SINCE KWATYAT LIVED ON EARTH: AN EXAMINATION OF NUU-CHAH-NULTH CULTURE HISTORY Alan D. McMillan B.A., University of Saskatchewan M.A., University of British Columbia THESIS SUBMI'ITED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in the Department of Archaeology O Alan D. McMillan SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY January 1996 All rights reserved. This work may not be reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopy or other means, without permission of the author. APPROVAL Name: Alan D. McMillan Degree Doctor of Philosophy Title of Thesis Since Kwatyat Lived on Earth: An Examination of Nuu-chah-nulth Culture History Examining Committe: Chair: J. Nance Roy L. Carlson Senior Supervisor Philip M. Hobler David V. Burley Internal External Examiner Madonna L. Moss Department of Anthropology, University of Oregon External Examiner Date Approved: krb,,,) 1s lwb PARTIAL COPYRIGHT LICENSE I hereby grant to Simon Fraser University the right to lend my thesis, project or extended essay (the title of which is shown below) to users of the Simon Fraser University Library, and to make partial or single copies only for such users or in response to a request from the library of any other university, or other educational institution, on its own behalf or for one of its users. I further agree that permission for multiple copying of this work for scholarly purposes may be granted by me or the Dean of Graduate Studies. It is understood that copying or publication of this work for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. Title of Thesis/Project/Extended Essay Since Kwatyat Lived on Earth: An Examination of Nuu-chah-nulth Culture History Author: - A (signature) Alan D. McMillan (name) January 19, 1996 (date) ABSTRACT This study examines the culture history of the related Nuu-chah-nulth, Ditidaht, and Makah peoples, whose historic territory encompasses western Vancouver Island and the northwestern Olympic Peninsula. Although archaeological research began relatively late in this area, the greatly expanded pace of recent fieldwork now allows an integrated assessment of their cultural heritage. The West Coast culture type, previously proposed for this area on limited archaeological data, is assessed against more recent evidence for diachronic trends and regional differences. An historical and multi-faceted approach is employed, integrating data from archaeology, historical linguistics, and aboriginal oral traditions, along with ethnography and ethnohistory for later time periods, in a cultural historical synthesis. Recent research with the Toquaht, a small Nuu-chah-nulth group in western Barkley Sound, provides much of the archaeological data for this study. Archaeological and linguistic evidence suggest a southward movement of Nuu-chah-nulth peoples from an original homeland on northern or north-western Vancouver Island. The ancestors of the Ditidaht and Makah split off from the parent stock and settled in their historic territories in relatively recent times. Over the last two millennia the ethnographic cultures gradually developed in their present territories. The destructive events of the early contact period resulted in significant cultural restructuring, particularly involving changes in political organization and settlement pattern. The West Coast culture type masks significant temporal change in Nuu-chah-nulth culture history, which is best seen in the framework of an evolving tradition. "Kwatyat,the one of many tricks . ." (Sapir and Swadesh 1939:51) "Quawteaht[Kwatyat] . , while on earth, lived at the Toquaht river" (Sproat 1868:19) Kwatyat was the culture hero and transfomer figure of the Barkley Sound Nuu-chah-nulth.His exploits are reflected at many locations on the Nuu- chah-nulth cultural landscape. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I owe a debt of gratitude to the committee members. I thank Roy Carlson for encouraging me @I pursue this degree and for taking the role of mentor during my studies. He also served as Senior Supervisor for the preparation of this dissertation. Philip Hobler offered invaluable advice, suggestions, and assistance during the writing of this dissertation. In their extensive experience and knowledge in Northwest Coast archaeology, both served as inspiration in my own work. In addition, David Burley and Madonna Moss kindly took time from their busy schedules to evaluate this work as external examiners. I thank them all for their efforts. I am also grateful for the support of several Nuu-chah-nulth bands during my years of fieldwork on western Vancouver Island. In particular, I thank the Toquaht Nation and Chief Bert Mack for their unwavering support and for assistance in many aspects of the fieldwork. Bert Mack and Archie Thompson also generously shared