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'Culture'?: Emergence and Transformations of Metacultural From Pattern to ‘Culture’?: Emergence and Transformations of Metacultural Wén by Uffe Bergeton A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Asian Languages and Cultures) in The University of Michigan 2013 Doctoral Committee: Associate Professor William H. Baxter, Chair Associate Professor Miranda D. Brown Associate Professor Pär Cassel Associate Professor Christian de Pee Emeritus Professor Norman Yoffee © Uffe Bergeton DEDICATION To Bill ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS A book-length research project like this is never the product of one person working in isolation. Many people have helped me along the path that eventually led to this dissertation. First and foremost this dissertation would never have been completed without the untiring support and encouragement of my faculty advisor, and dissertation chair, William Baxter. Miranda Brown has also been an important mentor and invaluable source of advice of both academic and professional nature throughout my stay at the University of Michigan. Special thanks are also due to Norman Yoffee for his support and encouragement and for providing an outside perspective as cognate member on my dissertation committee. Christian de Pee’s detailed comments on earlier drafts of this dissertation have significantly improved both the form and the content of this dissertation. Discussions with Pär Cassel have increased my understanding of concepts of the identity and ‘culture’ in late imperial China as well as in modern western historiography. Beyond my dissertation committee, feedback (in various shapes and forms) from Royce Grubic, Jeremy Hawkins, Liu Yilin, Aaron Sonnenschein, Ignacio Villagran, Zhang Zhongwei have all contributed to eliminate imperfections and improve the clarity of the argumentation. Needless to say, any remaining flaws and errors are solely my responsibility. I am also profoundly grateful to the University of Michigan in general, and (the faculty, students and staff) of the Department of Asian Languages and Cultures in particular, for providing the ideal iii institutional framework and intellectual environment in which to engage in the arduous process of researching and writing a dissertation. Last, but most importantly, I am deeply indebted to my wife, Iris, for her patience and support of her husband’s quixotic meandering path through two different graduate school programs and to my son, Henning, for bringing me down to earth (both literally and figuratively) and reminding me what it’s all for. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS DEDICATION............................................................................................................................... ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ........................................................................................................... iii LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................................................... vii LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................... viii ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................. ix Chapter 1 Introduction: Lexicalized Metaculture as Historical Problem ............................... 1 1.1 Lexicalization as language-specific crystallization of shared conceptual frameworks ....... 12 1.2 Lexicalized metaculture versus metacultural discourse ...................................................... 16 1.3 Metalanguage and metaculture............................................................................................ 20 1.4 Different manifestations of metaculture: what is a metacultural concept? ......................... 26 1.5 Lexicon and linguistic community ...................................................................................... 32 1.6 Culturomics: lexicon as source in corpus-based studies of ‘culture’ .................................. 36 1.7 Nature and composition of the pre-Qín corpus ................................................................... 41 1.8 Historical contexts stimulating the production of metaculture ........................................... 45 1.9 Conclusion: Using the lexicon as historical source in studies of pre-Qín metaculture ....... 49 Chapter 2 From ‘Awe-Inspiringly Beautiful’ to ‘Patterns of conventionalized behavior’: Historical Development of the Metacultural Concept of Wén ................................................ 55 2.1 From decorated object to ‘decorated’ person: the ‘awe-inspiringly beautiful’ appearance of the pre-Zhànguó Zhōu nobleman .............................................................................................. 60 2.2 Emergence of metacultural wén after the middle of the first millennium BCE .................. 68 2.2.1 The Zuǒzhuàn: The beginnings of moral interpretations of wén .................................. 70 2.2.2 From the ‘moral refinement’ of the noble man to the ‘moral refinement’ of the Zhōu dynasty: the emergence of metacultural wén in the Lúnyǔ .................................................... 75 2.2.3 Metacultural wén in the Xúnzǐ: ideal patterns of conventionalized behavior ............... 81 2.3 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 89 Chapter 3 Disputers of Wén ....................................................................................................... 92 3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 92 3.2 The Hánfēizǐ: metacultural wén versus promulgated models (fǎ) ....................................... 94 3.3 The Mòzǐ: against the wasteful practices of wén ............................................................... 100 3.4 The overlooked neglect of wén in the Mèngzǐ................................................................... 105 v 3.5 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 120 Chapter 4 Contextualizing the Lexicalization of Metaculture ............................................. 125 4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 125 4.2 General socio-political changes from the Western Zhōu to the Zhànguó period .............. 126 4.3 Emergence of new economy of cultural capital ................................................................ 133 4.4 Contrasting the Huá Xià elites of the Zhōu realm and their various ‘others’ ................... 137 4.5 Crisis of tradition triggering metacultural comparison of past and present ...................... 139 4.6. Emergence of commentarial tradition .............................................................................. 142 4.7 The emergence of the concept and discourse of ‘empire’ (tiānxià) .................................. 143 4.8 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 150 Chapter 5 Found in Translation: The Emergence of ‘Culture” in the Lúnyǔ .................... 152 5.1 Increasing use of the term culture in translations of the Lúnyǔ from 1691 to 2007 ......... 155 5.2.1 Legitimizing empire: culture as ‘high culture’ of the civilized world ....................... 166 5.2.2 Culture, identity and the idea of the nation: the anthropological concept of ‘culture’ as ‘complex whole’ sui generis ................................................................................................ 171 5.2.3 Summary: understanding the synchronic polysemy of the term culture through diachronic variation ............................................................................................................. 179 5.3 The term culture in Chinese studies: the lingering legacy of culturalism ......................... 182 5.3.1 Fairbank (1942): culturism and the tribute system ............................................... 184 5.3.2 Levenson (1953): the culturalism to nationalism thesis ....................................... 188 5.3.3 Parsons (1966): China as symbolic-ritualistic social order................................... 190 5.3.4 Uses of the term culture in recent studies of the pre-Qín period .......................... 192 5.4 Lexicalized metaculture in translation: a diachronic study of translations of the Lúnyǔ .. 198 5.5 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 233 Chapter 6 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 237 Bibliography .............................................................................................................................. 246 vi LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Disputers of metacultural wén. 121 Table 2. Uses of cultur-/cultivat-based words in translations of wén in the Lúnyǔ 1691-2007. 156 Table 3. Total chronological ‘accumulation’ of translations of wén as culture in the Lúnyǔ. 225 Table 4. Average number of wén as culture in the Lúnyǔ per period. 229 vii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Hyponymy relations in Modern English color terminology. 14 Figure 2. Hyponymy relations in late Zhànguó period Old Chinese lexicalized metacultural terms for conventionalized behavior. 19 Figure
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