be unsuccessful the following clans: Abamwaya, Abaseya, Abatecho, hence the need for the study in Mumias East Sub-County. Abayengere, Abasacha, Abauma, Abasumba, Ababenge, Mumias East CDF Annual Report (2016) states that most Abasenya, Ababokho, Abarimba. Another Sub-Ethnic group projects were not completed because of disagreements within is the Luo comprise Nyawinyi and Nyabunyi. Marachi Sub- the projects management committees on inter-clan Ethnic group comprise of Abamutu (Census Report, 2009). differences. Thus, the community members do not own the projects because their persons are not in management. Thus, the royal clan Abashitsetse and Abakolwe undermines other clans, and as a result assume that they must be decision The affected projects include schools, health facilities and makers in terms of social life and development projects. The police camps. An example is East Wanga Technical College construction of East Wanga Technical College stalled because which stalled because clans were competing for management of the conflict about who should be in charge and where it of the project. The prime interest of this study is to investigate should be constructed (Mumias East Constituency CDF how inter-clan Conflicts in Mumias East affect socio- Report, 2016). It has been a concern of the security agents that economic development in the area of study. Mumias East sub- there are a lot of land disputes, domestic violence in homes county education report (2016) states that there is high rate of and struggle for leadership in Mumias East Sub-County and school drop outs from 280 in 2015 to 400 in 2016. There is most of the cases have been forwarded to court of law. also an increase in number of the youth who are unemployed Solving these conflicts is a challenge because people always and threatens security in the Sub-County. The statistic states want to support their clansmen even if they are on the wrong that at least one youth is arrested in a month while committing (Mumias East Sub-County Security Report, 2016). However a felony (Mumias sub-county security report 2017). the economic status of Mumias East Sub-County is going Poverty level is high since Mumias Sugar Company dropped down especially in agricultural sector due to the collapse of in production. Farmers are shifting from cane to maize Mumias Sugar Company. Paying of school fees is a problem farming but the yield is too low and average production per and parents are straining to educate their children (Mumias year per farmer is 5 bags of 90kg per acre. This cannot sustain East Sub-County Education Report, 2016). a family for the whole year (Mumias Sub-county Agricultural 1.2 Statement of the Problem report 2017). Kakamega County education board report (2016) states that enrollment of youth in Shianda and Malaha Inter-clan conflicts have at best prevented people from youth polytechnics is very low and hence still development developing their bountiful human and natural potential. among youth is very low. Since the research by(Ogot,1978) Mworia & Ndiku (2012) denoted that at worst, the conflicts no comprehensive research has been done in this area of have given rise to conditions of hopelessness. However, study apart from government report such as Agricultural conflict management and peace building in Kenya continues report(2016), Health report (2017), Education (2016) and to face challenges in the current national and regional security report (2016, 2017 and 2018). environments. Strategic coordination amongst key actors has However, Mumias East Sub-County has continuously been seemingly lacking in conflict management and peace experienced inter-clan conflicts that emanate from land building. The study may also yield guidelines that may disputes, struggle for resources, political competitions and support policy makers locally and internationally to mitigate leadership wrangles hence preventing the residents from inter-clan conflicts. developing their bountiful human and natural potential. Clans in Mumias East Sub-County have been in conflicts from Despite of the interventions, no effort has been made to time immemorial over leadership as denoted by (Ogot, 1978). examine Inter-clan conflicts influence on Socio-Economic According to Ogot (1978) earlier on and throughout its Development in Mumias East Sub-County. There is therefore history, the Wanga Kingdom was prone to succession feuds curiosity of whether strategic coordination amongst key actors the most notable resulting in the splitting of the kingdom in conflict management may foster sustainable peace to when the sons of Nabongo Osundwa rivaled each other over reduce the risks of Inter-clan conflicts in Mumias East Sub- the throne. The study intends to gain a better understanding of County. forms and prevalence of inter-clan conflicts in Mumias East 1.3 Objective of the Study Sub-County (Mumias East sub-County Security Report, 2016). The specific objective was to: There have been continuous conflicts among the clans the i. Evaluate the strategies put in place to reduce inter- Abashitsetse and Abakolwe being the perpetrators of the clan conflicts in Mumias East Sub-County, Kenya conflicts. Since independence the two clans have been 1.4 Research Question struggling for leadership and involve other clans by convincing them to support them and hence these clans are i. What are strategies put in place to reduce Inter-Clan divided to support either of the two clans. This extends to conflicts in Mumias East Sub-County?

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International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS) |Volume IV, Issue X, October 2020|ISSN 2454-6186

II. LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1.2 Beefing up Security This chapter reviews the various written works related to the In addition, Establishment of AP posts reduce violent research topic. A thematic approach has been used and the conflicts. When the Kuria clans conflicted, several chapter is organized under the following sub headings: administration police posts have been established in the strategies put in place in conflict management and conceptual district in order to boost security in the district. The posts framework. were established at strategic points along the border with Trans Mara district as well as the Kenya/Tanzania border. 2.1 Strategies put in place to Reduce Inter-Clan Conflicts Since their establishment, security has been restored and Empathy has received increasing empirical attention in the peace and calm has been restored. Their establishment has study of intergroup relations. Much of this research has also been instrumental in the sense that it has helped focused on the potential of interventions that generate reduce cattle rustling incidences along the common empathy for improving intergroup attitudes and reducing borders. Increased patrols have also aided in promoting intergroup bias. There are potential roles of empathy in security along the border and also in the known hotspots intergroup relations considering the direct impact of Aluvi (2013). intergroup empathy on behavior and how intergroup attitudes Aluvi (2013) argues that Establishment of District Peace can moderate the arousal of empathy and its subsequent Committee assists reduce inter-clan conflicts. The Kuria East intergroup impact. Ashburn-Nardon and Saguy, District Peace Committee (DPC) was established in June (2008:393).The fundamental problem of inter-group conflict 2010. Since its establishment, a lot of sensitization is individual prejudice. meetings have taken place to sensitize the community on the The simplistic view that prejudice sterns from ignorance and need for peace and unity in placement of populations: The that ignorance can be cured by contact was elevated to conflict resulted into massive displacement of people; a cultural truism and a plan for action in the early 1950s and according to the United Nation office for the coordination of has been at the heart of the study of intergroup relations Humanitarian affairs (OCHA) report of June 2009 around particularly in the US, ever since, in 1962, Berkowitz 6,290 persons were displaced from their homes. proposed the ESC hypothesis as the only successful means of Effective recovery after conflict is dependent on actions not reducing hostilities across racial divides Cornell, (1994:30). only of the state, but also non-state actors whose institutions, State building must be driven by a strategy that minimizes structures and processes are key to implementation of short- potential conflicts. The design of institutions must provide a term and longer-term reconstruction activities within different fool proof platform to address known sources of conflict. All sectors of society carefully attuned to each other (UNDG, conflicts need not end in violence the weakness of traditional 2007). The study reviews relevant related literature on state structures that were designed to address local issues-must be and non-state actors‟ involvement in conflict management. complemented by sound state-level mechanism that can add new openings rather than circumvent local mechanism. One of The state is always the principal unit for exercising public the main services provided by the state is security. Security is authority in defined territories and also the central structure in also the most widely accepted service among populations international relations. The state consists of: institutions or across the world. rules which regulate political, social and economic engagement across a territory and may be formal or informal; 2.1.1 Public Sensitization and organizations at the national and the sub-national level According to Aluvi (2013), inter-clan conflicts can be which operate within those rules e.g. the executive, resolved through Public sensitization on voluntary return of legislature, judiciary and ministries (DFID, 2010). State illegal firearms. The conflicts that occurred in Kuria were interventions have been successful only at formal and resolved through such Barazas. Through Public Barazas, the superficial levels (UN, 2009). Its focus has been on the top public were sensitized on the need to voluntarily surrender all leadership and macro level while ignoring the majority of the illegally held firearms. They were sensitized on the need to population and micro-level conflict transformation and return all illegally held firearms the disadvantages of having relationships (Mwamba, 2010).The leaders of the conflicting the illegal arms and their implications of peace and security in parties at the macro level are normally brought together to the district. So far a total of 42 guns and 106 rounds of negotiate a cease-fire and peace agreement which when ammunition have so far been voluntarily returned between reached automatically trickle down to the entire population 2009 and 2011 (Aluvi, 2013).However, despite the fact that (Thania, 2003). Whereas it has the benefit of engaging those there is a lot of sensitization in public Barazas by the local in power who have the ability to conduct large-scale violence leaders about the need of having a united community, we still or end it and brings about peace, it is criticized primarily for have inter-clan Conflicts in Mumias East Sub-County and its neglect of local problems and issues (Severine, 2008). hence there is a need for a study in the area. This gap has

necessitated the Researcher to carry out a study in Mumias East Sub-County.