their knowledge of traditional Toquaht culture as part of the ethnographic component of research. I also thank the Tseshaht Nation for support during earlier fieldwork, and fondly remember the late Chief Adam Shewish and the late Margaret Shewish for their hospitality and companionship during our stay with them. Return visits for potlatches and other events have provided welcome opportunities to continue to feel connected to the community. The British Columbia Heritage Trust is gratefully acknowledged for providing the primary funding for the Toquaht Archaeological Project. Additional funding was provided by the Toquaht Nation, and through Challenge '91 and '92 grants administered by Douglas College and an Access to Archaeology grant administered by the Toquaht Nation. The Department of Archaeology, Simon Fraser University, provided boats and motors, surveying equipment, and much of the field gear. Other equipment was provided by Douglas College and the Toquaht Nation. The University of Manitoba also provided funding and other support related to the analysis of faunal remains. Douglas College also supplied administrative support and granted the author educational leave time to pursue doctoral studies and to do some of the analysis for the Toquaht project. Any synthesis rests of necessity on the works of others. I would like to acknowledge my colleagues in Nuu-chah-nulth studies, with whom I have had numerous discussions and exchanges of information over the years. These include Dale Croes, John Dewhirst, Morley Eldridge, Gay Frederick, Jim Haggarty, Dave Huelsbeck, Richard Inglis, Yvonne Marshall, Denis St. Claire, Arnoud Stryd, and Gary Wessen. In response to my requests while preparing this dissertation, Dale, John, Morley, and Gary kindly provided unpublished information on their work. Particular gratitude is owed to Denis St. Claire, the co-director of the Toquaht Archaeological Project, for his numerous contributions during our long association in Nuu-chah-nulth fieldwork. Greg Monks should also be acknowledged for providing the Toquaht project with his expertise in faunal analysis. I thank all the above for their contributions and apologize for where my summary or interpretation of their work differs from their own perceptions. More generally, various friends and colleagues have influenced my thoughts on Northwest Coast archaeology through numerous discussions over the years. In addition to people mentioned above, I would like to credit Knut Fladmark, Dave Burley, Bjorn Simonsen, Ken Ames, and R.G. Matson. Many other people contributed to this work in various ways. Randy Bouchard kindly provided transcriptions of Nuu-chah-nulth terms. Doris Lundy, Ian Whitbread, and Heather Moon of the Archaeology Branch, Victoria, sent me unpublished reports, individual site records, and computer print-outs of site file information. Terry Spurgeon took aerial photographs of the Toquaht sites, some of which are included in this dissertation. In the Archaeology Department at S.F.U., Andrew Barton provided assistance at many points in preparing for fieldwork, while Ann Sullivan, Linda Bannister, and Lynda Przybyla efficiently handled my many queries and pleas for assistance around the office. As always, I thank my family for their tolerance of my absences during fieldwork and my preoccupied state during writing. My wife, Gillian, has my gratitude for her constant support and encouragement, as well as for preparing most of the artifact drawings which appear in this dissertation. vii CONTENTS List of Tables List of Figures 1. Setting the Stage .... 1 Introduction ....1 Goals and Outline .... 1 Theoretical Perspective ....5 The West Coast People - Nuu-chah-nulth, Ditidaht and Makah ....9 Languages .... 9 Ethnographic Background ... 16 The Toquaht and their Neighbors ... 32 TheNuu-chah-nulth of Barkley Sound ...33 Toquaht Territory ...36 Toquaht Oral Traditions ...42 2. Differing Approaches to the Nuu-chah-nulth Past .. ..49 Oral Histories ... 49 Anthropological Theories ... 54 Early Difisionist Views ...54 Ecological Models ...59 Historical Linguistics ... 62 Linguistic Models of Wakashan Origins and Expansion ...62 Linguistic and Oral History Evidence for Territorial Shifts ...65 Molecular Biology .. .70 3. Archaeological Research in Nuu-chah-nulth Territory Introduction Nootka Sound and Hesquiat Harbour Research in Nootka Sound The Hesquiat Project Clayoquot Sound to Barkley Sound The Toquaht Archaeological Project Shoemaker Bay and Little Beach Other Archaeological Research Ditidaht Territory Olympic Peninsula Ozette Hoko River Other Makah Area Sites 4. The Emergence of the West Coast Culture Type Cultural Antecedents Archaeological Evidence Geological Factors Definition of the West Coast Culture Type The West Coast Culture Type to 2000 B.P.