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International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS) |Volume IV, Issue X, October 2020|ISSN 2454-6186

2.1.3 Peace agreements/committees In Kenya, the government has been a major player using formal and informal processes to conflict management Furthermore, the approach overlooks the root causes of (Pkalya & Mohammud, 2006). The formal justice systems conflict, conflict victims and insists on apparent political through the Constitution and other national laws use the problems (Thania, 2003). Conflict victims can be classified on judiciary to solve conflicts between individuals, amongst the basis of individual/collective, direct/indirect and also communities and between citizens and the state. However, based on the dimension of time (children) (UN, 2009). In there is the failure of official laws and legal processes to Sudan, Northern and Southern Sudanese elites reached a reflect an understanding of the local population in defining much-heralded peace agreement in 2005, but the country crimes and resolving conflicts (Tanja, 2008). State response to continued to teeter on the brink of collapse following the conflict in pastoral areas has historically been characterized outbreak of a new rebellion in Darfur in eastern Sudan since by an indiscriminate and aggressive military response that has 2003. It remained the daunting task of this study to identify, alienated pastoral communities. Aside from these periodic if any, the role of the state in the micro-level conflict security interventions, pastoral communities largely fend for transformation in Trans-Nzoia, County, Kenya. It is the task themselves and in this context the role of arms, both as a of this study to identify the work of the Nation in the local- means of protection and as livelihood assets, become level conflict management in Mumias East Sub-County, important (Mwaura, 2005). Kakmega County, Kenya. The Government‟s initiative to recruit and arm the Kenya 2.1.4 Stable Police and Military force Police Reservists (KPRs) and home guards as complementary According to Ayofe (2009), the Nigerian mobile police and security providers in the conflict regions initially meant to be the Nigerian military have been used to suspend many cases a transparent community policing initiative, has been marred of conflicts in Nigeria. The state‟s imposition of curfew, with allegations of corruption, incompetence and favoritism judicial panel, compensations and punishments and use of along ethnic lines and further weak accountability procedures propaganda to douse public tension are part of the Nigerian within the KPR and home guard operations (KHCR, 2002). government‟s regular strategies for conflict management. State intervention through the police/ military brings calm in However, they have succeeded in restoring order in most the conflict settings. However, it fails to yield fruits as local cases of violent conflicts, but their intervention usually gets to inhabitants incur high costs, reported incidences of human the violence scene after loss of human lives and valuable rights abuses as well as its failure to address the core causes of properties and has not been able to yield adequate results the conflict as was evidenced in the Mt. Elgon conflicts since the 1960s. Mumias East Sub-county has opened new among others (Kamoet, 2011; Matanga, 2010). police and Administration police posts. Namely: Isongo, 2.1.6 Use of Traditional Justice and African Customary Law Lusheya and Ekero to counter whenever there is violent conflicts but they drack behind until the situation go worse. Informal processes used include traditional justice mechanisms and African customary law to conflict 2.1.5 Use of Courts management. Local justice mechanisms involving bottom-up In Rwanda, Gacaca courts formed after 1994 genocide to lawmaking where they acknowledge and work with local promote community reconciliation are state-run and more concepts and local socio-political structures; and define formal than the simpler traditional, community courts and common ground rules between different local systems have changed to have the ability to prosecute, and reconciliation been successful in providing „agreements‟ and „declarations‟ was no longer the main goal (Werner, 2010). They created which resemble official laws (Pkalya & Mohammud, 2006). social tensions which led to increasing verbal assaults and The formation of National Steering Committee (NSC) on physical violence directed towards survivors; there was Peace Building and Conflict Management, which formulated a failure to put on trial members of the Rwandan Patriotic Front draft national policy on conflict management aimed at (RPF) [the current ruling party led by President Paul Kagame] providing coordination to various peace building initiatives, who committed revenge killings. There was failure to provide including the local peace committees. However, justice to all victims of serious crimes committed. implementation still remains incomplete (KNHRC, 2011). Additionally, doubts concerning impartiality and objectivity Non-state actors include international and regional while dealing with relatives who stand accused of genocide organizations, Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) and the crimes, corruption and the possibility of having genocide private sector, as well as traditional authorities, and informal suspects among the judges themselves (Clark, 2012). The groupings such as social networks and religious communities. winding up of the Gacaca judicial system left some of these Global Partnership for the Prevention of Armed Conflict, a challenges unaddressed, and therefore post-Gacaca, should be network of more than 1,000 civil society organizations formed a moment of assessing what was done, and what needs to be in 2005; states that, effective strategies combine 'bottom-up' done to achieve the country‟s vision of unity and and 'top-down' action, but local ownership is essential reconciliation. (UNDP,2008). Broader mandates reflecting integrated (rather than traditional) peacekeeping operations and actual peace

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building tasks are now the norm; however, in most cases, Lasting peace can be delivered by a horizontal-vertical mandates do not explicitly reference peace building. This approach to intervention. Ownership has to start at the grass- perspective heightens the need to re-emphasize post-conflict root level, involving and empowering (organized and recovery. unorganized) civil society, particularly the most vulnerable groups of post-conflict societies (Werner, 2010). Grassroots Unsuccessful attempts of implementing western models of leadership facilitates coordination between interveners and the justice and peace are explicit in some post-conflict countries communities (UN, 2009). They promote conciliation and (UNDP, 1994). For instance, the signing of peace agreements building new relationships amongst the warring communities under pressure from the international community only results through dialogue, negotiations, and problem solving in the warring factions not being seriously committed. workshops, information, education and communication Implementation of such agreements is further dependent on a (UNDP, 2011) These have set precedence to the coexistence UN presence which has rarely been sufficient to do the job in places in conflict prone areas especially among the (Ottaway, 2006). In Sudan, northern and Southern Sudanese pastoralist and agro-pastoralist communities in the North-Rift elites reached a much-heralded peace agreement in 2005, but region (Pkalya & Mohamud, 2006b). They also maintain the country continued to teeter on the brink of collapse checks and balances on the respective governments in conflict following the outbreak of a new rebellion in Darfur in eastern and other policy issues. In Kenya, this has included pressure Sudan since 2003. for a national policy on conflict management and peace Several critical theorists have dismissed international peace building (GOK, 2009). building interventions for reflecting the interests of external Critiques argue that relying too strongly on civil society donors, rather than the needs or rights of local actors actors creates the potential danger of substituting and (Richmond, 2001), such a form of „conflict management delegitimizing state organizations and thus potentially imperialism‟ is argued to have the potential to completely undermining long-term efforts to strengthen them (Emstorfer neglect local dynamics and hence fail to arrive at truly et.al, 2007). Furthermore, civil society representation may be sustainable solutions (Haider, 2009). In 2004, former UN skewed towards urban based organizations and not by secretary-general, Kofi Annan, through a report to the grassroots communities most affected by the conflict (UNDP, Security Council emphasized use of indigenous and informal 2006). According to Simala (2010), community participation traditions for administering justice or settling disputes and to is effective as it ensures success and satisfaction of the do so in conformity with both international standards and community through resource contributions, making decisions, local tradition‟ (UNDP, 2006). sharing tasks with professionals and organizing plans. The international community has, therefore, slowly 2.2 Conceptual Framework of the study considered various indigenous methods explicit in integrated post-conflict management strategies as potential alternatives 2.2.1 The Intergroup contact theory (Emstorfer 2007). Despite these interventions, case studies in The intergroup Contact theory is a central part of the theories post conflict countries indicate that the international of Inter-group Relations. The Contact Hypothesis Theoretical community remains far from perfecting any methods, whether Propositions are used to explain prejudice, reduction and Western, traditional, or hybrid, but nonetheless, attempts discrimination in inter-group relations. The intergroup Contact continue to be made (Werner, 2010). It remains the daunting theory refers to the approach that brings members of different task of this study to possibly recommend the most preferable cultures together over concentrated period of time. It has been interventions. described as one of the best ways to improve relations among 2.1.7 Peace Negotiations groups that are experiencing conflicts. The premises of the theory state that; under appropriate conditions interpersonal African countries and regional organizations on the continent contact is one of the most effective ways to reduce prejudice have made serious efforts to deal with the scourge of conflict between majority and minority members. by promoting peace negotiations and brokering peace agreements. They have also established, under the auspices of The intergroup Contact theory belongs to the extensive human the AU, a legal framework and structures to deal effectively relations movement that emerged after the Second World with conflicts. The African Union (AU) operates on the Draft War. It attempts to combat all forms of intergroup prejudice, Policy Framework on Post-Conflict Reconstruction and racial, religious and ethnic differences. The Intergroup Development (PCRD) developed in 2006 which is conceived Contact theory is extended into other intergroup domains as a tool to: a) consolidate peace and prevent relapse of including the industrial relations movement and the violence; b) to help address the root causes of conflict; c) to international arena from which conflict resolution approaches encourage fast-track planning and implementation of and theories emerged. reconstruction activities; and d) to enhance complementarily The Intergroup Contact theory reconsidered since its initial and coordination between and among diverse actors engaged conception over 50 years ago, it has become one of the most in PCRD processes (AU, 2006). popular ideas in Social Science. Its origins lie in the nature of

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Prejudice, a monograph published by psychologist Allport the members of different ethnic or racial groups on their (1954), in which the author suggested that interpersonal prejudiced opinions and behavior. contact between members of different racial or cultural groups The basic idea is that more contact between individuals belon can reduce prejudice and increase positive attitudes toward ging to antagonistic socialgroups (defined by Culture, each other, and in turn Language, Beliefs, Skin Color and Nationality ) tends to reducesconflictbetween such groups. There are several mecha undermine the negative stereotypes they have on each other nisms through which stereotyping andprejudiceagainst racial and to reduce their mutual antipathies, thus improving or cultural minorities becomes reduced through contact intergroup relations by making people move willing to deal because exposure to the other enhances knowledge about him with each other as equals. In short, more contact means less or her. More recent scholarship argues that affective rather ethnic or cultural conflict, other things being equal. This is a than simply cognitive processes are far more influential, in familiar, even a better idea. It has been a staple of social particular anxiety reduction has been posited as the scientists accounts of prejudice and discrimination for a long mechanism through which contact elicits improved intergroup time in recent decades; it has generally been treated as an relations. empirical hypothesis, tested in a variety of ways and Allport (1954) is often credited with the development of the frequently vindicated, despite the apparently contrary trends- Contact Hypothesis, also known as Intergroup Contact more contact and more conflict- just noted (Brewer and Theory. Several attempts have been made to conceptualize Gaertner, 2001; Miller, 2002; Pettigrew, 1998a, and Pettigrew and classify the literature on intergroup relations: Lewin and Tropp (2000). The contact hypothesis theory posited that (1947,1988); Allport (1954), Sherif (1988), Ashmur (1970), if members of different ethnic groups interact with each other Elrlich (1973); Tajfel (1982); Peled and Bargal (1983); Amir on an equal-status basis in pursuit of common goals- positive (1976), Ben- Ariad, Amir (1986), and Hewstone and Brown intergroup relations have resulted (Allport, 1954). The theory (1986), constitute the main bulk of researchers and have addressed independent variables in the research topic which attempted to classify the theoretical literature on intergroup are inter-clan conflicts. relations, especially the Intergroup Contact theory, which 2.2.2. The Linear Stages of Growth theory stood for many years as the main approach to solving intergroup conflict. In a comprehensive study of prejudice and This theory is under classical theories of economic intergroup relations, Hewstone Brown (1986), development. The first generation of economic development identified the main theoretical propositions of Allport (1954), models was formulated in the early years after the World War Cook (1978), 1979) and Pettigrew (1971). They emphasize a II. These early models focused on the utility of massive very fundamental distinction between the Contact Hypothesis injections of capital to achieve rapid GDP growth rates. The and the Intergroup Relations Approach, and suggest the two famous models are Rostow‟s stages growth and the adoption of intergroup processes as the bases for a theoretical Harrod–Domar model (Todaro and Smith 2009). Theorists of explanatory framework. the 1950s and early 1960s viewed the process of development as a sequence of historical stages. This view was popularized Proponents of the Intergroup Contact theory usually think of by Rostow (Ingham 1995). intergroup contact as having an effect on prejudiced attitudes and discriminatory behavior because of its effects on Building on the historical pattern of the then developed stereotyping. To simplify, they think that hostile stereotypes countries, Rostow (1960) claimed that the transition from are born of social isolation and broken by personal underdevelopment to development would pass through five acquaintance Allport, (1954:16). They recognize, of course stages: the traditional society, the preconditions for take-off, that the cognitive and emotional mechanism involved in the the take-off, the drive to maturity and the age of high mass development and modification of intergroup attitudes is very consumption. The decisive stage is the take-off, through complex; they can be affected by many variables. In which developing countries are expected to transit from an principles, therefore, it should be possible to explain and underdeveloped to a developed state. Increasing rate of predict different relations between contact and conflict investments is considered to be necessary to induce per-capita (prejudices, discrimination, stereotyping, and hostility etc.) by growth. Like Rostow‟s stages growth model, the Harrod– taking these conditioning variables. Domar model emphasized that the prime mover of the economy is investments (Ghatak 2003). Every country It should be possible to specify the kinds and situations of therefore needs capital to generate investments. contact that have desirable effects and those that have negative effects when contact is the right kind of contact, in a The principal strategies of development from the stage favorable setting, it should tend to reduce prejudice and approach were commonly used by developing countries in the discrimination otherwise, contact may have no effects or even early post-war years. With a target growth rate, the required had effects rather than breaking hostile stereotypes, it may just saving rate can then be known. If domestic savings were not foster their growth. The contact hypothesis is a broad sufficient, foreign savings would be mobilized. Although generalization about the effects of personal contact between Rostow (1960), Harrod (1948) and Domar (1947) were right about the important role of investments that is most closely

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correlated with the economic growth rate, this is not the only development process is actually highly nonlinear (Chenery condition for a country to develop. 1960; Chenery and Syrquin 1975). Countries maypursuedistinctdevelopmentpaths(MorrisandAdelman1988 The key weaknesses of these models lie in their simplifying ).Economiesmay miss stages, or become locked in one assumptions. A single production function is simply assumed particular stage, or even regress depending on for all countries (Adelman 2000). Every economy is assumed manyothercomplementaryfactorssuchasmanagerialcapacities,a to have the same necessary conditions and would pass through ndtheavailability of skilled labour for a wide range of the same phasing, stage by stage. But that economic growth development projects (Todaro and Smith 2009). The theory is path, which historically had been followed by the more used to address dependent variables which are social- developed countries, is not the only one pathway. The economic development.

Independent Intervening Dependent variables Variables variables

Socio-Economic Inter-clan conflicts Development Demographic  Fighting  Sustainable characteristics peace  Quarreling  Ethnicity  Institutional  Court Cases  Political reforms  Stalled  Structural Influence development development  Policies  Loss of  Social  Culture Land(displac development  Resources ements)  Religious Affiliation  Agriculture  Revenge s  Business  Power

sharing

Figure 2.1: Model Showing Variables of Inter-clan Conflicts and socio-economic development (Source: Researcher, 2018) III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY On the other hand, Orodho and Kombo (2003) state that descriptive survey can be used to collect information about 3.1. Introduction people‟s attitude, opinions, habits or social issues. One social This chapter covers research methodology which comprises issue that this study considered is the inter-clan conflicts the following themes: research design, study area, study among the Clans in Mumias East Constituency. Mugenda population, description of research instruments, reliability and and Mugenda (1999) describe a descriptive design as an validity of the instruments, methods of date collection, data attempt to collect data from members of the population in analysis techniques, ethical consideration and summary. order to determine the current status of that population with respect to one or more variables. For the purpose of this study, 3.2 Research Design descriptive design was used to enable the researcher describe The research employed descriptive and cross sectional the inter-clan conflicts Mumias East Sub-County and their research design. Orodho (2003) defines descriptive research effects on socio-economic effects to development in the area. design as a method of collecting information by interviewing or administering a questionnaire to a sample of individuals.

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Descriptive design seeks to uncover the nature of factors same time, the County suffers from extreme demographic involved in a given situation, the degree in which it exists and pressures with annual population growth rate of 2.12% the relationship between them (Bell, 1993). Descriptive (WPGM, 2012). The altitude of the county is between 1,240 survey was employed because it allows the researchers to metres and 2,000 metres above sea level (Kakamega CDP, adopt a holistic approach of the study sampled, thus enabling 2013). and utilizing research tools like questionnaires and focus Mumias East Sub-County climate is classified as tropical. The group discussion guides. The researcher obtained information annual rainfall range is between 2214.1mm and 1280.1 mm from a sample rather than the entire population at one point in per year. This rainfall is evenly distributed all year round, a given time. with March and July receiving heavy rains while December On the other hand, historical research design which is a type and February receives light rains. The temperatures range is of qualitative research that involve examining past events to between 180 C and 290C. The hottest months are November, draw conclusions and make predictions about the future December, January and February. Other months have (Academia, 2018). This research design was used to examine relatively higher and similar temperatures. The Sub-County the past inter-clan conflicts that took place in the area of study has an average humidity of 67% (Kakamega CDP, 2013 since independence when the kingdom leadership was Mumias East Sub-County comprises 18 Sub-Location. overtaken by the government in power and people began Namely, Eluche, Shianda, Isongo, Khaimba, Khaunga, struggling for leadership, struggle for land also began due to Mahola, Lubinu, Shibinga, Lusheya, Emakhwale, Makunga, land ownership through land adjudication by the ruling Maraba, Malaha, Ebusia, Mung‟ang‟a, Bumini, Ekero and government. Kamasia are the Sub-locations in Mumias East Sub-County. Ranking research design was as one of the simplest 3.4 Study population performance evaluation method used to examine the extent of The study population for the study consisted of households inter-clan conflicts in per location, in shopping centres and Heads from 9 Sub-location of Mumias East Sub-County. The extent of inter-clan conflicts in relation to gender, age, portion of the population to which the researcher had access occupation and level of education in the area of study. comprised, police officers, chiefs, Assistant Chiefs, probation On the other hand, Cross Section research is used to determine officer, members of county assembly, Assistant county the impact of a social intervention. A social intervention is an commissioner, Deputy county commissioner, Sub-county action taken within a social context designed to produce an administrator, ward administrator, religious leaders, village intended result. Evaluation research, thus, analyses the impact elders, clans chairpersons, CBOs and religious leaders. I have of a particular program on a certain social problem the chosen on the above respondents because they are the ones program is trying to solve (Bamberger et al, 2006). In the who arbitrate and reconcile the perpetrators during conflicts. study evaluation was used to evaluate strategies put in place 3.5. Sampling Techniques and Procedure to reduce inter-clan conflicts in Mumias East Sub-County. Table 3.1 Summary of Objective, Variables and Research Design The study site (9 sub-locations) and was purposely sampled based on the frequency of Inter- clan Conflicts in Mumias Specific Variables Research Design East Sub-County, Kenya (Ogot, 1978). Mumias East Sub- Objective Policies, County has a population of 100,956. The desired sample of (i) To evaluate empowerment, households‟ heads population was determined using Fisher‟s the strategies public education put in place to formula for sample size determination (Fisher et al., 1983 standards, reduce inter- cited in Mugenda & Mugenda, 1999:43) as stated reduction in Evaluation clan conflicts poverty index, 2 in Mumias 푧 푝푞 public n= 2 ……Equation 3.1 East Sub- 푑 participation and County, Kenya intermarriages. Where n=desired sample size (the target population is greater than 10,000). Source: Researcher, 2018 3.3 Study Area z=the standard normal deviate at the confidence level of 95% is 1.96. Mumias East Sub-County is an electoral constituency in Kenya. It is one of the Sub-counties in Kakamega County. It p=the proportion of the target population estimated to have has a population of 100,956. It has an area of characteristics being measured is set at 50% 2 135.50k .Mumias East Sub-County is situated in Kakamega q=1-p (probability of non-success) County, Western Kenya. Majority of its inhabitants are employed by the government within the agricultural sector d=level of statistical significance set at 0.05 (GoK, 2012), with most of them being small-scale farmers. In (1.96)2∗0.5∗(1−0.5) n= ……….Equation 3.2 fact, 80% of the population lives in rural areas and 62% of all (0.05)2 households generate their income from agriculture. At the

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Clans 50% Purposive n=384 5. 36 18 Chairpersons Sampling This was sampled from the total population 21,434 6. DCC 1 100% census 1 households in the Sub-County (Census, 2010) Stratified Households 7. 21434 Fisher Formula 384 proportionate sampling was used to determine the number of Heads household units to be sampled per Sub-Location because of 8. MCA 3 100% census 3 the variation in the number of households units in the Nine 30% purposive 9. Police Officers 15 5 sub-Locations as shown in table 3.2. sampling Probation 10. 1 100% census 1 3.2. Table: proportional allocation of Households heads per Sub-location. Officer Religious 10% Simple Total Sampled 11. 200 20 S/ Leaders Random Sampling Sub-Locations Households households units N Sub-County (No.) (s) 12. 1 100% Census 1 Admin. 1 Ekero 2531 45 13. Village Elders 18 100% purposive 18 2 Eluche 2744 49 Ward 14. 3 100% ,census 3 3 Isongo 2674 48 Administrators TOTAL 475 4 Khaunga 1599 29 5 Lubinu 2162 39 Source: Researcher 2018 6 Lusheya 3356 60 3.6 Methods and Instruments of Data Collection 7 Makunga 2250 40 The study used both primary and secondary data. 8 Malaha 1538 28 3.6.1 Primary Data 9 Mung‟ang‟a 2580 46 Total 21434 384 In using primary sources, data was collected from selected respondents using questionnaires, interview schedules,

observation schedule and focus group discussions. It involved Source: Adapted from IEBC (2013) both qualitative and quantitative approaches. The use of the Household‟s heads was increased from 384 to 399 two approaches at the same time in basic research is respondents to cater for spoiled questionnaires during data recommended by Gay (1996) as the best way to get sufficient collection. Additionally, the following categories of results. respondents was sampled purposively or using census during 3..6.1.1 Questionnaires this study in the summary as Table 3.2; 9 Ass-chiefs out of 18,9 Chiefs out of 9,18 clans Chairpersons out 36, 3 ward Combined questionnaire with both open and closed ended administrators out of 3,1 Deputy County Commissioner out of questionnaires was administered. This is because closed ended 1, 1Ass-County Commissioner out of 2,1Sub-County questionnaires are easier to analyze since they are in an Administrator out of 1, 3 Members of County Assembly out immediate usable form, and each item may be followed by of 3,1 probation Officer out of 1, 5 Police Officers out of alternative answers. Open ended questions permit a great 15,18 Village Elders 2 per Sub-Location, 2 CBOs out of 5 and depth of response, where a respondent is allowed to give 20 religious leaders out of 200 was sampled for the study. personal response, usually reasons for the response given is The total sample population for the study was 475 directly or indirectly included. The researcher equally prefers respondents. According to Mugeda and Mugenda (2003), a to use this method because of its ability to solicit information sample size of 10% of the sample size is considered adequate from respondents within a short time as supported by Gupta for descriptive study. Therefore 10% of the researcher‟s (1999). Moreover, respondents were given time to consult population size was 475 respondents who were picked from 9 records so that sensitive questions were truthfully answered as sub-Locations in Mumias East Sub-County which had the supported by Floyd (1993). same characteristics of respondents 3.6.1.2 Interview Schedules Table 3.3: Summary of Population, Sampling Procedures, Techniques and size Koul (1993), indicated that interview method is often superior compared to other research tools. Once a rapport has been Sampling procedures Sample S/N Population Size established and confidence assured, certain confidential and Techniques Size information was divulged that would otherwise escape the 1. ACC 1 100% ,census 1 researcher. In addition, a follow up was made on incorrect or 50% Purposive 2. Ass-Chiefs 18 9 incomplete answers to certain questions, and their interviewer Sampling 50% Purposive has the opportunity to gauge the sincerity of the respondent‟s 3. CBOs 5 2 Sampling information (Koul, 1993; Patton, 1990). Semi-structured 100% purposive 4. Chiefs 9 9 interviews were prepared for informants on the field to obtain sampling information for the study. The respondents included the

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general public, Ass-Chiefs, Clans chairpersons, Religious consistency and provides both item and scale information. The Leaders, ward administrators, Ass-County Commissioners, following CVI formula was used to calculate the content Deputy County Commissioners, Probation Officer, Police validity for questionnaires, interview guides and Focus group Officers, Sub-County administrators, villages and CBOs. Discussions guides. 3.6.1.3 Observation Checklists n CVI  ………………………..Equation 3.3 The researcher incorporated the use of observations and N photographic evidence in the study. The researcher observed the nature of the conflicts in the area. The observation Where n is the number of items declared valid and N is the checklist showed the immediate consequences of the conflicts total number of items to the socio-economic development and livelihood of the The formula was applied to all the tools as shown in table 3.4. people. Observation was applied where there is violent conflict and photographs were taken where possible and Table 3.4: Determination of the Content Validity Index for data collection Valid Invalid interpreted. Instrument Section Total item item 3.6.1.4 Focus Group Discussion Guides Household A 12 2 14 Questionnaire This targeted the following respondents: Religious leaders, B 14 3 17 CBOs and village elders. The sizes of focus group discussion (FGD) groups were between 5 and 8 participants as denoted C 10 1 11 by Stewart and Shamdasani (1990). Some groups were of one D 7 2 9 gender while others were of both genders as indicated by Total 43 8 51 Morgan and Krueger (1988). Interview A 8 1 9 3.6.2 Secondary data guides B 6 2 8 Information from secondary data/sources, notably literature drawn from textbook, journals, media reports, and documents generated by (CSOs) and government agencies involved in Total 14 3 17 Inter-Clan conflicts interventions, was deemed purposeful and FGD Guide A 6 2 8 was used to supplement and provide theoretical perspectives B 7 1 8 for discussing and drawing conclusions along the objective of C 7 1 8 the study. Total 20 4 24 3.7 Validity and Reliability of the Instruments

3.7.1 Validity Source: Pilot Survey results 2018 According to Mugenda and Mugenda (1999), validity of 43 instrument is a measure of the degree to which the results HHQ CVI =  0.84313 CVI obtained using the instrument represents the actual 51 phenomenon under study. In the process of validating the 20 (FGD) =  0.8333 instruments used, fellow students and lecturers from the 24 university were used to validate each instrument. The choice of using students is because they were undertaking research 14  0.7368 and their insights are deemed essential, and on the side of lecturers is due to their wide experience in guiding and CVI (IG) =  supervising students. They were asked to evaluate the 17 instruments in term of content and face validity. They helped to ensure that the item in each questionnaire capture the Data instruments are considered to be valid if the calculated intended information accurately according to the objective of CVI is above 0.7 ( Polit et al 2007). In this regard, household the study. questionnaire, interview guides and Focus Group Discussion guides were valid at 0.84313, 0.8333 and 0.73684 In determining statistical proof, Content Validity Index CVI respectively. Therefore all the data collection instruments was used to determine the validity of all the three instruments. were all valid as recommended. This was to test whether the instruments had appropriate sample of items for the construction subjected to 3.7.2 Reliability of Research Instruments measurement. The CVI is commonly used because it is easy to The reliability of a research Instrument concerns the extent to compute, understand and focuses on agreement of relevance. which the Instrument yields the same results on repeated Polit et al (2007) observes that CVI on consensus rather than trials. Variables derived from tested Instruments are declared

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to be reliable only when they provide stable and reliable Officer in preparation for data collection. The respondents responses over a repeated administration of Instrument were requested to fill the questionnaires. (Santos, 1999). 3.9 Data Analysis and Presentation To measure the reliability, Alpha (Cronbach, 1975) technique Both quantitative and qualitative data collected was coded and was employed. In this approach, a score obtained in one item analyzed using descriptive statistics with the aid of statistical was correlated with scores obtained from other items in the package for social science (SPSS). To analyze quantitative instrument; Cronbach‟s Coefficient Alpha was computed to data, data from the questionnaires was edited, coded and determine how items correlate among themselves. Cronbach‟s entered into a computer spread sheet in a standard format to Alpha is a general form of the Kunder- Richardson (K-R) 20 allow descriptive statistics analysis. SPSS and MS Excel were formula. The use of K-R 20 formula in assessing internal used to analyze quantitative data. Measures of central consistency of an instrument is based on the split – half tendency (Mean, Mode, and Median) and frequencies and reliabilities of data from all possible halves of the instrument. percentages were used to describe the population (Fear, Hugh, Use of K-R 20 formula reduces the time required to compute a 1961). The analyzed data was presented in tables, Bar charts reliability coefficient in other methods. Its application also and Pie charts. Ranking was also done to evaluate the extent results in a more conservative estimate of reliability; the of inter-clan conflicts and strategies put in place to reduce estimated coefficient of reliability of data is lower. The K-R inter-clan conflicts in the area of study. Frequencies, formula is as follows: percentages, median and ranking were done. In analysis, the study followed the procedure of editing, coding, classification 2 2 and tabulation of raw data (Kothari, 2004). Cases of KR20  (K)(s   s ) ………….Equation 3.4 Conflict/dispute situations were analyzed with dimensions (S 2 )(K 1) such as sources, actors and their interests, grievance procedures, and expression of conflict. The implications of Where; these to local planning were discussed in the analytical section. KR20= Reliability Coefficient of internal consistency K= Number of items used to measure the concept Qualitative data obtained from Interviews and FGDs was analyzed using thematic narrative techniques. The data from S2= Variance of all scores key informant and FGD participants was presented in tables, s2= Variance of individual items bar charts and pie charts. Consistent data from the household heads, key informants and FGD participants which was not A high coefficient implies that items correlate highly among quantitative in nature but historical or factual was analyzed to themselves meaning there is consistency among the items in come up with recommendations and conclusions of the study. measuring the concept of interest. This is sometimes referred to as homogeneity of data whereby the researcher can 3.10 Limitation of the study confidently depend on the information gathered through The researcher had difficulties reaching all the indented various sources of data adopted for the study. Alpha officials and stakeholders of conflict management in the study (Cronbach, 1975) is a model of internal consistency based on area due to vastness of the study area. This challenge was the average inter- item correlation. The instrument was solved by employing research assistants. The researcher also divided into two parts using even and odd numbers. A large used locally available means of transport such as motorbikes value of alpha (preferably greater than 0.6) indicates high to facilitate movement within the area of study. level of consistence of the instruments in measuring the variables. The co-efficient of internal consistency above at 0.6 Additionally, inter-clan conflicts is a sensitive subject of is considered good. The instrument was then adjusted on the discussion in the area of study considering this research was basis of the findings of the pilot test and the final version carried out in the area where this type of conflict affects a big developed thereafter that attained the correlation value of 0.7. number of the people, it was difficult to contribute unless approached well. This challenge was dealed with by a 3.8 Data Collection Procedures researcher providing introductory letter which was meant to Multiple tools and techniques were used to gather specific assure the respondents that the study was strictly for academic information from different target groups to gain a purposes. Additionally the researcher had a research permit comprehensive understanding of the issues in question. The and authorization letter from NACOSTI to assure the researcher proceeded to the study area for appointments with respondents the purpose of the study. The researcher also Chiefs, Ass-chiefs, and Village Elders, sampled Clan provided authorization letter from County Commissioner and Chairpersons and households heads, Deputy County County Director of Education Kakamega County over the Commissioner, Assistant County Commissioner, Sub-County same. At local level, the researcher and research assistants Administrator, Religious Leaders, ward Administrators, were accompanied by village elders to gain psychological Members of County Assembly, probation Officer and Police

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access of the respondent making them to willingly give This chapter discusses the findings of objective three which information sought to evaluate the strategies used to reduce inter-clan conflicts in Mumias East Sub-County. This chapter is Language barrier was another limitation of the study which therefore sub-divided into three sections. The first one, the was attributed to the fact that the study involved interviewing chapter will discuss on the strategies used to reduce inter-clan elderly people as well as people who were not conversant with conflicts, the second one on the other strategies put in place to interviews in English. To counter this shortfall, the researcher reduce inter-clan conflicts and the third one on other stake used the research assistants who were conversant with the holders involved in the management of the inter-clan conflicts Luhya especially wanga language as well as Kiswahili in Mumias East sub County. language. Additionally all interviews were audio recorded and transcribed into English by the researcher and research 4.2 Strategies used to reduce Inter-Clan Conflicts in Mumias assistants. East Sub-County 3.11 Ethical considerations The study sought to examine the strategies used to remedy the inter clan conflicts in the study area. The strategies that After the approval of the research proposal, the researcher informed the study and formed the basis of evaluation are requested for an introductory letter from the School of arbitration, negotiation, mediation and litigation. Graduate studies at Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology, to present to the National Council for Science The results in Figure 4.1 indicate that mediation 56% (215) and Technology (NCOST) seeking permission to carry out the was the highest in ranking by the respondents in Mumias East research. Once the research permit was granted, the researcher Sub- County. Negotiation was second 37% (142), followed by informed the County Commissioner Kakamega County, litigation at 5% (19) and arbitration 2% as the lowest in County Director of Education Kakamega County and Deputy ranking in regard to the strategies mostly used to reduce the County Commissioner of Mumias East Sub-County about the inter clan conflicts in Mumias East sub County. The findings intention to carry out research in the area. suggest that the respondents view mediation as panacea to the many conflicts that bedevils them while a minority argued that The researcher ensured that participants are well-informed of arbitration was ineffective strategy in conflict resolution. The the purpose of the study so that they participate from a point findings also indicate that negotiation and litigation are also of information. The purpose, procedures and benefits of the strategies that are employed by the locals to resolve conflict. study were explained. Inclusion was voluntary. Informed written consent shall be sought from the study Respondents. Series1, Content was translated and simplified in Kiswahili and Wanga N=384Mediation by the research Assistants to facilitate understanding of , 56 information contained therein. The researcher also ensured Series1, N that data collected is analyzed professionally and that it is not egotiation forged to conform to a predetermined opinion. Further, to , 37 protect the respondents‟ identities, data was reported as a block instead of highlighting individual cases. Further, the researcher ensured that all information provided is treated with utmost privacy and confidentiality, and that no information was to be released to a third party without a written permission from the source. Information obtained from other scholars‟ was cited appropriately to avoid Series1, A Series1, Li plagiarism. rbitration, tigation, 5 2 3.12 Summary This chapter has highlighted the research design that was Conflict resolution mechanisms used, area of study, population of the study, sample selection (%) mechanisms resolution Conflict methods and size, data collection methods, validity and reliability, procedures of data collection and data analysis methods that were adopted. It also indicates the research Figure 4.1: Strategies used to reduce Interclan conflicts in Mumias East Sub- limitations and how they were dealt with to ensure the County research is successful. Source: Field data (2018) IV. EVALUATION OF STRATEGIES USED TO REDUCE 4.2.1 Arbitration as a conflict resolution mechanism in INTER-CLAN CONFLICTS IN MUMIAS EAST SUB- Mumias East Sub-County COUNTY, KENYA From figure 4.1 it is eveident that only 2% (8) abitration as a 4.1 Introduction strategy was used in reducing conflicts.Those who responded

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to the question as to whether arbitration was a strategy, resolution methods”. Kriesberg analyses the traditional avouched that the dearth of an arbiter was a reason why this conflict resolution approaches of negotiation, use of coercion strategy has not been properly utilized.They argued that and mediation. He puts the stress on mutual gains, academic apparent want of judicious,rational,impartial and neutral research, and minimal reliance on violent aspects of conflict arbiter contributed to escalation of conflict and therefore there by putting emphasis on conditions of peace. His apparent lack was need to have a another strategy more reliable and of acknowledgment of arbitration could also inform us of solution-based,timely and responsive to the need of the widely used strategies in Mumias East or rather the strategies Mumias East locals. that ought to be used. Arbitration is an aspect of conflict resolution that when well thought of can be used effectively in The foregoing was supported by one of the interviwee, Ward resolving inter-clan conflicts in Mumias East. Though it Administrator Malaha- Isongo-Makunga ward who asserted exhibits certain drawbacks such as mandatory or requirement that: by a contract, the parties do not have the flexibility to choose Arbitration of conflict in our area has not borne much arbitration only when both parties agree. This aspect limits the fruit.The process is indequate and unreliable considering that disputants hence leaving them with narrow possibilities of there have been many cases of inter-clan conflicts.Various exhaustively engaging in out of court settlement of disputes. institutions have tried but all in vein.The government 4.2.2 Negotiation as a conflict resolution mechanism in therefore need to reinforce this mechanism with other easily Mumias East Sub-County approached means of resolving conflicts. Recently Chief Malaha solved an inter-clan conflict between Abakhami and As evident in figure 6.1, 37 % of the respondents indicated Abamutu over Awater Well but suprising the conflict has that negotiation was a preponderant strategy in conflict come up again on aserious note (An interview with key resolution.The respondents argued that a number of informant,8/11/2018,Malaha location) negotiation exercises had been carried out where objective and impartial negoatiators had been sought and provided In contrast, a respondent from Ebumanyi FGD stated that; sustainable approach to conflict resolution and even acted as Arbitration of conflict in the area of study has not been purveyor of other strategies such as mediation. Akey succeful due to the poor leadership because most of the local informant Award Administrator , Lusheya Ward noted that; administrators are not fair they handle cases on clannism Negotiation is key in all conflict management strategies basis. He said that appointment of Chiefs and Assistant Chiefs because the two worrying parties should negotiate over depends on which clan one come from. Heowever, they incompatible goals. If it is a recource-based conflicts there resolve some cases by favourng their clan‟s men and if it is must be negotiation on sharing of resources . In most cases an inter-clan conflict they tend to support the clan‟s people negotiation as a strategy fail because of the approah the they belong to if they are involved in the conflict at stack. On affected parties use to handle issues. However it is because of the other hand he stated that politicians incite their people inter-clans conflicts that make people not to agree on issues whenever there is a conflict among them (Aparticipant of due to disrespect for one another depending on the strength of Ebumanyi FGD, Luche Sub-Location, Shianda Location, the clans involved in conflicts (key informant, Lusheya 8/12/2018). Ward, Mumias East Sub-County, 18/12/2018). Results from an interview from Ward Administration Malaha- An FGD participant ,a religious leader of Nyaboro FGD Isongo-Makunga Ward had the following to say that indicated that; Arbitration has not born much fruits through various institutions and the government should reignforce the Negotiation as a conflict management strategy is a matter of mechanisms. In support of the findings from Ebumanyi FGD, the two conflicting parties to establish the root causes of the 8 Participants out of 8 participants indicated that arbitration of conflict and then agree on how they can iron out their conflicts in the area of study is not very successful because of differences. In this senario the parties should be flexible in poor leadership and appointment of local Administrators making decisions. Negotiations fail bceause the parties depends on which clan one comes from and who is incharge involved lack mutual understannding and respect for one of the exercise. In this senario fairness is not exercised. He another. (An FGD participant, Nyaboro FGD, Isongo also noted that some politicians are also the inciters of this location, 18/12/2018). conflicts. In support to the findings of the household heads, the key The findings indicate that all astakeholders are brought on informant, A ward Administration, Lusheya Ward indicated board to settle the disputes but still they reocur every now that; negotiation is the key conflict management strategy and then. The previnient discussion reveal that arbitration as a because all conflicting parties should negotiate over strategy is inept,mooching and lackadaisical in nature. incompatible goals. If it is aresource-based conflict there must be a negotiation on how to share the resoures. According Kriesberg (2009:16) conflict resolution is Negotiations fails because of the way the affected people “measures that an entity embarks on to shape the tracks of handle their issues. However it is because of inter-clan conflicts applying their understanding of the conflict

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conflicts that make people to disagree due to disrespect and root level, involving and empowering (organized and lack of cooperation among the conflicting parties. unorganized) civil society, particularly the most vulnerable groups of post-conflict societies (Werner, 2010). Grassroots In support from Nyaboro FGD 7 participants out of 8 leadership facilitates coordination between interveners and the participant indicated that; negotiation as a conflict communities (UN, 2009). They promote conciliation and management strategy is a matter of the conflicting parties to building new relationships amongst the warring communities establishing the root cause of the conflict and agree on how through dialogue, negotiations, and problem solving they can iron out their differences. The parties should be workshops, information, education and communication flexible in making decisions over incompatible goals. (UNDP, 2011) These have set precedence to the coexistence Negotiation fails because the parties involved lack mutual in places in conflict prone areas especially among the understanding and respect for one another. pastoralist and agro-pastoralist communities in the North-Rift In other studies Pinkey (1995 ) indicated that in negotiation region (Pkalya & Mohamud, 2006b). They also maintain fixed pie bias,seeing the resources in zero-sum terms and checks and balances on the respective governments in conflict interest of negotiating parties being in direct opposition to and other policy issues. In Kenya, this has included pressure each other, is amatter that should not be ignored. Another for a national policy on conflict management and peace approach , lose-lose bias enables negotiators to recognize the building as noted by (GOK, 2009). compatibilities and trade offs certain issues of conflict,thus Critiques argue that relying too strongly on civil society reaching an aagreement for agreement‟s sake. However, actors creates the potential danger of substituting and Thompson (2009) on the other hand noted that there is danger delegitimizing state organizations and thus potentially of the negotiators to fall a prey to this kind of strategy. Beggo undermining long-term efforts to strengthen them (Emstorfer and Graddy (2009) further contend that anchoring bias,where et.al, 2007). Furthermore, civil society representation may be a number of anchors are involved ,various anchors may be skewed towards urban based organizations and not by employed to settle out aspects that are monetary in nature. grassroots communities most affected by the conflict (UNDP, Consequently, negotiators should be unmoved by incidental 2006). Simala (2010) indicated that community participation effect or that which is independent of the substance of is effective as it ensures success and satisfaction of the negotiation as indicated by (Lerner,2000). community through resource contributions, making decisions, Emotions play out significantly in resolving conflict via sharing tasks with professionals and organizing plans. negotiation but not in all cases.If as Barry (2008) denotes that 4.2.3. Mediation as a conflict resolution mechanism in emotions of negotiators rides high a times,then this can be an Mumias East Sub-County indicators why negotiation may fail in conflict resolution and in particular in Mumias East. Larrick (2009) indicates that From figure 6.1, the results show that, mediation is the most negotiators motivation is to see the disputants reach an employed strategy in conflict resolution. The respondents amicable solution to variant issues. Therefore for negotiation argued that it supplemented negotiation especially where to be efective and expeditious,negotiators ought to bear in dearth of a neutral party was manifested during the mind their reputation and trustworthiness while negotiating as negotiation process. contend by (Zant & Kray,2015). Though negotiation has been One of the household respondents averred that: used as a strategy in conflict resolution but much still needs to be done so as to ensure that the residents of Mumias East live Resolving conflicts that are more inclined to politics needs in harmony. mediation. We are privileged to have volunteers, learned people who offer to sacrifice their resources in mediating over African countries and regional organizations on the Continent disputes that pit different clans. Mediation has been used have made serious efforts to deal with the scourge of conflict effectively especially where we have neutral mediators who by promoting peace negotiations and brokering peace impartially adjudicate of inter-clan feuds. (Household agreements. They have also established, under the auspices of respondent of Musangaro, 8/11/2018, East Wanga Location, the AU, a legal framework and structures to deal effectively Mumias East Sub-County). with conflicts. The African Union (AU) operates on the Draft Policy Framework on Post-Conflict Reconstruction and One of the key informants, a clan chairman, Abashitsetse clan Development (PCRD) developed in 2006 which is conceived indicated that; as a tool to: a) consolidate peace and prevent relapse of Mediation is the best way of resolving conflicts that are violence; b) to help address the root causes of conflict; c) to difficult to be solved by negotiation, Arbitration and encourage fast-track planning and implementation of Litigation. Conflicts are excellently solved if a third party reconstruction activities; and d) to enhance complementarily understands the nature of the conflict. He gave an example of and coordination between and among diverse actors engaged in PCRD processes (AU, 2006). inter-clan conflict between Abashitsetse and Abasacha over land boundary in Chibulu village which had been there for Lasting peace can be delivered by a horizontal-vertical long but through a mediator from CAMP (Catholic, Anglican, approach to intervention. Ownership has to start at the grass- Muslims and Pentecostal churches) it was settled successfully.

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(A key informant of Chibulu, 8/11/2018Mahola Sub- Many residents do not understand litigation as a means to Location) settle disputes.They have not been sensitized to understand how our courts works,the role our lawyers,litigators play in Aparticipant of Shianda FGD arepresentive of NGO negotiating out settlements.They also fear of high legal signposted that; financing of cases .This locks many who would wish to settle Mediation has been successfully because they take a direction cases through the courts (An interview with Key Informant, a of a neutral ground for discussion and negotiation of the police officer, 8/12/2018, Makunga Sub- location,Mumias) incompatible goals by the conflicting parties. The mediator is The foregoing indicate that resolving inter-clan conflict has always a neutral person and he or she cannot take sides and as not been easy through the lawsuits.A number of people do not a result a lasting solution is achieved in most cases due to understand what it entails as far as using it as a mechanism in resolution made by parties in conflicts (A key informant of conflict resolution. According to Garder (2014) litigation is a Indoli , 25/11/2018, Lubinu Location). process of taking legal actions through lawsuits, indictments Ramsbotham, Woodhouse and Miall (2005:4) signposted that and prosecution initiated by two opposing parties. It is far the the employment of a non-violent approach and peace most costly form of legal conflict resolution and therefore an mediation is an effective approach since the parties‟ voice alternative dispute resolution for the residents of Mumias East their grievances and demands, hence reaching a consensus. is key. Parties utilize court system and works towards This is due to the pervasive harmony such an approach has settlement that is amenable for both. Here, plaintiffs and brought to those countries which have used it to resolve defendants are the litigants while the attorneys are the conflicts. A human relations approach to conflict resolution litigators.Today lawsuits have become complicated as many also helps in resolving conflict where the affected individuals claims and counterclaims derails efforts to timely and collaborate and negotiate amongst themselves. expeditiously handle cases.According to Inglis,et al (2010),legal financing is costly and therefore many end up not The use of mediation to resolve conflicts and disputes has a going to courts for help. long history and appears in slightly different forms across geographic locations and cultures. Mumias East is no In Rwanda, Gacaca courts formed after 1994 genocide to exception. promote community reconciliation are state-run and more formal than the simpler traditional, community courts and Cheung (2010) provides definitions of mediation and accounts changed to have the ability to prosecute, and reconciliation of its use in different cultures. He points out that the success was no longer the main goal (Werner, 2010). They created of mediation depends much on the attitude of the disputants as social tensions which led to increasing verbal assaults and well as the skill of the mediator. Mediation is a form of physical violence directed towards survivors; there was assisted negotiation, wherein a mediator can bridge the failure to put on trial members of the Rwandan Patriotic Front communication gap between the disputants, thereby (RPF) [the current ruling party led by President Paul Kagame] facilitating a settlement. Case studies in Lamu, Baragoi, and who committed revenge killings. There was failure to provide Laikipia exemplify interesting use of mediation in handling justice to all victims of serious crimes committed. inter-ethnic conflicts. These cases aptly illustrate the Additionally, doubts concerning impartiality and objectivity mediator‟s vital role. In addition, the flexible process in while dealing with relatives who stand accused of genocide mediation allows the generation of innovative settlements that crimes, corruption and the possibility of having genocide are not possible in arbitration and litigation (Cheung, 2010). suspects among the judges themselves (Clark, 2012). The 4.2.4 Litigation as a conflict resolution mechanism in winding up of the Gacaca judicial system left some of these Mumias East Sub-County challenges unaddressed, and therefore post-Gacaca, should be a moment of assessing what was done, and what needs to be The study sought to underscore whether litigation as a conflict done to achieve the country‟s vision of unity and resolution strategy in Mumias East was effective.From Figure reconciliation. 4.1,it is evident that the respondents indicated that this particular strategy was not viable and feasable in Mumias In Kenya, the government has been a major player using East.Those that consented to have known this strategy either formal and informal processes to conflict management said so because they had others mention it or had one time (Pkalya & Mohammud, 2006b). The formal justice systems been directly involved in litigation.The majority of the through the Constitution and other national laws use the respondents who did not respond to this question were either judiciary to solve conflicts between individuals, amongst victims of protrated litigation processes or those that have a communities and between citizens and the state. However, bias towards the lawsuits. there is the failure of official laws and legal processes to reflect an understanding of the local population in defining An interview with one of the adovocate indicated that crimes and resolving conflicts (Tanja, 2008). State response to litigation was a costly process for the residents of Mumias.He conflict in pastoral areas has historically been characterized avouched that: by an indiscriminate and aggressive military response that has alienated pastoral communities. Aside from these periodic

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security interventions, pastoral communities largely fend for who responded to the question as to whether public themselves and in this context the role of arms, both as a particpation was a strategy, avouched that involvement of all means of protection and as livelihood assets, become people from all clans was a reason why this strategy has been important (Mwaura, 2005). properly utilized. They argued that this brings unity and respect for one another in the society. At the same time it The Government‟s initiative to recruit and arm the Kenya makes majority of the people to own decision made by many Police Reservists (KPRs) and home guards as complementary interms of developent projects reducing escalation of security providers in the conflict regions initially meant to be conflicts. therefore this strategy was reliable and solution- a transparent community policing initiative, has been marred based,timely and responsive to the need of the Mumias East with allegations of corruption, incompetence and favoritism Sub-County locals. An FGD participant, Village Elder of along ethnic lines and further weak accountability procedures Elwakana (Shibinga) noted that; within the KPR and home guard operations (KHCR, 2002). State intervention through the police/ military brings calm in Public participation in decision making in projects proposal the conflict settings. However, it fails to yield fruits as local and implementation is very important in sustainability of inhabitants incur high costs, reported incidences of human development projects. Projects that involve all clans on board rights abuses as well as its failure to address the core causes of if it is a community project does not fail . however those the conflict as was evidenced in the Mt. Elgon conflicts projects that are imposed on people always fail. He sited an among others (Kamoet, 2011; Matanga, 2010). example of Kenya Finland Co-operation (KEFINCO) water project failed in the area of study because people were not 4.3 Other Strategies Employed to Reduce Inter-clan involved and they used to call it, (KEFINCO) water. After Conflicts in Mumias East Sub-County some time people began destroying and looting the water The study also sought to examine other strategies used to pumbs and that marked the end of the project. Public reduce inter-clan conflicts in the study area. The strategies particpation also help to give those in project management that informed the study and formed the basis of evaluation are committees to do their work peacefully because of low public participation in decision making, formation of social resistance from the public.(An FGD particpant of Elwekana, groups, improvement of social amenities and intermarriages. 8/2/2018, Shibinga Sub-location, Mumias East Sub-County). The results in Table 4.1 indicate that public participation An FGD participant, a religious leader of Ebusimbiro (Eluche) 48.2% (185) was the highest in ranking by the respondents in FGD had the following to say about public particaipation; Mumias East Sub- County. Formation of social groups was second 29.9% (115), followed by improvement at 15% (60) Public participation in decision making is an exercise that and Intermarriages 6.3% (24) as the lowest in ranking in impress unversal recognition and the co-coperation among regard to the strategies mostly used to reduce the inter-clan people of different clans because they feel respected in the conflicts in Mumias East sub- County. The findings suggest society. Also said that public participation help all clans to that the respondents view public participation in decision own the the projects in the area of study and at the same time making as panacea to the many conflicts that bedevils them it improves on inclusivity in leadership (An FGD particpant of while a minority argued that intermarriages was ineffective Ebusimbiro, 18/11/2018 Luche Sub-location,Mumias East strategy in conflict resolution. The findings also indicate that Sub-County). formation of social groups and improvement of social Key informant assistant chief kamashia indicated that; amenities are also strategies that are employed by the locals to resolve conflict. Public participation in decision making play avery vital role Table 4.1: Other Strategies Empolyed to Reduce Inter-clan Conflicts in in bonding people in Mumias East Sub-County because if all Mumias East. clans are engaged in the development of the community ,nobody will complain against the other person. At the same Rank Other strategies to reduce inter- Frequency Percentage time everybody will understand what is going around in terms clan conflicts of development. He also noted that public participation improves tansperency and accounterbiliby and reduces Public Participation 185 48.2% 1 corruption that can fuel up conflicts (Key informant, Assistant Formation of social groups 115 29.9% 2 Improvement of social Chief Kamasha,24/11/2018, Ekero location, Mumias East 60 15.6% 3 Amenities Sub-County). 24 6.3% 4 Intermarriages An FGD participant, Village Elder of Elwakana (Shibinga) Total 384 100% 4 noted that; Public participation in decision making in projects Source: Field Data 2018 proposal and implementation is very important in 4.3.1 Public Participation in decision making sustainability of development. Projects that involve all clans on board if it is a community project does not fail . however From Table 4.3; it is eveident that only 48.2% (185) Public those projects which are imposed on people always fail. He Participatin as a strategy was used in reducing conflict.Those sited an example of Kenya Finland Co-operation (KEFINCO)

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water project failed in the area of study because people were Another key informant, Senior Chief East Wanga location not involved and they used to call it (KEFINCO) water. After noted that; some time people began destroying and looting the water Formation of social groups as a strategy of reducing inter- pumbs and that marked the end of the project. Public clan conflicts in the area of study is working to those who particpation also help to give those in project management have engaged themselves in forming social groups. It is rear to committees to do their work peacefully because of low find those in social groups conflicting. The only challenge is resistance from the public. that those who are in groups are very few. However the In support of the findings from the household heads, an FGD majority have got no unifying factor. participant, Areligious leader of Ebusimbiro FGD indicated Another challenge is that those in groups experience poor that; Public participation in decision making is an exercise management and at the end of the day some groups collapse that impress unversal recognition and the co-coperation (Akey informant,Senior Chief East Wanga location, among people of different clans because they feel respected 13/12/2018 ,Mumias East Sub-County). in the society. Also said that public participation help all clans to own the the projects in the area of study and at the same In support of the findings from the household heads one A time it improves on inclusivity in leadership. CBO representaive from CAMP (Catholic,Anglicans,Muslims and Pentacostal Churches) noted that; Formation of self help Also in support of the finndings one Key informant assistant groups, women groups,Youth groups, CBOs and NGOs is a chief Kamashia indicated that; Public participation in decision basis of unity regardless of which clan one comes from. The making play avery vital role in bonding people in Mumias groups unit people depending on the activities the group is East Sub-County because if all clans are engaged in the doing. At most these groups usually empowers people with development of the community ,nobody will complain against knowlegde and economically. Once the community is the other person .At the same time everybody will economically well off the prevalence of conflicts are low understand what is going around in terms of development. He because people„s livelihood is upto date. also noted that public participation improves on tansperency and accounterbiliby and reduces corruption that can fuel up Another key informant, Senior Chief East Wanga location conflicts. also noted that; Formation of social groups as astrategy of reducing inter-clan conflicts in the area of study is working to This is consistent with Simala (2010), who noted that public those who have engaged themselves in forming social groups. participation is effective as it ensures success and satisfaction It is rear to find those in social groups conflicting. The only of the community through resource contributions, making challenge is that those who are in groups are very few. decisions, sharing tasks with professionals and organizing However the majority have got no unifying factor.Another plans. challenge is that those in groups experience poor management 4.3.2 Formation of Social Groups and at the end of the day some groups collapse bringing achallenge of disunity again. As evident in Table 4.1: 29.9 % (115) of the respondents indicated that Formation of social groups was a preponderant 4.3.3 Improvement of social Amenities strategy in conflict resolution.The respondents argued that a The study sought to underscore whether Improvement of number of social groupings had been formed where objective social amenities as a conflict resolution strategy in Mumias and impartial social activities had been sought and provided East was effective. From Table 4.1, it is evident that 15.6% sustainable approach to conflict resolution and even acted as (60) of the respondents indicated that this particular strategy purveyor of other strategies such as Public Participation. The was not very much viable and feasable in Mumias East Sub- groups included; self help groups, youth groups. Women County. Those that consented to have known this strategy groups, busness vetures etc. either said so because they understand how social Amenities A CBO representaive from CAMP unit people. The amenities to be improved were, learning (Catholic,Anglicans,Muslims and Pentacostal Churches) institutions, Health facilities, market centres and sports clubs. noted that; The majority of the respondents who did not respond to this question were not a ware of what it means with social Formation of selfhelp groups, women groups,Youth groups, amenities. CBOs and NGOs is a basis of unity regardless of which clan one comes from. The groups unit people depending on the An interview with one participant of Neolola FGD indicated activities the group is doing. At most these groups usually that improvement of social Amenities was along term process empowers people with knowlegde and economically. Once for the residents of Mumias East Sub- County. He avouched the community is economically well off the prevalence of that: conflicts are low because people „s livelihood is upto date (An Improvement of social amenities like social clubs unit the FGD particpant, CBO representative, Khaunga location, residents of agiven area as people meet regulaly to relax 28/1/2018, Mumias East Sub-County). and eat together as the relationship grow and they live

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peacefully. He also said that delocalization of teachers in reliable and solution-based,timely and responsive to the need schools has also reduced inter-clan conflicts in schools in the of the Mumias East locals. area of study and this is away of improving service in Key informant a clan chairman Ababenge clan signposted schools. The neighbouring clans cannot resist against school that; management because head teachers and principals are from different counties (Akey informant, A participant of Neolola Intermarriages from the past has been used to unit people FGD, Khaunga, 16/11/2018, Mumias East Sub-County). who have had conflicts for along time. Once people from different clans intermaarry there is respect and asense of Key informant MCA East Wanga Ward indicated that; belonging is impressed. As a result of intermarages historical Improvement of social amenities in the study area create room injustices parpetrated by clans against others has reduced for association of people with others from different greatly even though to a few people because others are dimensions. Social institutions like schools and colleges unit married outside the Sub-County (Key informant, aclan people regardless of their differences if any. If business chairman Ababenge clan, Kulumwoyo village ,Khaunga entities are improved also brings people together as they Location,12/11/2018). engage in business for their livelihood. If religious An FGD participant of Emutono FGD, a village elder noted institutions are also improved people develop in religious faith that; and it can reduce inter-clan conflicts (A key informant,MCAEast Wanga ward, 11/12/2018 ,Mumias East In Wanga culture the Wanga people were not relating well Sub-County). with the Abanyala Sub-ethnic group, they used to call them (Abarebe) meaning; they ask what they already know, but An interview with one participant of Neolola FGD indicated nowdays due to intermarriages the two groups stay together that improvement of social Amenities was along term process and the Abanyala have bought land in Wanga land and stayed for the residents of Mumias East Sub- County. He avouched peacefully (An FGD participant, Emutono Village, Isongo that: Improvement of social amenities like social clubs unit Location, 12/11/2018). the residents of Mumias East as people meet regularly to relax and eat together hence, the relationship grow and they In support of the findings from the household heads, one Key live peacefully. He lso said that delocalization of teachers in informant a clan chairman Ababenge clan signposted that; schools has also reduced inter-clan conflicts in schools in the Intermarriages from the past has been used to unit people area of study and this is away of improving services in who have been in conflict for along time. Once people from schools. The neighbouring clans cannot resist school different clans Intermaarry there is respect and asense of management because the head teachers and principals are belonging is impressed. As aresult of intermarages, historical from different counties and now demanding for their person injustices parpetrated by clans against other clans has to manage the schools is unheard of. reduced greatly even though to a few people because others are married outside the Sub-County. In support of the findings one Key informant MCA East Wanga Ward indicated that; Improvement of social amenities Also in support of the findings another FGD participant of create room for association of people with others from Emutono FGD noted that; In Wanga culture the Wanga people different dimension. Social institutions like schools and were not relating well with the Abanyala Sub-ethnic group, colleges unit people regardless of their differences if any. If they used to call them (Abarebe) meaning; they ask what they business entities are improved also brings people together as already know, but now days due to intermarriages the two they engage in business for their livelihood. If religious Sub-ethnic groups stay together and they have bought land in institutions are also improved people develop in religious faith Wanga land and stay in harmony. and it can reduce inter-clan conflicts in the area of study. 4.4 Stakeholders involved in solving inter-clan conflicts in 4.3.4 Intermarriages Mumias East Sub-County From Table 4.1 it is evident that only 6.3% (24) intermarrage The study sought to examine the contributions of varrious as a strategy was used in reducing inter-clan conflicts. Those organisations in relation to their existing policies in the who responded to the question as to whether intermarrages management of inter-clan conflicts in the study area in regard was a strategy, avouched that intermarriage of people from to peace and conflict resolution. The results obtained are other clans was a reason why this strategy has not been presented in Figure 6.2 in which Religious leaders were properly utilized. They argued that this is on aminimal scale ranked the best in conflict management 46% (177) followed and marriage is occassional but not afrequent exercise and by Non Governmental Organisations (NGOs) 25% (96), other people are married from outside the Sub-County. At Government authorities 21% (81) and clan elders at 8% (31) the same time marriage is not mandatory to the residents of respectively. These stakeholders however offer collective and Mumias East Sub-County some are singleand others have significant contributions in the conflict management in dicided to be unmarried. Therefore this strategy was not Mumias East Sub-County.

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The antecedent results indicate that the religious leaders have transforming the conflict. Thus engaging in religious peace- played a preponderant role in managing inter-clan conflicts building can provide a spiritual basis for transformation and within the study area. The Non-Governmental Organization compensate for the mechanistic and instrumental conflict (NGOs) have also been quite engaged in managing conflicts. resolution models as indicated by (Bercovitch, 2009). Government authorities who ought to be leading in conflict Marshal (2007) states that participants in the process of resolution in Mumias East have been lackadaiscal and clan reconciling conflicting parties often look to religion in a elders lukewarm in their critical role which they need to play. special way both because religious elements may be seen as contributing to conflict and because religions can bring to bear deep traditions of forgiveness and peacemaking, but most N=384 religions can offer teachings and practices that can propel or improve process of reconciliation. This has been the case with most religious organizations that have pitched various tents in Mumias East Sub-County. 4.4.2 Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) Series2, Religious The study also sought to ascertain the contributions of NGOs leaders, in resolving inter-clan conflicts in Mumias East. According to Series2, 46 Series2, figure 4.2, the results show that NGOs only contribute to 25 % Govern NGOs, 2 of the total involvement. Therefore, NGOs have played a ment significant role responding to many occasions by providing 5 Series2, Authoriti humanitarian as well as work on early warnings and Clan es, 21 preventive peace building. Stakeholders involvement (%) involvement Stakeholders elders, 8 Stakeholders involved The preceding discussion is supported by Lennart Wohldermuth (2005) who indicates that, there has been a substantial effort at prevention of the escalation of the conflict and contribution to a process of sustainable peace in different Figure 4.2: Stakeholders involved in coflict management in Mumias East regions by UN and a number of NGOs. In this context Lennart Sub- County (2005), indicated that international community aimed at Source: Field data (2018) preventing the escalation of conflict and contributing to a process of sustainable peace in conflict zones. In Kenya there 4.4.1 Religious Leaders have been and still are NGOs like USAID, UNDP, World The study sought to know the contributions religious leaders Vision, and Action Aid and many others offering have made in resolving conflicts in Mumias East Sub-County. humanitarian and directly involved in conflict resolution in Religious leaders have been vocal in religious matters that Mumias East Sub-County. inform us of conflict resolution and they have been a factor In other studies, done in West Pokot and Moyale, Non- that has become prominent in a number of conflicts. Whether Governmental Organizations have played a key role in religious leaders are the main cause in most of these conflicts conflict resolution. NGOs go beyond their customary relief has been a subject that many conflict scholars have debated objectives of providing water, sanitation, food and emergency on. In most cases, religious leaders have been considered a health care. NGOs are shifting unprecedentedly from their trigger factor in many of the conflicts throughout the world. traditional role to more sustainable roles of mediation and Rather than being considered as a main cause, they have been negotiation as signposted by (Munene, 2014). The changing used also used as a mobilizing agent in some of the conflicts nature of conflict in Mumias East has prompted a number of in Africa, East Africa, Kenya and Mumias East Sub-County in NGOs to place emphasis on peace education, sports Particular. Religious leaders have been used as a means of tournament and donor funding to help bolster conflict identity, thus explaining why they are very important to the resolution initiatives in Mumias East. individual and the society at large. Thus it often happens that a threat to one‟s religious belief more often than not triggers a 4.4.3 Government Authorities violent outburst. The respondents argued that the presence of The study sought to underscore the contributions of the indigenous churches and the exotic ones in Mumias East has government authorities in resolving inter-clan conflicts in really created a tremendous shift in understanding what Mumias East From figure 6.2; it was evident that the religion can do through the religious leaders or men of clothes government authorities have not done much as far as quelling (Field Data, 2018). inter-clan conflict in Mumias East Sub-County is concerned. Religious involvement by the religious leaders in The foregoing assertion was supported by a key informant, a peacemaking initiatives can also prepare and equip conflict clan chairman. Abamutu clan who avouched that: resolution practitioners for much proactive roles in

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Serikali pamoja na wakala wake hawajafanya kazi gathering sufficient intelligence needed to intervene inter-clan nzuri.Hawajatumia vyombo vya dola vizuri wala asasi conflicts. They indicate among other issues, that the public muhimu za kuzuia na kukabili migogoro katika jamii.Wakaazi complain about failure of rapid response to crime, petty wa Mumias East hawajanufaika na huduma ya serikali,kwa corruption, and poor protection of witnesses and police sababu migogoro ya kiukoo bado ni mingi mno. (The brutality as hindrances in militating against inter-clan conflict. government and its agents have not done a good job. They Such fears, they note, have hampered peace initiatives and have not utilized their machineries and institutions of conflict exacerbated illegal forms of community „security‟, (in the management in the society. Residents of Mumias East have name of defending our clans) thus Nyumba Kumi initiative has not benefited from Government‟s services because we still still been elusive concept to some extent. experience inter-clan conflicts (Household respondent, 4.3.4 Clan Elders Makunga, Mumias East Sub-County,7/12/2018). The study also sought to understand the contributions of clan In support of the findings from household heads, the elders in managing Inter-clan conflicts in Mumias East Sub- foregoing assertion was supported by a key informant, a clan County. As indicated in figure 4.2, clan elders have chairman. Abamutu clan who avouched that: The government insignificantly contributed to conflict resolution among and its agents have not done a good job. They have not various sub-locations in Mumias East. Clan elders have utilized their machineries and institutions of conflict engaged in various peace interventions that have taken place management in the society. Residents of Mumias East have among different clans in the study area hence giving birth to not benefited from Government‟s services because we still series of peace resolutions and declarations, most of which experience inter-clan conflicts. seem to have worked well initially but have unprecedentedly In the one addressing the congregation is Ass-County faded out with time due to challenges to sustain them. Commissioner, those seated on the right are people from Traditionally, it is the clan elders who understand well the Abashitsetse clan and those on left are people from Abakolwe clan political environment and are versed with virtually all clan. activities within and without clan boundaries. However, The preceding sentiments by the respondent indicate pretty sectarian and one-bended reasoning clouds their roles in well that the government authorities have done little. Kenyan resolving inter-clan conflicts. Majority are easily tossed forth government officials at both national and local levels have and back by lack of moral stamina in adjudicating over been in the front lead to address conflicts in other parts such conflict issues. as Narok, Laikipioa and Isiolo. However, for Mumias East VII. CONCLUSION Sub-County the government authorities have not done much though aspects such as Nyumba Kumi, community policing It is important to underscore that failure to put strategies in and peace and security committees have been emphasized, militating against inter-clan conflict is disastrous. A number this particular concept has not borne fruits, thus it has been of mechanisms have been put in place to curb the menace that elusive and evasive. Muigui (2015) noted that Kenya‟s history emanates from inter-clan conflicts. Strategies that employ has been marred with inequality, curtailed freedom, autocracy, conflict-based approaches and dispute settlements are prime social injustice and widespread inter-clan conflict. This means to avert future conflicts. Mediation when well utilized argument is due to inept government structures that have been is a good strategy that can aid in bringing together the put in place in certain areas and Mumias East has been a disputants and amicably resolving conflicts. Whereas victim of undue mechanism. mediation applies in Mumias East, approaches such arbitration should be reconsidered as supplementary tools that 4.3.3.1 Nyumba Kumi Initiative can help in expeditiously resolving conflicts. Involving all Nyumba kumi initiative was founded by the government some clans in making decision in issues of socio-economic years ago as part of security policy and strategy to improve development in Mumias East Sub-County is among the best security. Botha (2013) noted that the police have a critical role strategies that can be put in place to reduce inter-clan conflicts of engaging with local communities to increase their ability to in the area of study when employed properly. Other strategies identify individuals at risk of inter-clan conflicts. Nyumba such as formation of social groups, improvement of social Kumi initiative is associated with streamlining security amenities and intermarriages are considered as supplementary matters among communities, is a strategy that when well tools that be used in resolving conflicts. implemented can help address inter-clan conflicts. The VIII. RECOMMENDATIONS respondents also believed that Nyumba Kumi policy is stressed by the government but still needed to be well thought This study recommends that government institutions such as as a means through which the government would contribute National Council of Churches of Kenya (NCCK) work more towards resolving inter-clan conflicts. closely with members of the community so as to understand the factors that lead to recurrence of inter-clan conflicts so as Mkutu‟s et al (2014) argument, correspond to the immediate to have sustainable peace in the area. claim, that, protection Act needs fastening in order to help

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